English Grammar (British Council)

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TENSES 1. present tense There are two tenses in English – past and present.

The present tenses in English are used: • • •

to talk about the present to talk about the future to talk about the past when we are telling a story in spoken English or when we are summarising a book, film, play etc.

There are four present tense forms in English: Present simple:

I work

Present continuous:

I am working

Present perfect:

I have worked

Present perfect continuous:

I have been working

We use these forms: •

to talk about the present:

He works at McDonald’s. He has worked there for three months now. He is working at McDonald’s. He has been working there for three months now. London is the capital of Britain. •

to talk about the future:

The next train leaves this evening at 1700 hours. I’ll phone you when I get home. He’s meeting Peter in town this afternoon. I’ll come home as soon as I have finished work. You will be tired out after you have been working all night.

1.A present simple

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The present tense is the base form of the verb: I work in London. But the third person (she/he/it) adds an -s: She works in London.

Use We use the present tense to talk about: •

something that is true in the present:

I’m nineteen years old. He lives in London. I’m a student. •

something that happens again and again in the present:

I play football every weekend. We use words like sometimes, often. always, and never (adverbs of frequency) with the present tense: I sometimes go to the cinema. She never plays football. •

something that is always true:

The human body contains 206 bones. Light travels at almost 300,000 kilometres per second.

•

something that is fixed in the future.

The school terms starts next week. The train leaves at 1945 this evening. We fly to Paris next week.

Questions and negatives Look at these questions: Do you play the piano? Where do you live? Does Jack play football? Where does he come from?

3 Do Rita and Angela live in Manchester? Where do they work? •

With the present tense, we use do and does to make questions. We use does for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do for the others.

We use do and does with question words like where, what and why:

But look at these questions with who: Who lives in London? Who plays football at the weekend? Who works at Liverpool City Hospital? Look at these sentences: I like tennis, but I don’t like football. (don’t = do not) I don’t live in London now. I don’t play the piano, but I play the guitar. They don’t work at the weekend. John doesn’t live in Manchester. (doesn’t = does not) Angela doesn’t drive to work. She goes by bus. •

With the present tense we use do and does to make negatives. We use does not (doesn’t) for the third person (she/he/it) and we use do not (don’t) for the others.

1.B present continuous The present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the verb be and the present participle (-ing form) of a verb: Use 1. We use the present continuous tense to talk about the present: •

for something that is happening at the moment of speaking:

I’m just leaving work. I’ll be home in an hour. Please be quiet. The children are sleeping. •

for something which is happening before and after a given time:

4 At eight o’clock we are usually having breakfast. When I get home the children are doing their homework.

•

for something which we think is temporary:

Michael is at university. He’s studying history. I’m working in London for the next two weeks. •

for something which is new and contrasts with a previous state:

These days most people are using email instead of writing letters. What sort of clothes are teenagers wearing nowadays? What sort of music are they listening to? •

to show that something is changing, growing or developing:

The children are growing quickly. The climate is changing rapidly. Your English is improving. •

for something which happens again and again:

It’s always raining in London. They are always arguing. George is great. He’s always laughing. Note: We normally use always with this use. 2. We use the present continuous tense to talk about the future: •

for something which has been arranged or planned:

Mary is going to a new school next term. What are you doing next week? 3. We can use the present continuous to talk about the past: •

When we are telling a story:

•

When we are summarising the story from a book, film or play etc.:

1.C present perfect The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and the past participle of a verb:

5 The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ing form of the verb:

Use We use the present perfect tense: •

for something that started in the past and continues in the present:

They’ve been married for nearly fifty years. She has lived in Liverpool all her life. Note: We normally use the present perfect continuous for this: She has been living in Liverpool all her life. It’s been raining for hours. •

for something we have done several times in the past and continue to do:

I’ve played the guitar ever since I was a teenager. He has written three books and he is working on another one. I’ve been watching that programme every week. We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past: They’ve been staying with us since last week. I have worked here since I left school. I’ve been watching that programme every week since it started. •

when we are talking about our experience up to the present:

Note: We often use the adverb ever to talk about experience up to the present: My last birthday was the worst day I have ever had. Note: and we use never for the negative form: Have you ever met George? Yes, but I’ve never met his wife. •

for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of speaking:

I can’t get in the house. I’ve lost my keys. Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping. I’m tired out. I’ve been working all day.

6 We use the present perfect of be when someone has gone to a place and returned: A: Where have you been? B: I’ve just been out to the supermarket. A: Have you ever been to San Francisco? B: No, but I’ve been to Los Angeles. But when someone has not returned we use have/has gone: A: Where is Maria? I haven’t seen her for weeks. B: She's gone to Paris for a week. She’ll be back tomorrow. We often use the present perfect with time adverbials which refer to the recent past: just; only just; recently; Scientists have recently discovered a new breed of monkey. We have just got back from our holidays. or adverbials which include the present: ever (in questions); so far; until now; up to now; yet (in questions and negatives) Have you ever seen a ghost? Where have you been up to now? Have you finished your homework yet? No, so far I’ve only done my history. WARNING: We do not use the present perfect with an adverbial which refers to past time which is finished: I have seen that film yesterday. We have just bought a new car last week. When we were children we have been to California. But we can use it to refer to a time which is not yet finished: Have you seen Helen today? We have bought a new car this week.

2. past tense There are two tenses in English – past and present.

7 The past tense in English is used: • • •

to talk about the past to talk about hypotheses – things that are imagined rather than true. for politeness.

There are four past tense forms in English: Past simple:

I worked

Past continuous:

I was working

Past perfect:

I had worked

Past perfect continuous:

I had been working

We use these forms: •

to talk about the past:

He worked at McDonald’s. He had worked there since July.. He was working at McDonald’s. He had been working since July. •

to refer to the present or future in conditions:

He could get a new job if he really tried. If Jack was playing they would probably win. and hypotheses: It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost. I would always help someone who really needed help. and wishes: I wish it wasn’t so cold. •

In conditions, hypotheses and wishes, if we want to talk about the past, we always use the past perfect:

I would have helped him if he had asked. It was very dangerous, What if you had got lost? I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.

•

We can use the past forms to talk about the present in a few polite expressions:

Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York. I just hoped you would be able to help me.

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2.A past simple back next

Forms With most verbs the past tense is formed by adding -ed: call >> called; like >> liked; want >> wanted; work >> worked But there are a lot of irregular past tenses in English. Her are the most common irregular verbs in English, with their past tenses: infinitive be begin break bring buy build choose come cost cut do draw drive eat feel find get give go have hear hold keep know leave lead let lie lose make mean meet

irregular past was/were began broke brought bought built chose came cost cut did drew drove ate felt found got gave went had heard held kept knew left led let lay lost made meant met

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infinitive

irregular past

pay paid put put run ran say said sell sold send sent set set sit sat speak spoke spend spent stand stood take took teach taught tell told think thought understand understood wear wore win won write wrote

Use We use the past tense to talk about: •

something that happened once in the past:

I met my wife in 1983. We went to Spain for our holidays. They got home very late last night. •

something that happened again and again in the past:

When I was a boy I walked a mile to school every day. We swam a lot while we were on holiday. They always enjoyed visiting their friends. •

something that was true for some time in the past:

I lived abroad for ten years. He enjoyed being a student. She played a lot of tennis when she was younger. •

we often use phrases with ago with the past tense:

I met my wife a long time ago.

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Questions and negatives We use did to make questions with the past tense: When did you meet your wife? Where did you go for your holidays? Did she play tennis when she was younger? Did you live abroad? But look at these questions: Who discovered penicillin? Who wrote Don Quixote? For more on these questions see question forms We use didn’t (did not) to make negatives with the past tense: They didn’t go to Spain this year. We didn’t get home until very late last night. I didn’t see you yesterday.

2. B past continuous back next The past continuous is formed from the past tense of be with the -ing form of the verb: We use the past continuous to talk about the past: •

for something which continued before and after another action:

The children were doing their homework when I got home. Compare: I got home. The children did their homework. and The children did their homework when I got home. As I was watching television the telephone rang. This use of the past continuous is very common at the beginning of a story:

11 The other day I was waiting for a bus when … Last week as I was driving to work … •

for something that happened before and after a particular time:

It was eight o’clock. I was writing a letter. Compare: At eight o’clock I wrote some letters. In July she was working in McDonald’s. •

.to show that something continued for some time:

My head was aching. Everyone was shouting. •

for something that was happening again and again:

I was practising every day, three times a day. They were meeting secretly after school. They were always quarrelling. •

with verbs which show change or growth:

The children were growing up quickly. Her English was improving. My hair was going grey. The town was changing quickly.

2. C past perfect back next We use the verb had and the past participle for the past perfect: I had finished the work. She had gone . The past perfect continuous is formed with had been and the -ing form of the verb: I had been finishing the work She had been going. The past perfect is used in the same way as the present perfect, but it refers to a time in the past, not the present.

12 We use the past perfect tense: •

for something that started in the past and continued up to a given time in the past:

When George died he and Anne had been married for nearly fifty years. She didn’t want to move. She had lived in Liverpool all her life. We normally use the past perfect continuous for this: She didn’t want to move. She had been living in Liverpool all her life. Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours. •

for something we had done several times up to a point in the past and continued to do after that point:

He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teenager. He had written three books and he was working on another one. I had been watching the programme every week, but I missed the last episode. We often use a clause with since to show when something started in the past: They had been staying with us since the previous week. I was sorry when the factory closed. I had worked there since I left school. I had been watching that programme every week since it started, but I missed the last episode. •

when we are reporting our experience and including up to the (then) present:

My eighteenth birthday was the worst day I had ever had. I was pleased to meet George. I hadn’t met him before, even though I had met his wife several times. •

for something that happened in the past but is important at the time of reporting:

I couldn’t get into the house. I had lost my keys. Teresa wasn’t at home. She had gone shopping. We use the past perfect to talk about the past in conditions, hypotheses and wishes: I would have helped him if he had asked. It was very dangerous. What if you had got lost? I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.

perfective aspect

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back next We use the present perfect to show that something has continued up to the present They’ve been married for nearly fifty years. She has lived in Liverpool all her life. … or is important in the present: I’ve lost my keys. I can’t get into the house. Teresa isn’t at home. I think she has gone shopping. We use the present perfect continuous to show that something has been continuing up to the present: It’s been raining for hours. We’ve been waiting here since six o’clock this morning. We use the past perfect to show that something continued up to a time in the past: When George died he and Anne had been married for nearly fifty years. ... or was important at that time in the past: I couldn’t get into the house. I had lost my keys. Teresa wasn’t at home. She had gone shopping. We use the past perfect continuous to show that something had been continuing up to a time in the past or was important at that time in the past: Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours. He was a wonderful guitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teenager. We use will with the perfect to show that something will be complete at some time in the future: In a few years they will have discovered a cure for the common cold. I can come out tonight. I'll have finished my homework by then. We use would with the perfect to refer to something that did not happen in the past but would have happened if the conditions had been right: If you had asked me I would have helped you. I would have helped you, but you didn’t ask me. You didn’t ask me or I would have helped you. We use other modals with perfective aspect when we are looking back from a point in time when something might have happened, should have happened or would have happened.

14 The point of time may be in the future: We’ll meet again next week. We might have finished the work by then. I will phone at six o’clock. He should have got home by then. the present: It’s getting late. They should have arrived by now. He’s still not here. He must have missed his train. or the past: I wasn’t feeling well. I must have eaten something bad. I checked my cell phone. She could have left a message.

continuous aspect back next Both tenses have a continuous form. These continuous tenses are formed with the verb be and the –ing form of the verb: We use continuous aspect: •

for something happening before and after a given time.

He’s getting on the train. [before and after the moment of speaking] It was quarter past ten. We were watching the news on television. •

for something continuing before and after another action:

Mother will be cooking the dinner when we get home. We were waiting for the bus when it started to rain. •

for something continuing for some time:

Everybody will be waiting for us. They had been working hard all day. •

for something happening again and again:

They’ve been doing that every day this week. The children were always shouting. He will be practising the piano every night. •

for something temporary:

15 We are renting an apartment until our house is ready.. He was working in a garage during the vacation. •

for something new:

We have moved from Birmingham. We’re living in Manchester now. He had left university and was working in his father’s business. •

to describe something changing or developing:

Everything has been getting more difficult. He was growing more bad-tempered every day.

active and passive voice back next Transitive verbs have both active and passive forms: active

passive

The hunter killed the lion.

>>

The lion was killed by the hunter.

Someone has cleaned the windows

>>

The windows have been cleaned

The passive forms are made up of the verb be with a past participle: be English

is

past participle spoken

The windows have been

cleaned

Lunch

was being

served

The work

will be

finished

They

might have been invited

all over the world

soon to the party

We sometimes use the verb get to form the passive: Be careful with the glass. It might get broken. Peter got hurt in a crash. If we want to show the person or thing doing the action we use by:

16 She was attacked by a dangerous dog. The money was stolen by her husband. We can use the indirect object as the subject of a passive verb: active

passive

I gave him a book for his birthday >>

He was given a book for his birthday.

Someone sent her a cheque for a She was sent a cheque for a >> thousand euros thousand euros.

We can use phrasal verbs in the passive: active

passive

They called off the meeting. >> The meeting was called off. His grandmother looked after He was looked after by his >> him. grandmother. They will send him away to school.

>> He will be sent away to school.

Some verbs very frequently used in the passive are followed by the to-infinitive: be supposed to

be expected to

be asked to

be scheduled to

be allowed to

be told to

John has been asked to make a speech at the meeting. You are supposed to wear a uniform. The meeting is scheduled to start at seven.

to + infinitive (απαρέμφατο) back next We use the to-infinitive: • to express purpose (to answer "Why...?"): He bought some flowers to give to his wife. He locked the door to keep everyone out. We sometimes say in order to or in order not to:

17 We set off early in order to avoid the traffic. They spoke quietly in order not to wake the children … or we can say so as to or so as not to: We set off early so as to avoid the traffic. They spoke quietly so as not to wake the children. • after certain verbs (see verbs followed by infinitive), particularly verbs of thinking and feeling: choose, decide, expect, forget, hate, hope, intend, learn, like, love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love … and verbs of saying: agree, promise, refuse They decided to start a business together. Remember to turn the lights out. Some verbs are followed by a direct object and the infinitive(see verbs followed by infinitive): advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn, expect, intend, would prefer, want, would like She reminded me to turn the lights out. He encouraged his friends to vote for him. • after certain adjectives. Sometimes the to-infinitive gives a reason for the adjective: • • • • • • • • •

disappointed glad sad happy anxious pleased surprised proud unhappy

We were happy to come to the end of our journey = We were happy because we had come to the end of our journey John was surprised to see me = He was surprised because he saw me Other adjectives with the to-infinitive are:

18 • • • • • • • • • • •

able unable due eager keen likely unlikely ready prepared unwilling willing

Unfortunately I was unable to work for over a week. I am really tired. I’m ready to go to bed. We often use the to-infinitive with these adjectives after it to give opinions: • • • • • • • • • • • •

difficult easy possible impossible hard right wrong kind nice clever silly foolish

It’s easy to play the piano, but it’s very difficult to play well. He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him. We use the preposition for to show who these adjectives refer to: • • • • •

difficult easy possible impossible hard

It was difficult for us to hear what she was saying. It is easy for you to criticise other people. We use the preposition of with other adjectives: It’s kind of you to help. It would be silly of him to spend all his money.

19 • As a postmodifier (see noun phrases) after abstract nouns like: • • • • • • • • •

ability desire need wish attempt failure opportunity chance intention

I have no desire to be rich. They gave him an opportunity to escape. She was annoyed by her failure to answer the question correctly. • We often use a to-infinitive as a postmodifier after an indefinite pronoun (See indefinite pronouns): When I am travelling I always take something to read. I was all alone. I had no one to talk to. There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.

-ing forms back next We can use the -ing form of the verb: • as a noun: I love swimming. Swimming is very good for your health. You can get fit by swimming regularly. -ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns •

as an adjective:(Επίθετο)

The main problem today is rising prices. That programme was really boring. He saw a woman lying on the floor. Because the -ing noun or adjective is formed from a verb it can have any of the patterns which follow a verb, for example: •

... an object:

20 I like playing tennis. I saw a dog chasing a cat. •

... or an adverbial:

You can earn a lot of money by working hard. There were several people waiting for the bus. •

... or a clause:

I heard someone saying that. The -ing noun can be used: •

as the subject of a verb:

Learning English is not easy. •

as the object of a verb:

We enjoy learning English. Common verbs followed by an -ing object are:

admit suggest •

like

hate

enjoy dislike as the object of a preposition

start

avoid

begin

finish

Some people are not interested in learning English. The -ing adjective can come: •

in front of a noun:

I read an interesting article in the newspaper today. We saw a really exciting match on Sunday. The commonest –ing adjectives used in front of the noun are

amusing

interesting

worrying

shocking

disappointing

boring

surprising

exciting

terrifying

frightening

tiring

annoying

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•

after a noun:

Who is that man standing over there? The boy talking to Angela is her younger brother. •

and especially after verbs like see, watch, hear, smell etc.

I heard someone playing the piano. I can smell something burning.

talking about the present back next

1. We use the present simple: •

to talk about something happening regularly in the present:

The children come home from school at about four. We often see your brother at work. •

to talk about something happening continually in the present:

They live next door to us. He works for the Post Office. •

to talk about things which are generally true:

Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. The Nile is the longest river in Africa.

2. We use the present continuous: •

to show that something in the present is temporary:

We are living in a rented flat at present. My wife usually goes in to the office, but she is working at home today. •

for something happening regularly in the present before and after a given time:

I’m usually getting ready for work at eight o’clock. When I see George he’s always reading his newspaper. •

for something happening before and after the moment of speaking:

22 I can’t hear you. I’m listening to my iPod. Be quiet. The children are sleeping.

3. We use modal verbs •

to talk about the present when we are not sure of something:

I don’t know where Henry is. He might be playing tennis. Who’s knocking at the door? I don’t know. It could be the police.

talking about the past back next

1 Talking about past events and situations: We use the past simple: •

when we are talking about an event that happened at a particular time in the past

We arrived home before dark The film started at seven thirty. •

when we are talking about something that continued for some time in the past

Everybody worked hard through the winter. We stayed with our friends in London. When we are talking about something that happened several times in the past we use •

the past simple:

Most evenings we stayed at home and watched DVDs. Sometimes they went out for a meal. •

… or used to

Most evenings we used to stay at home and watch DVDs. We used to go for a swim every morning. •

... or would

Most evenings he would take the dog for a walk. They would often visit friends in Europe. WARNING: We do not normally use would with stative verbs.

23 We use the past continuous: •

when we are talking about something which happened before and after a given time in the past

It was just after ten. I was watching the news on TV. At half-time we were losing 1-0. •

when we are talking about something happening before and after another action in the past:

He broke his leg when he was playing rugby. She saw Jim as he was driving away.

2 The past in the past When we are looking back from a point in the past to something earlier in the past we use the past perfect: Helen suddenly remembered she had left her keys in the car. When we had done all our shopping we caught the bus home. They wanted to buy a new computer, but they hadn’t saved enough money. They would have bought a new computer if they had saved enough money.

3 The past and the present: We use the present perfect: •

when we are talking about the effects in the present of something that happened in the past:

I can’t open the door. I’ve left my keys in the car. Jenny has found a new job. She works in a supermarket now. •

When we are talking about something that started in the past and still goes on:

We have lived here since 2007. (and we still live here) I have been working at the university for over ten years.

4 The future in the past When we talk about the future from a time in the past we use: •

would as the past tense of will

He thought he would buy one the next day. Everyone was excited. The party would be fun.

24 •

was/were going to

John was going to drive and Mary was going to follow on her bicycle. It was Friday. We were going to set off the next day. •

the past continuous:

It was September. Mary was starting school the next week. We were very busy. The shop was opening in two weeks time.

talking about the future back next 1. When we know about the future we normally use the present tense. •

We use the present simple for something scheduled or arranged:

We have a lesson next Monday. The train arrives at 6.30 in the morning. The holidays start next week. It is my birthday tomorrow. •

We can use the present continuous for plans or arrangements:

I’m playing football tomorrow. They are coming to see us tomorrow. We’re having a party at Christmas. 2. We use will to talk about the future: •

When we make predictions:

It will be a nice day tomorrow. I think Brazil will win the World Cup. I’m sure you will enjoy the film. •

To mean want to or be willing to:

I hope you will come to my party. George says he will help us. •

To make offers and promises:

I'll see you tomorrow. We'll send you an email. •

To talk about offers and promises:

25 Tim will be at the meeting. Mary will help with the cooking. 3. We use (be) going to: •

To talk about plans and intentions:

I’m going to drive to work today. They are going to move to Manchester. •

When we can see that something is likely to happen:

Be careful! You are going to fall. Look at those black clouds. I think it’s going to rain. 4. We often use verbs like would like, plan, want, mean, hope, expect to talk about the future: What are you going to do next year? I’d like to go to University. We plan to go to France for our holidays. George wants to buy a new car. 5. We use modals may, might, and could when we are not sure about the future: I might stay at home tonight, or I might go to the cinema. We could see Mary at the meeting. She sometimes goes. 6. We can use should if we think something is likely to happen: We should be home in time for tea. The game should be over by eight o’clock. 7. Clauses with time words: In clauses with time words like when, after, and until we often use a present tense form to talk about the future: I’ll come home when I finish work. You must wait here until your father comes. They are coming after they have had dinner. 8. Clauses with if: In clauses with if we often use a present tense form to talk about the future: We won’t be able to go out if it rains. If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions. WARNING: We do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:

26 I’ll come home when I will finish work. We won’t be able to go out if it will rain rains. But we can use will if it means a promise or offer: I will be very happy if you will come to my party. We should finish the job early if George will help us. 9. We can use the future continuous instead of the present continuous or going to for emphasis when we are talking about plans, arrangements and intentions: They’ll be coming to see us next week. I will be driving to work tomorrow.

personal pronouns back next Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun. We have both subject and object pronouns: Subject

Object

I me you you he him she her it it we us you you they them We use he/him to refer to men, and she/her to refer to women. When we are not sure if we are talking about a man or a woman we use they/them. This is Jack. He’s my brother. I don’t think you have met him. This is Angela. She’s my sister. Have you met her before? Talk to a friend. Ask them to help you. You could go to a doctor. They might help you.

Subject pronouns We use subject pronouns as subject of the verb:

27 I like your dress. You are late. He is my friend It is raining She is on holiday We live in England. They come from London. Warning Remember: English clauses always have a subject: His father has just retired. Was a teacher. > He was a teacher. I’m waiting for my wife. Is late. > She is late. If there is no other subject we use it or there. We call this a dummy subject.

Object pronouns We use object pronouns: • as the object of the verb: Can you help me please? I can see you. She doesn’t like him. I saw her in town today. We saw them in town yesterday, but they didn’t see us. • after prepositions: She is waiting for me. I’ll get it for you. Give it to him. Why are you looking at her? Don’t take it from us. I’ll speak to them.

it and there back next English clauses always have a subject: His father has just retired. Was a teacher. > He was a teacher. I’m waiting for my wife. Is late. > She is late. Look at the time! Is half past two.> It’s half past two.

28 except for the imperative (see more) Go away. Play it again please. If we have no other subject we use there or it.

there We use there as a dummy subject with part of the verb be followed by a noun phrase. (see Clauses, sentences and phrases): • to introduce a new topic: There is a meeting this evening. It will start at seven. There has been an accident. I hope no one is hurt. • with numbers or quantities: There was a lot of rain last night. There must have been more than five hundred in the audience. • to say where something is: There used to be a playground at the end of the street. There are fairies at the bottom of the garden. I wonder if there will be anyone at home. • with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of quantity and the to-infinitive: There is nothing to do in the village. There was plenty to read in the apartment There was nothing to watch on television. There is a lot of work to do If we want to show the subject of the to-infinitive we use for: There is nothing for the children to do in the village. There was plenty for us to read in the apartment There was nothing for them to watch on television. There is a lot of work for you to do. • with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of quantity and an -ing verb: There is someone waiting to see you. There were a lot of people shouting and waving. We use a singular verb if the noun phrase is singular:

29 There is a meeting this evening. It will start at seven. There was a lot of rain last night. There is someone waiting to see you. We use a plural verb if the noun phrase is plural: There are more than twenty people waiting to see you. There were some biscuits in the cupboard. There were a lot of people shouting and waving.

It We use it to talk about: • times and dates: It’s nearly one o’clock. It’s my birthday. • weather: It’s raining. It’s a lovely day. It was getting cold. • to give an opinion about a place: It’s very cold in here. It will be nice when we get home. It’s very comfortable in my new apartment. • to give an opinion followed by to-infinitive: It’s nice to meet you. It will be great to go on holiday. It was interesting to meet your brother at last. • to give an opinion followed by an -ing verb: It’s great living in Spain. It’s awful driving in this heavy traffic. It can be hard work looking after young children.

Using "it" to talk about people We use it to talk about ourselves:

30 • on the telephone: Hello. It’s George. • when people cannot see us: [Mary knocks on door] It’s me. It’s Mary. We use it to talk about other people: • when we point them out for the first time: Look. It’s Sir Paul McCartney. Who’s that? I think it’s John’s brother. • when we cannot see them and we ask them for their name: [telephone rings, we pick it up] Hello. Who is it? [someone knocks on door. We say:] Who is it?

you and they back next We use you to talk about people in general including the speaker and the hearer: You can buy this book anywhere > This book is on sale everywhere. You can’t park here > Parking is not allowed here. They don’t let you smoke in here > No smoking here We use they or them to talk about people in general: They serve good food here. Ask them for a cheaper ticket. … especially about the government and the authorities: They don’t let you smoke in here. They are going to increase taxes. They are building a new motorway. They say it’s going to rain tomorrow.

his, that, these and those back next

31

Why do we use this and these? We use this (singular) and these (plural) as pronouns: - to talk about people or things near us: This is a nice cup of tea. Whose shoes are these? - to introduce people: This is Janet. These are my friends, John and Michael. WARNING: We don’t say These are John and Michael. We say This is John and this is Michael. - to introduce ourselves to begin a conversation on the phone: Hello, this is David, Can I speak to Sally?

Why do we use that and those? We use that (singular) and those (plural): - to talk about things that are not near us: What’s that? This is our house, and that’s Rebecca’s house over there. Those are very expensive shoes. - We also use that to refer back to something someone said or did: • • •

- Shall we go to the cinema? - Yes, that’s a good idea. - I’ve got a new job. - That’s great. - I’m very tired. - Why is that?

this, these, that, those with nouns We also use this, these, that and those with nouns to show proximity We use this and these for people or things near us: We have lived in this house for twenty years. Have you read all of these books?

32 … and that and those for things that are not near us: Who lives in that house? Who are those people?

one and ones back next We use one (singular) and ones (plural) to avoid unnecessary repetition. See those two girls? Helen is the tall one and Jane is the short one. Which is your car, the red one or the blue one? My trousers are torn. I need some new ones. See those two girls. Helen is the one on the left. Let’s look at the photographs. The ones you took in Paris. We often use them after Which ... in questions: You can borrow a book. Which one do you want? There are lots of books here. Which ones are yours?

questions back next

Which question word to use? We use who to ask questions about people: Who is that? Who lives here? Who did you see? We use whose to ask about possession: Whose coat is this? [or] Whose is this coat? Whose book is that? [or] Whose is that book? Whose bags are those? [or] Whose are those bags? We use what to ask questions about things: What is that? What do you want? We use which to ask someone to choose something:

33 Which came first, the chicken or the egg? I’ve got two books. Which do you want? We can also use what and which with nouns: What subjects did you study at school? What newspaper do you read? Which newspaper do you read – the Times or the Guardian? Which book do you want? Which one is yours?

Questions with prepositions: Questions ending in prepositions are very common in English. After Who, Which or What we often have a preposition at the end of the sentence: Who does this book belong to? What are you looking for? Which university did you go to? What country do you come from?

reflexive pronouns back next The reflexive pronouns are: Singular: myself - yourself - himself - herself - itself Plural:

ourselves - yourselves - themselves

When we use a reflexive pronoun We use a reflexive pronoun: • as a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the verb: I am teaching myself to play the piano. Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself. We can use a reflexive pronoun as direct object with most transitive verbs, but these are the most common: amuse

blame

cut

dry

enjoy

help

hurt

introduce

kill

prepare

satisfy

teach

34

Some verbs change their meaning slightly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct object: • • • • • • •

Would you like to help yourself to another drink? = Would you like to take another drink. I wish the children would behave themselves. = I wish the children would behave well. He found himself lying by the side of the road. = He was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road. I saw myself as a famous actor. = I imagined that I was a famous actor. She applied herself to the job of mending the lights. = She worked very hard to mend the lights. He busied himself in the kitchen. = He worked busily in the kitchen. I had to content myself with a few Euros. = I had to be satisfied with a few Euros.

We do not use a reflexive pronoun after verbs which describe things people usually do for themselves, such as wash, shave, dress: He washed [himself] in cold water. He always shaved [himself] before going out in the evening. Michael dressed [himself] and got ready for the party. We only use reflexives with these verbs for emphasis: He dressed himself in spite of his injuries. She’s old enough to wash herself. • as indirect object when the indirect object is the same as the subject of the verb: Would you like to pour yourself a drink. We’ve brought ourselves something to eat. • as the object of a preposition when the object refers to the subject of the clause: They had to cook for themselves. He was feeling very sorry for himself. Warning But we use personal pronouns, not reflexives, after prepositions of place... He had a suitcase beside him. and after with when it means "accompanied by":

35 Warning She had a few friends with her. We use a reflexive with the preposition by... • when we want to show that someone did something alone and/or without any help: He lived by himself in an enormous house. She walked home by herself. The children got dressed by themselves. I prepared the whole meal by myself. • to emphasise the person or thing we are referring to: Kendal itself is quite a small town. especially if we are talking about someone very famous: Sir Paul McCartney himself sang the final song. We often put the reflexive pronoun at the end of the clause when we are using it for emphasis: I baked the bread myself. She mended the car herself

reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another back next We use the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another when two or more people do the same thing. Traditionally, each other refers to two people and one another refers to more than two people, but this distinction is disappearing in modern English. • • •

Peter and Mary helped one another. = Peter helped Mary and Mary helped Peter. We sent each other Christmas cards. = We sent them a Christmas card and they sent us a Christmas card. They didn’t look at one another. = He didn't look at her and she didn't look at him.

We also use the possessive forms each other’s and one another’s:

36 They helped to look after each other’s children. We often stayed in one another’s houses. NOTE: We do not use reciprocal pronouns as the subject of a clause.

indefinite pronouns back next The indefinite pronouns are: somebody

someone

something

anybody

anyone

anything

nobody

no one

nothing

everybody

everyone

everything

We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things without saying exactly who or what they are. We use pronouns ending in -body or -one for people, and pronouns ending in -thing for things: Everybody enjoyed the concert. I opened the door but there was no one at home. It was a very clear day. We could see everything. We use a singular verb after an indefinite pronoun: Everybody loves Sally. Everything was ready for the party. When we refer back to an indefinite pronoun we normally use a plural pronoun: Everybody enjoyed the concert. They stood up and clapped. I will tell somebody that dinner is ready. They have been waiting a long time. We can add -'s to an indefinite pronoun to make a possessive. They were staying in somebody’s house. Is this anybody’s coat? We use indefinite pronouns with no- as the subject in negative clauses (not pronouns with any.) Anybody didn’t come >> Nobody came. We do not use another negative in a clause with nobody, no one or nothing:

37 Nobody came. Nothing happened. We use else after indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things in addition to the ones we already mentioned. All the family came, but no one else. If Michael can’t come we’ll ask somebody else. So that's eggs, peas and chips. Do you want anything else?

relative pronouns back next The relative pronouns are: Subject

Object

Possessive

who

who(m)

whose

which

which

whose

that

that

We use who and whom for people, and which for things. Or we can use that for people or things. We use relative pronouns: • after a noun, to make it clear which person or thing we are talking about: the house that Jack built the woman who discovered radium an eight-year-old boy who attempted to rob a sweet shop • in relative clauses to tell us more about a person or thing: My mother, who was born overseas, has always been a great traveller. Lord Thompson, who is 76, has just retired. We had fish and chips, which is my favourite meal. But we do not use that as a subject in relative clauses. We use whose as the possessive form of who: This is George, whose brother went to school with me. We sometimes use whom as the object of a verb or preposition:

38 This is George, whom you met at our house last year. This is George’s brother, with whom I went to school. But nowadays we normally use who: This is George, who you met at our house last year. This is George’s brother, who I went to school with. When whom or which have a preposition the preposition can come at the beginning of the clause... I had an uncle in Germany, from who[m] I inherited a bit of money. We bought a chainsaw, with which we cut up all the wood. … or at the end of the clause: I had an uncle in Germany who[m] I inherited a bit of money from. We bought a chainsaw, which we cut all the wood up with. We can use that at the beginning of the clause: I had an uncle in Germany, that I inherited a bit of money from. We bought a chainsaw, that we cut all the wood up with.

Determiners and quantifiers back next

General and specific determiners Determiners are words which come at the beginning of the noun phrase. They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or general. Determiners are either specific or general

Specific determiners: The specific determiners are: • • • •

the definite article: the possessives: my, your, his, her, its; our, their, whose demonstratives: this, that, these, those interrogatives: which

We use a specific determiner when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly what we are referring to:

39 Can you pass me the salt please? Look at those lovely flowers. Thank you very much for your letter. Whose coat is this?

General determiners: The general determiners are: •

a; an; any; another; other; what

When we are talking about things in general and the listener/reader does not know exactly what we are referring to, we can use a uncount noun or a plural noun with no determiner: Milk is very good for you. (= uncount noun) Health and education are very important. (= 2 uncount nouns) Girls normally do better in school than boys. (= plural nouns with no determiner) … or you can use a singular noun with the indefinite article a or an: A woman was lifted to safety by a helicopter. A man climbing nearby saw the accident. We use the general determiner any with a singular noun or an uncount noun when we are talking about all of those people or things: It’s very easy. Any child can do it. (= All children can do it) With a full licence you are allowed to drive any car. I like beef, lamb, pork - any meat. We use the general determiner another to talk about an additional person or thing: Would you like another glass of wine? The plural form of another is other: I spoke to John, Helen and a few other friends.

Quantifiers We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of something: how much or how many.

interrogative determiners: which and what

40

back next We use "which" as a determiner to ask a question about a specific group of people or things: Which restaurant did you go to? Which countries in South America have you visited? When we are asking a general question we use "what" as a determiner: What films do you like? What university did you go to? back next

indefinite article: a and an back next 1. We use the indefinite article, a/an, with count nouns when the hearer/reader does not know exactly which one we are referring to: Police are searching for a 14 year-old girl. 2. We also use it to show the person or thing is one of a group: She is a pupil at London Road School. Police have been searching for a 14 year-old girl who has been missing since Friday. Jenny Brown, a pupil at London Road School, is described as 1.6 metres tall with short blonde hair. She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse and dark blue jeans and blue shoes. Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800349781.

3. We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns and uncount nouns: She was wearing blue shoes. (= plural noun) She has short blonde hair. (= uncount noun)

41 Police have been searching for a 14 year-old girl who has been missing since Friday. Jenny Brown, a pupil at London Road School, is described as 1.6 metres tall with short blonde hair. She was last seen wearing a blue jacket, a blue and white blouse and dark blue jeans and blue shoes. Anyone who has information should contact the local police on 0800349781.

4. We use a/an to say what someone is or what job they do: My brother is a doctor. George is a student. 5. We use a/an with a singular noun to say something about all things of that kind: A man needs friends. (= All men need friends) A dog likes to eat meat. (= All dogs like to eat meat)

definite article: the back next The definite article the is the most frequent word in English. We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows exactly what we are referring to. • because there is only one: The Pope is visiting Russia. The moon is very bright tonight. The Shah of Iran was deposed in 1979. This is why we use the definite article with a superlative adjective: He is the tallest boy in the class. It is the oldest building in the town. • because there is only one in that place or in those surroundings:

42 We live in a small village next to the church.

=

(the church in our village)

Dad, can I borrow the car?

=

(the car that belongs to our family)

When we stayed at my grandmother’s house we went to the beach every day.

=

(the beach near my grandmother’s house)

Look at the boy in the blue shirt over there.

= (the boy I am pointing at)

• because we have already mentioned it: A woman who fell 10 metres from High Peak was lifted to safety by a helicopter. The woman fell while climbing. The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on High Peak. In January last year two men walking on the peak were killed in a fall. We also use the definite article: • to say something about all the things referred to by a noun: The wolf is not really a dangerous animal (= Wolves are not really dangerous animals) The kangaroo is found only in Australia (= Kangaroos are found only in Australia) The heart pumps blood around the body. (= Hearts pump blood around bodies) We use the definite article in this way to talk about musical instruments: Joe plays the piano really well.(= George can play any piano) She is learning the guitar.(= She is learning to play any guitar) • to refer to a system or service: How long does it take on the train. I heard it on the radio. You should tell the police. • With adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk about groups of people: Life can be very hard for the poor. I think the rich should pay more taxes. She works for a group to help the disabled.

The definite article with names: We do not normally use the definite article with names:

43 William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. Paris is the capital of France. Iran is in Asia. But we do use the definite article with: • countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic: the United Kingdom; the kingdom of Nepal; the United States; the People’s Republic of China. • countries which have plural nouns as their names: the Netherlands; the Philippines • geographical features, such as mountain ranges, groups of islands, rivers, seas, oceans and canals: the Himalayas; the Canaries; the Atlantic; the Atlantic Ocean; the Amazon; the Panama Canal. • newspapers: The Times; The Washington Post • well known buildings or works of art: the Empire State Building; the Taj Mahal; the Mona Lisa; the Sunflowers • organisations: the United Nations; the Seamen’s Union • hotels, pubs and restaurants*: the Ritz; the Ritz Hotel; the King’s Head; the Déjà Vu *Note: We do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name of the owner, e.g.,Brown’s; Brown’s Hotel; Morel’s; Morel’s Restaurant, etc. • families: the Obamas; the Jacksons

quantifiers back next

44 We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of something: how much or how many. Sometimes we use a quantifier in the place of a determiner: Most children start school at the age of five. We ate some bread and butter. We saw lots of birds. We use these quantifiers with both count and uncount nouns:

all

any

enough

less

a lot of

more

most

no

none of

some

lots of

and some more colloquial forms:

plenty of

heaps of

a load of

loads of

tons of

etc.

Some quantifiers can be used only with count nouns:

both

each

either

(a) few

fewer

neither

several

and some more colloquial forms:

a couple of

hundreds of

thousands of

Some quantifiers can be used only with uncount nouns:

etc.

45 a little

(not) much

a bit of

And, particularly with abstract nouns such as time, money, trouble, etc:, we often use:

a great deal of

a good deal of

Members of groups You can put a noun after a quantifier when you are talking about members of a group in general… Few snakes are dangerous. Both brothers work with their father. I never have enough money. …but if you are talking about a specific group of people or things, use of the … as well Few of the snakes are dangerous. All of the children live at home. He has spent all of his money. Note that, if we are talking about two people or things we use the quantifiers both, either and neither:

One supermarket

Two supermarkets*

More than two supermarkets All the supermarkets were closed

The supermarket was closed

Both the supermarkets were closed.

The supermarket wasn't open

None of the Neither of the supermarkets were supermarkets was open. open

I don’t think the supermarket was open.

I don’t think either of the supermarkets was open.

I don't think any of the supermarkets were open

46 *Nouns with either and neither have a singular verb.

Singular quantifiers: We use every or each with a singular noun to mean all:

There was a party in every street.

=

There were parties in all the streets.

Every shop was decorated with All the shops were decorated with = flowers. flowers. Each child was given a prize.

=

All the children were given a prize.

There was a prize in each competition.

=

There were prizes in all the competitions.

We often use every to talk about times like days, weeks and years: When we were children we had holidays at our grandmother’s every year. When we stayed at my grandmother’s house we went to the beach every day. We visit our daughter every Christmas. BUT: We do not use a determiner with every and each. We do not say: The every shop was decorated with flowers. The each child was given a prize.

47

possessives: nouns back next We use a noun with ’s with a singular noun to show possession: We are having a party at John’s house. Michael drove his friend’s car. We use s’ with a plural noun ending in -s: This is my parents’ house. Those are ladies’ shoes. But we use ’s with other plural nouns: These are men’s shoes. Children’s clothes are very expensive. We can use a possessive instead of a noun phrase to avoid repeating words: Is that John’s car?

No, it’s Mary’s [car].

> No, it’s Mary’s.

Whose coat is this?

It’s my wife’s [coat].

> It’s my wife’s.

possessives: adjectives back next Can you match these possessive adjectives to the right personal pronouns? its, your, my, their, our, her, his

48 Subject

Object

I

me

You

you

He

him

She

her

It

it

We

us

They

them

Possessive

We use possessive adjectives: • to show something belongs to somebody: That’s our house. My car is very old. • for relations and friends: My mother is a doctor. How old is your sister? • for parts of the body: He’s broken his arm. She’s washing her hair. I need to clean my teeth.

possessives: pronouns back next Can you match these possessive pronouns to the right personal pronouns and possessive adjectives? yours, mine, theirs, ours, hers, his, its

Subject Object I

me

Possessive adjectives my

Possessive pronouns

49

Subject Object

Possessive adjectives

You

you

your

He

him

his

She

her

her

It

it

its

We

us

our

They

them

their

Possessive pronouns

We can use a possessive pronoun instead of a noun phrase:

Is that John’s car?

No, it’s [my car]

> No, it’s mine.

Whose coat is this?

Is it [your coat]?

> Is it yours?

Her coat is grey, [my coat]is brown

Her coat is grey,

We can use possessive pronouns after of. We can say: Susan is one of my friends. or Susan is a friend of mine. but not Susan is a friend of me or I am one of Susan's friends. or I am a friend of Susan's. but not I am a friend of Susan

possessives: questions

mine is brown.

50

back next We use whose to ask questions: Pattern A

Pattern B

Whose coat is this?

or Whose is this coat?

Whose book is that?

or Whose is that book?

Whose bags are those?

or Whose are those bags?

possessives: reciprocal pronouns back next "each other's" and "one another's"

Adjectives back next We use adjectives to describe nouns.

We use adjectives to describe nouns. Most adjectives can be used in front of a noun…: They have a beautiful house. We saw a very exciting film last night. or after a link verb like be, look or feel: Their house is beautiful. That film looks interesting.

51

adjectives: -ed and -ing back next A lot of adjectives are made from verbs by adding -ing or -ed:

-ing adjectives: The commonest -ing adjectives are: amusing shocking surprising frightening interesting disappointing exciting tiring worrying boring terrifying annoying

If you call something interesting you mean it interests you. If you call something frightening you mean it frightens you. I read a very interesting article in the newspaper today. That Dracula film was absolutely terrifying.

-ed adjectives: The commonest –ed adjectives are: annoyed

bored

frightened

worried

tired

closed

excited

delighted

disappointed If something annoys you, you can say you feel annoyed. If something interests you, you can say you are interested. The children had nothing to do. They were bored.

order of adjectives back next Sometimes we use more than one adjective in front of a noun:

52 He was a nice intelligent young man. She had a small round black wooden box.

Opinion adjectives: Some adjectives give a general opinion. We can use these adjectives to describe almost any noun: good

bad

lovely

strange

beautiful

nice

brilliant

excellent

awful

important

wonderful

nasty

Some adjectives give a specific opinion. We only use these adjectives to describe particular kinds of noun: Food: tasty; delicious Furniture, buildings: comfortable; uncomfortable People, animals: clever; intelligent; friendly We usually put a general opinion in front of a specific opinion: Nice tasty soup. A nasty uncomfortable armchair A lovely intelligent animal Usually we put an adjective that gives an opinion in front of an adjective that is descriptive: a nice red dress; a silly old man; those horrible yellow curtains We often have two adjectives in front of a noun: a handsome young man; a big black car; that horrible big dog Sometimes we have three adjectives, but this is unusual: a nice handsome young man; a big black American car; that horrible big fierce dog It is very unusual to have more than three adjectives. Adjectives usually come in this order: 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

General Specific Size Shape Age Colour Nationality Material opinion opinion

53 We use some adjectives only after a link verb: afraid

alive

alone

asleep

content

glad

ill

ready

sorry

sure

unable

well

Some of the commonest -ed adjectives are normally used only after a link verb: annoyed; finished; bored; pleased; thrilled We say: Our teacher was ill. My uncle was very glad when he heard the news. The policeman seemed to be very annoyed but we do not say: We had an ill teacher. When he heard the news he was a very glad uncle He seemed to be a very annoyed policeman A few adjectives are used only in front of a noun:

north south east west

northern southern eastern western

countless occasional lone

eventful indoor outdoor

We say: He lives in the eastern district. There were countless problems with the new machinery. but we do not say: The district he lives in is eastern The problems with the new machinery were countless.

comparative and superlative adjectives back next We use comparative adjectives to describe people and things:

54 This car is certainly better but it’s much more expensive. I’m feeling happier now. We need a bigger garden We use than when we want to compare one thing with another: She is two years older than me. New York is much bigger than Boston. He is a better player than Ronaldo. France is a bigger country than Britain. When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two comparatives with and: The balloon got bigger and bigger. Everything is getting more and more expensive. Grandfather is looking older and older. We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing depends on another: When you drive faster it is more dangerous > The faster you drive, the more dangerous it is. When they climbed higher it got colder > The higher they climbed, the colder it got.

Superlative adjectives: We use the with a superlative: It was the happiest day of my life. Everest is the highest mountain in the world. That’s the best film I have seen this year. I have three sisters, Jan is the oldest and Angela is the youngest .

intensifiers back next We use words like very; really and extremely to make adjectives stronger: It’s a very interesting story Everyone was very excited. It’s a really interesting story. Everyone was extremely excited We call these words intensifiers. Other intensifiers are:

55 amazingly - exceptionally - incredibly - remarkably - particularly We also use enough as an intensifier, but enough comes after its adjective: If you are seventeen you are old enough to drive a car. I can’t wear those shoes. They’re not big enough.

Intensifiers with strong adjectives: When we want to describe something or someone as exceptional you can use a strong adjective. Strong adjectives are words like: Enormous; huge = very big Tiny = very small Brilliant = very clever Awful; terrible; disgusting; dreadful = very bad Certain = very sure Excellent; perfect; ideal; wonderful; splendid = very good Delicious = very tasty We do not use very with these adjectives. We do not say something is "very enormous" or someone is "very brilliant". With strong adjectives, for intensifiers we normally use: absolutely - exceptionally - particularly - really - quite The film was absolutely awful. He was an exceptionally brilliant child. The food smelled really disgusting. Warning!

Intensifiers with particular adjectives Some intensifiers go with particular adjectives depending on their meaning: I’m afraid your wife is dangerously ill. He was driving dangerously fast. The car was seriously damaged. Fortunately none of the passengers was seriously hurt Some intensifiers go with particular adjectives. For example we use the intensifier highly with the adjectives successful, intelligent, likely and unlikely: He was highly intelligent. She’s a highly successful businesswoman

56 Warning! … but we do not say: We had a highly tasty meal. That is a highly good idea. We use the intensifier bitterly with the adjectives disappointed, unhappy and cold: I was bitterly unhappy at school. We were bitterly disappointed to lose the match. It can get bitterly cold in winter. You need to use your dictionary to find what sort of nouns these intensifiers go with.

Intensifiers with comparatives and superlatives: We use these words and phrases as intensifiers with comparative adjectives: much - far - a lot - quite a lot - a great deal - a good deal - a good bit - a fair bit He is much older than me. New York is a lot bigger than Boston. We use much and far as intensifiers with comparative adjectives in front of a noun: France is a much bigger country than Britain. He is a far better player than Ronaldo. We use these words as intensifiers with superlatives: easily - by far - far The blue whale is easily the biggest animal in the world. This car was by far the most expensive.

mitigators back next Mitigators are the opposite of intensifiers. When we want to make an adjective less strong we use these words: fairly - rather - quite By the end of the day we were rather tired.

57 The film wasn’t great but it was quite exciting. and in informal English: pretty We had a pretty good time at the party. We call these words mitigators. Warning quite When we use quite with a strong adjective it means the same as absolutely: The food was quite awful. = The food was absolutely awful. As a child he was quite brilliant. = As a child he was absolutely brilliant.

Mitigators with comparatives: We use these words and phrases as mitigators: a bit - just a bit - a little - a little bit - just a little bit - rather - slightly She’s a bit younger than I am. It takes two hours on the train but it is a little bit longer by road This one is rather bigger. We use slightly and rather as mitigators with comparative adjectives in front of a noun: This is a slightly more expensive model than that. This is rather bigger one than that.

Adjectives as intensifiers: We use some adjectives as intensifiers: absolute total - complete utter - perfect real We say: He’s a complete idiot. They were talking utter nonsense.

58 … but we do not say: The idiot was complete. The nonsense they were talking was utter.

noun modifiers back next We often use two nouns together to show that one thing is a part of something else: the village church; the car door; the kitchen window; the chair leg; my coat pocket; London residents Warning We do not use a possessive form for these things. We do not talk about: The car’s door; the kitchen’s window; the chair’s leg We can use noun modifiers to show what something is made of: a gold watch; a leather purse; a metal box We often use noun modifiers with nouns ending in -er and -ing: an office worker; a jewellery maker; a potato peeler; a shopping list; a swimming lesson; a walking holiday. We use measurements, age or value as noun modifiers: a thirty kilogram suitcase; a two minute rest; a five thousand euro platinum watch; a fifty kilometre journey; We often put two nouns together and readers/listeners have work out what they mean. So: • • • •

an ice bucket = a bucket to keep ice in an ice cube = a cube made of ice an ice breaker = a ship which breaks ice the ice age = the time when much of the Earth was covered in ice.

Sometimes we find more than two nouns together: London office workers; grammar practice exercises

59

Position of noun modifiers Noun modifiers come after adjectives: The old newspaper seller A tiring fifty kilometre journey

Adverbials back next

Why do we use adverbials? We use adverbs to give more information about the verb. We use adverbials of manner to say how something happens or how something is done: The children were playing happily. He was driving as fast as possible. We use adverbials of place to say where something happens: I saw him there. We met in London. We use adverbials of time to say when or how often something happens: They start work at six thirty. They usually go to work by bus. We use adverbials of probability to show how certain we are about something. • •

Perhaps the weather will be fine. He is certainly coming to the party.

how we make adverbials

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back next An adverbial can be an adverb: He spoke angrily. They live here. We will be back soon. or an adverb with an intensifier: He spoke really angrily. They live just here. We will go quite soon. We will go as soon as possible. or a phrase with a preposition: He spoke in an angry voice. They live in London. We will go in a few minutes.

where they go in a sentence back next

Where do adverbials go in a sentence? We normally put adverbials after the verb: He spoke angrily. They live just here. We will go in a few minutes. or after the object or complement: He opened the door quietly. She left the money on the table. We saw our friends last night. You are looking tired tonight. But adverbials of frequency (how often) usually come in front of the main verb: We usually spent our holidays with our grandparents. I have never seen William at work. But if we want to emphasise an adverbial we can put it at the beginning of a clause:

61 Last night we saw our friends. In a few minutes we will go. Very quietly he opened the door. If we want to emphasise an adverb of manner we can put it in front of the main verb: He quietly opened the door. She had carefully put the glass on the shelf.

adverbs of manner back next Adverbs of manner are usually formed from adjectives by adding –ly: bad > badly; quiet > quietly; recent > recently; sudden > suddenly but there are sometimes changes in spelling: easy > easily; gentle > gently If an adjective ends in –ly we use the phrase in a …. way to express manner: Silly > He behaved in a silly way. Friendly > She spoke in a friendly way. A few adverbs of manner have the same form as the adjective: They all worked hard. She usually arrives late. I hate driving fast. Note: hardly and lately have different meanings: He could hardly walk = It was difficult for him to walk. I haven’t seen John lately = I haven’t seen John recently. We often use phrases with like as adverbials of manner: She slept like a baby. He ran like a rabbit.

Adverbs of manner and link verbs We very often use adverbials with like after link verbs:

62 Her hands felt like ice. It smells like fresh bread. But we do not use other adverbials of manner after link verbs. We use adjectives instead: They looked happily happy. That bread smells deliciously delicious.

adverbials of place back next

We use adverbials of place to describe:

Location We use prepositions to talk about where someone or something is. Examples: • • •

He was standing by the table. You’ll find it in the cupboard. Sign your name here – at the bottom of the page.

Direction We use adverbials to to talk about the direction where someone or something is moving. Examples: • •

Walk past the bank and keep going to the end of the street. The car door is very small so it’s difficult to get into.

Distance We use adverbials to show how far things are: Examples: • •

Birmingham is 250 kilometres from London. We were in London. Birmingham was 250 kilometres away.

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adverbials of location back next

Location We use prepositions to talk about where someone or something is: above

among

at

behind

below

beneath

beside

between

by

in

in between

inside

near

next to

on

opposite

outside

over

round

through

under underneath

He was standing by the table. She lives in a village near Glasgow. You’ll find it in the cupboard.

We use phrases with of as prepositions: at the back of

at the top of

at the bottom of

at the end of

on top of

at the front of

in front of

in the middle of

There were some flowers in the middle of the table. Sign your name here – at the bottom of the page. I can’t see. You’re standing in front of me. We can use right as an intensifier with some of these prepositions: He was standing right next to the table. There were some flowers right in the middle of the table. There’s a wood right behind our house.

adverbials of direction back next

Direction We also use prepositional phrases to talk about direction:

64 across

along

back

back to

down

into

onto

out of

past

through

to

towards

She ran out of the house. Walk past the bank and keep going to the end of the street. We also use adverbs and adverb phrases for place and direction: abroad

away

anywhere

downstairs

downwards

everywhere

here

indoors

inside

nowhere

outdoors

outside

somewhere

there

upstairs

I would love to see Paris. I’ve never been there. The bedroom is upstairs. It was so cold that we stayed indoors. We often have a preposition at the end of a clause: This is the room we have our meals in. The car door is very small so it’s difficult to get into. I lifted the carpet and looked underneath.

adverbials of distance back next

Distance We use adverbials to show how far things are: Birmingham is 250 kilometres from London. Birmingham is 250 kilometres away from London. It is 250 kilometres from Birmingham to London. Sometimes we use a preposition at the end of a clause: We were in London. Birmingham was 250 kilometres away. Birmingham was 250 kilometres off.

adverbials of time back next

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Adverbials of time We use adverbials of time to say: • when something happened: I saw Mary yesterday. She was born in 1978. I will see you later. There was a storm during the night. • for how long : We waited all day. They have lived here since 2004. We will be on holiday from July 1st until August 3rd. • how often (frequency): They usually watched television in the evening. We sometimes went to work by car. We often use a noun phrase as a time adverbial: yesterday

last one week/month/year day/week/month

last Saturday

tomorrow

next the day after week/month/year tomorrow

next Friday

today

this the day before week/month/year yesterday

the other day/week/month

time and dates back next We use phrases with prepositions as time adverbials: • We use at with: clock times: at seven o’clock - at nine thirty - at fifteen hundred hours mealtimes: at breakfast - at lunchtime - at teatime … and in these phrases: at night - at the weekend - at Christmas - at Easter

66 • We use in with: seasons of the year: in spring/summer/autumn/winter - in the spring /summer/autumn/winter years and centuries: in 2009 -in 1998 - in the twentieth century months: in January/February/March etc. parts of the day: in the morning - in the afternoon - in the evening. • We use on with: days: on Monday/Tuesday/Wednesday etc - on Christmas day - on my birthday. dates: on the thirty first of July - on June 15th Note: We say at night when we are talking about all of the night: When there is no moon it is very dark at night. He sleeps during the day and works at night. but we say in the night when we are talking about a short time during the night: He woke up twice in the night. I heard a funny noise in the night. We use the adverb ago with the past simple to say how long before the time of speaking something happened: I saw Jim about three weeks ago. We arrived a few minutes ago. We can put time phrases together: We will meet next week at six o’clock on Monday. I heard a funny noise at about eleven o’clock last night. It happened last week at seven o’clock on Monday night.

how long back next We use for to say how long: We have been waiting for twenty minutes. They lived in Manchester for fifteen years. We use since with the present perfect or the past perfect to say when something started:

67 I have worked here since December. They had been watching since seven o’clock in the morning. We use from …to/until to say when something starts and finishes: They stayed with us from Monday to Friday. We will be on holiday from the sixteenth until the twentieth.

how often back next The commonest adverbials of frequency are: always

never

normally

occasionally

rarely

seldom

sometimes

usually

often

We usually put adverbials of frequency in front of the main verb: We often spend Christmas with friends. I have never enjoyed myself so much. but they usually come after the verb be: He was always tired in the evening. We are never late for work. We use the adverbial a lot to mean often or frequently. It comes at the end of the clause: We go to the cinema a lot. but before another time adverbial: We go to the cinema a lot at the weekend. We use much with a negative to mean not often: We don’t go out much. (= We don’t go out often) We use how often or ever to ask questions about frequency. How often comes at the beginning of the clause: How often do you go to the cinema? How often have you been here? ever comes before the main verb:

68 Do you ever go to the cinema at the weekend? Have you ever been there? Longer frequency phrases, like every year or three times a day usually come at the end of the clause: I have an English lesson twice a week. She goes to see her mother every day.

already, still, yet and no longer back next We use still to show that something continues up to a time in the past present or future. It goes in front of the main verb: The children still enjoyed playing games. They are still living next door. We will still be on holiday. … or after the present simple or the past simple of be: Her grandfather is still alive. They were still unhappy. We use already to show that something has happened sooner than it was expected to happen. Like still, it comes before the main verb: The car is OK. I’ve already fixed it. It was early but they were already sleeping. … or after the present simple or past simple of the verb be: It was early but we were already tired. We are already late. We use yet in a negative or interrogative clause, usually with perfective aspect (especially in British English), to show that something has not happened by a particular time. yet comes at the end of the sentence: It was late, but they hadn’t arrived yet. Have you fixed the car yet? She won’t have sent the email yet.

adverbials of probability

69 back next

Adverbials of probability We use adverbials of probability to show how certain we are about something. The most frequent adverbials of probability are: certainly - definitely - maybe - possibly clearly - obviously - perhaps - probably maybe and perhaps usually come at the beginning of the clause: Perhaps the weather will be fine. Maybe it won’t rain. Other adverbs of possibility usually come in front of the main verb: He is certainly coming to the party. Will they definitely be there? We will possibly come to England next year. but in after am, is, are, was, were: They are definitely at home. She was obviously very surprised.

comparative adverbs back next We can use comparative adverbs to show change or to make comparisons: I forget things more often nowadays. She began to speak more quickly. They are working harder now. We often use than with comparative adverbs I forget things more often than I used to. Girls usually work harder than boys.

Intensifiers: We use these words and phrases as intensifiers with these patterns: much - far - a lot - quite a lot - a great deal - a good deal - a good bit - a fair bit I forget things much more often nowadays.

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Mitigators: We use these words and phrases as mitigators: a bit - just a bit - a little - a little bit - just a little bit - slightly She began to speak a bit more quickly

superlative adverbs back next We can use superlative adverbs to make comparisons: His ankles hurt badly, but his knees hurt worst. It rains most often at the beginning of the year.

Intensifiers: When we intensify a superlative adverb we often use the in front of the adverb, and we use these words and phrases as intensifiers: easily - much - far - by far

count nouns back next Count nouns have two forms: singular and plural. The singular form refers to one person or thing: a book; a teacher; a wish; an idea The plural form refers to more than one person or thing: books; teachers; wishes; ideas

Singular count nouns Singular count nouns cannot be used alone. They must have a determiner: the book; that English teacher; a wish; my latest idea or a quantifier:

71 some new books; a few teachers; lots of good ideas or a numeral: two new books; three wishes

Plural forms: We usually add –s to make a plural noun: book > books; school > schools; friend > friends We add -es to nouns ending in –ss; -ch; -s; -sh; -x class > classes; watch > watches; gas > gases; wish > wishes; box > boxes When a noun ends in a consonant and -y we make the plural in -ies... lady > ladies; country > countries; party > parties …but if a noun ends in a vowel and -y we simply add -s: boy > boys; day > days; play > plays Some common nouns have irregular plurals: Man > men; woman > women; child > children; foot > feet; person > people Plural count nouns do not have a determiner when they refer to people or things as a group: Computers are very expensive. Do you sell old books?

uncount nouns back next Some nouns in English are uncount nouns. We do not use uncount nouns in the plural and we do not use them with the indefinite article, a/an. We ate a lot of foods > We ate a lot of food We bought some new furnitures > We bought some new furniture That’s a useful information > That’s useful information

72 We can use some quantifiers with uncount nouns: He gave me some useful advice. They gave us a lot of information. Uncount nouns often refer to: • • • •

Substances: food; water; wine; salt; bread; iron Human feelings or qualities: anger; cruelty; happiness; honesty; pride; Activities: help; sleep; travel; work Abstract ideas: beauty; death; fun; life

Common uncount nouns There are some common nouns in English, like accommodation, which are uncount nouns even though they have plurals in other languages: advice

baggage equipment furniture homework information

knowledge luggage machinery money

news

traffic

Let me give you some advice. How much luggage have you got? If we want to make these things countable, we use expressions like: a piece of... pieces of... a bit of... bits of... an item of... items of... Let me give you a piece of advice. That’s a useful piece of equipment. We bought a few bits of furniture for the new apartment. She had six separate items of luggage. but we do not use accommodation, money and traffic in this way.

common problems with count/uncount nouns back next

1: Uncount nouns used as count nouns Although substances are usually uncount nouns...

73 Would you like some cheese? Coffee keeps me awake at night. Wine makes me sleep. ... they can be also used as count nouns: I’d like a coffee please.

= I’d like a [cup of] coffee.

May I have a white wine.

= May I have a [glass of] white wine.

They sell a lot of coffees.

= They sell a lot of [different kinds of] coffee.

I prefer white wines to red.

= I prefer [different kinds of] white wine to red.

They had over twenty cheeses on sale.

=

This is an excellent soft cheese.

= This [kind of] soft cheese is excellent.

They had over twenty [types of] cheese on sale.

2: Some nouns have both a count and an uncount form: We should always have hope. George had hopes of promotion. Travel is a great teacher. Where did you go on your travels?

3: Nouns with two meanings Some nouns have two meanings, one count and the other non count: His life was in danger. There is a serious danger of fire. Linguistics is the study of language. Is English a difficult language? It’s made of paper. The Times is an excellent paper. Other words like this are: business

death

industry

marriage

power

tax

time

victory

use

work

property

4: Uncount nouns that end in -s Some uncount nouns end in -s so they look like plurals even though they are singular nouns.

74 These nouns generally refer to: Subjects of study:

mathematics, physics, economics, etc.

Activities:

gymnastics, athletics, etc.

Games:

cards, darts, billiards, etc.

Diseases:

mumps, measles, rabies, etc.

Economics is a very difficult subject. Billiards is easier than pool or snooker.

5: Group nouns Some nouns, like army, refer to groups of people, animals or things, and we can use them either as singular nouns or as plural nouns. army

audience

committee

company

crew

enemy

family

flock

gang

government

group

herd

media

public

regiment

staff

team

We can use these group nouns either as singular nouns or as plural nouns: •

•

My family is very dear to me. I have a large family. They are very dear to me. (= The members of my family…) The government is very unpopular. The government are always changing their minds.

Sometimes we think of the group as a single thing: • •

The audience always enjoys the show. The group consists of two men and three women.

Sometimes we think of the group as several individuals; • •

The audience clapped their hands. The largest group are the boys.

The names of many organisations and teams are also group nouns, but they are usually plural in spoken English: • •

Barcelona are winning 2-0. The United Oil Company are putting prices up by 12%.

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6: Two-part nouns A few plural nouns, like binoculars, refer to things that have two parts. glasses

jeans

knickers

pincers

pants

pliers

pyjamas

scissors

shorts

spectacles

tights

trainers

trousers

tweezers

These binoculars were very expensive Those trousers are too long. To make it clear we are talking about one of these items, we use a pair of … I need a new pair of spectacles. I’ve bought a pair of blue jeans. If we want to talk about more than one, we use pairs of … : We’ve got three pairs of scissors, but they are all blunt. I always carry two pairs of binoculars.

proper nouns back next Names of people, places and organisations are called proper nouns. We spell proper nouns with a capital letter: Mohammed Ali; Birmingham; China; Oxford University, the United Nations We use capital letters for festivals: Christmas; Deepawali; Easter; Ramadan; Thanksgiving We use a capital letter for someone’s title: I was talking to Doctor Wilson recently. Everything depends on President Obama. When we give the names of books, films, plays and paintings we use capital letters for the nouns, adjectives and verbs in the name: I have been reading ‘The Old Man and the Sea’. Beatrix Potter wrote ‘The Tale of Peter Rabbit’ You can see the Mona Lisa in the Louvre.

76 Sometimes we use a person’s name to refer to something they have created: Recently a Van Gogh was sold for fifteen million dollars. We were listening to Mozart. I’m reading an Agatha Christie.

irregular verbs back next

Most verbs have past tense and past participle in –ed ( worked, played, listened). But many of the most frequent verbs are irregular: Base form be begin break bring buy build choose come cost cut do draw drive eat feel find get give go have hear hold keep know leave lead let lie lose make

Past tense was/were began broke brought bought built chose came cost cut did drew drove ate felt found got gave went had heard held kept knew left led let lay lost made meant

Past participle been begun broken brought bought built chosen come cost cut done drawn driven eaten felt found got given gone had heard held kept known left led let lain lost made meant

77 Base form mean meet pay put run say see sell send set sit speak spend stand take teach tell think understand wear win write

Past tense met paid put ran said saw sold sent set sat spoke spent stood took taught told thought understood wore won wrote

Past participle met paid put run said seen sold sent set sat spoken spent stood taken taught told thought understood worn won written

question forms back next We make questions by:

1: moving an auxiliary to the front of the clause: Everybody is watching

>> Is everybody watching?

They had worked hard

>> Had they worked hard?

He's finished work

>> Has he finished work?

Everybody had been working hard

>>

He has been singing

>> Has he been singing?

English is spoken all over the world

>>

The windows have been

>> Have the windows been

Had everybody been working hard? Is English spoken all over the world?

78 cleaned

cleaned?

2: … or by moving a modal to the front of the clause: They will come

>> Will they come?

He might come

>> Might he come?

They will have arrived by now >> Will they have arrived by now? She would have been listening >> Would she have been listening? The work will be finished soon >> Will the work be finished soon? They might have been invited to the party

>>

Might they have been invited to the party?

3: The present simple and the past simple have no auxiliary. We make questions by adding the auxillary do/does for the present simple or did for the past simple: They live here

>> Do they live here?

John lives here

>> Does John live here?

Everybody laughed

>> Did everybody laugh?

verb phrases back next The verb phrase in English has the following forms: 1) a main verb:

Verb We I Everybody We

are like saw. laughed.

here. it the accident

The verb may be in the present tense (are, like) or the past tense (saw, laughed). A verb phrase with only a main verb expresses simple aspect

79 2) an auxiliary verb ("be") and a main verb in –ing form:

Auxiliary "be" Everybody We

is were

Verb (-ing) watching laughing

A verb phrase with "be" and –ing expresses continuous aspect. 3) an auxiliary verb ("have") and a main verb with past participle:

Auxillary "have" Verb (past participle) They have Everybody has He had

enjoyed worked finished

themselves. hard. work.

A verb with "have" and the past participle expresses perfect aspect. A verb with have/has expresses present perfect, and a verb with had expresses past perfect. 4) an auxiliary verb ("have" + "been") and a main verb in the –ing form:

Auxiliary "have" + "been" Everybody He

has been had been

Verb (-ing) working singing

hard

A verb with "have" and "been" and the present participle expresses perfect continuous aspect. A verb with have/has expresses present perfect continuous, and a verb with had expresses past perfect continuous. 5) a modal verb (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would) and a main verb:

Modal Verb

Main verb

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6) We can use modal verbs with the auxiliaries "be", "have", and "have been":

Modal They He She

will might must

Auxiliary be have have been

Verb listening arrived listening

verbs in time clauses and if clauses back next Verbs in time clauses and conditionals follow the same patterns as in other clauses except: •

In clauses with time words like when, after, until we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:

I’ll come home when I finish work. You must wait here until your father comes. They are coming after they have had dinner. •

in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to talk about the future:

We won’t be able to go out if it is raining. If Barcelona win tomorrow they will be champions. I will come tomorrow unless I have to look after the children. •

We do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:

I’ll come home when I will finish work. We won’t be able to go out if it will rain. rains. It will be nice to see Peter when he will get home gets home. You must wait here until you father will come comes. •

but we can use will if it means a promise or offer:

I will be very happy if you will come to my party. We should finish the job early if George will help us.

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"if" clauses and hypotheses Some clauses with if are like hypotheses so we use past tense forms to talk about the present and future. We use the past tense forms to talk about the present in clauses with if : •

for something that has not happened or is not happening:

He could get a new job if he really tried

=

He cannot get a job because he has not tried.

If Jack was playing they would Jack is not playing so they will = probably win probably not win. If I had his address I could write to him

=

I do not have his address so I cannot write to him.

We use the past tense forms to talk about the future in clauses with if: •

for something that we believe or know will not happen:

We would go by train if it wasn’t so expensive

=

We won’t go by train because it is too expensive.

I would look after the children for I can’t look after the children you at the weekend if I was at = because I will not be at home. home • to make suggestions about what might happen: If he came tomorrow we could borrow his car. If we invited John, Mary would bring Angela. When we are talking about something which did not happen in the past we use the past perfect in the if clause and a modal verb in the main clause: If you had seen him you could have spoken to him

=

You did not see him so you could not speak to him

You could have stayed with us You couldn’t stay with us because = if you had come to London you didn’t come to London. If we hadn’t spent all our We have spent all our money so = money we could take a holiday. we can’t take a holiday If I had got the job we would be I did not get the job so we are not = living in Paris living in Paris. If the main clause is about the past we use a modal with have:

82 If you had seen him you could have spoken to him.

=

You did not see him so you could not speak to him.

You couldn’t stay with us You could have stayed with us = because you didn’t come to if you had come to London. London. If you had invited me I might have come.

=

You didn’t invite me so I didn’t come.

If the main clause is about the present we use a present tense form or a modal without have: If I had got the job we would be I did not get the job so we are not = living in Paris now. living in Paris now. If you had done your homework You did not do your homework = you would know the answer. so you do not know the answer.

wishes and hypotheses back next

Wishes We use past tense forms to talk about wishes: •

We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the future:

I don’t like my work. I wish I could get a better job. That’s a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop. I always have to get home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out later. •

We use past tense forms to talk about wishes for the present:

I don’t like this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interesting. These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class. Everyone wishes they had more free time. John wishes he wasn’t so busy. I wish it wasn’t so cold. •

We use the past perfect to talk about wishes for the past:

I wish I had worked harder when I was at school. Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her. I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.

83

Hypotheses (things that we imagine) When we are talking about hypotheses: •

We use present tense forms after phrases like what if, in case and suppose to talk about the future if we think it is likely to happen:

Those steps are dangerous. Suppose someone has an accident. We should leave home early in case we are late. •

We use a past tense form to talk about the future after suppose and what if to suggest something is not likely to happen:

It might be dangerous. Suppose they got lost. What if he lost his job. What would happen then? •

We use modals would, could for a hypothesis about the future:

We can’t all stay in a hotel. It would be very expensive. Drive carefully. You could have an accident. •

We use would in the main clause and the past in a subordinate clause to talk about the imagined future:

I would always help someone who really needed help. I would always help someone if they really needed it. •

We use modals with have to talk about something that did not happen in the past:

I did not see Mary, or I might have spoken to her. It’s a pity Jack wasn’t at the party. He would have enjoyed this party. Why didn’t you ask me. I could have told you the answer.

the verb be back next The verb be has the following forms:

Present simple:

I am We are You are Affirmative You are He/She/It They are is Question

Am I?

Are we?

84

form:

Are you? Are you? Is he/she Are they? it?

Negative:

I am not/ We are I’m not not/aren’t You are You are not/ not/aren’t aren’t They He/She/It are not/aren't is not/ isn’t

Past simple

I was You were We were You were He/She/It They were was

The past participle:

been.

Present perfect:

has/have been

Past perfect:

had been

The verb be is used in the following patterns: 1. with a noun: My mother is a teacher. Bill Clinton was the president of the US. 2. with an adjective: This soup is very tasty. The children were good. 2.1 with the -ing form to make the continuous aspect We were walking down the street. Everything was wet. It had been raining for hours. 2.2 with the -ed form to make the passive voice The house was built in 1890. The street is called Montagu Street. This car was made in Japan. 3. with a prepositional phrase:

85 John and his wife are from Manchester. The flowers are on the table.

link verbs back next Some verbs are followed by either a noun or an adjective: She was a good friend.

=

N+V+N

She was very happy.

=

N + V + Adj.

He became headmaster.

=

N+V+N

He became angry.

=

N + V + Adj.

These verbs are called link verbs. Common verbs like this are: • • • • • • • •

be become appear feel look remain seem sound

She seemed an intelligent woman. She seemed intelligent. He looked hungry. He looked a good player. After appear and seem we often use to be: She appeared to be an intelligent woman. He seemed to be angry. Some link verbs are followed by an adjective. Common verbs like this are: • • • • •

get go grow taste smell

He got hungry in the evening. She grew stronger every day.

86

delexical verbs like have, take, make and give back next Patterns with common verbs and nouns? We often use common verbs like have and take with nouns like a shower, a drink: I took a shower = I showered. She had a drink = She drank something. We call these delexical verbs because the important part of the meaning is taken out of the verb and put into the noun. We often put adjectives in front of the noun: I took a cold shower. She had a nice, refreshing drink. The verbs used most frequently in this way are: • • • •

have take make give

We also use go and do as delexical verbs, but they have different patterns: Shall we go swimming this afternoon? Or shall we go for a walk? It’s your turn to do the cooking. I’ll have to do my hair before the party. • We use have with: Food and drink: a meal; breakfast, lunch, dinner, a snack, a cup of tea Talking: a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a talk, Washing: a bath, a shower, a wash, a scrub Resting: a break, a holiday, a rest Disagreeing: argument, dispute, fight, quarrel I had a good breakfast before I left home. We had a long talk about the problem. The kids should have a bath before they go to bed. She generally had a short holiday in July or August. They had a serious quarrel about their father’s will.

87 • We use take with: Washing: a bath, a shower, a wash Resting: a break, a holiday, a rest I always take a cold shower in the morning You look tired. You need to take a break. … and with these words: care, care of, a chance, a risk, a decision, a photograph, trouble, a turn, turns We took hundreds of photographs on holiday. Jane always takes a lot of trouble with her homework. • We also use have and take with nouns formed from verbs: I think you should have a look at this. She took a bite of the cake. I’m thirsty. I’m going to have a drink of water. I had a listen to that new CD in the car. They are going to have a swim. • We use give with: Noises: a cry, a laugh, a scream, a shout, a whistle Facial expressions: a smile, a grin, a look, a glance Hitting: a kick, a punch, a slap, a push, a knock, a blow Affectionate actions: a hug, a kiss, a stroke, Talking: advice, an answer, information, an interview, a lecture, some news, a report, a speech, a talk, a warning. She gave a loud laugh. John gave a happy smile. He gave me a nasty kick on the leg. She gave the children a goodnight kiss and put them to bed. I have to give a speech at the meeting tomorrow. • We use make with: Talking: and sounds: a comment, an enquiry, a noise, a point, a promise, a sound, a speech, a suggestion Plans: arrangements, a choice, a decision, a plan, plans Travel: a journey, a trip, a tour of, a visit to • We use go with an -ing verb or for common activities:

88 We usually go walking at the weekend. He goes running every evening after supper. Mum’s out. She’s gone shopping. • We use go for a with a verb for common activities that involve moving: a jog, a ride, a swim, a run, a stroll, a walk I want to get out of here. Let’s go for a walk. He’s gone for a ride on his bike. • We use do the with -ing nouns to do with work, especially work in the house, and with other nouns to do with work: It’s your turn to do the cooking. You do the washing up and I’ll do the drying. I need to do a few jobs around the house. I can’t come out this evening. I have a lot of work to do. • We use do with nouns when it is obvious what the action is: I’ll have to do my hair before we go out [= I’ll have to brush my hair.] Have you done your teeth? [= Have you cleaned your teeth?] A question like: Have you done the car? could mean: Have you washed the car? or Have you mended the car? or Have you filled the car with petrol? depending on the context.

Modal verbs back next The modal verbs are: can

could

may

might

shall

should

89 will

would

We use modal verbs to show if we believe something is certain, probable or possible (or not). We also use modals to do things like talking about ability, asking permission making requests and offers, and so on.

certain, probable or possible back next The modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would. The modals are used to show that we believe something is certain, probable or possible:

Possibility: We use the modals could, might and may to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain: They might come later. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come later.) They may come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.) If we don’t hurry we could be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late) We use could have, might have and may have to show that something was possible now or at some time in the past: It’s ten o’clock. They might have arrived now. They could have arrived hours ago. We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible: It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter) You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark) We use the modal could as the past tense of can: It could be very cold in winter. (= Sometimes it was very cold in winter.) You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way in the dark)

Impossibility: We use the negative can’t or cannot to show that something is impossible: That can’t be true. You cannot be serious.

90 We use couldn’t/could not to talk about the past: We knew it could not be true. He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.

Probability: We use the modal must to show we are sure something to be true and we have reasons for our belief: It’s getting dark. It must be quite late. You haven’t eaten all day. You must be hungry. We use must have for the past: They hadn’t eaten all day. They must have been hungry. You look happy. You must have heard the good news. We use the modal should to suggest that something is true or will be true in the future, and to show you have reasons for your suggestion: Ask Miranda. She should know. It's nearly six o'clock. They should arrive soon. We use should have to talk about the past: It's nearly eleven o'clock. They should have arrived by now.

ability, permission, requests and advice back next The modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would. The modals are used to do things like talking about ability, asking permission making requests, and so on.

Ability: We use can to talk about someone’s skill or general abilities: She can speak several languages. He can swim like a fish. They can’t dance very well. We use can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present or future:

91 You can make a lot of money if you are lucky. Help. I can’t breathe. They can run but they can’t hide. We use could to talk about past time: She could speak several languages. They couldn’t dance very well. We use could have to say that someone had the ability/opportunity to do something, but did not do it: She could have learned Swahili, but she didn’t have time. I could have danced all night [but didn't].

Permission: We use can to ask for permission to do something: Can I ask a question, please? Can we go home now. could is more formal and polite than can: Could I ask a question please? Could we go home now? may is another more formal and polite way of asking for permission: May I ask a question please? May we go home now? We use can to give permission: You can go home now if you like. You can borrow my pen if you like. may is a more formal and polite way of giving permission: You may go home now, if you like. We use can to say that someone has permission to do something: We can go out whenever we want. Students can travel free. may is a more formal and polite way of saying that someone has permission: Students may travel free.

92

Instructions and requests: We use could you and would you as polite ways of telling or asking someone to do something: Could you take a message please? Would you carry this for me please? Could I have my bill please? can and will are less polite: Can you take a message please? Will you carry this for me please?

Suggestions and advice: We use should to make suggestions and give advice: You should send an email. We should go by train. We use could to make suggestions: We could meet at the weekend. You could eat out tonight. We use conditionals to give advice: Dan will help you if you ask him. Past tenses are more polite: Dan would help you if you asked him.

Offers and invitations: We use can I… and to make offers: Can I help you? Can I do that for you? We can also use shall I … Shall I help you with that? Shall I call you on your mobile? We sometime say I can ... or I could ... or I’ll (I will) ... to make an offer:

93 I can do that for you if you like. I can give you a lift to the station. I’ll do that for you if you like. I’ll give you a lift to the station. We use would you like (to) ... for invitations: Would you like to come round to morrow? Would you like another drink? We use you must or we must for a very polite invitation: You must come round and see us. We must meet again soon.

Obligation and necessity We use must to say that it is necessary to do something: You must stop at a red light. Everyone must bring something to eat. You can wear what you like, but you must look neat and tidy. I’m sorry, but you mustn’t make a noise in here. We use had to for this if we are talking about the past: Everyone had to bring something to eat. We could wear what we liked, but we had to look neat and tidy.

modals + have back next We use a modal verb with have and the past participle: Subject

Modal

Have

Past Participle

They

will

have

arrived

by now

You

might

have

seen

the film

Jack and Jill

would

have

been

late

We use a modal verb with have to refer back: •

… from a point of time in the past:

We were very worried. Someone might have taken the car.

94 •

… from the present

It is nearly eight o’clock. They will have arrived by now. •

…or from the future:

We won’t eat until they arrive. They might not have had supper. •

or to refer to past time:

You should have helped her when she asked. They might have got lost. Nobody knows where they are.

can, could and could have back next

Questions and negatives: We make questions by putting the subject after can/could: Can I …? Can you …? Could I … Could you …? and so on. The negative form is can’t in spoken English and cannot in written English. We sometimes say cannot, but it is very emphatic. The negative form of could is couldn’t in spoken English and could not in written English. We sometimes say could not. We use can and can’t : •

To talk about ability:

Maria can speak four languages. I can’t swim, but my sister can. •

To say that something is possible or impossible:

Learning English can be difficult [= Learning English is sometimes difficult.] Children can be very naughty [= Children are sometimes very naughty.] It’s still light. It can’t be bedtime. •

For requests and refusals of requests

95 Can I go home now? You can go whenever you like. You can borrow the car today, but you can’t have it tomorrow. •

To offer to help someone:

Can I help you? Can I carry that bag for you? We use could and couldn’t as the past tense of can/can’t: •

To talk about ability:

I could run very fast when I was younger. She couldn’t get a job anywhere. •

To say that something was possible or impossible:

Our teacher could be very strict when we were at school. [= Some teachers were very strict.] People could starve in those days. [= People sometimes starved.] You couldn’t use computers in the nineteenth century. •

To make a polite request:

Could I go now please? Could you lend me a dictionary please? •

To make a polite offer:

Could I give you a lift? I could carry that for you. We use could have: •

to show that something is possible now or was possible at some time in the past:

It’s ten o’clock. They could have arrived now. They could have arrived hours ago.

may, might, may have and might have back next Questions and negatives:

96 We make questions by putting the subject after may/might: May I …? Could I … Might I …? Etc. The negative forms are may not and might not.. We use may: •

when we are not sure about something:

Jack may be coming to see us tomorrow. Oh dear! It’s half past ten. We may be late for the meeting. There may not be very many people there. •

to make polite requests:

May I borrow the car tomorrow? May we come a bit later? When we use may not for a refusal it is emphatic: You may not! You may not borrow the car until you can be more careful with it. We use might: • when we are not sure about something: I might see you tomorrow. It looks nice, but it might be very expensive. It’s quite bright. It might not rain today. • As the past tense of may for requests: He asked if he might borrow the car. They wanted to know if they might come later. • For very polite requests: Might I ask you a question? Might we just interrupt for a moment? We use may have and might have to show that something has possibly happened now or happened at some time in the past: It’s ten o’clock. They might have arrived now.[= Perhaps they have arrived] They may have arrived hours ago. [= Perhaps they arrived hours ago.]

97

can or could back next

Possibility We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible: It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter) You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark) We use could as the past tense of can: It could be very cold in winter. (=Sometimes it was very cold in winter.) You could lose your way in the dark. (=People often lost their way in the dark) We use could to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain: If we don’t hurry we could be late. (=Perhaps/Maybe we will be late) We use could have to show that something is/was possible now or at some time in the past: It’s ten o’clock. They could have arrived now. They could have arrived hours ago.

Impossibility: We use the negative can’t or cannot to show that something is impossible: That can’t be true. You cannot be serious. We use couldn’t/could not to talk about the past: We knew it could not be true. He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.

Ability: We use can to talk about someone’s skill or general abilities: She can speak several languages. He can swim like a fish. They can’t dance very well.

98 We use can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present or future: You can make a lot of money if you are lucky. Help. I can’t breathe. They can run but they can’t hide. We use could to talk about past time: She could speak several languages. They couldn’t dance very well.

Permission: We use can to ask for permission to do something: Can I ask a question, please? Can we go home now? could is more formal and polite than can: Could I ask a question please? Could we go home now? We use can to give permission: You can go home now if you like. You can borrow my pen if you like. We use can to say that someone has permission to do something: We can go out whenever we want. Students can travel free.

Instructions and requests: We use could you and as a polite way of telling or asking someone to do something: Could you take a message please? Could I have my bill please? can is less polite: Can you take a message please?

99

Offers and invitations: We use can I … to make offers: Can I help you? Can I do that for you? We sometimes say I can ... or I could ... to make an offer: I can do that for you if you like. I can give you a lift to the station.

will or would back next We use will: • • •

to talk about the future – to say what we believe will happen to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do to make promises and offers

would is the past tense form of will. Because it is a past tense it is used: • • •

to talk about the past. to talk about hypotheses – things that are imagined rather than true. for politeness.

Beliefs We use will •

to say what we believe will happen in the future:

We'll be late. We will have to take the train. We use would as the past tense of will: •

to say what we believed would happen:

I thought I would be late …… so I would have to take the train.

Offers and promises We use I will or We will to make offers and promises:

100 I’ll give you a lift home after the party. We will come and see you next week.

Willingness •

to talk about what people want to do or are willing to do:

We’ll see you tomorrow. Perhaps dad will lend me the car. We use would as the past tense of will: •

to talk about what people wanted to do or were willing to do:

We had a terrible night. The baby wouldn’t go to sleep. He kept waking up and crying. Dad wouldn’t lend me the car, so we had to take the train. •

to talk about something that we did often in the past because we wanted to do it:

When they were children they used to spend their holidays at their grandmother’s at the seaside. They would get up early every morning and they’d have a quick breakfast then they would run across the road to the beach.

Conditionals We use will in conditionals with if and unless to say what we think will happen in the future or present: I’ll give her a call if I can find her number. You won’t get in unless you have a ticket. We use would to talk about hypotheses, about something which is possible but not real: •

to talk about the result or effect of a possible situation:

It would be very expensive to stay in a hotel. •

in conditionals with words like if and what if. In these sentences the main verb is usually in the past tense:

I would give her a call if I could find her number. If I had the money I'd buy a new car. You would lose weight if you took more exercise. If he got a new job he would probably make more money. What if he lost his job. What would happen then? We use conditionals to give advice:

101 Dan will help you if you ask him. Past tenses are more polite: Dan would help you if you asked him.

Phrases with would: •

would you…, would you mind (not) -ing, for requests:

Would you carry this for me please? Would you mind carrying this? Would you mind not telling him that? •

would you like ...; would you like to ..., for offers and invitations:

Would you like to come round to morrow? Would you like another drink? •

I would like …; I’d like … (you)(to) ..., to say what we want or what we want to do:

I’d like that one please. I’d like to go home now. •

I’d rather… (I would rather) to say what we prefer:

I’d rather have that one. I’d rather go home now. •

I would think, I would imagine, I'd guess, to give an opinion when we are not sure or when we want to be polite:

It’s very difficult I would imagine. I would think that’s the right answer.

will have or would have back next We use the perfective will have when we are looking back from a point in time when something will have happened. By the end of the decade scientists will have discovered a cure for influenza. I will phone at six o’clock. He will have got home by then. or looking "back" from the present:

102 Look at the time. The match will have started. It’s half past five. Dad will have finished work. We use would have as the past tense form of will have: I phoned at six o’clock. I knew he would have got home by then. It was half past five. Dad would have finished work. We use would have in past conditionals to talk about something that did not happen: If it had been a little warmer we would have gone for a swim. He would have been very angry if he had seen you.

double object verbs back next 1. Some verbs have two objects –an indirect object and a direct object: Subject

Verb

Indirect object

Direct object

My wife

sent

me

an email

He

brought

his mother

some flowers

He

cooked

all his friends

a delicious meal

These clauses have the structure: V + N (indirect object) + N (direct object) 2. We can use a prepositional phrase with to or for with an indirect object: Subject

Verb

Direct object

Prepositional phrase

My wife

sent

an email

to me

He

brought some flowers

for his mother

He

cooked

for all his friends.

a delicious meal

These clauses have the structure : V + N (direct object) + Prepositional phrase (indirect object) 3. Common verbs with for and an indirect object are: • • • • • •

book buy get cook keep bring

103 • • • •

make pour save find

They booked a table for me at the restaurant. We made toys for all the children. 4. Common verbs with to and an indirect object are: • • • • • • • • • • •

give lend offer pass post read sell send show promise tell

He gave his programme to the man sitting next to him. They sent Christmas cards to all their customers. 5. If the indirect object is a long phrase we normally use to or for: He showed his ticket to the policeman standing by the door. We kept something to eat and drink for all the people who arrived late. 6. If the indirect object is a pronoun we normally use the N + V + N + N pattern: I poured him another drink. Their mother read them another story.

phrasal verbs back next Some verbs are two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases). They consist of a verb and a particle: •

grow + up >> The children are growing up.

Often this gives the verb a new meaning:

104 •

•

take + after >> She takes after her mother = She looks like her mother, or She behaves like her mother. count + on >> I know I can count on you = I know I can trust you, or I know I can believe you.

Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) have only one pattern: N (subject) + V + p + N (object) [Note: N = noun; V = verb; p = particle] N (Subject)

Verb

Particle

N (Object)

She I My father

takes can count comes

after on from

her mother you Madrid

Some transitive two part verbs (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) are phrasal verbs. Phrasal verbs have two different patterns: • The usual pattern is: N + V + N + p N (Subject) Verb She He We

(N) Object

Particle

gave the money knocked the glass will be leaving our friends and neighbours

back over behind

• But sometimes these verbs have the pattern: N (subject) + V + p + N (object) N (Subject) Verb She He We

Particle N (Object)

gave back the money knocked over the glass will be leaving behind our friends and neighbours

When the object is a personal pronoun,these verbs always have the pattern: N + V +N + p: • •

She gave back it >> She gave it back He knocked over it >> knocked it over

105 •

We will be leaving behind them >> We will be leaving them behind

• Phrasal verbs are nearly always made up of a transitive verb and a particle. Common verbs with their most frequent particles are: bring: about, along, back, forward, in, off, out, round, up buy:

out, up

call:

off, up

carry: off, out cut:

back, down, off, out, up

give: away, back, off hand: back, down, in, on out, over, round knock: down, out, over leave: behind, out let:

down, in, off, out

pass: down, over, round point: out push: about, around, over put:

across, away, down, forward, off, on, out, through, together, up

read: out set:

apart, aside, back, down

shut:

away, in, off, out

take:

apart, away, back, down, in, on, up, over

think: over, through, up

eflexive and ergative verbs back next

Reflexive verbs 1 The reflexive pronouns (see pronouns) are: Singular:

myself; yourself; himself; herself; itself

Plural:

ourselves; yourselves; themselves

We use a reflexive pronoun after a transitive verb (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases) when the direct object is the same as the subject of the verb:

106 I am teaching myself to play the piano. Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself. These are the verbs most often found with reflexive pronouns: • • • • • • • •

cut dry enjoy hurt introduce kill prepare teach

Some verbs change their meaning slightly when they have a reflexive pronoun as direct object: • • • • • • • • • • •

amuse apply busy content behave blame distance express find help see

Would you like to help yourself to another drink?

=

Would you like to take another drink?

I wish the children would behave themselves.

=

I wish the children would behave well.

He found himself lying by the He was surprised when he realised = side of the road. that he was at the side of the road. I saw myself as a famous actor.

=

I imagined that I was a famous actor.

She applied herself to the job She worked very hard to mend the = of mending the lights. lights. He busied himself in the kitchen.

= He worked busily in the kitchen.

I had to content myself with a I had to be satisfied with a few = few Euros. Euros.

The verb enjoy always has an object:

107 We all enjoyed the party. I really enjoyed my lunch. If enjoy has no other object, we use a reflexive pronoun: They all enjoyed They all◊ enjoyed themselves. I really enjoyed I really◊ enjoyed myself. NOTE: We do not use a reflexive pronoun after verbs which describe things people usually do for themselves: He washed in cold water. He always shaved before going out in the evening. Michael dressed and got ready for the party. We only use reflexives with these verbs for emphasis: He dressed himself in spite of his injuries. She’s old enough to wash herself.

Ergative verbs 1. Ergative verbs are both transitive and intransitive:

Peter closed the door

Transitive: N + V + N

The door closed

Intransitive: N + V

I boiled a pan of water

Transitive: N + V + N

The pan boiled

Intransitive: N + V

2. Common ergative verbs are: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

begin break change close drop crack dry end finish grow improve increase move open shake

108 • • • •

start stop tear turn

I broke the glass. I dropped the glass and it broke. The referee blew his whistle and started the match. The match started at 2.30. We grew some tasty potatoes. The potatoes were growing well. The wind shook the trees. The trees shook in the wind. 3. Many verbs to do with cooking are ergative verbs: • • • • • • •

bake boil cook defrost freeze melt roast

You should roast the meat at 200 degrees centigrade. The meat was roasting in a hot oven. I always defrost meat before I cook it. I am waiting for the meat to defrost. Melt the chocolate and pour it over the ice cream. The chocolate was melting in a pan. 4. Verbs to do with vehicles are often ergative: • • • • • • • • •

back crash drive fly reverse run sail start stop

109 I’m learning to fly a plane. The plane flew at twice the speed of sound. He crashed his car into a tree. His car crashed into a tree. 5. We use some ergative verbs with only a few nouns: • • • •

catch: dress, coat, clothes, trousers etc. fire : Gun, pistol, rifle, rocket. play: guitar, music, piano, violin, CD, DVD etc. ring: bell, alarm

She caught her dress on a nail. Her dress caught on a nail. He fired a pistol to start the race. A pistol fired to start the race.

verbs followed by to + infinitive back next

1 Some verbs are followed by the to-infinitive: I decided to go home as soon as possible. We all wanted to have more English classes. Common verbs followed by the to-infinitive are: Verbs of thinking and feeling: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

choose decide expect forget hate hope intend learn like love mean plan prefer remember

110 • •

would like would love

Verbs of saying: • • •

agree promise refuse

Other common verbs are: • • • • • • • •

arrange attempt fail help manage tend try want

2 Some verbs are followed by a noun and the to-infinitive: She asked him to send her a text message. He wanted all his friends to come to his party. Common verbs with this pattern are: Verbs of saying: • • • • • • • • •

advise ask encourage invite order persuade remind tell warn *

*Note: The verb warn is normally used with not The police warned everyone not to drive too fast. Verbs of wanting or liking: • • • • •

expect intend would prefer want

111 •

would like

Other verbs with this pattern are: • • • • •

allow enable force get teach

3. Passive infinitive Many of these verbs are sometimes followed by a passive infinitive (to be + past participle): I expected to be met when I arrived at the station. They wanted to be told if anything happened. I don’t like driving myself. I prefer to be driven.

verbs followed by -ing clauses back next Common verbs followed by –ing nouns are:

Verbs of liking and disliking: • • • • • • •

detest dislike enjoy hate fancy like love

I love swimming but I hate jogging. They always enjoyed visiting their friends. A: Do you fancy going for a walk? B: I wouldn’t mind

Phrases with mind: • • •

wouldn’t mind (= would like) don’t mind (= I am willing to) would you mind (= will you please…?)

I wouldn’t mind having some fish and chips. I don’t mind waiting for a few minutes. Would you mind holding this for me?

112

Verbs of saying and thinking: • • • • • •

admit consider deny imagine remember suggest

Our guide suggested waiting until the storm was over. Everyone denied seeing the accident.

Other common verbs are: • • • • • • • • •

avoid begin finish keep miss practise risk start stop

I haven’t finished writing this letter. Let’s practise speaking English.

Passive form of -ing Many of these verbs are sometimes followed by the passive form of -ing: being + past participle I don’t like being interrupted. Our dog loves being stroked under the chin.

Noun + -ing clause Some verbs are followed by a noun and an -ing clause: Verbs to do with the senses: • • • • • •

see watch hear smell listen to etc.

113 We saw everybody running away. I could hear someone singing. Other common verbs: • • • • • •

catch find imagine leave prevent stop

I caught someone trying to break into my house. We couldn’t prevent them getting away.

verbs followed by that clause back next

With "that" We can use clauses with that: • after verbs of thinking: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

think believe expect decide hope know understand suppose guess imagine feel remember forget

I hope that you will enjoy your holiday. She didn’t really think that it would happen. I knew that I had seen her somewhere before. • after verbs of saying: •

say

114 • • • • • • • • • • • •

admit argue reply agree claim deny mention answer complain explain promise suggest

They admitted that they had made a mistake. She argued that they should invest more in the business. The children complained that they had nothing to do. Note: tell and some other verbs of saying must always have a direct object (see clauses, sentences and phrases): • • • • •

tell convince persuade inform remind

We tried to tell them that they should stop what they were doing. The police informed everybody that the danger was over. • as postmodifiers after nouns to do with thinking or saying: • • • • • • • • • • •

advice belief claim feeling argument hope promise report guess opinion idea

He made a promise that he would do all he could to help. I had a funny feeling that something was wrong. • after some nouns to say more about the noun: •

fact

115 • • • • • • • •

advantage effect possibility chance danger evidence problem difficulty

She pointed out the danger that they might be left behind. There was a chance that we would succeed Note: We often use a that clause to define one of these nouns after the verb be : • • • • •

danger problem chance possibility fact

The danger is that we will be left behind. The fact is that it is getting very late. • after some adjectives which describe feelings to give a reason for our feelings: • • • • • • • • •

pleased sorry happy unhappy sad excited glad disappointed afraid

I am sorry that you can’t come. Everybody was pleased that the danger was past. It is lucky that you were able to drive us home.

No "that" NOTE: We can always use a clause without the word that: They admitted [that] they had made a mistake. The police informed everybody [that] the danger was over. I am sorry [that] you can’t come. There was chance [that] we would succeed.

116

Clause, phrase and sentence back next The basic unit of English grammar is the clause: [An unlucky student almost lost a 17th century violin worth almost £200,000] [when he left it in the waiting room of a London station.] [William Brown inherited the 1698 Stradivarius violin from his mother] [and had just had it valued by a London dealer at £180,000.] Clauses are made up of phrases: [An unlucky student] + [almost lost] + [a 17th century violin worth almost £200,000] [when] + [he] + [left] + [it] + [in the waiting room of a London station.] [William Brown] + [inherited] + [the 1698 Stradivarius violin] + [from his mother] [and] [had just had it valued] + [by a London dealer] + [at £180,000.] We can join two or more clauses together to make sentences. An unlucky student almost lost a 17th century violin worth almost £200,000 when he left it in the waiting room of a London station. William Brown inherited the 1698 Stradivarius violin from his mother and had just had it valued by a London dealer at £180,000.

clause structure back next All clauses in English have at least two parts: a noun phrase and a verb phrase: Noun phrase (subject)

Verb phrase

The children All the people in the bus

laughed were watching

But most clauses have more than two parts:

117 Noun phrase (subject)

Verb phrase

The children John All of the girls This soup Mary and the family She

laughed wanted are learning tastes were driving put

a new bicycle English awful to Madrid the flowers

in a vase

The first noun phrase is the subject of the sentence: The children laughed. John wanted a new bicycle. All the girls are learning English. She put the flowers in the vase. English clauses always have a subject: His father has just retired. Was a teacher. He was a teacher. I’m waiting for my wife. Is late. She is late. … except for the imperative which is used to give orders: Stop! Go away. … and for "soft imperatives" like invitations and requests: Please come to dinner tomorrow. Play it again please. If we have no other subject we use "there" or "it" as subject. We call this a ‘dummy subject’: There were twenty people at the meeting.. There will be an eclipse of the moon tonight. It’s a lovely day. It’s nearly one o’clock. I have toothache. It hurts a lot.

verb patterns back next The structure of the clause depends on the verb. For example:

118 • • • •

An intransitive verb has the structure: N(=noun) + V(=verb): (John) + (smiled). A transitive verb has the structure: N + V + N: (We) + (had been playing) + (football) A link verb has the structure: N + V + Adj : (She) + (looked) + (happy) A phrasal verb has the structure: N + V + p + N (She) + (gave) +(back) + (the money) or N + V + N + p (She) + (gave) + (the money) + (back)

intransitive verbs back next Intransitive verbs have the pattern N + V (noun + verb). The clause is complete without anything else: Noun Phrase (Subject)

Verb Phrase

John Nothing The baby

smiled happened was sleeping

(John) (smiled). (Nothing) (has happened). (The baby) (was sleeping).

transitive verbs back next Transitive verbs have a noun phrase as object: Noun phrase (Subject)

Verb phrase

John We Some of the children

wanted a new bicycle. had been playing football. are learning English.

This pattern is N + V + N (noun + verb + noun).

link verbs back next

Noun phrase (Object)

119 Some verbs are followed by an adjective phrase. The adjective phrase is called the complement: Noun phrase (Subject) Verb phrase Adjective phrase (complement) I Everyone This soup The milk

am feeling looked tastes has gone

hungry very happy awful sour

This pattern is N + V + Adj (noun + verb + adjective phrase). These verbs are called link verbs. Some link verbs (for example be; become; seem) can have a noun phrase as a complement: Noun phrase (Subject) Verb phrase Noun phrase (complement) Our neighbour He She

was became seems

a strange man a geologist a nice girl

This pattern is N + V + N (noun + verb + noun).

double object verbs back next Some verbs, like give and bring can have two different patterns after them: Noun Phrase (Subject) Verb Phrase

Noun Phrase Prepositional (Direct object) phrase

She They

some money a lot of food

to the old man for the animals

>>>>

Who was the woman who you were talking to? My parents live in that house >>> That’s the house that my parents live in. You were talking about a book. I haven’t read it. >>> I haven’t read the book which you were talking about. - When the relative pronoun is the object of a preposition we usually leave it out: Who was the woman you were talking to? That’s the house my parents live in. - Sometimes we use whom instead of who: Who was that woman whom you were talking about. - When we use whom or which the preposition sometimes comes at the beginning of the clause: I haven’t read the book about which you were talking. - We can use the possessive form, whose, in a relative clause: I always forget that woman’s name >>> That’s the woman whose name I always forget. I met a man whose brother works in Moscow.

3. Times and places We also use when with times and where with places to make it clear which time or place we are talking about: England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year when we got married. I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day when the tsunami happened. Do you remember the place where we caught the train? Stratford-upon-Avon is the town where Shakespeare was born. ... but we can leave out the word when: England won the world cup in 1996. It was the year we got married. I remember my twentieth birthday. It was the day the tsunami happened.

4. Giving additional information We use who, whom, whose, and which (but not that) in relative clauses to tell us more about a person or thing. •

as subject (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)

129 My uncle, who was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas. I have just read Orwell’s 1984, which is one of the most frightening books ever written. WARNING: The relative pronoun is the subject of the clause. We do not repeat the subject: My uncle, who [he] was born in Hong Kong, lived most of his life overseas. I have just read Orwell’s 1984, which [it] is one of the most frightening books ever written. •

as object (see Clauses, Sentences and Phrases)

We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed. My favourite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw in “On the Waterfront”. - we can use whom instead of who as object: My favourite actor was Marlon Brando, whom I saw in “On the Waterfront”. WARNING: The relative pronoun is the object of the clause. We do not repeat the object: We saw the latest Harry Potter film, which we really enjoyed [it]. My favourite actor is Marlon Brando, who I saw [him] in “On the Waterfront”. •

as object of a clause :

He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired. We are going back to Venice, which we first visited thirty years ago. We can also use who as the object. He finally met Paul McCartney, who he had always admired. WARNING: The relative pronoun is the object of the clause. We do not repeat the object: He finally met Paul McCartney, whom he had always admired [him]. We are going back to Venice, which we first visited [it] thirty years ago. •

as object of a preposition:

He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, who he had read about in the newspaper. That’s the programme which we listened to last night. - We sometimes use whom instead of who:

130 He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, whom he had read about in the newspaper. - The preposition sometimes comes in front of the relative pronoun whom or which: He decided to telephone Mrs. Jackson, about whom he had read in the newspaper. That’s the programme to which we listened last night.

5. Quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns We often use quantifiers and numbers with relative pronouns: many of whom - most of whom - one of which - none of whom some of which - lots of whom - two of which - etc. We can use them as subject, object or object of a preposition. She has three brothers two of whom are in the army. I read three books last week, one of which I really enjoyed. There were some good programmes on the radio, none of which I listened to.

6. Using "which" to give more information We often use the relative pronoun which to say something about a clause: He was usually late, which always annoyed his father. We’ve missed our train, which means we may be late.

reporting: reports and summaries back next Many teachers and learners think that tense forms in reported speech are complex. In fact, "reported speech" follows exactly the same rules as the rest of the language. 1. When we report what people say or think we use: •

clauses with that:

Everybody knew that it was Henry’s birthday tomorrow. She explained that she would do as much as she could to help. but we can leave out the word that: Everybody knew it was Henry’s birthday tomorrow. She explained she would do as much as she could to help.

131 •

wh-clauses (see Wh-clauses) and clauses with if (see note in Wh-Clauses)

He was asked what he had been doing the previous night. She explained why she went by train rather than by car. •

to-infinitives:

We all agreed to do as much as we could. Who told you to come? 2. We very rarely try to report exactly what someone has said. We usually give a summary: Mary: Oh dear, we’ve been walking for hours. I am exhausted. I don’t think I can go any further. I really need to stop for a rest. Peter: Don’t worry. I’m not surprised that you’re tired. I’m tired too. I’ll tell you what. I’ll see if I can find a place to sit down, and then we can stop and have our picnic. >>> When Mary complained that she was tired out after walking so far, Peter said they could stop for a picnic. 3. Tense forms in reports and summaries. When we are reporting what people say or think in English we need to remember: •

that the tense forms in reports and summaries are the same as in the rest of the language:

This is a letter that Andrew Brown wrote ten years ago: I am twenty-two years old and I am at University studying engineering. I take my final exams next month and I will finish university in July. I want to take a year off and travel round the world. I will need to make some money while I am travelling so I would like to learn to teach English as a second language so that I can make some money while I am abroad. A friend of mine has recommended your course very highly. She also gave me some details, but I would like to ask a few more questions. What courses do you have in the summer and when do they start? How much do the courses cost? Is there an examination at the end? I look forward to hearing from you. Regards, Andrew Brown.

132 If you were telling a story about Andrew might write something like this.: When Andrew was 22 he was an engineering student in his last month at the university. He wanted to travel abroad after he had finished his course at the university, but he would need to earn some money while he was abroad so he wanted to learn to teach English as a foreign language. A friend had recommended a course but Andrew needed more information. So he wrote to the school and asked them when their courses started and how much they were. He also wanted to know if there was an examination at the end of the course. You would use past tense forms to talk about something that happened ten years ago. If you were reporting or summarising what Andrew wrote you might start off by saying: Andrew told me that when he was 22 he was an engineering student in his last month… ... and you could go on in the same way. You would use past tense forms to talk about something which happened ten years ago. So tense forms in reports and summaries in English are the same as in the rest of the language. • Sometimes you have to choose between a past tense form and a present tense form. If you are talking about the past but you mention something that is still true you could use a present tense form to show you agree that it is true: John said he had stayed at the Shangri-la because it is the most comfortable hotel in town. Mary said she enjoyed the film because Robert de Niro is her favourite actor. Helen said she loves visiting New York. ... or a past tense form: John said he had stayed at the Shangri-la because it was the most comfortable hotel in town. Mary said she enjoyed the film because Robert de Niro was her favourite actor. Helen said she loved visiting New York, •

If we are talking about something that everybody knows is true we normally use a present tense:

Michael said he had always wanted to climb Everest because it is the highest mountain in the world. Mary said she loved visiting New York because it is such an exciting city.

133 4. to-infinitives in reports and summaries: We often use the to-infinitive after verbs of thinking and feeling to report or summarise actions: decide - hope - intend • •

“I think I will start all over again” >>> He decided to start all over again. “I am going to write to the newspaper about it” >>> She intended to write to the newspaper about it.

… and verbs of saying: agree - promise - refuse • •

“I can do the shopping for you if you like” >>> He agreed to do the shopping for me. I’m sorry. I would love to help you but I’m afraid I can’t >>> She refused to help me.

After some verbs we use a direct object and the infinitive (see verbs followed by infinitive): advise - ask - encourage - invite - order - remind - tell - warn expect - intend - want - would like - would prefer • •

“I think you should turn the lights out now” >>> She reminded me to turn the lights out. “Be very careful, children. The sea can be very dangerous so please don’t go in the water.” >>> She warned the children not to go in the water.

verbs - questions and negatives back next

1. Yes/No questions Yes/No questions are questions to which the answer is Yes or No Look at these statements: They are working hard. They will be working hard. They had worked hard. They have been working hard. They might have been working hard.

134 We make Yes/No questions by putting the subject, they, after the first part of the verb: Are they working hard? Will they be working hard? Had they worked hard? Have they been working hard? bthey have been working hard?

2. Negatives We make negatives by putting not after the first part of the verb: They are not working hard They will not be working hard They had not worked hard They have not been working hard They might not have been working hard In spoken English we often reduce not to n’t: They aren’t working hard. They won’t be working hard They hadn’t been working hard etc.

wh- clauses back next Wh-words are what, when, where, who, which, why and how. We use clauses with a wh- word: •

In wh-questions (see Questions and Negatives):

What are you doing? Who ate all the pies? Why did you do that? •

after verbs of thinking:

know - understand - suppose - remember - forget - wonder I know where you live. She couldn’t remember who he was. John wondered what was going to happen next.

135 NOTE: We also use clauses with if I wonder if we’ll see Peter. She couldn’t remember if she had posted the letter. •

after verbs of saying:

ask - say - admit - argue - reply - agree - mention - explain - suggest I asked what she wanted. He tried to explain how the accident had happened. She wouldn’t admit what she had done. Did he say when he would come? tell and some other verbs of saying must always have a direct object (see clauses, sentences and phrases): tell - remind We tried to tell them what they should do. She reminded me where I had left the car. •

after some verbs of thinking and saying we use wh-words and the toinfinitive:

We didn’t know what to do. We will ask when to set off. Nobody told me what to do. Can anyone suggest where to go for lunch? NOTE: We use the to-infinitive: -- When the subject of the to-infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb: He didn’t know what to do >>> He didn’t know what he should do We will ask when to set off >>> We will ask when we should set off -- When the subject of the to-infinitive is the same as the person spoken to: Nobody told me what to do. >>> Nobody told me what I should do. Can anyone suggest where to go for lunch? >>> Can anyone suggest [to us] where we should go for lunch. •

after some nouns to say more about the noun:

Is there any reason why I should stay?. Do you remember the day when we went to Edinburgh. That was the town where I grew up.

136 We often use a wh-clause after is: I missed my bus. That’s why I was late. This is where I live. That’s what I thought. Paris – that’s where we are going for our holidays.

noun phrase back next

Noun Phrases Often a noun phrase is just a noun or a pronoun: People like to have money. I am tired. It is getting late. or a determiner and a noun …: Our friends have bought a house in the village. Those houses are very expensive. … perhaps with an adjective: Our closest friends have just bought a new house in the village. Sometimes the noun phrase begins with a quantifier: All those children go to school here. Both of my younger brothers are married Some people spend a lot of money.

Numbers: Quantifiers come before determiners, but numbers come after determiners: My four children go to school here. (All my children go to school here.) Those two suitcases are mine. (Both those suitcases are mine) So the noun phrase is built up in this way: Noun: people; money Determiner + noun: the village, a house, our friends; those houses Quantifier + noun: some people; a lot of money Determiner + adjective + noun: our closest friends; a new house.

137 Quantifier + determiner + noun: all those children; Quantifier + determiner + adjective + noun: both of my younger brothers The noun phrase can be quite complicated: a loaf of nice fresh brown bread the eight-year-old boy who attempted to rob a sweet shop with a pistol that attractive young woman in the blue dress sitting over there in the corner

prepositional phrases back next A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition and a noun phrase. We use prepositional phrases for many purposes, for example: - as adverbials of time and place: We will be back in a few days. They drove to Glasgow .- as a postmodifier in a noun phrase: Helen is the girl in the red dress We’ve got a new television with a thirty one inch screen. - to show who did something: The lion was killed by the hunter I saw a wonderful painting by Van Gogh - with double object verbs like give and get: We gave five pounds to the woman on the corner. They got a drink for me. - after certain verbs, nouns and adjectives: The book belongs to me. I had an argument with my brother. I feel sorry for you.

sentence structure back next

138

Simple sentences: A simple sentence has only one clause: The children were laughing. John wanted a new bicycle. All the girls are learning English.

Compound sentences: A compound sentence has two or more clauses: (We stayed behind) and (finished the job) (We stayed behind) and (finished the job), then (we went home) The clauses in a compound sentence are joined by co-ordinating conjunctions: John shouted and everybody waved. We looked everywhere but we couldn’t find him. They are coming by car so they should be here soon. The common coordinating conjunctions are: and – but – or – nor – so – then – yet

Complex sentences: A complex sentence has a main clause and one or more adverbial clauses. Adverbial clauses usually come after the main clause: Her father died when she was very young >>> Her father died (main clause) when (subordinating conjunction) she was very young (adverbial clause) She had a difficult childhood because her father died when she was very young. >>> She had a difficult childhood (main clause) because (subordinating conjunction) her father died (adverbial clause) when (subordinating conjunction) she was very young (adverbial clause). Some subordinate clauses can come in front of the main clause: Although a few snakes are dangerous most of them are quite harmless >>> Although (subordinating conjunction)

139 some snakes are dangerous (adverbial clause) most of them are harmless (main clause). A sentence can contain both subordinate and coordinate clauses: Although she has always lived in France, she speaks fluent English because her mother was American and her father was Nigerian >>> Although (subordinating conjunction) she has always lived in France (adverbial clause), she speaks fluent English (main clause) because (subordinating conjunction) her mother was American (adverbial clause) and (coordinating conjunction) her father was Nigerian (adverbial clause). There are seven types of adverbial clauses: Common conjunctions Contrast clauses although; though; even though; while; Reason clauses

because; since; as

Place clauses

where; wherever; everywhere

Purpose clauses so that; so; because + want Result clauses

so that; so … that; such … that

Time clauses

when; before; after; since; while; as; as soon as; by the time; until

Conditional clauses

if; unless; provided (that); as long as