Ellis, Jeffrey (1953) An Elementary Old High German Grammar

PREFACE

r"r r,*o still by *"",,i:;il","to"r*,

of IE explanation

phonetics, but this is not pursued in detail.) At the same time, the opportunity is taken to draw a clear line between the description of OHG in itself (which has been the apparent aim of OHG grammars), and the comparison of it with other languagesand historical explanationof its phenomena (which has been mixed into most OHG grammars in inconsistent measure,e"g. the origins of sounds are given but not the origins of forms, although the latter would exemplify the former). Thus, while on the one hand the comparative material is kept distinct and complete in itself (though there has not been spaceto take account of all theories, still less to justify explicitly the choice between them), on the other hand the description of OHG is based,as far as possiblewithin the limits of this book, on OHG itseli When all is said, the aim of a desctiptiozof OHG is to enable the reading of texts, and in a text the student is faced, for example, not with a Germanic a-stem or Indo-European o-stem and a Germanic or Indo-European consonant-stem,but with two nouns whose forms show and do not show equally a, o, and consonant,but havc or have not the same endings as each 'to call the other. As Sweet said fifty-eight years ago (of OE), Old-English nouns lris ai a- or o- (why not e- ?) stem, cynn a jo-, mmigo an i- or in- stem, on the ground that in some other languagethe corresponding words ended in -o, &c., is, from an Old-English point of view, sheernonsense.. . . In fact, there are no "stems" at all in Old-English'. It may be added, a method that speaks(on the same level) of a- and d- (and not o- and a-) stemsbut os/es-(and not azliz-) stemscannot justify itself. Since, however, the student will in any case go on to the study of books which still use the comparative terms for descriptive purposes,the limits within which re-ordering of the descriptive material has here been possible are narrow. There

vii

is, too, the difficulty that OHG (not to mention Old Saxon) is not a unified languagewithin itself but has territorial dialects, periods of development, and all kinds of textual aberrations. A full purely descriptive treatment of these would require the range of Braune's Grammar. In a book of the present size and with the present general purpose, only a framework can be given. The student beginning OHG with this book would be well advised first to read the East Franconian version of the text (6. r) together with the notes on it, carefully looking up all the referencesto the grammar, then to proceed to a study of the descriptive grammar as a whole and the text in the other dialects. He will then be in a position to begin on a Readersuch as Barber's. The author is indebted to Mr. M. O'C. Walshe, especially for his initial encouragementand the model of his revision of Wright's MHG Primer, but in general for his generous and helpful guidance and advice and his liberal teaching.

J. E. NOTTINGHAM

September rg53

CONTENTS xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS I.

INTRODUCTION r. Scope of OHG. 4. OHG literature.

II.

z. Germanic.

3. Indo-European.

DESCRIPTIVE PHONETICS r. Alphabet. altemations.

z. Vowels. 5. Stress,

3. Consonants.

rrr. PHoNoLoGY (colrrenerrvn

4. Phonetic

AND Hrs-

TORTCAL PHONETTCS) r-r r. The Pr.Gc equivalents of the IE vowel-sounds. r. IE vowel-system. 2. a, o, ai, oi, au, ou. 3. e, ei, eu. 4. i, S. u. 6. a, o. 7. e, Ai. f. i, fi. 9. -gx-. ro. Sonant liquids and nasals. rr. Pr.Gc vowel-system. n-27. The OHG development of the general Gc vowel-system. r2-q. The vowels of accented syllables. rz. a, ai, au, 13.e,eu. 14.i,o,u. 15.d,tr. t6,8,5. 17.i,ii. 18-27. The vowels of unaccented syllables. 18-23. Final syllables. 18. Final long vowels. rg. Short vowels. zo. Other long vowels. zr. Final consonant. zz. Anaptyctic vowel with nasal or liquid. 23. Other developments. 2+-27. Other than final syllables. 24. Assimilation of medial vowels. 25. Anaptyctic vowel. 26. Syncope. 27. Pre-tonic. z8-37. The Pr.Gc treatment of IE consonants. z8-33. The shift ofthe IE stops ('First Sound-Shift'). 28. IE system of stops. zg. Voiceless stops. 3o. Voiced stops. 3r. Voiced aspirates. 32. Vemer's Law. 33-37. Other consonant changes. 33. Other IE consonants. 34. Combinationswith t. 35. Gutturalz. 36. Final t, d. 27. Final nasal. 38-4o, West Gc modifications of Pr.Gc consonants. 38. z. 39. Gemination with j. 4o. Gemination with r. 4r-45. The HG Shift of Pr.Gc stops and fricatives ('Second Sound-Shift'). 4r. Scope of shift. 42, Voiceless stops. 43. Voiced stops and fricatives. 44. Summary. 45. Development of Verner's Law.

.7

r3

r6

r8

2l

CONTENTS

CON TENTS 46-5r. Other consonant changes of OHG. 46. Simplification of double consonants. 47.w.48. j. 49. Nasals. 5o. h. 5r. Dentals. rv.

ACCIDENCE

(DESCRIPTM

AND

COMPARA-

27

rrvE) r-r7. Declension of nouns. r. Categories of declension. z. Principal masculine and neuter declension. 4. M and N zo-declension. t. M and Nj-declension' -inn'd'eclension. 5. Principal feminine declension . 6. F in -i. S. M 8. F abstract nouns F 7. J:declension. r-declension, ro. F l-declension. rr. z-declension. rz. M a-declension. r3. N z-declension. r4.F n-de16. Mixed 15. Other consonant-stems. clension. declensions. r7. N -ir- declension. 18-24. Declension of adjectives. r8. Categories of zo. 1-declension. declension. r9. Strong principal. zr. zo-declension. 22. Weak. 23. Present participles. 24. Past participles. z 5--28. Cornparison of Adjectives. z 5. Comparative. 26. Superlative. 27. Irregular comparison. 28. Defective comparison. z9-3r. Adverbs. 29. Formation' 3o Comparison. 3r. Irregular comparison. 32-37. Numerals. 32. Cardinalandordinal. 33. r-3. 34. +-r2. 35. 2o-roo. 36. Ordinals. 37. other numerals. 38-46. Pronouns. 38. Personal. 39. Reflexive. 4o. Possessive. 4r. Simple demonstrative. +2. Compound demonstrative. 43. Other demonstratives. 44' Simple interrogative. 45. Other interrogatives. 46. Indefinite. 47-66. Verbs. 47,Patas of the verb' 48. Conjugation. 49. Strong verbs. 5o. Class I. 5r. Class II. 52. Class III. 53. Class IV' 54. Class V. 55. Class VI' 56. Class VII. 57. Weak verbs. 58. First weak conjugation. 59. Irregular preterites. 6o. Second weak conjugation. 6r. Third weak conjugation. 62. Pre'to be'. 64. tuon. terite-present verbs. 63. The verb 65. gdn and std.n. 66.'will'. v.

SYNTAX

(nEScnIerlve)

z. Accusative. 3. Genir-6. Cases. r. Nominative. 6' Prepositions. tive. 4. Dative. 5. Instrumental.

38

4r

xl

7-9. Adjectives. 7. Weak. 8. Strong. 9. Indefinite pronouns. ro-16. Pronouns. ro. Definite article. rr. Indefinite article. rz. Personal and reflexive. 13. Indefinite personal. r4. Pronouns with genitive. 15. Relative. 16. Distributive relative. r7-3o. Verbs. t7-zz. Tense. ry. Aktionsart and, tense. r8. Present. 19. Future. zo. Preterite. zr. perf.ect. 22.'Imperfective'. 23. Passive voice. z+-26. Mood. 24. Indicative. 25. Subjunctive. 26. Imperative. 27-31. Non-finite verb forms. 27. Infinitive. 28. Infinitive as substantive. 29. present participle. 30. Past participle. 3r. Negation. 3z-33, Concord. 32. Gender. 33. Number. 34-36. Word-Order. 34. Noun and attributes. 35. Preverb, preposition. 36. Verb. 37-5o. Clauses. 32. Without conjunctions. 38. Conjunctions. 39. Mood and tense. 4o. Indirect command. 4r. Final. 42. Result. 43. Temporal. 44. Conditional. 45, Concessive. 46. Causal. 42. Cornpu^tive. 48. Relative. 49. Indirect speech. 5o. euestions. SPECIMEN

OF OHG

DIALECTS

AND

OLD GERMANIC

44

r. East Franconian. z. South Rhenish Franconian. (a) Weissenburg Catechism; (b) Otfrid. 3. Alemannic. 4. Bavarian. 5. Notker. 6. Old Saxon. 7. Gothic. 8. Old English. 9. Old Norse. ro. Latin original.

LANGUAGES

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

52

68

l5

8o

8q 9o 92

OTHER

43

46

IJ

99

r07

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

I INTRODUCTION l. 1. By Old High German(OHG) we meanthe High German dialects of the German language from the beginning of its earliest monuments in the eighth century up to about the end of the eleventh century. OHG (and Old Saxon) literature flourished in the ninth century, which period forms the basis of the grammatical framework here given, though important works occur also later. 1. 2. High German and Low German (seeMHG $ r) are part of the 'West Germanic' division of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of languages.The other two divisions of Germanic (which have much in common with each other) are'East Germanic', of which the only languageknown by any considerablerecords is Gothic (chiefly Bishop Ulfilas's fourthcentury translation of the Bible), and'North Germanic', comprising East Norse (Swedish and Danish) and West Norse (Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese).'West Germanic' is used to include all the remaining Germanic languages(although English and Frisian have some features in common with North Germanic, and HG with Gothic), namely English, Frisian, the Low German dialects, including Dutch, and HG. Low German is representedin the period of OHG mainly by Old Saxon (OS), but also comprisesLow Franconian, which is divided from the 'Second Sound-Shift' (3. other Franconian dialects by the 4r-44). OHG is divided into three dialect groups: (i) Upper German (UG), spoken in the highlands of south German-speaking territory, and comprising Alemannic and Bavarian.

INTRODUCTION

2

(ii) Upper Franconian (UF), comprising East Franconian (spoken in the old duchy of Francia Orientalis, east of the Rhine as far as the Fichtelgebirge) and Rhenish Franconian (bordering on the Rhine, southwards as far as Weissenburg), including South Rhenish Franconian. (iii) Central Franconian (CF), spoken along the Moselle and the Rhine from Coblenz to Diisseldorf. UF and UG are the principal sourcesof OHG literature. OS is in many respectsclose to OHG, a greatproportion of its forms differing only in the regular phonetic differencesl where the latter (given in 3. rz-16, 23-27, 4r-5r) are not enough to identify an OS form, it is given explicitly in the Accidence. I . 3. The otherknown branchesof the Indo-European family are (i) Indo-Iranian, comprising Indic (Hindi, Bengali, &.; Sanskrit is Otd Indic) and Iranian (including Old Persian and Avestic, Modern Persian and Pushtu). (ii) Slavonic, including Russian, Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Slovene, Serbo-Croat, Bulgarian. (iii) Baltic, including Lithuanian and Latvian. (iv) Armenian. (v) Albanian. The above are satem-languages,i.e. they changethe original palatal stops (cf. 3. z8a) to sibilants. (vi) Greek. (vii) Italic, comprising Latin and the Oscan and Umbrian dialect groups. (viii) Celtic, including Gaelic and Brythonic (Welsh, Cornish, Breton). (ix) Tocharian, discoveredin r9o8. More distantly relatedto the aboveIE languagesthan they are to each other is the recently discoveredlanguageor languages

INTRODUCTION

3 known as Hittite, which preservesan earlier phonetic stage(see 3.r), and which also among other features shows some shared with Germanic, e.g. the *€ of the preterite plural (4. 48). The wider family including Hittite is sometimesreferred to as Indo-Hittite. 1. 4. Unlike Old English, where the West Saxon dialect became the literary language,the OHG documentswritten in the various monasteries continued to be written in local dialect. Becauseof copying by scribes speaking different dialects, the manuscripts contain much dialectal mixture, including OS elements.This is one reasonwhy some knowledge of OS is an integral part of Old German studies; other reasons(apart from its historical relation to modern continental Germanic languagesand dialects) are the literature in OS itself, some of the best of Old German literary works, and the intermediate place occupied by Low German between HG and our own branch of Germanic, Anglo-Frisian. The most important works in the various dialects include: Alemannic : Sth cent., St. Gall Paternoster(6,3) and.Credo; 9th cent., Rule of St. Benedict,Hymns of Murbach; roth cent. (from Franconian), Christ and the Woman of Samaia (verse). Bavarian : 8th cent., Wessobrunn Prayer (verse); 9th cent., Muspilli (verse), Freiingen Paternoster(6. $, St, Emneran Prayer; roth-r rth cents.,Notker's translations(St. Gall) (6. 5). East Franconian: 9th cent., Tatian (Fulda), (with CF or LG admixture) Lex Salica (Trier); rrth cent., Williram's translations. Rhenish Franconian : 8th cent., Isidore (with Alemannic admixture), Lu&oigslied(verse). South Rhenish Franconian: 9th cent., Weissenburg Catechi.sm (6. za), Otfrid (verse) (6. zb). Central Franconian: roth cent., Treves Capitulary. Old Saxon : 9th cent., Helinnd (6, 6), Genesis. Upper German mixed with OS, 8th cent., Hildebrandslied.

DESCRIPTM PHONETICS

II D E S C R I P T I V EP H O N E T I C S 2. 1. OHG was written in the Latin alphabet, virtually un-) *"s modified. Vowel length (here indicated by the macron either not shown, or rePresented by doubling the vowel; but '). sometimes also by diacritics (^, All the other old Germanic languages were written in modified Latin alphabet except Gothic, which used an alphabet derived from the Greek alphabet (here transliterated into Latin letters), and the oldest Norse (third to eleventh centuries), and other old inscriptions, which used the runic alphabet. Literary Old Norse (and Modern Icelandic) is written in an alphabet founded on the Old English adaptation (modelled on the Irish) of the Latin alphabet, which also influenced the writing of OS (and OHG). 2,2. OHG had short vowels, long vowels, and diphthongs, written with the letters a, e, i (y), o, u, and combinations of them. The simple vowels (and constituents of diphthongs) were pronounced as in MHG, that is the letter e represented two short vowels ("f. e. 7), open e (here (z-4) written €) and close e (sometimes written g; see 3. rz). There were at most (depending on period and dialect) seven diphthongal phonemes: ei (ai), ou (au), iu (not a simple vowel as in MHG), io (eo)' ia (ea), ie, and uo (ua, oa). They were falling diphthongs, i.e. the first constituent was the sonant element. Besides different combinations of vowels into diphthongs, the other old Germanic languages differ in the following particulars: Gothic: e and o represent long (close) vowels only; i short only: ei long i; ai and au (i) diphthongs or open (long) vowels (e, o), (iil(here written ai, air) before r, h' h/ only (i and short u occurring elsewhere), short (open) vowels (E, 6). Old English (West Saxon) has the additional letters e (tr) for open e (raised fronted a; see 3. ra and 15) and y (I) for ii'

5

Old Norse further has o for short 6 and e (cf. MHG) for long 6 (similarly e and re); I for open o (rounded a). Old Saxon sometimesusesae(or g) for e. For the MHG equivalentsof the OHG vowels,seeMHG $ 5. 2. 3. Consonantsare found written in the following principal waysin OHG. Stops: voiced (or lenes,i.e. voicelessbut weak, seeMHG $$ ra, r9. i), b, d, g; voiceless(or fortes), p, t, k (c, q). Fricatives: labiodental f (v only for the lenis (MHG $ 19. iv) from Gc f), interdental th (dh), dental (both voiceless, seeMHG $ r9. xi) s, z (here (z-4) written a), h (ch) (h finally and medially before consonants,and doubled). Affricates: pf (ph), z (c) (herewritten z), and UG kh (ch, qh). Nasals:m, n. Liquids: I, r. All these(exceptthe digraphs with h) are also found double (pronouncedlong) (cf. z. $. Aspirate h, initial and medial before vowels, and semivowels w (written as double or single u or v) and j (written as i, e, or g) only occur single, and guttural n only before other gutturals. The other old Germanic languagesdiffer in the following main respects: OE: f representedboth the voicelessand the voiced fricative (the latter medial only); runeswere usedfor w and the th sounds of English (b); U was also used for the latter, especially the voiced sound. ONhas OE useof f ; v is a bilabial fricative, representingGcw; z is voicelessaffricate,like German; p and 6 voicelessand voiced. OS usedOE d or, like OHG, th ; andb for labialvoicedfricative. Go uses b, d, and $ for voiced fricatives as well as stops, and f, p, g for voicelessfricatives; g also for z before gutturals; qfor kw (OHG qu), and hv f.ot hat; z for voiced s. In writing pr. Gc forms we useb' d' g' z forvoiced fricatives, f, D, x, s for voiceless;here and in pr. IE p may be used for guttural n occurring only before guttural consonants(9. Sg). 2.4.The vowelsa and closee alternateunder certainphonetic conditions(see3. rz, 4. 9, ro, 17,25,26, 29,30, 3r, 38a,48a,58) and in addition in certain morphological categories(".g. +. S8) (alsoou (au) and e,3. 47).(Otherwisein most OHG writings

-l 6

DESCRIPTIVE PHoNETICS

there is no graphic representation of German (ilj-) Unlaut (MHG Sro).) d and i, io and iu alternateunder phoneticconditions (3. 3, 13, 4. 48a) and independently(+. +9, nim). Other vowels alternate(alwaysindependently of phonetic conditions) in certain morphological categories,principally in the conjugation of strong verbs (4. 48,62), also 4. 59, 66 and e.g. wolla, wool, adjectivewullin (3. 5). Double consonantsmedially before vowels alternate (2. +6) with single consonantsfinally and medially before consonants(and frequently after long vowels), e.g. 4.6, 16, 3r (and (+. St) suffun, siifu); independentlyof phonetic conditions(:. :S), e.8.4. 54a, SSd, 58.In Notker b, d, €,, and sometimesv, occur after vowels, liquids and nasals (in the sameor the precedingword), p, t, k, f , elsewhere(cf. 3. 43a), Other consonantalalternations independent of phon€tic conditionsare found, e.g. 3. 45 (4. Soo, 5rD, &c.). Consonant alternateswith vowel (or zero),e.g.3. +7 (4. +, zt, 5ob,5rc,57). Urnlaut (which did not occur at all in Gothic) was better representedin OE and ON than in OHG and OS, e.g. OE trrils, v26usp,tttjs, mice; hdl, whole, hElan, to heal; (w-Umlaut) heofitn (6, 8, n. +); ON lauss, loose,leysz, to loose;(wUmlaut) lgnd, plural of land. Consonantalalternations were most extensivein ON, e.g. annafr, other,besidedative gdrum. 2. 5. Stress (accent) falls upon the first syllable of words, exceptthe kind of compound words like verbs with inseparable prefixes, which becamesingle rvords after the Gc shift of the originalaccent(3.r)-cf. the laterjoining of stressed(separable) prefixes(S. :S). Any vowel can occur in final unstressedsyllable (but see 3. 4), unlike MHG (MHG SS6-8). On vowels of other unstressedsyllables see3. z4-7,

III PHONOLOGY (COMPARATIVE AND HISTORICAL PHONETICS) Tnn

Pn.Gc Eeurver-rxTs oF THE INooEunopneN Vownr-SouNps

3. 1. The Indo-European vowels which are preserved as distinct sounds in Germanic are: Short vowels Long vowels Diphthongs Sonant

a, e, i, o, u. e, E, ir 6, ff. ai, ei, 6i, oi, au, eu' ou. I, f , r"n, B.

Other IE languages distinguish further sounds, e.g' short and long diphthongs in all combinations (not only ei' €i). Germanic (and all IE but Indo-Iranian) a is also derived from what is usually considered a neutral vowel e (er), giving Indo-Iranian i; and Germanic e (and z) sometimes from a2 (one or more further neutral vowels, with e-, &c., colouring). The narrow vowels i, u, like the vocalic tiquids and nasals, originated as unaccented forms (zero-grade) of diphthongs with e, o' as did e of €, et (or zero) of simple e. The vowel o in most caseswas an alternation, also possibly due to accent, with e. The vowel a (possibly in all cases), and o in some cases,may possibly be derived from preceding, long vowels not alternating with short from following, 'laryngeal' consonants (ones which remained in Indo-Hittite Hittite as an h, e.g. hanti, Latin ante, OHG ant-) modifying 'e'(while IE € might result from another the IH primary vowel laryngeal, which remained as a in zero-grade). ') could fall on any syllable The accent in IE (here written of the word. Distinct from word-accent is syllable-accent, long vowels having one of two syllable-accents, normal long quantity with acute tone ('), or longer quantity with circumflex 'compensation'. tone (-), derived from contraction or

8

PHoNoLoGY

3.2,lE a (Latin a) remainedin pr. Gc as a, e.g.Latin ager, Go akrs, OHG ackar,frcW,E acre; Latin ad, Go, E at, OHG a4. IE o (Latin o) also became8, e.g. Latin octo, Go ahta, OHG ahto, eight; Latin hortus, Go g,ards, OHG gart, garden. Thus both ai (Latin ae) and oi (Latin ii) became ai, e.g. Latin aes, Go aiz, OHG Er, E ore; Latin iinus, Go ains, OHG ein, one; and both au (Latin au) and ou (Latin t) becameau, e.g. Latin auris, Go auso, OHG 6ra, ear;Latin riifus, Go raups, OHG rdt, red. 3. 3. IE e (Latin e) in generalremainedase, e.g.Latin decem, Go taihun, OHG z€han, E ten; Latin pellis, OHG fil, shin;but was narrowedto i: (a) before a nasal{consonant, e.g. Latin ventus, Go winds, OHG wint, W wind. (b) followed by an i, i, or i, e.g. Latin est from *esti, Go, OHG ist, zs; Latin medius from *medhios, Go midjis, middle; IE *bhEreti > beredi > beridi OHG mitti, > biritli, oHG birit, he bears. Thus the diphthong ei gives i, e.g. Latin dic6, Go gateihan, to tell, OHG zihan, to accuse;while eu remains in pr. Gc, except that the e becomesi in the conditions of (6), e.g. Latin diicd, Go tiuhan, OHG ziohan, to lead, draw; pr. Gc *liuxtjanan, OHG liuhten, to light. (c) in unaccentedsyllablesexcept before r not followed by i, e.g. OHG lembir from pr. Gc *-ez6 (:. :8), but fater, AS, . &c. (4. r5). 3. 4. IE i (Latin i) in generalremainedas i, e.g. Latin piscis, Go fisks, OHG fisk, E fish; but was lowered to e when followed in the next syllable by the open vowels a, o, or e, unless either nasalf consonantor i or ! intervened, e.g. IE

PR.GC EQUMLENTS

OF IE VOWEL-SOUNDS

I

*uiros, Latin vir, OHG w€r, man:IE *nizdos, Latin nidus, OHG n€st, E nest. This phonetic processhas many aPParent exceptionsin the various Gc languagesdue to analogy. 3. 5. IE u (Latin u) in generalremainedasu, e.g.Latin $ustus' taste, Go $,a-kusts, OHG kust' test, choice;but was lowered to o under the same conditions as i to e (:. +), e.g. Latin iugum, OHG joh, yokc; cf. OHG fol with fulli' E full. Pr. Gc thus reacquired an o (cf. 3. z). 3. 6. IE d (Latin d) was rounded to 6, e.g. Latin frdter, Go broPar, OS brdthar, brother, OHG bruoder. Thus, like short a and o, long d and 6 fell together (but into a vowel of different quality), since 6 remained as d, e.g. Latin flds' Go bloma, OHG bluomo (or F bluoma),flowey. 3.7.lE 6 (Latin 6) was lowered(shiftedin the direction of a) to (an open long e like d in NHG Grtifn), e.g. Latin Edimus, Go etum, OE Eton, E ate, OHG d4um. But it remained of original e-quality in unaccentedsyllables(cf. 3. zo). The diphthong Ei, too, resulted in a more open sound than the short ei (> i, 3.3), namely 6(a closelong e like NHG,See), e.g. Go her, OHG hiar (3. 16), here; OHG stiaga, stair, beside *Ei in Go beside*Ei in stigan; OHG skiari, clez.ter, skeirs, OS skir, c/ear. 3. 8. The narrow long vowels i (Latin i) and fl (Latin f,) remained,e.g.Latin suinus, adjectivefrom sts,plg, Go swein, OHG swin, pig;Latin siis, OHG st, E sow; Latin mts, OHG m[s, E mouse. 3. 9. Short vowelsbefore nasalgf x, namely a, i, u (see3. 3a, 3. 4, 3. 5), werelengthenedin'compensation'forlossof the nasal consonantI (1. lS), e.g. agx > OHG dh; e.g. Latin pan$,o' fasten, Go, OHG fdhan, to seize; Latin vinc6, Go weihan, OHG wihan , to fight; OHG diihta, seemed,beside dunken.

PHONOLOGY

3. 10. The liquids and nasalswhen sonant, {0 (Latin em), + (Latin en), g (Latin or), | (Latin ol, ul), developeda u before them, e.g. Latin septem, Go sibun, OHG s6bun, seoeni Latin portus, OHG furt, E ford. 3. 11. It follows from 3. z-g that pr.Gc had the following vowel-system: Short vowels Long vowels Diphthongs

a, e, i, o (1. 5), u (3. 5, ro). d (:. g), tr, E (3. 7), i, 6, [. ai, au, eu (iu).

THr OHG DnvnropurNT oF THE GENERAL G r n u e N r c V o w n r . -S y s r u u The Vovtek of Accented Syllablcs 3. 12 , Gc a generallyremainedin OHG, e.g. Go, OHG faran, to go; Go dags, OHG tap, day. It appears sometimes to becomeo, e.g.mohta (+. 6:). Umlaut of accenteda to closee took place, beginning about 75o and becoming universal in the ninth century, before i or j in the following unaccentedsyllable, e.g. ferlt beside faran; kelbir, caloes,lesti,gzesls, besidekalb, $ast; brennen, Go brannjan; lengi, length.besideslang. It did not take place in the following cases: r. Before ht, hs, or consonant*w, e.g. maht, power, pl. miihti; wahsit, he grows, inf. wahsan; bi-scatwen from *skatwjan, to shade. z. In UG beforelf consonant,beforehh, ch(: G61, ,. nr;, and often before r{consonant, and before h (: Germanic h), e.g. UG haltit beside UF heltit, lu holds, inf. haltan; UG altiro besideUF eltiro, older;UG sachit besideUF sshhif, he quarrels, inf. sachan, Go sakan; UG warmen beside wermen, Go warmjan, to warm; slahit beside slehit, le strikes,inf. OHG, Go slahan. 3. In words ending in -nissi, -nissa, or -lih, these not

OIIG DEVELOPMENT

OF VOWEL-SYSTEM

II

being completely unaccented, e.g. firstantnissi, understanding t W aftlilr, str ongi tagalih, daib. The vowel a also becamee in the diphthong ai' in eighthcentury OHG, except finally and before r, old h, and w, where the diphthong had become 6, e.g. Go stains, OHG stein, stone;Go haitan, OHG hei4an, to call; Go air, early, OHG 6t, before; Go maiza, pHG mEro' greater; Go laisjan' Go OHG lEren, to teach; Go aihts, OHG Eht, possession; gen. snewes; snaiws, OHG lE!n, lent; Go snow, OHG laihv, Go saiwala, OHG s6(u)la' soul; Go wai' OHG wE,utoel Go pai, OHG dE,they. In OS ai was always monophthongized to 6, except before j, where it becamegi, e.g. stEn' hEtan, 6r, mEra, lErian' l6h, sn6wes, s6ola, w6; twgo, two (gen.). Similarly in au, a was assimilatedby the u to o' in ninthcentury OHG, except before d, t, Z, s' tl' r' l, and old h, rvhere au became 6, e.g. Go augo, OHG ou$a' eye; Go haubip, OHG houbit, head; Go daupus, OHG t6d, death; Go raups, OHG r6t, red; Go $aut, OHG fdq, poured; Go kaus, OHG kds, chose;Go laun, OHG ldn' reward; Go auso, OHG 6ra, ear; Latin caulis, stalk, OHG kdl; Go hauhs, OHGll.dh,high. In OS au was always- monophthongized to 6, except before w, where it remained as au' e.g. 6Sa, hdbid, ddd, rdd,96t, k6s, ldn,6ra, hdh; hauwan, to hew. In OE, Gc a becamefronted and raised to a' e.g. federt OHG fater (on other developmentsof it seenn. to 6. 8). 3. 13. Gc e generallyremained as 6, e.g. w6$, way; stdlan, to steal; E1Zan, to eat. It becamei, in OHG and OS, when followed by a u in the next syllable (and in OHG when followed by w' cf. 3. 47), e.g. hilfu, biru, gibu, beside inf. hdlfan' to help, b€ran' to bear, gdban, to gioe; sibun, Latin septem, seneniOHG fihu' Latin pecu, cattle. There are many apParentexceptions due

12

PHONOLOGY

to analogy,e.g. OHG, OS fihu besideOHG fihu by analogy with the oblique casesfdhes, fdhe. Thus the diphthong eu became iu (falling together with Gc iu, 3. 3) before ur e.g. kiusu, I choose;it also becameiu in UG before labials and gutturals except old h, e.g. UG liup, dear, tiuf, deep, siuh, slc&, liugan, to ke, Otherwise in the diphthong eu the u was assimilatedby the e to o, and this eo during the first half of the ninth century became io, e.g. kiosan, Go kiusan; lioht, Go liuhap, a light.In Otfrid io sometimesoccurs, but mostly becomesia, or ie by assimilation. After w- o may be found for €, e.g. wola, E well. In OS e also sometimes becomes i, e.g. before labials in giban, besideg€ban, to gioe,niman, besiden€man, to tahe, and beforeo, a in knio, OHG kneo, hnee,tian, besidet€han, ten. In OS eu remains finally and before w when a, e, or o follows or originally followed, e.g. treuwa, OHG triuwa, Ioyalty. In OE e is 'broken' under certain conditions, seenotes to 6. 8. On Gothic seez. 2. 3. 14. Gc i remained as i, e.g. fisk, fuh; wi4an, OS, Go witan, to knozo.In OS it sometimesbecomese before r, e.g. herdos, herdsmen. Gc o remained as o, e.g. g,ot, E god; giholfan, helped. Gc u remainedas u, e.g. sunu, soz; $ibuntan, bound. In OS u is often found where OHG has o, e.g. gumo, gomorman. On Gothic see2, z, 3. 15. Gc 5, E fell togetheras OHG ti, e.g. Go, OS and OHG fdhan, OE fdn (f. S); Go ga-deps, OE dEd, OS ded,

oHG tet.

3. 16. Gc E becamein OHG ea in the eighth century and then ia in the ninth century, which in the middle of the century

O H G D E V E L O P M E NO TF VOWEL-SYSTEM

t3

becameie (Otfrid has ia or ie, or by assimilation io)' e.g. hiar' Gohet, hsre. Gc 6 developed similarly, but not at the same rate in all dialects, remaining as d in Bavarian till the ninth century, elsewhere becoming oa and then ua in the eighth century and uo by the tenth century, except in Franconian other than SRF (which has ua, Otfrid also uo by assimilation),where it passed straight to uo in the second half of the eighth century. E.g. fuo4, Go fotus,/oof; fuor, Go tot,went; suohhen' Go sokian, to seek. OS has 6 and also ie, 6 and also uo, e.g. h6r, fdt' fdr' sdkian. 3. 17. Gc i and fi remainedin OHG, e.g. sin' Go seins' lr; biqan, Go beitan, OS bitan, to bite;his, house;diihta' Go pflhta, OS thfihta, it seetned. The Voaselsof UnaccentedSyllables Final Syllables 3. 18. Final long vowels had been shortened: *-d ) u' e.g. Latin fero, OHGbitrt, I bear,exceptwhenoriginally *-6' which > o, e.g Latin homo, IE *-6 for *-dn, OHG $omoi -i ) i' as preterite subjunctive r and 3 sing. ndmi beside3 pl. ndmin. 3. 19. Short a (IE o and a) (not the -a resulting in 3. zo), which was originally final or becamefinal through the loss of a following consonant,disappearedin forms of more than one syllable. The short vowels u and i (including the results of 3. 18, but not of 3. zo), which were originally final or becamefinal through the loss of a following consonant, disappeared in forms of more than two syllables,and in forms of two syllables when the first syllable was long. The regular operation of this law was often disturbed by analogicalformations. Regular forms were: OHG weie: Greek o?.6o,I know (+. +g); OHG nom. wolf from *wulfaz (a. z); OHG beran

14

PHONOLOGY

from *beranan, IE *bheronom,tobear;OHG wei4 : 61""p ot6e,he hnows(4.49); OHG ist from IE *esti, it (+. +g, 6i); OHG gast from *gastiz, guest,Latin hostis; OHG meri, sea, cf, Latin pl. mari-a; OHG wini from *winiz, friend; OHG tdd : Go dauFus, death; OHG fihu: Go fafhu, Latinpecus, cattle;OHGnom.sunu: Go sunus, soz;OHG situ : Go sidus, custom;OHG biru, Latin fer6, I bear. Then after the analogyof these and similar forms were made stat for *steti, place; sun beside sunu, soz; hilfu for *hilf, I help; &c. 3.20. Long vowels after which an -n or -zhad disappeared (3. 37 and 38) were shortened in words of more than one syllable. So were the i from older -iji and the long vowels, 6, 6, deriving from -ai (as well as from IE *-6, 3. 7) and -au, either originally final or final after loss of -2. The *-6 was treated differently according to its syllable-accent: *-6 > -o ( c f . 3 . 1 8 ) ;* - 6 > - a . E.g. gen. pl. tago (4. z), zungdno, Go tuggono (4. 14); but nom. pl. taga, Go dagos (4. z); nom. sg. h€rza, Go hafrto (+. r:); acc. sg. QEba,gift (4. 5); nom. pl. masc.blinte, Go blindai (+. tg); loc. sg. used as dat. tage from *dagai (4. z); ahto, Go ahtau, eight; gen. sg. suno, Go sunaus (+. rr); wili from *wiliz, thou wilt; nom. pl. gesti from *gastiz, older *gastijiz (+. g); neri from *nazi, older *naziji, saoe thou, 3. 21. Short and long vowels remained in final syllableswhen followed by a consonant,e.g. blinta4 (+. til inan (4. 3g); hdlfan(4. 5z); tages (4. z); hanen, herzen(4. rz, r3);lembir (4. r 7) ; enstim (4. r o) ; nim it (+. +il ; ubil, etil ; hanon (4. rz) ; sibun, seoenltagrurn (+. z); habEn (+. 6t); n6m6s (+. +il; blint€m (4. 19); mahtig , mighty;tiarlih, dear;hdhim (4. S) ; ndmis (+.+g); salbdn (+. 6o); suohtds (+. S8); g€b6m, zunpdm besidegdba, zunSa(+. S, ,+); zungiin (+.r+).

O H G D E V E L O P M E NO TF V O W E L - S Y S T E M

15

3.22.lf a nasal or liquid, precededby a consonant,cameto stand finally after the loss of a, it became vocalic and then generated a new a before it, e.g. nom. acc. €ban, etsen,from *€bn, older *ebnaz, *ebnan; nom. acc. fo$al, bird, from xfog,l, older *faglaz, *fuglan; nom. acc. acchat, field, from *akr, older *akraz, *akran; &c. The a, thus generated, became transferred to the oblique casesalso, at first after short syllables,and then later after long syllables as well, e.g. fogales' wuntare' &c. 3.23. In OHG of the tenth century, and to a small extent of the ninth century, i and u in final syllables become e and o. Notker, who sometimes writes this and original e as i, also reducesall short vowels before a consonantin final syllable to e. Writing of final short -e as a is sometimes found, e.g. in Isidor; and in Bavarian of the tenth and eleventh centuries e short and long of final syllables becomesa. In OS all final-syllable long vowels are shortened; finalsyllable e and a often fell together, usually as a. Othn than Final Syllables 3. 24. Medial vowels were often assimilated to final vowels, e.g. keisar, ernqem, gen. keiseres ; wuntordn, to tttonder, beside wuntar; sibun, seom, obliqtte sibini; &c.; cf. OS h6lap, hElogo, &c. In OS mediallong vowelsareshortened( cf..3.4), and medial vowels generally are much confused, especially before r (cf.

+.ail. 3. 25. In all dialectsa vowel was developedbetween medial rh and lh, and before w in rwr lw, and medial sw. The vowel thus developed appeared mostly as a or o, but it notunfrequently regulated itself according to the quality of a neighbouring vowel, cf..3. zz and 24. Examples are: b€raht, Go bairhts, clear; furhten, to be afraid, pret. forhta, forahta ; wurken, to work, pret. worhta, worahta; felhan, felahan'

16

PHONOLOGY PR.GC TREATMENT

to hide, bifiluhu, I hide, bifilihit, he hiiles; laro, ready, garwer beside garawer; melo, meal, flour, gen. melwes beside melawes, dat. melewe; z€swa, right hand, beside z6sawa.In UG and OS this happenedsometimesalsobetween r and other consonants,e.g. UG perege, OS burug. 3. 26. The i in the preterite and past participle of weak verbs of Class I (+. S8) was regularly syncopatedafter long-stem syllables, as btanta,,burnt, p.p. gibrantEr; hdrta, heard, p.p. gih6rtEr; beside nerita, saoed,p.p. ginerttEr; &c. Cf. OS diur(i)da; d6pida, d6pta. 3.27.In pre-tonic syllables(cf. z. 5) the vowelsof the prefixes (and unaccented monosyllabic prepositions) were reduced, varying according to period and dialect. Briefly: ga- > gi- in the ninth century (latest in Bavarian), > ge- (sometimes gbeforen-, &c.) by the eleventhcentury (OS gi-, ge-); so za(OS te-, ti-); ant- > int- early (OS and-); ur- > ar- > in the eighth to ninth centuries lr-, er-; so in generalfur-, for(also ) f- before l-) (OS for-, far-, fer-); bt- > be- late (OS bi-, be-). The vowel e in pre-tonic position becameo in the proclitic words odo beside 6ddo (S. g8) and noh, noh- besidenih- (cf. a. a6). Cf. OS of, af beside 6f (5. 38). Similar variation occurs in the conjunction anti (enti), inti, unti, &c. Tsn Pn.Gc TnrermpNr or InooEunopEeNCoNsoNaxrs The Shift of the Inilo-European Stol,s ('First Sound-ShiJt,) 3. 28. IE probably had the following systemof stops:

voiceless.

.l

p

I

t

|

(

|

t

I

voiced .l b I a I g I C I voicedaspirate I bh I dh I gh I Cn I

tu

e* g*n

OF IE CONSONANTS

17

(a) The existence of unlabialized velars is concluded to explain treatment like palatals in centum-languages (r. 3) besidetreatment like labiovelarsin satam-languages,e.g. Sans_ krit gaus, OHG kuo, coar. (D) It is also possible to postulate voiceless aspirates, but these fall together with the simple voicelessstops in Gc. 3.29.I8 p, t, t and k (see3. z8a),kq becamepr.Gc. fricatives f, p, x, xw (and see3. 3z). p ) f, e.g. Latin pEs, Go fotus, OHG fuo4, E foot. t ) D, e.g.Latin tu, Go pu, OHG thu, du, E thou; Latin vertere, to turn, Go wairlan, OHG w6rdan, to become. t, k > x, e.g. Latin cor, Go hairto, OHG hirza, E heart; Latin decem, Go tafhun, OHG zlhan, ten. kr ; xw, e.g. Latin quod, Go hya, OHG hwa4, wa4B what. (a) They remfied stops after s. spr e.g. Latin spuere, Go speiwan, OHG spiwan, to s?it. st, e.g. Latin stdre, Go standan, OHG stantan, E stand; Latin est, Go, OHG ist, u's. sk, e.g. Latin piscis, Go fisks, OHG fisk,yis&. (D) The stop t remained after original p, [, k. ft, e.g. Latin neptis, OHG nitt, niece. xt, e.g. Latin octo, Go ahtau, OHG ahto, E eight; Latin rEctus, Go raihts, OHG r6ht, E right. 3. 30. IE b, d, € and g (see3. z8a),gq becamepr.Gc voiceless P, t, k, kw. b ) p, e.g. Latin lflbricus, Go sliupan, OHG sliofan, E slip. d > t, e.g.Latin decem, Go taihun, OHG z€han, E ten; _ Latin edere, Go itan, OHG eg4an, E eat.

18

PHONOLOGY

P R . G CT R E A T M E N TO F I E C O N S O N A N T S

19

e,g > k, e.g.Latin $enu, Go kniu, OHG kneo' E knee; Latin iugum, Go juk, OHG joh' E Yoke. g* ) kw, e.g. Latin venire, Go qiman, OHG qu€man' E come.

changesin the original stops, were confined to combinatory or conditional changes, i.e. changes taking place only under conditions of combination with another particular sound, or of particular position in the word.

3. 31. IE bh, dh, fh and $h (see3. z8a),9*h becamePr.Gc fricatives b, ?1,g, gw. b, ?l initially, and b, d, g medially after their corresponding nasals,becamestopsbr d' 8. b, e.g. Latin fer6, Go bairan, OHG bdran, E bear; Latin frater, Go brobar, OHG bruoder, E brother; Sanskritjambhas, tooth,OHG kamb, E comb. d, e.B. Latin fores, Go dafr, OHG tor, E door; Latin offendix, Go bindan, OHG bintan, E bind. g, e.g. Latin an$d, Go aggwus, OHG en$i' narrowb, tt, g remained in other positions, except that in WGc tf > d. See3. 43 and 44.

3. 34. Every labiallt ) ft, e.g. Go ga-skafts, creation, OHG gi-scaft, creature,besidesGo skapjan, OHG skephen, to create; Go fra-gifts, a giving, OHG gift, gef, beside Go giban, OHG g€ban, to gizte. Every gutturalft ) xt, e.g. Go, OHG mahta, pret. of magan, to be able; Go warirhta, wairrhts, OHG worhta, gi-worht, pret. and p.p. of Go wafrrkjan, OHG wurken, to zoork. Everydentalf t > ss, e.g.Gowissa, OHGwissa,w€ssa, pret. of Go witan, to hnow. ss > s after long syllables, e.g. Go un-weis, unknozring, OHG wis, E wise, besideGo witan. ssr > str, e.g. Go gup-blostreis, worshippn of God, OHG bluoster, sacrifue, beside Go blotan, to worship. Instead of ss or s, st is often found by analogy with other forms that kept the t, e.g. Go waist for *wais, OHG weist for *weis, knowest,by analogy with Go last from lisan, lo gather, OHG maht from magan, &c.; OHG w€sta beside wdssa, knut,by analogy with OHG worhta, worked, &,e.

3. 32 ('Verner's Law.') Before the accent changed from free accent (3. r) to root-accent (2. 5), the medial or final voiceless fricativesf, F, x, xw, s (exceptsp, st, sk, ss, ft, fs, xs, xt), when the vowel preceding was not accented, were voiced to b, tf, g, gw, z () WGc and Literary ON r). (Cf. E abs6loe beside dbsolufe.)For the development of the latter see 3. 3r and 38. Examples:Latin septem, Go, OHG sibun, E seven; Latin tertius, Go Dridja, OHG dritto, E third; Latin cum-, Go g,a-, OHG 9i-; Latin aqua, OHG ouwa beside aha; Latin aes, bronze,Go aiz, OHG €r' E ore. Other ConsonantChanges 3. 33. The remaining IE consonants,voicelessfricative s (cf. 3. 3z), semivowelsg and !, liquids I and r, and nasalsm and n (and dental and guttural n before corresponding consonants), in general remained in pr.Gc. Changes in these, and other

3. 35. Guttural n (g) disappearedbeforex, see3. 9. 3. 36. The consonantswhich arosefrom IE t, d in final position were dropped in unaccented syllables in pr.Gc, e.g. Go Wa, athat, Latin quod; Go bafrai, OHG b6re, from *bh6roit, he may bear. 3.37. Original final -m became-n in pr.Gc. This -n, as also original final IE -n, disappearedin disyllabic and polysyllabic words. For examplessee3. 19, 20.

("t) 20

PHONOLOGY

W r s r G n n n n e x r cM o n r F r c A T r o N So F Pn.Gc. CoNsoNewrs 3. 38. Pr.Gc z, which arosefrom s (3. 3z), becamer medially, and was dropped finally (except that probably *-anz ) -osr -as in OS daS,os, OE dagas (+. z)), e.g. Go maiza, OHG mEro, greater; also Go huzd, OHG hort, E hoard; Go dags from *dagaz, OHG tag, day; Go sunus from *sunuz, OHG sunu, soz. 3. 39. In WGc all single consonants,except r, were doubled after a short vowel before a following j. This j was mostly retainedin OS, but was generallydropped in OHG (see3. 48, 46), as also in OE, e.g. OHG sellen, OS sellian, Go saljan, OE sellan, to gioe up ; OHG fremmen, OS fremmian, ON fremja, OE fremman, to perform; OHG kuninginna, OS -innia, from -injd- (+. 6); OHG frauwa, frouwa, from *frawjo-, woman(2. +Z). bj, ilj, and gj becamebb, dd, 89, e.g. Go sibja, OS sibbia, relationship; Go bidjan, OS biddian, to pray; Go hugjan, OS huggian, to think. Go skapjan, OS skeppian, to create;Go satjan, OS settian, to set; Go uf-rakjan, to sbetchforth, OS rekkian, lo rclate. For the OHG treatment of WGc bb, dd, 89; pp, tt, kk, see3. +2, +3. 3.40. p, t, and k werealsodoubledin WGc beforea following r, e.g. OHG kupfat, copper, from Latin cuprum; OHG snottar, Go snutrs, wise; OHG bittar, ON bitr, E bitter; OHG wackar, ON vakt, asatchful.These consonantswere also sometimesdoubled before l, e.g. OHG aphul, ON epli, E apple; OHG lutzil, OS luttil, E little.

THe Hrcn GrnlreN Ssrrr or Pn.Gc. Srops lxn Fnrcerlvns (' Second Sound-Shift' ) 3. 41. The most striking feature in which HG differs from the other WGc languages is the general shifting which certain consonantsunderwent. This processhad its beginning before the period of the oldest HG monuments, and was practically completed by the end of the eighth century. The only consonants which were shifted throughout the whole of the HG dialects were the voicelessstops p, t, k. The shifting of the voiced fricatives and stops did not extend over all the HG dialects. The shifting of p to d through the intermediate stage tt took place in historic times; beginning first in UG about 75o, it had gradually extended over all the HG dialects by the end of the eleventh century (cf. 3. 5r). This shifting, together with 3. 29-3r, is often referred to as Grimm's Law. 3.42.W.Gcp, t, k(exceptsp, st, sk, tr, ht, ft) wereshifted: (a) medially or finally after vowels, to voicelessdouble (long) fricatives(and see3. 46), ff, 1q,hh (cf. z. 3). p ) ff, e.g. Go slepan, OHG sldffan, E sleep; Go skip, OHG skif, E ship. t ) 11, e.g. Go itan, OHG e11 nt E eat; Go wait, OHG wei4, E wot. k > hh, e.g. Go sokjan, OHG suohhen, E seek; Go juk, OHG joh, E yoke. (D) initially or medially after consonants (1, r, m' n) or when doubled, to affricates, pf, tz, and, in UG, kh (cf. z. 3). In RF p was shifted to pf only after I and r, remaining p in the other positions; while k remained unshifted in Franconian generally.

22

HG SHIFT

PHONOLOGY

p > pf, e.g. Go paida, OS pEda, C and RF peit, EF and UG pfeit, shirt; OS, C and RF pl€gan, EF and UG pfl€$an, to cale for; Go hilpan, OS and CF h€lpan, UF and UG hilphan, E help; Go skapjan, OS skeppian, C and RF skeppen, EF and UG ske(p)phen, to create;pf becomingf after I and r during the ninth century, e.g. h€lfan. t ) zt e.g. Go taikns, OS t6kan, OHG zeihhan, E token; Go hafrto, OS hdrta, OHG h€rza, E heart; Go satjan, OS settian, OHG sezzen, E set. k > kh, e.g. Go karirn, OS and F korn, UG khorn, E corn; OS and F wirk, UG werch, E work; Go us-wakjan, OS weckian, F wecken, UG we(c)chan, E awake. 3.43. Pr.Gc voiced stops and fricatives. r. UF retainedb, bb, whereasUG shifted them to p, pp, e.g. UF bdran, to bear, sibba, peace, beside UG p€ran, sippa. UF and Alemannic shifted b to b, whereas in Bavarian it appears as p, e.g. UF and Alemannic sibun, Go sibun, E seven; ubil, Go ubils, E evil, but Bavariansipun, upil. z. All HG dialects shifted dd to tt, e.g. Go bidjan, OS biddian, OHG bitten, to reEtest;Go midjis, OS middi, OHG mitti, middle. UG and EF shifted single d (pr.Gc. tl, d) to t, whereas RF retained d initially, but frequently shifted it to t in other positions, e.g. OS dohtar, daughter,bindan, to bind, biodan, lo offer, appear in UG and EF as tohter, bintan, biotan, and in RF as dohter, bindan, biodan, beside bintan, biotan. 3. gg remained in Franconian, but was shifted to kk in UG, e.g. OS liggian, Franconian liggen, to lie dozun; OS hruggi, Franconianruggi, bach,besideUG likken, rucki. Single g (pr.Gc g) remained, except that in UG it was mostly shifted to k when initial or final, and rarely when medial, e.g. Franconian gast, guest, tvg, dajt, stiSan, to

OF PR.GC STOPS & FRICATIVES

23

ascend,oluga, e!e, UG kast, tacr stigan or sticanr ou$a or ouca. *F, but Notler has p/b, k/$,, see z. 4, like t/d from *d *d, tdteltcha dfr, unser unser is invariable, e.g. beside t { br6tkib. 3. 44. The following table gives a summary of the soundshift. For the pronunciation of the various orthographies see z. 3. The letters representing shifted sounds are printed in italics. *t *p Pr.Gc p t k OS Go, ON, ptc OE p 234(t) CF fr p ( p f ) f f z 4 z k hh RF p f t r z z q k h h EF pI z qg UG fr

Pr.Gc Go ON OE OS CF RF EF UGP

*b b (f) bl bf b(f) b v(f) b bb bb (b) bp

*tl d( p) d,d dg dg

etk

hh

k

chhh

*g e g

de d(t

e

tg t

k g e(ft)

3. 45. As a result of Verner's Law (3. 3z) and the developments of 3. 4r-44, the following pairs of consonants alternate in

oHG (OS): f/b (OSf/b), e.g.hefren, to raise,OS af-heffEan,Go haf jan, pret. pl. huobun, OS huobun. d/t (OS th(O)/d), e.g. lidan, to go, OS lioan' Pret. pl. litun' OS lidun.

24

PHONOLOGY

(OS th(d)/nd, e.g.fi6an, tofind, pret. pl. fundun.) h/9, e.g. zioh;an, to draw, pret. pl. zugun. h/w, e.g. lihan, to lend,Go leilvan, pret. pl. liwun ; s€han, to see,p.p. gisdwan, also OS pret. subj. sewi. h/ng, e.g. fdhan, to seize,pret. pl. fiangun (OS fengun); OS thihan, to thriae, githungan,/zll-grwm. s/r, e.g. kiosan, to chaose,pret. pl. kurun. Oturn CoNsoweNr CneNcns or OHG 3.46. OHG double consonantswere simplified in the following cases(cf. z. 4): r. When they becamefinal, e.g. f.El, hide, gen. fdlles; far, bull, pl. farri; uninflected form grim,fierce, inflected grimmEr; swimm n,to swim,ptet. sg. swam; rinnan, to run, pret. sg. ran; nom. sg. man, man, gen. mannes; E??:an, to eat, pret. sg. a1; nom. sg. kus, fo}s, gen. kusses; spr6hhan, sprdchant to speah,pret. sg. sprah; &c. z. Before other consonants,e.g. kunnan, to hnozo,pret. sg. konda; kussen, to Aiss,pret. sg. kusta; brennen, to burn, pret. sg. branta; &c. 3. Frequently medially after long vowels, e.g. slAfan beside sldffan, to sleep; Id4an beside ldqqan, to let, Ieaoe; litar besideliittar, pure; &c. 4. Sometimes after unaccented vowels, e.g. $ommanes from pommannes, cf. OS himilik from himillik. 3. 47. Single w becamevocalized,to o if it cameto stand at the end of a word or syllable. This o was then mostly dropped after long vowels,e.g. sEo, s6, sea,gen. sEwes; kneo, knis, hnee,gen. kndwes; garwen, to prepare, pret. garota, beside par(a)wita; tr€so, treasure,gen. tresewes; &c. Final aw > ao > d, as uninflected form r:ao, t6, ravr, besideinflectedrawEr, gen. rawes.

OTHER CONSONANT

CHANGES OF OHG

25

ww, whether it was generalGcww(Go ggw, ON gg(v)) or WGc ww from wj (1. fg), formed a diphthong with the preceding vowel: aww > auw > ouw, which became ou when final, e.g. OHG glouwEr, exact,clear, uninflected glou, ON glq$$r, Go adverb glaggwo, exactly; houwan, to hew, ON hq$$va; frouwa, u)oman,from *frawj6-; frouwen, to rejoice,from *frawjan, pret. sg. frewita(3. rz) from *frawita (the inf. form frewen was a new formation by analogywith the pret. and pres. r and z sg. frewis, frewit; conversely the pret. form frouwita was by analogy with the inf. and pres. r sg. and pl.); both eww and iww(> ewj) becameiuw, which becameiu when final, e.g. bliuwan, to strike, Go bliggwan; triuwi, true, faithful, Go triggws; iu, dat. pl. to ir, ye; siuwen, to sew, from spriu, chaf, nom. pl. spriuwir; *sewjan, Go siujan; niuwi from *newja, Go niujis. In OS awj ) oi, e.g. froio,lord. 3.48. The semivowelj after r is never written'e'; in Franconian and Alemannic rj ) rr. When absolutely final, j becamevocalic i, e.g. nom. sg. heri, army, cf. Go harjis. The original rising diphthong (cf. z. z) ja (jd) became e in final syllables,e.g. nom. pl. sunte, vhs, OS sundia (4. 7); kennen, to hnou, OS kennian. 3.49. Final -m became-n in OHG in the courseof the ninth centurlr and in OS from early times, in unaccented syllables when not protected by analogy, i.e. in inflectional, not stem, syllables,e.g.tagun from tagum, dat. pl. of tag, day;habEn from hab6m, r sg. pres. of hab€n, to haoe, In OS, as in Anglo-Frisian, nasals before fricatives generally were treated like Gc A before x (3. 35, 9), e.g. iidar, ddar, OHG ander, E other. 3. 50. Gc h was dropped in OHG, but not OS, in the initial combinations hl, hr, hn, hw, in the course of the ninth century. In other casesGc h, hw (from x, xw) had a twofold

26

PHONOLOGY

development according to their position in the word. Initial h before vowels and medial h, hw, between vowels, becamethe aspirateh, as hab6n, to haoe; s€han, to see,Go saihlan; in other positions they remained fricatives, and thus had the same sound as the HG h which arosefrom Gc k; cf. naht, night, Go nahts; sah, saw, Go sahy, with OHG ih,,f, OS, Go ik; sioh, E sick, OS siok, Go siuks; sprah, spohe,OS sprak. 3. 51. Gc p becamed through the intermediate staged in the courseof the OHG period(3. 4r ). The UG dialectshad changed p to d in all positions by the beginning of the ninth century. Tatian and Otfrid wrote th initially, but d medially, e.g. UG ddr, Franconian th6(r), OS th6, the, but HG 6rda, OS ertha, earth; UG chuad, UF quad, OS qua6, ryoth. OS wrote th or 6 (2.3) in all positions,but pronounceda voiceless fricative initially and finally, voiced medially, cf. the medial change (also E, ON) of f to b (so written in OS), and final changeof b to voicelessf.

IV A C C I D E N C E ( D E S C R I P T I V EA N D COMPARATIVE) Note.The EF consonantsare usually taken as normal, because they mostly agreewith those of M and NHG, but d has been substituted for the Franconian th. D B c r , E N s r o No F N o U N S 4. 1. OHG nouns have two numbers, singular and plural; three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, as in MHG, from which the gender of nouns in OHG does not materially difier; five cases,Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, and Instrumental. The Instrumental Singular is in the majority of nouns identical with the Dative; in the Plural, Nominative and Accusative, Dative and (5. 5) Instrumental, ate always identical. There is (as in all Gc languagesexcept Go) no Vocative distinct from the Nominative. OHG nouns may be classifiedinto declensionsaccording to the Gc (and IE) stems from which they are derived, or according to the types of endings they take in OHG itself. In this book they are divided in the latter way, for descriptive purposes, but the divisions are put in an order corresponding to the older classification,for comparative purposes. This order is: stemsendingin vowels('strong' declensions);stemsending in -n ('Weak' declensions);other stems ending in consonants ('Minor' declensions). The terms strongandweah otiginatedwith Grimm (cf. 3' 4r), who regardeda declensionor conjugation (+.+8) with a greater variety of stemsas more vigorous and hencesfarft. 4.2. The Principal Masculine and Neuter Declension(Gc pure a-stems; IE pure o-stems(see3. z)). (MHG I (a) I and II (a) t).

ACCIDENCE

28

Sing. Nom. Acc. Gen. Dat. Instr. Plur. Nom. Acc. Gen. Dat,

Mascukne taS, day tages (-as) ta$e (-a) ta$u (-o) tz$d, -a tago tagum, -om, -unr'on

D E C L E N S I O NO F - N O U N S l{euter wott, word wortes (-as) worte (-a) wortu (-o) wort worto wortum, -om, -un, -on

(a) The endings -as, -a of the gen. and dat. sing. do not occur frequently until after the end of the ninth century; they are the regular endingsin OS, which merges-e in -a(2. zi. -un, -on are the usual dat. pl. endings of the ninth century

h.+il. (D) Like tag are declined most OHG masculine nouns, e.g. b Et Q, mountain, w E!, way, leist, sp ir it, hirnil, heazten, tiufal, dettil, kttnins, king, taorn (also neuter), judgemmt. (c) Disyllabic nouns ending in -al, -ar, -an with long stems sometimes drop the a before a vocalic ending, e.g. nom. ackar, field, gen. ackres, &c. See 3. zz. (d) Proper names of this declension take the pronominal ending -an in the acc.(alsoin OS; and cf. MHG $ 54), as also truhtin, Lord, Sot, God, e.g. nom. Petrus, acc. Petrusan; acc. truhtinan. This pronominal ending is derived from the originally adjectival (4. 19) compound names,but its effect is to mark together (with strong adjectives)nouns and pronouns which have unique reference(cf. 5, ro). (e) Like wort are declined barn, child, sdr, pain, swert, sword,honz{o, honey,zwifal(cf. 3. zz), doubt,f6l (gen. filles), shin, kind, child, &c.; here belong also the diminutives in -in and -lin, as magatin, little maid, fingarlin, little finger,

29

except that UG retains the -n in the gen. and dat. only, and that the nom. acc. pl. end in -iu in Alemannic. IE and pr.Gc endingsof tag (pr.Gc *dagaz) were x-az (Go da$s, ON dagr) NS *-os (Lat. -us), *-om *-an -um), (Lat. (Go, ON da$) AS *-ilasa (Go dagts, ON dags) GS *-e/oso, *-ai (ON dege) DS *-Oi IS *-El6 (Lat. qud), *-Eld (Go D dag,a,ON D hring) *-62 (Go dagos, ON dagar) NP *-6s, AP *-ons (Lat. -6s), *'anz (Go dagans, OS da€,os?, OE dagas?, ON daga) *-6n (ON OE daga) DP I ending (from other stems) giving x-anniz (Go dagam)

GP *-6m,

The OHG AP is probably derived from the pr.Gc N, whereas the OS, OE N probably < A. The DP -um (all but Go) has u < *a because of following labial nasal or ( *{n, the whole ending then being borrowed (from consonant stems). The pr.Gc NAP of *woralan : wort (NAS like tag A) was in -6, like NS of F 6-stems (4. 5), but OHG has generalized the original long-stem form (3. r9) without -u (with some exceptions, cf. (e) and a. 3). 4. 3. The Masculine and Neuter j-declension (Gc ja-stems; IE io-stems) (MHG I (a) tI and II (a) t).

NA G D I

Singular MNMN hitti,herdsmankwnni,race

hirtes hirtie hirtiu

kunnes kunnie kinniu

Plural bTtte

kunni

trirteo, -io kunneo, -io hirtlm, -um kunrdm, -um

(a) The nouns of this declension(in HG, cf. :. :S) early (by the ninth century) went over (in all but NAS ending (M and NHG -e)) to the Principal M and N Declension(4. z), except that the DP is found in -im (-in) (usually ascribed to borrowing from i-declension (+. S)) well as -um (-un, -on), and ". -iu NAP possibly that in neuter occurs, from adjectives(4. t9).

DECLENSTON OFNOUNS

ACCIDENCE

30

(D) Like hirti are declined the nomina agentis ending in -dri ( -ari, -eri), aswahteri (wahtari, wahteri), watchman, lErdri, teacher, scribari, writer, scribe; as also karkdri' prison, altdri, altar, and a few others, as rucki' back,ptnttzzi, puzzi, well, kdsi, cheese, (c) Like kunni are declined very many neuters, ^s enti, end, richi, kingdom,betti, bed, collectivesin gi-, abstractsin ni/ -nissi/ -nessi/ -nussi, compounds like elilenti, foreign parts ; note heri, army, GS heries, DS herie (:. gS). Pr.Gc endings of hirti (pr.Gc xxirtliJaz) were NS *-ijaz (Go. halrdeis, ON P*-ijdz (Go hairdjos) hirder) *-iianz (Go halrdjans) A x-iJan (Go hairdi) G -iji/asa (Go hairdeis, OS hir- *-ijdn (OS hirdios) deas, ON hirOes) *-iiarniz (OS hirdiurn) D *-ijai (OS hirdea, ON hirde) I *-ijc/o (Go D hairdja) Kunni has -nn- in the NAS (pr. WGc xkuni) by analogy with the other cases(:. SS). 4. 4. The Masculineand Neuter w-declension(Gc wa-stems IE go-stems)(MHG I (a) r and u, and II (a) t). Singular NA G D

snGo, snE, snozD sn€wes sn€we

Plwal

kneo, knee

sn€w5, -a

kneo

kn6wes kn€we

sn6wo snewurn,

kn€wo kniwurn,

-llll,

-611

(D) To this declension belong the masculines 160, grave, sEo, sea, bii (gen. biiwes), dwelling, and the neuters rEo, colpse,z6so, right side,smiro, grease. 4. 5. The Principal Feminine Declension(Gc pure 6-stems (and wd-stems); IE d-stems (see3.6))(MHG III (a) r).

NA G D

-ltllr

-otl

(a) On the forms of the NS see3. +7. When the w is preceded by a consonant an a (sometimeso, e) is developed in the inflected cases,thus nom. neut. trtiso, treasule,gen. tr€sawes; nom. masc. scato, shadow,gen. scatawes, see 3. 25.

Singular !6ba, gift

Plural gdbd,-a

gdba, -u, -o

gdbdno gdbdm, -6n, -on (a) In OS are found alternative NAS in -e and DS in -a. (6) Like g6ba are declined a very large number of nouns, e.g. €rda, earth, Eta, honour, zala, number,triuwa, fiddity, corunga, temptation,hertida, hardness, miltida, compassion, tindda,faooar, l6sunS,a, delioerance,stunta, time, &c. IE and pr.Gc endingsof g,6ba(pr.Gc xgebd) were NS *-e (cf. Lat. mensa), *-6 (Go giba, OE giefu, ON gief) AS *-5m (cf. Lat. -am), *-5,tt (Go giba, OE giefe) *-dz (Go gibos, ON giafar, GS *-6s (Lat. (pater) farnilids) OE $iefe) x-ai (Go gibai, OE giefe) DS *-ai (Lat. -ae), *-02 (Go gibos, ON giafar, NAP *-as (Lat. A mensds), GP *-6rn, DP *-Eirnis,

MNMN

3r

S,6bu,-o

OE $iefe) x-dn (Go gibo, ON 9iafa, OE Siefa) x-drn7z (Go giborn, ON !,iofom, OE $,iefum, OS gebon)

The OHG NS is derived from the pr.Gc A (converselyto the ON); DS from Gc I *-d (cf. 4. z),IE *-A (OS 86bu, ON piqf); GS forms from D; GP (OS gebono) from the n-stems. 4. 6. Feminine -inn-declension(Gc -inj6-, OS -innia) (see

3. 3e). N A G D

Singular kuningin, quem kuninginna, -in kuninginna kuninginnu

Plural kuninginnd ,, kuninpinndno kuninginndm

DECLENSION

ACCIDENCE

32

Like kuningin are declined forasagin, prophetess, friuntin, fiend, &c.; most inanimates like burdin, burden, have S (all cases)and NAP burdi (like 4. 8) or burdin, GP burdino. 4,7. The Feminine j-declension(Gc jd-stems; IE id-stems) (MHG III (a) I). NA G D

Singular sunte, -ea, -ia, sin rr suntiu

Plural sunte, -ear -ia sunteono sunte6rn

(a) The nouns of this declension(cf. M and N j- 4. 3) early (by the ninth century) went over (including NS) to the Principal Feminine Declension (+. S). (6) Like sunte are declined helle, hell, sibbe, sippe, peace, minne, Iooe,krippe, manger,&c, To 4. 6 and 7: The NS pr.Gc ending was (short stems)-jO (Go -ja, OS -ta), (long stems)-i (Go -t, OHG -(in)- (+. 6) ( 3 . 1 8 ,r 9 ) ) . 4. 8. Feminine Abstract Nouns in -i (MHG III (a) r). S (all cases)and NAP hdhi (hohin), height, GP hdhino, DP hdhim. Like hdhi are declined sc6ni, beauty, suo44i, sn)eetness, sn€lli, quickness,tiufr, depth, menigi, managi, multitude, irstantani, resurrection, tovfr., a dipping, weli, choice, leiti, a leading,&c. These nouns comprise two classesof stemswhich were different in Gothic, but of which there is no trace of differencein their inflexion in OHG-(r) adjectival abstractnouns the stems of which originally ended in -in, NS -i (Go weak declension, like tuggo in 4. 14(with Go -ei- for -o-); ON -e, OE d- (Principal Feminine) declension, OS i- declension); (z) verbal abstractnouns (comparativelyfew in OHG) with stems ending in -ini, Go i-declension, like ansts in 4. ro except N and GP -o-.

OF NOUNS

33

(MHG III (a) u). 4. 9. The Masculinei-declension Singulnr Plural gesti NA guest Sast, gastes gesteor-io, -o G gaste gestim, -in, -en D gastiu, gestiu, gastu I (a) On the consonantal combinations which preve t Umlaut, see3. t2. (D)Like gast are declined liut,peoph, vrurrn, worm, aplnnll quiti, saying, apple, sla!, bloz.o,sctit, step, &c.-wini,friend, and a few others retain the -i in NAS, but follow gast in the other cases.Many u- and consonant stems have passedinto this declension: original u-stems were skilt, shield, wirt, masterof the house,heit, manner, sun, .roz; consonant stems, fao4foot (cf. 4. 16), z n, zandl, tooth, nagal, nail. 4. 10. The Feminine i-declension(MHG III (a) It). NA G D

Singular anst,faoour ensti ensti

Plural ensti ensteo, -io, -o enstim, -in, -en

(a) See 4. ga. (D) Like anst are declined st^t, place, jugund, youth, fart, journey, lilt, gift, giburt, birth, and many other Feminines. krtri, choice,and turi, door, rctain the -i in the nom. and acc. sg., but follow anst in the other cases.Like anst are also declined tlre old u-stems flrtot, flood, lust, desire, and the consonant stems $ans, goose,miluh, milk, rna$ad, virgin, and a few others. To 4. g and ro. IE and pr.Gc endingsof gast (pr.Gc *gastiz) and anst (pr.Gc xanstiz) were x-iz (ON gestr, OE giest) NS *-is (Lat. -is), AS *-im (Lat. -irn), *-in (ON gest) 6486

D

34

ACCIDENCE

*-alzhiz (Go anstais) GS *-ois/eis' DS *-oi/ei (Lat. -i), *-atl-i (Go anstai' ON geste) NP *-eies (Lat. -Es)' *-i!iz (Go $asteis, ON $ester' OE Engle) AP *-ins (Lat. -is), *-tnz (Go $astlns, ON Eeste' OE Engle) *-jdn GP *-i6m, *-irrrlz (Go Sasttm) DP *-lmis, The M S has been assimilatedto Gc a-stems (Principal M Declension,+. z). OS has GP f,estio, DP gestiun' F DS also fard, ferdiu. The OHG NP probably comesfrom the acc.The ON F entirely goesover to the 6- (Principal F) declension.In OHG the NAS -i was dropped regularly in long stems,after the analogyof which it was droppedfor the most part in short stems. See3. r9. The distinctionis better kept in OS (e.g.quidt' GS quidlas, beki beside OHG bah' stream, also neuters e.g. landskepi) and OE. 4. 11. The u-declension(MHG $ at). The only trace in OHG of the u-declension, apart from the NAS -u (and rare GS -o) in M nouns that have otherwise joined the M i-declension (situ, custom,fridu, peace,ll.vSv, understaniling,sigu, oictory, wittr, wood, sunu (beside sun), soz) and in neuter fihu, cattle, otherwise declined like wort (4. z), is the DP -um (-un' -on) in F hant, hand, otherwise declinedlike anst (+. to) (cf. MHG $ 5z). IE and pr.Gc endingsof sunu (pr.Gc *sunuz) were NS *-us (Latin rnanus), *-uz (Go sunus, ON sunr' OE sunu) *-un (Go sunu' OE sunu' ON sun) AS *-urn (Lat. -urn)' *-awiz (Go sunaus, ON sonart GS *-oges, OHG suno, OE suna) *-lwi, -ei, -awi (OHG I suniu; DS *L -egi, -ogi, ON synt' OS suni; Go sunau' OS suno) *-7wiz (Go sunJus, ON synir) NP *-eUres(Lat. -ts)' *-unz (Go sununs' ON sunu' OE AP *-uns (Lat. -ts)' NA sunu) *-lwdn (OS sunio) GP *-eg6m' *-urniz (Go, ON, OE, OS sunurn) DP *-umis,

DECLENSTON OF NOUNS

35

The OHG transition to i-declension was partly due to WGc phonetic coincidence in DS, N (and G) p. 4,12.The

N A G D

Masculine n-declension (MHG

Singular hano,cock hanon, hanun hanen, hanin hanen, hanin

I (6)).

Plural hanon, hanun handno han6m, handn

Like hano are declined many nouns, e.g. hErro, hEro, master,wahsmorlfrzr?, ohso, o#, st6rno, star, gorrro, ?nan, namo, narne,willo (early willeo), will, forasafo, prophet. IE and pr.Gc endingsof hano (pr.Gc ,txan6) were NS l-Cnr *-En (ON haner Go hana?)/*-6n, *-6n (Go hana? FN OHG OS -a, OE -e)/*-6 (Lat. homd), rr-d (OHG OS -o, OE -a, FN Go -o, ON -a) AS *-onF (Lat. -tnem), *-anun (Go hanan, ON hana, OS hanan (on)) GS *-erres (Lat. -inis), *-iniz (Go hanins, OS hanen (an, on)) DS *L -eni (Lat. abl. -iae), *-int (Go hanin, OS hanen (an, on)) NP *-ones, *-aniz (Go hanans, OS hanan (on, un)) *-(o)n4s (Lat. -inEs), x-(a)nt z (Go hanans, ON hana) {! *-ndn (Go airhsne, OE oxna, ON yxna) $f f-ndm, DP *-nrnis, *-unrniz (OS hanun (on)) Some of the OHG (OS) forms are diffcult to explain: -o/un < *a possiblybecauseof following nasal(cf. Dp of i. z ?), possibly from generalizationof u-IJmlaut in some forms. The OHG GDP are borrowed from F (4. ,4), which has stem *-6n(Lat. serrn6, sermdnis), ) tr for the samepossiblereasonsas -o/un 4 '*a; 4. 13. The Neuter n-declension(MHG II (6)). Singular Plural NA b'6tza,heafi h€rzun, lnEtzon G hdrzen, h€ruin hdrzdno D hdrzen, hdrzin h6rzdm, h6rz6n

ACCIDENCE

36

DECLENSTON OF NOUNS

Like h€rza are declined ou,ga, eye, 6ra, ear, wanEa' cheeh. 4. 14. The Feminine n-declension(MHG III (D)). N A G D

Si.ngular ztnta, tongue zung,fln zanQrd;n zung,tn

Plural zunP,iin zun$6no zungdm'zuntdn

Like zun$a are declined many nouns, e.g. qu€na, zroman,diorna, maidm, sunna, sun, rnluS$a (early mu$$e),

flv. (OHG minimum-endingdeclen4. 15. Other consonant-stems sion) (MHG $ 5z) Plural Singular naht naht, night (F) NA nahto naht G nahtum, -un, -on naht D buoch, booh, was mostly neut. in the sg., declined like wort (4. z); in the pl. it was fem. and declined like naht. blur!, city, and brust, breast,were sometimesdeclined like naht, and sometimeslike anst (+. to). IE and pr.Gc endingsof nabt (pr.Gc xnaxts) were NS *-s (Lat. nox)' *-s (Go nahts) AS *-r.n (Lat. noctern), *-un (Go naht) GS *-es (Lat. noctls), *-iz (OE $€s' ON merkr) DS L -i (Lat. abl. nocte), *-i (OE €Es, Go naht) NP *-es, *-iz (Go nahts, OHG, OS naht' OE g€s, ON merkr) AP *-4s (Lat. noctEs),*-rroiz(OHG, OS naht) GP *-6rn, *-6n DP*-rnlsrx-rniz>+>urn muoter, mother,tohter, daughtn, swdster, ister, and M bruoder, brothcr,in OHG (and in OS also fader) are declined like naht.

37

IE and pr.Gc endingsof bruoder (pr.Gc *brbpEr) were *-dr (Go -ar?)/*-er, n-er (ON, OS -er) NS *-6r, *-arnn (Go -ar)/*-errn, *-erun (OS -er) AS *-orm, *-urz (ON fgUor)/*-res (Lat. fratris), *-riz (ON *-gs, GS fe0r) DS *-ri (Lat. abl. -re)' *-ri (OE brEper, ON feUr) NP *-ores, *-afizl*-eres' *-iriz (ON bredr) AP *-r+s (Lat. -r€s)' *-runz GP *-r6rn, *-rdn DP *-rrnis, *-rtniz > -rurn (OS brddrun) (MHG I (a) tv). 4. 16. Mixed Declensions(IE consonant-stems)

NA G D

Singuhr lftan, man mannes man, manne

Plural man manno mannum, -un, -on

eoman, ioman, someone,neoman, nioman, no one, have the pronominal ending -an in the acc., eomannan, neomannan. man (Go lnanna, OE rnan(n), ON madr) was probably originally an n-stem (4. rz) with zero gradeof the suffix -n- (cf. Lat. caro, carnis).

NA G D NA G D

Singulw fatet,father fater, fateres fater, fatere fuiant,frimd friuntes friunte

Plural latetdr -a fatero faterum, -un, -on friunt, friuntd, -a friunto friuntum, -un, -911

Like friunt was declined fiant, enemyi a number of other presentparticiples(ct.4.4) usedas nouns, e.g.wigant, warrior, have passedcompletely into the Principal Masculine Declension (4. z). Pr.Gc endingsof frlunt (xfriJdndz) were NP *-iz (Go NA fr{onds, NS *-z (Go frtjonds) OE friend)

DECLENSION OF ADJECTMS

ACCTDENCE

38

AS *-un (Go frijond) AP *-unz GS *-iz (OE fr€ond) GP *-6n DS *-i (OE friend, Go friDP *-rniz (ON OE OS -um) Jond) Other traces of consonant-stemsare DP fuo4um beside fuo4im ("f. +. rr), and (though there are more probable explanations)possibly forms like DS hfls, to a house. 4, 17 . The Neuter -ir-declensio n (G c iz I zz-stems; IE es/osstems)(MHG II (a) u). NA G D I

Singulnr larnb,lamb lambes lambe lambu, -o

Plural lembir lembiro lembirum, -un, -on

(a) Like lamb were declined kalb, calf,blat,leaf, graoe, and a few others.

trab,

(D) In OS, lamb and most such nouns have gone over completely to the Principal Neuter Declension (4. z). Dncr,rwsroN or An;ncrrvrS 4. 18. Adjectives are declined Strong or Weak (cf. 4. r ; for use see 5. 7-9). They have three genders, and the s:rmecaseszrs nouns. The endings of the Strong declension are partly pronominal and partly nominal, corresponding to the Principal M, N (+. z), and F (+. S) declensionsand to the j- (+. l, il urd w- (4. 4,5) declensions. 4. 19. Strong Declension: Principal Declension (Gc pure aand 6-stems; IE pure o- and d-stems). MITF

SN A G D

blintEr, bknd blinta4 blintan ,, blintes blintemu, -emo

blintiu blinta blintera blinteru, -ero

I PNA G D

blintu, -o blinte

39

blinto blintiu blintero blint6m, -En

(a) The nom. all genders and acc. neuter have often an uninflected form, e.g. bllnt' see 5. 6. (D)The NSF and NAPN frequently drop the i before the u in UF, e.g. blintu. (c) Adjectives ending in -al, -ar' -an with long stemssometimes drop the a before a vocalic ending, e.g.bittat, bitter,

bittrErk...). (d) Like blint are declined all adjectives whose uninflected form ends in a consonant, e.g. guot' g ood, alt, old,ianQ'young, mtghty, erdlih' earthly, &c, guldin, golden, mahtig' Gc adjectival declension being an innovation (cf., for example, the purely nominal Latin adjective), the old Gc languages do not hav! the same endings in all parts of the Strong adjective' NSM Go -s (and NANeut -), ON M -r, corresponds to'uninflected' in OE OS (where it is the only neut. form) and OHG, the peculiarly OHG -€r comes from the pronoun d€r' with -ana, vowil lengthened under accent as in OS th6; A has Go -a4' -t, -atar OHG to -ne; corresponds ON Go NASN OE Go to corresponds does not exist in OE and OS; DSMN -amrna (3.46.4), while oNM -orn' OE oS -urrl are borrowed -aizos is by from P; to I corresponds ON DSN -o; GSF Go -re; -rar, has -re, ON OE DS OE ON has P, analogywith -ai; Go -os; to opposed NAPF is pronominal as Go has nominal -a' others dlu, opp' Go as from (like comes NSF) OHG NAPN -; GP ON OE -ra, Go -aTzelo from D; DP pronominal like Go -aim, unlike ON -om, OE OS -um. OS often confuses NAP M -er -4r F -a, -e, N -, -e, -a. The ending -lu in UG was a falling diphthong (z' z) and there: i)' and fore remained (6), in Franconian a rising diphthong (i (cf. lost was therefore i the 3. 48). 4.20. Strong Declension: j'declension (Gcia- and j6'stems;

IE io- and i6-stems).

D E C L E N S I O NO F A D J E C T M S

ACCIDENCE

40

The j-declension differs from the Principal Declension in the uninflected form only, which regularly ends in -i, e.g. scdn€r, &c., beautiful, scdni. Like scdni are declined all adjectives whose uninflected form ends in -i, also all present participles, e.g. festi, .fasf, meri, rcnov,ned,tiari, dear, biderbi, useful, bEranti, bearing, &c. 4.21. Strong Declension:w-declension (Gc wa- and w6stems; IE po- and gd-stems). The w-declension differs from the Principal Declension in the uninflected form only, which regularly ends in -o; if this is precededby a consonantthere usually developsan a (seldom e, o) between the consonantand the w in the inflected forms (see3. z5), e.g. garo, gar(a)wEr, ready. Like garo are declined g6lo, yellout, z€so, right-hand, fao, fd, little, sl6,o, slE, dull, frao, fr6, glad, joyful, rao, 16, ruw. See3, 47. 4.22.The

Weak Declension(Gc, IE n-stems).

This is exactly the sameas in nouns (4. n-r4).

Singular MN N A GD

blinto blinta blinton, -un ,, blinten, -in

NA G D

blinton, -un

Plural blintun, -on blintdno blintdm, -dn

F blinta blintiin blintiin blintfin

In the same way are declined sc6no and gar(a)wo. 4.23. Declensionof PresentParticiples. The present participle has both the strong and the weak

4r

declension.The former is a j-stem, the latter like blinto ; e.g. nimanti, taking, salbdnti, anointing,hab6nti' haoing. In pr.Gc the M and N were consonant-stems(cf. 4. 15) and the F a jd-stem (+. Z). In Go all were weak,with F -ei (4. 8), exceptNSM -nds beside-nda. 4.24, Declensionof Past Participles. These too have both declensions,the uninflected form of strong-verb participles ending in -an, of weak verbs in -t' e.g. ginoman, taken, liritan, ridilm, €,ihab6t' had., Qisalbilt, anointed. In Franconian the suffix -an occasionally appears as -on-, -en-r or -in- in the inflectedforms (1. z+). CoupenrsoN oF ADIEcTIvES 4.25. The Comparative is formed by means of the two suffixes -ir- and -or-r to which are then added the endings of weak adjectives (OS usually NSM -a instead of -o). Polysyllabic adjectives formed with derivative suffixes and compound adjectives take -dr- ; j-stems -ir- I uncompounded Principal Declension adjectivessometimesthe one, sometimes the other. For example: Poitfue sdliS, blessed tiarlih, dear en$i, narrow sulolit svJeet lanS, Iong hdh, high

Comparatioe sdli$6ro tiurlihhdro engiro suo4iro lengiro hdhiro h6hdro

In OS the two suffixes are partially confused by phonetic convergenceof unaccentedsyllables(2. zZ),e.g.liobera, -ara, beside -ora, aid very few adjectivesshow -ir-; and syncope

ACCTDENCE

42

is widely retained (cf. 3. 26, &c., OHG substantivalhErro), e.g. leobra. The ending -iro is sometimes weakened to -ero in Franconian. Beside jungiro, younger, appear jungdro and jiipiro. Both suffixesare found in Go, -iz- (IE -is-) and -oz- (from -62-, not adverbsin -d, 4. z9), but in the other old Gc languages causing Umlaut, has becomemore widespread,With jtgiro cf. Go Jf,hiza (r. gS,S) besidejuggs. 4.26.The Superlative is formed by meansof the two suffixes -ist- and -6st-, to which are then added the endings ofweak adjectives (OS as comparative). Adjectives which have -iro have -isto, and those which have -dro have -6sto, e.g. sdligdsto, tiurlihhdsto, engisto, suo4isto, lengisto, h6histo, hdhdsto. In OS the vowels -i- and -o- are retained before -st-, but very few adjectiveshave -ist-. The superlativesuffix consistsof the comparativesuftx f the intensive suffix -t- (cf. intensiveverbs like Latin capt6?). 4.27.bregllar Comparison. The following adjectivesform their comparative and superlative from a root different from the positive: Srtot, good

beqqito

lbil,

wirsiro (OS wirsa) mEro minniro

bad

rnihhil, great luzzil, little

be44isto (OS beztolbesto) wirsisto (OS also wirrista) meisto minnisto

(a) Beside the regular form mEro (: Go maiza) occur in Alemannic the forms m6riro, m6rdro, which are double comparatives like E nearer and OHG wirsiro beside OS wirsa (cf. 4. 3r). (6) le44isto, /ast, is defective (OS positive lat).

C O M P A R I S O NO F A D J E C T I V E S

43

4.28.In a few casesthere is no positive adjective,the comparative and superlative adjective being formed from an adverb or preposition, as in Latin.

after, after

aftro, aftaro, -ero Er, formdy 6riro fota,fati, before furiro fordro,fordaro, futdirrforwards hintar, behind. lnne, within oba, abooe tntar,down fq,

-6ro hintaro innaro obaro, obdro untaro

aftrdsto,afterdsto, aftristo Eristo furisto fordardsto hintardsto innar6sto obardsto untardsto ii4,ardsto

Beside the regular forms obaro, &c., Alemannic frequently has forms with double comparative endings, e.g. obaroro, &c., cf. mEriro, m€rdro.

F o n n r e r r o N o F A D V E R B SF R o M A o l e c r r v n s aNo CorrplRrsoN oF ADVERBS 4.29. Adverbs are formed by ra. Simply adding -o to the uninflected form of the adjective when it ends in a consonant,e.g. mahtigo, ubilo, tiurlihho. rD. Dropping the -i, and Umlaut if any, of j-stems and adding -o, e.g. scdno, tiuro, fasto, samfto beside semfti. z. Adding -licho sometimes when no adjective in -lich is found, e.g. gernlicho, garalicho, OS ktrdliko. In OS adverbs are found also in -ungo. Seealso S. z-4. 4. 30. The comparative degreeof adverbs ends in -dr (never

NUMERALS

ACCIDENCE

44

-ir); the superlative mostly ends in -6st, but sometimes also in -ist, thus: adj. lang,, long; f.esti, fast; junf-, young;

adv. comp. IanSdr fastdr

superl. lang6st fastdst jungist

4.31. The following are irregular: wola, well, comp. ba4 superl. be44ist wlrs, s{rolse wirsist mEt, more meist min, /ess minnist (a) Beside m6r, meist occur the weak neut. adj. forms mEra, meista as adverbs. Nuvrrnlr,s 4.32. Cardinal and Ordinal Cardinal ein, one zwei, tan drt, three feor,fior,four fimf,finf,five s€hs, slr sibun, seuez ahto, eight nlun, nine zilhan, ten einlif, el"asen zwelif., twebe drizdhan, thirteen fiotz6han, fourteen finfzilhan, fifteen s6hszdhan, sixteen sibunz€han, sez;enteen

Ordinal Eristo, furisto ander dritto feordo, fiordo fimfto, finfto sdhsto sibunto ahtodo niunto zilhanto einlifto zwelifto drittozihanto fiordozdhanto finftazdhanto Notker s€hzEndo sibuntoz€hanto

45

Cardinal Ordinal ahtozdhan, eightem niuntazdhanto niunz€han, dnetem zweinzu$, twenty zweinzug6sto dri4ugdsto driqqng, dri4rg, thirty fiorzup,6sto fiorzug, Iolty finfzupdsto fitrfzuf-,fifty s6hszug6sto sdhszug, v*ty sibunzugdsto sibunzug, seventy ahtozug6sto ahtozu!, eighty niunzugdsto niu.nzufo, rinety z€hanzug6sto zilhanzug'\oundred hunt I zwei hunt, two hundred dtsunt, thousand For the etymologiesof the numeralsseeWalshe,Etymological Dictionary. 4. 33. The first three cardinal numerals are declinablein all casesand genders. r. ein follows the Strong declension,when usedasa numeral ; when used in the senseof.alone,it follows the Weak declension. 2.

NA G D

MN zwEne

F

zwei z:weio zweim, zwein

zwd, (zwd)

driu OS tlria, -ie, -ea drio drim, drin

drio

J.

NA G D

dri

4.34. The cardinal numerals 4-rz remain uninflected when they stand before a noun, whereas if they stand after a noun or are used as nouns they are declined according to the i-

declension. The NA N has, in OHG but not, of course (see +. tg), in OS, the adjectival ending.

MF (os N) -€or -o -im, -in (OS -iun)

4. 35. The cardinal numeralszo-roo ending in -zu!, OS -tig, also alternative forms from 7o like sibunzo, OS antsibunta, and OS analogicalthflsundig, r,ooo, are followed by genitive, OS also sometimesused adjectivally. diisunt is mostly treated as a feminine substantive, but sometimesalso as a neuter. Go shows the original substantivalnature of these numerals which accountsfor the genitive construction(5. 3), twat tigius (zo), &c., Piisundt. 4.36. ander, second,anderer, -a1, -iu, follows the Strong declension,the remaining ordinals the Weak declension. 4. 37. Other Numerals. r. Distributive, e.g. einluzze, one b1tone, zwiske, two by two. z. Multiplicatives, e.g.einfalt (falt : E -fold), zwifalt, &c. 3. Numeral adverbs, e.g. eines (gen. sg.), once; zwitol zwirort zwiton, tatice; dtitor, thrice. The higher numbers, as also once to thrice, are formed by means of prefixing the cardinal numerals to stunt, time (OS sid), e.g. sibunstunt, seoentimes. PnoNouNs 4. 38. Personal Pronouns.

N A G D

Singular ih,I mih min mir

PIural wir unsih unsEr uns

Singulat dil, dtt, thou dih din dir

N A G D

N -iu, -u

.i

NA G D

47

PRONOUNS

ACCTDENCE

46

N A G D NA G D

Singular MN if it Et, he inan, in ,l €s, sin sin imu, -o sie

PluraI siu iro im, ln

PIural ir iuwih iuwEr iu F siu, si, si, sDe sia, sie ira, -u, -o iru, -o sio

verb' (a) ih and du were often attached enclitically to the : ma€' ih' gibu : me$ih ih, e.g. verse, $ibuh especiallyin findis du. 6r, i4, ds, in were sometimesattached nnaistu: : giloubta enclitically to a preceding word, e'g' $iloubt-6r €r, imos: imo 6s, &c. sie' sio (D) Beside the accentedforms inan, imo, iro' sia' so' set sat rot mot occur the unaccentedforms nan, the (c) Beside 6r appear in some Franconian monuments forms hir, hE, OS h€' he. (Latin' Go is) IE and pr.Gc forms of th and du were (for €r see of r, z G for 4o)' 4' cf. der, 4.-4r, and *ed,om (Lat- egom-et)' xek (oN ek)' in."do 1L"t. ego;, *ik (Go, OS ik' OE ic) mr(k)) A *me-de' ime/ik (oN rntk, oE mec, mE' oS mI' me) mE' OS OE mGr, *rne,"*me/i-z(Go rnls, ON D *ik. SN *tf (Lat. tE), *pir, other casesas p *ge-i-sr *wiz, unstress"a> OffC, ON v€r' OE wE' OS wl, we *ns-, *uns-

ACCTDENCE

48

PRONOUNS

PN *lu-, *Juz, unstressed> ON Er; OE 96, OS S,i, ge are by analogyof *wiz. OS (Go, ON, OE) has a Dual, wlt, utlk, unkero, git, ink, lnkero.

NA

4. 39. Reflexive Pronoun.

G D

Singular sih, himself,&c. sin (ira) (imu, iru)

A G D

Plural sih (iro) (im)

OS has no reflexive pronoun; for it is used throughout, as in OHG D, GSF, GP, the third personpronoun (+. :8). 4. 40. PossessivePronouns. The possessivepronouns of the first and second persons, and the S MN third and reflexive, were formed from the same pronominal adjectivesin -in or -er as the genitive, and declined according to the strong declension, e.g. minEr, &c. For tlle FS and the P of the third person, the genitives ira and iro were used. (a) Besideunser6r, iuwerEr, the forms unsarEr, iuwarEr sometimesoccur. (&) Beside unser6r, unsera4, &c., occur in Franconian unsEr, unsae, &c., like (the inflected forms of) OS Esa, euwa, unka, inka. 4. 41. Demonstratives: the simple demonstrative pronoun, ddr, used both as definite article (5. ro) and relative pronoun

(s.'s).

Singular

N A G D I

MN d€r ddn

F daZ ,, dds ddmu, -o diu

diu dea, dia (die) d€ra (-u, -o) diru, -o

d6, dea, dia, die

PluraI diu (dei)

49

deo, dio

ddro d6m, dEn

(a) Beside the nom. form th€r occurs also thie (th6) in Tatian. (D)The form de, and in Tatian also thie, is used as a relative particle (S. tS) for all forms of d€r. (c) Beside the NAFP thio occur in Franconian also thie, rarely thia. (/) d€r, &c., when used as relative pronoun, frequently had contracted forms, especiallyin verse,e.g. thiuns : thiu uns, zdn: zi thEn. Pr.Gc forms of d€r were NSM *sa (Go sa, ON sd), *se (OE sE), OHG and OS (thE) substitute the IE *t- pr.Gc *p- stem of the other forms, and OHG adds -r from other pronouns NSF *sd (Go so, ON sE), xsJO(OE sEo, OHG, OS -iu) NASN *Pat (Go Pat-a) ASM *pan, -a (Go pana, OE pone), OHG & OS (thena) have -e- from GD ASF *I,6n (Go Po) > *Pa (ON OE pd), xpjdn GSMN *pesa (Go pis' ON pess)' ttpasa (OE pas) GSF *bezdz (Go pizos), xpalzdz with -ai- from GDP (ON pelrar), *paIzl6z (OE DEre) DSMN *I pasm6/6 (Go pamma), *L pairni (OE Ftrm' ON Feim) DSF *pezat (Go ptuai), *V,^7zal(ON peire' OE p6re)

rsN *pj6 (oE py)

NpM *pat (Go Fat, oE MFN pa, OS MFN th6, ON pei-r), > *PE (OHG dia) NAPF xpdz(G opos, ON b&-t),xpj6z(OS MFNthia), OHG from accented-62 NAPN *I'6 (Go po, ON Fa-u), irpj6 (OS MFN thia) OP114*panz (Go Pans, ON DA)

ACCIDENCE

50

PRONOUNS

GP *balzdn (ON petra, OE piira), Goptuelo with -t- from S DP xbairnlz (Go patm, ON peirn, OE p6m) 4. 42, The Compound Demonstrative Pronoun.

N A G D I

NA G D

Singulm MN diil, ddse, ddsEr, thls ddsan ,, ddsses ddsemu,ddsemo d€siu, disiu, ddsu, disu

d€se

F disiu, disiu (thisu) ddsa dEsera ddseru

PIural ddsiu, disiu (thisu) ddsero d€sEm,-en

N A G D I

5r

MF I/ hwdrrwiltrwho hwaqwaqrwhat hw€nan, w6nan, w€n ,, hw€s, wds hw€mu, w€mo hwiu, wiu

(a) The initial h was dropped from the beginningof the ninth century(S.So). (D) For the I wiu the form hiu is also found (in Franconian). (c) See 5. 14-16.

ddso

The NSM is therEr in Otfrid. The GSF is th6rera in Otfrid, and thdrra (th€rro) in Tatian; DSF thdreru in Otfrid, thdrru (thdrro, th€rra) in Tatian; GP th€rero in Otfrid, thdrero (thdrro) in Tatian. NotikerhasdisEr.

Pr.Gc forms of hw€r (latin quod, quis) were NSM *xwaz (Go hras, Oswedish (rare) har(r), OE hw[;, OHG (OS hwE) -e- from GD, or ( *xwiz NASN *xwat (ON hwat, Go hla from unaccented(indefinite) use(3. 36)) ASM *xwan (Go hran-a, OSwedish (rare) han, OE hwone), on OHG (OS hw€na) seeN GS *xwasa (OE hwas, ON hwes(s)), OHG (OS hw€s) from nouns DS as d€r (4. 4r)

This pronoun was peculiar to N and WGc and originated as d€r f particle -st (cf. *sa in 4. 4r); the first part is still partly declinedin OS.

4. 45. (h)wddar,afiichof ta,o,(h)w6lih,which, and hweolih, wiolih, of what sort, are declined like strong adjectives,4. 19.

4. 43. jenEr, that (yon), is (except that there is no uninflected form) declined like a strong adjective (4. r9), as is solih, such. sdlb, seff(Latin ipse), may follow either the strong or the weak declension. Combined with the definite article it meang same(Latin idem), and always follows the weak declension.

4. 46. Indefinite Pronouns sum, sumilih, a certain one,someone, declined strong. ein, one,a(z) (in plural, some),einig, eining, declinedstrong (in negative sentences,anyone). sd wir s6,whoeoer(5. t6), 6tewir, someone. ddhein, anlone, in negative sentences,no one,no, none. tn t , one (5. t:), ioman, somebody,nioman, nobody(cf.

(cr.s.g)

4. 44. fnterrogatives: the simple interrogative pronoun had one number, grammatically singular, and one form for M and F.

4.l6a). ni(h)hein, no(h)hein, no, none$. z7 and 46). iowiht, wlht, anything, niowiht, nothing.

52

ACCIDENCE

gillh (Iike), wdlih, with noun in genitive plural, each: manno lilih, each man. 8iw€lih, iogiwElTh, each.

vERBs I. II. III. IV.

v.

Vnnss 4.47.The OHG verb inflectsfor number(singularand plural), person, tense (present and preterite), mood (indicative, subjunctive, and in the present, imperative), and has participles of both tenses and infinitive of the present. The last is declined according to the Principal Neuter Declension,with stem in doubled consonant, e.g. n€man, ndmannes, ndmanne (ndmannu). The p.p. usually has gi- prefixed, if no other inseparableprefix, see 5. r7. On periphrastic tenses, &c., see 5. rg,2r-23. Gothic also has dual number in t, 2 pers., and passivevoice in present. ON has middle voice formed by sufixing reflexive pronoun. The Infinitive is declined only in WGc, from a stem in *-nja- (IE *-n!o-) (beside NA *-nan), OS nimannias, nimann(i)a, OE (neman) nemennes, td nemenne, OHG sometimesndmenn-. The prefixing of the p.p. is regular only in OHG and OS, frequent in OE. The Gc preterite is derived from a fusion of IE Perfect (Latin pepigi) and Aorist(Latin vEni), subjunctive from optative (Latin simtis, Greek $$-ot-p,ev) and possibly subjunctive (Latin amEmus).

VI. VII.

Present i io (ii) i(€) Eaeo i!(0

Pret. sing, ei,6 ou,6 a a

a, d, ei, ou (6), uo

Pret. pl. i u u ii

LUO

ia, io

PP t o uro e a as Present

The vowel of the present differs in the ind. sing. in classesII-V (iu beside io, i beside6) according to 3. 3 and r3, and, in z and 3 pers., in VI and VII (e beside a) according to 3. 12. For the origin of vowel-gradationsee3, r. On u in present, ClassII, see4. 5r; otherwiseClassesI-V havee-grade(cf. g. S and 13) in present,o-grade(cf. 3. z and,n) in pret. sing., Classes I and II zero-grade(3.4, S and 14)and III e2-grade(3. ro) in pret. pl. and p.p., ClassesIV and V lengthened€-grade(cf. Z,Z and 15) in pret. pl. and er-grade (cf. 3.r and ro) in p.p. (or V e-?). Class VI has lengthened 6-grade in pret. Class VII is explained either as originally reduplicating in pret. (Go halhait, &c.; ON rera, OE heht, OHG ki-skrerot?)oras original long-gradeAorist (somewith analogicalvowel). 4. 49. Conjugation of Strong Verbs. The conjugation of ndman , to take(ClassIV) will exemplify the endings of Strong verbs; the vowel-gradation depends on the Class (+. 48, 50-56). Present IND.

4. 48. OHG verbs are either Strong or Weak. Weakverbs form their preterite and p.p. with a t-suffix. Strong verbs have no suffix in the preterite, and -n in the p.p., and show vowelgradation. There are seven classesof Strong verbs, according to the (Gc) vowels resulting from the gradation. The OHG forms are as follows:

53

S r. 2. 3. P r. z. 3.

nimu nimis(t) nimit ndmemEs(-€m, -6n) n€met n€mant (-ent)

suBJ. ndme ndmEs(t) n€me nimEm6s- (Em, -6n) nim6t n€mEn

56

ACCIDENCE

VERBS

Pres. Pret. sing. Pret.pI. PP I ei, 6 (3. rz) i i risan, tofall reis giriran rirun snidan, to cut sneid gisnitan snitun spiwan, to vomit spE(o) gispiwan spiwun dihan, to thritse d6h gidigan digun lihan, to lcnd lEh giliwan liwun (a) On the consonant changes see3.45. (D)On spE(o) see3. +7. 4.51. ClassII: examples are Sing. Pret. sing. pret.pl. io ([) iu (tr) ou,6(3.r4) u o liogan, to ke liugu gilogan loug lugun klioban, to cleaoe kliubu kloub klubun gikloban biotan, to ffir biutu gibotan b6t butun kiosan, to choose kiusu gikoran k6s kurun ziohan, to draw ziuhu z6h zug,un Sizogan eifan, to sip, sflfu gisoffan souf suffun drink sfig,an,to sack sfigu soug sug,un gisogan (a) On the UG formsof the pres.with iu (liugan) see3. 13. (6) Cf. +.Soa. (c)Verbsof this classendingin w(3. 47)haveiuthroughout the pres. and fr in pret. pl. md p.p., e.g. kiuwan, to chew, kou, kiiwun, giktwan ; in the lasttwo formsthew wasoften dropped.

Present i,€ bintan, to bind ainnva, 1q7un singan, to sing wetdan, to be-

siifan, sEEan, have their pres. vowel-gradefrom old Aorist theme.

spr€chan, lo speak br€chan, lo break

4. 52. ClassIIf, strong verbs having medial nasalor liquid consonant,and a few others with two other consonants.Those wittr nasal have i in the pres. and u in the p.p. (3. 5); the rest have 6 (i, 4. 48) and o.

57

Singular i bintu rinnu sin$u wirdu

Pret. s. a bant rann sang ward

Pret. pI. u buntun runnun sungu wurtun

$irunnan gisun$an wortan

stirbu hilfu fihtu bristu

starb half faht brast

sturbun hulfun fuhtun brustun

gistorban giholfan gifohtan gibrostan

PP u;o gibuntan

cotne

st6rban,todie hdlfan, to help fdhtan, to fight br6stan, to burst (a) dwingan, dwungan.

to compel, h^

p.p. gidungan

beside $i-

(D) biginnan, to begi.n,and bringan, b bring, have the weak prets. bigonta, bigonda, brdhta, beside the strong bigan, brang. 4. 53. Class IV, strong verbs whose stems end in a single nasal or liquid, and a few others. 6iado n€man, to take bdran, to bear h€lan, to hide st€lan, to steal queman, to

nitnu biru hilu stilu quimu

nam bar hal stal quam

nemun bdrun hdlun stdlun qudmun

ginoman $lboran $iholan $lstolan quoman

sprichu sprah sprdchun gisprochan brichu

brah

br6chun

gibrochan

Beside the p.p. quoman occurs also qudman' according to Class V. Beside que-, qui- occurs old Aorist theme (cf.

AccrDENcE

58

VERBS

4. 5r) ko-, ku- ; this is found early,e.g.in Tatian,andcomes to replacethe other, e.g. Notler chomen, p.p. chomen. 4. 54. ClassV, strongverbswith €, i (3. 3) in the pres.other than ClassesIII and IV. €iaA6 gdban, to give a6han,to see quildan,to say E4lan,to eat wEsan, to be l6san, to read, gather sitzen, to tit bitten, to beg li$ten, to lie doan

gibu sihu quidu ilZu wisu lisu

gab sah quad dq was las

g6bun sdhun quddun dqan wiirun ldrun

gigdban gis€han giquidan g*Zqan

sitzu bittu liggu

e^1 bat lag

sd4un batun liigun

gis€44an gib€tan gildgan

gil€ran

In bitten, &c., the -tt-, &c., belongedto the presentonly. sttzel from *sitJanl bltt€n from *bidjan (Go bidjan), _Itqg-ggfrom_*ligjan(OSstrtian, btddian, riggri"y. S"";. 3;: With the 6 in54,,cf. Latin Edi. 4.55. ClassVI. Present a, e (3. z) faran, to go tragan, to carry wahsan, to grw slahan, to strike stantan, to stand heffen, to raise skephen, to create Swefien, to xqear

Preterite uo fuor truog wuohs sluog stuont huob skuof swuor, guor

pp a gifaran $itragan giwahsan glslagan $istantan -haban giskaffan gisworan

59

(a) The z, 3 S pres. ind. have Umlaut under the conditions of.3, rz. (6) The pret. S sluog has been formed after the analogy of the pl. The regular form sluoh still occurs in the oldest monuments. (c) stuont, stuontun, gistantan have the n in the stem from tlle pres., cf. OS stdd' and occasionalOHG forms like forstuotun. For the shorter pres. forms see4. 65. (d) The pres. of swerien follows the rst Weak Conjugation, 4. 58. The regular forms of the z, 3 S pres. ind. and z S imper. of hefren were hevis, hevit, hevi (2. 3). This v then became transferred to other forms of the pres., e.g. inf. heven, pres. part. heventi. Later it was replaced by the b of the pret. and p.P. heffen from *hafJan, skephen from *skapJan, swerlen from *swarJan (OS hebbian, skeppian' swerian). huob has 6 from pret. pl. and p.p. 4. 56. ClassVII. haltan, to hold ganga'o, to go fallan, to fall fdhan, to seize hdhan, to hang

ia (3. 16) hialt $tan$ fial fiang htang

ldqan, to let sldfan, to sleep retan, to advise b|ei1an.,to call skeidan' to seoer

liaZ sliaf riat b;laq skiad

a, e, ei

$ihaltan $i$an$an gifallan gifangan $ihan$an intfien$un wasformed (a) The pret. intfiegun in Tatian for by analogywith the pres. (D)For the shorterpres.of $an$an see4. 65. lililqan gisHfan girdtan gihei4an giskeidan

6o

'Jrei?:an, to cut ou,6, uo lotufan, to run hoawan, to heut st64an, to push rrtofan, to call

mial io (3. 13) liof hio stio4 riof

6r

VERBS

ACCIDENCE

gimei4an

The p.p. uninflected form has -it, the inflectedfollows the pret., e.g. $inerit, -itEr (4. z4).

giloufan gihouwan $istd4an giruofan

Present

(c) UG has the pret. forms liuf, hiu, and riuf (f . t:). On fdhan, hdhan see 3. 35, 9. These thus being originally short stems, OS, which still has held, &c., has feng beside analogicalfieng; Franconian sometimeshas e before ngr e,g. Isidore geng,un, as also Bavariankenc. 4. 57 . Weak verbs are divided into three classesaccording as the infinitive ends in -en, -dn, -6n. For -en is often found -an, especiallyin UG, by analogy with strong verbs. While strong verbs correspondto Latin 3rd Conjugation (cf. 4, 4g), the pres. of verbs in *-en < *-J- correspondsto that of Latin 4th and end Conjugations,in -€n to that of Latin znd, -d1 to rst. And the p.p. of weak verbs in (OHG) -t-, pr.Gc *-th-, IE -t6-, correspondsto Latin -tus, -itus, -Etus, --dtus. The Gc weak pret. is a new formation, variously explainedas an original periphrasiswith 'did'(IE *dhE- ) pr.Gc *-d-, except the prets. in (OHG -dlt-) pr.Gc -blt- (+. 59,62)-analogy wiih verbal adjective in *-p-, IE *:t- ?), as a generalizationof a z S personal ending IE x-th€s, or of intensive suffix IE *-t(cf. +. z6). 4. 58. First Weak Conjugation. Verbs with double consonant(except the affricates(pf), zz, ck), and those with ri (or rr, see 3. 48), in the present stem, e.g. nerien, to saoe,have single consonant,and r, in the z, 3 S pres. ind. and z S imper., e.g. neri, and (except sometimes those in -tt- or -Il-) single consonantfit- in the pret., e.g. nerita (zelita). Other verbs (and sometimesthose in -tt- and -ll-) have -t- added direct to the stem, e.g. suohta (zalta).

IND.

S r. z. 3. P r. z. 3.

zellv, I tell zelis(t) zelit zellemEs' -Cn zellet zellent

suBJ. zelle zellEs(t) zelle zellErn, -En, -em6s zellEt zelldn

Imper. z S zeli, r, 2 P as ind., inf. zellen, pres. part' zellenti. Preterite S r,3. zalta,zelita z. zaltds(t), zelitds(t) P r. zaltlJm,zelitum, -un, -umes 2. zaltvt, zelitrrt 3. zaltvn, zelitun p.p. $izelit ($izalt)

z^lti, zeliti zaltis(t), zelitis(t) zaltim, zelitim, -in, -im6s z ltit,zelitit zaltin, zelitin

(a) Alemannic and Isidore have 6 instead of u in pret. ind. pl., and subj. S r,3 -i. (6) Tatian sometimeshas -it- in the -t- verbs, and has single consonantthroughout pres.' e.g. zelen. (c) See 3. +6 (z) for brennen, branta; kussen' kusta; wanten, wanta. Originally only long stemssyncopatedthe IQ. z6). OS, which has -i- as well as double consonant(except r' d) (g' 39), has rather more prets. without t. For OS endingssee4. 49.

VERBS

ACCIDENCE

6z 4.59.

The following verbs of the rstWeak Conjugation have

irregular preterites denken, to thi.nk dunken, to seem furhten I

ilil;;i

tobeafraid

wurken, to work

ddhta (:. :S, q) dtrhta ,, forhta L 25) forahtai \3' 5' worhta, worahta (:. 5, z5)

The -t- after h (S.S+),pr.Gc *-t-, is probablyfrom IE *-th. zg), cf. 4, s7.

63

4. 61. Third WeakConjugation This is exactlylike 4. 6o (and a) with 6 (e) for 6 (o), e.g. habEm, I haoe,subj. habe. (a) Forms like hebis, hebit, hebita; segis, se$it' se$ita' are due to a contamination with the rst Conjugation. This has gone further in OS, where the E-conjugation survives only in (alternative)z, 3 S pres.ind., z S imper., of hebbian' seggian' libbian. (D) Longer forms occur, hab€En, hab6e, as in the znd Conjugation, 4.6ob, except that they are rare in Bavarian.

4.60. SecondWeak Conjugation. 4. 62. Preterite-PresentVerbs

Present SUBJ.

IND.

S r. ?. 3. P r. 2. 3.

salb6m, -on, I anoint salbds(t) salbdt salbdm6s, salb6n salbdt salbdnt

salbo salbds(t) salbo salbdm, -6n, -6m6s salbdt salbdn

Imper. z S salbo, r, 2 P as ind., inf. salbdn, pres. part. salbdnti. Preteite S r,3.

salb6ta

salbdti &c., like zellen (p. 6t)

p.p. gisalbdt (a) cf. 4. 58a. (D)The r P pres. ind. and imper. and the whole of the subj. pres. have also longer forms salbdEn, salb6e, &c., in UG. OS hasin pres.pl. and subj. r, 3 S, inf. and pres.part., alternative forms in -oia-, -ia-.

These verbs have the present like a strong preterite, except the z S ind. which ends in t and has the same vowel as the r, 3 S. They have weak preterites. Class I: weil, I know (OS wEt, negative nEt), z S weist (:. f+); r P wi4,4,um (-um€s), subj. wi44i; Pret. wissa (w€ssa, w€sta) (:. :+); lnf.wi7:lan; Pres.part. wi7qanti1' p.p. giwi44an. Pl. eigun, archaoe, th4t haoe,eigut, subj. ei$i (p.p. ei$an is adj., own). ClassII: 3 S toug, it aoails,benefits,3P tu$un (OS subj. dugi); pret.3 S tohta; Pres.part. toganti. Class III an, I grant, pl. unnun, subj. unni' pret. onda (onsta), inf. unnan. kan, I hnow(hwt to), z S kanst, pl. kunnun, subj' kunni' pret. konda (konsta); inf. kunnan; pres. Part- kunnanti. darf, 1 need, z S darft, pl. durfun, subj. durfi' pret. dorfta, inf. durfan. gitar, I dare, z S g,itarst, pl. $iturrun, subj. $iturri' pret. gitorsta' P.P. gitorran.

ACCIDENCE

vERBs

ClassIV: skal, / arnto, z S scalt, pl. sculun, subj.sculi; pret. scolta, inf. scolan, pres.part. scolanti. (OS man, I believe,muni, &c.)

This and the succeedingverbs (+.6+, 69 were athematic-trrJ (cf. Latin szm) as opposedto thematic-6 verbs; the -m from *-ml has been extendedto the originally thematic weak verbs in -6n and -En. IE and pr.Gc forms of the presentindicative were S r. *esrni, xizrni (Go im, ON em (with e- from er- of pl.), OHG and OS (bium' cf. OE eom) from contamination with *bheu- (Latin fu-). z. *essl (Latin es), *isi (Go is, ON est, OHG and OS (bis(t)) as S r). 3. *esti (Latin est), xisti (Go ist, OS is(t), ON esslater er). P 3. *senti, ttsintli (OS r z 3 sind(un), OE r z 3 sind(on), besideGo 3 s{un' ON 3 ero (*-{rt, and 3. 32)).

6+

ClassV?: mag (OS alsomah), I rnay,,oo, z i maht, pl. magun (mugun),subj.megi (mugi),pret.mahta (mohta), Inf. magan (mugan), pres.part. maganti (muganti). ClassVI: muo4, I may,2 S muost, pl. muo4un, subj. muo4,i,pret. muosa. Someforms of skal occuroccasionally without k or c, e.g. Tatian sal, solta. The z S -t with'singular'grade is the original Perfect ending, and general ending of z S strong pret, in E and NGc; the -i with the same grade as plural of the WGc strong pret. is from the IE Aorist (with the same grade throughout (in e-verbs) as Perfect plural), IE *-es, Gc *-iz. Cf. +. +5. Onsta, konsta, are by analogy with gitorsta (pres. *-rs-, I -rr-). On weak pret. generally see 4. 59. Etgun has its vowel from S, mag (originaUy Class VI ? pl. (Perfect) *ma$h- extended to sing. ?) its altemative forms from Class IV. sol- from *skl- zero-grade dropping k between consonants. 4. 63. The verb 'to be'. Present IND.

S r. bim, bin 2. bist, bis ist 3. P r. birum, birun z. birut sint 3. Inf. (not in very oldestOHG) sin.

SUBJ.

si sis(t) si sim, sin sit sin

These forms haveoccasionalalternativesfromwdsan(4. 54), which supplies the remaining forms.

6S

4.64.The verbtuon,'to do'. IND.

TATIAN

S r. tuon 2. tuos(t), tiiis 3. tuot P r. tuomEs, tuon z. tuot 3. tuont

OTFRID

NOTKER

duan duas(t), duis(t) duat, duit duen duet duent, duant

tton t0ost tffot tfi(o)en t0ont ,,

due

tO(o)e

duest duen

t0(o)est tfl(o)en tt(o)ent tO(o)en

dua duemEs duet, duat duan

tiio

suBJ. S r, 3. tuo (tuoe, tuoa, tue) tiEs z. Pr. 2. tuot 3. tuon IMPER.

S z. tuomes P r. tuom6s 2. tuot INF. tuon PART. tuonti 5486

F

tffont tfion, tffen tfionde, tfiende

66

AccIDENcE

The preterite is inflected like a strong verb of Class V, except that the r and 3 sing. have the form t€ta (OS also rest of pret. also dEdos, &c.), e.g. tetun, tiiti; the p.p. is git6n. While the pret. pl. -d- beside sing. original reduplicating -e(Perfect, or Imperfect of Present (cf. OS dedos)) is by analogy with Class V verbs, the p.p. -e- (OS giddn beside gid6(e)n' gidiian) comes from the original E-grade as in noun tiit (3. r5).

4, 65. The verbs gdn (gEn), 'to go', and stdn (stEn), 'to stand'. The strong verbs g,angan (4. 56) and stantan (4. 55), which regularly form their preterites giang, stuont, have beside these shorter present forms. The Alemannic dialect has the forms $iin, stdn, while Bavarian and Franconian have mostly the forms gEn, st6n. suBJ.

TND.

S r. z. 3. P r. z. 3.

gdm, gdn ges(t) get gdmEs,giin gAt gent

gem, g6n gEs(t) g6t g€mEs,g6n gEt $Ent

ge

gcs(t) g6 86n gEt gen

IMPER.

S z. P r. 2.

[$ang] gdm6s, gEmEs,g6n get, g6t

67

VERBS

Inf. gdn, g6n Part. ginti, $,€nti

The z S ind. is in Otfrid geist, steist, and the 3 S mostly geit, steit. While standan is an extendedform (cf. Latin stat-uere) of sten (IE *stEi-), gangan (IE *gh-, cf.3.z8a) and gdn(*ghE) are originally unconnected.Stdn has its 6 (besided from IE *d in pret. stuo-) from gdn; g6n and stEn their E from weak verbs like folg€n (cf. OS ful-gan, -gangan, ,to fulfil', beside folgon?).

4.66. The verb 'will'. Present rND. S r. 2. 3. P r. 2. 3.

SUBJ.

willu (wille, willa) wili(s) wili(t) wellemEs, wellen wellet wellent Inf. wellen

welle we[Es(t) welle wellEm6s, wellEn wellEt well€n Pres. part. wellenti

Preterite rND. S r.

wolta

suBI. wolti, -i

The present forms which have the stem vowel e, have o in Franconian by analogy with the preterite, thus inf. wollen, &c. The presenttenseof this verb was originally an optative form of a -rni verb, used indicatively, cf. Go wiljau. To this was formed a new subjunctive and a weak preterite; and the present 'indicative', beginningwith plural and S r, assimilatedto regular verbs. The -e- besideS willu (OS willi(u) ' wtli(s) or wilt' wil(i) ' williad, willien, willeandi besidewelliu, welliad, wellian) may come from wellen, 'to choose',Go waljan (cf. OS walda besidewelda, wolda?), or i by analogywith strong ClassIII; -o- is probably by analogywith skolta (+. 6z).

CASES

V SYNTAX (DESCRIPTIVE) CesEs 5. l. The Nominative is used as in MHG, e.g. Fater unser (vocative) . . . si giheilagdt thin namo (stbject); tho gisaz er muader bi einembrunnen;ob er arbeidi so-jung tholon mahti; thuruhwondtaer stum; ungildndt ni bileip;6rst druhtin (complement)thii gimuato in himilom iohdh€r (cf. 5. 8) ; kind warth lner faterlds ; ther blint hier betol6nti saz. 5. 2. The Accusative is used for the direct object, including cognate e.g. sldf sldfan; werk wirken; sang singan; rauba birahanen,and internal,e.g.weindtathen bruader; thaz kind sie thar thd betdtun; er theso ddti zurnta; unsar brdt taSalThhaz gib uns hiutu; wihi narnun dinan; chlag€tain sie d#; including in impersonalexpressions,e.g. al daz in lusta; mih e'srwuntar; for objective complement, e.g. ih mih gotes srrnr nemnu; er saztaz widar heilaz; slnan stual er liaz italan; funti gangan sinan sun; den himil offanan sehan; der v'cZ suntigen weiz; dfi dine geista machdstpoten; cf. Gothic so swtja frijans izwis briggip; for adverbial expressions of: quantity, e.g. luzil drank ih esthdr,luzil ih esrnohtajoh gdrag esgismakta; thd n1ttun sie nan ginuogi; hinterqudmunmEta ('erschraken mehr'); sie sih zi sinen guatin thdh etheswaz gtfuagtin; gib unsfollon thtnesselbeslira; degree,e.g. ginuog ziero; rnichil gimuati; al gilicho; respect, e.g. niowiht zi dihemis; fleisg nist biderbi niowiht; manner, e.g. sdrio thia meina; gdnun; illun; maniga wisa; andrawis; space and time, e.g. alla faft; floug e/ sunnun pad, sterrdno strdza, wega wolk6no; fuarun andara striza; (OS) gengun wegos endi waldos; shenkit allan then da{-; sih

69

inthabdta er zwEne daga; thaz man firiti eina wechiin; lag fiardon da| bigrabandr; betdta allo stunta ; alle daS,afiristi gote thion6n; hinaht; eina wila . . . andera wila; thrittun stunt; allaz, &c. Double accusative: thaz ni hilu ('hehle') ih thih; er lerta sie dtmuati i le-rtunszeinan einan ruam; (OS) lerda thia liudi langsamana rdd; cf. Gothic laisida ins in gajuhommanag (note not noun) ('he taught them many a thing in parables'). 5. 3. The Genitive is usedpossessively, e.g.stimmaruafentes in wuastinnu; truhtenis ist diu erda; theiz allaz sines fater zaas;subjectively, e.g. thes widarweften fdra ('temptation by the devil'); of identity, e.g. daz sines lichamen Zz1; des steines burdin; (OS) kuninSes namo; qualitatively, e.g. guotero slahta man; commaaadales; ein ediles man; wtb erwirdigero tdti1, sint tie Liutedanneso ganzes sinnes; of appertaining, e.g. hwelihhes cnuosles dfi sis; partitively, e.g. evangeliilno deil; mdra tolaheiti; Iides zwei mez; stucchiubrdtes; sinero degano filu; hinuoh hilfa; dero slahet ir sume; similarly with numerals (and cf. 5. rz) e.g. tndndd,o fiari; sumaro endi wintro sehstic;also as partitive object, e.g. shankta sinan fianton ("f. S. +) bitteres lides; bringanthero fisgo; sie(cf.5. z) thes btdtesgiward; objectively in general, e.g. alles kazualt; darba fatetes mines; sluzzila himiles; of exclamation, e.g. s6 zt€ hin hio thes libes!; depending on adjective (more widespread than in MHG), e.g. (objective)gomrnanes zuis; thil ni bist es zoei; ferahes frdtdro ('more experienced of life'); (respect) sie sint gotes worto fliz;g fiIu harto; alt jdro; sumdr biscof namen Zacharias; tie imo des newarengeuolgig;(ablative) arbeo laosa ('deprivedof heritage');(causal)sines wortesy'o-; of measure, e.g. zueio elndn lang alde breit; of mannergenerally(.f. 5. 5), e.g. heimwartes; thes thritten dages; elilentes ('abroad') fuor in oerra lantscaf; thes ganges sie iltun; eines blickes;

7o

SYNTAX

mines dankes; thus gradating into adverbs, e.g. sewarase geloafanwaldes ode weges ode heido; in €wun sinro thenken sal dages inde nahtes; winteres . . . sumeres; alles; including from adjectives, e.g. sdsdmir anderes giburidi; rehtes ; niuwes; tagoliches; and causally,e.g. chilmigbin ih iaro ju filu manegero ; u)urtuntdte man quekesines wortes ; thera ferti er ward irmuait; hintarquamer harto thero selbero worto; wuntoldta dero worto; tddes sterbanl gradating into secondary object, e.g. waz quidis thfi es?; in des biten; thes wdges er siewista; (cf. 5. z) des estmih wuntar; nfr dih es lustit. It is thus used regularly with particular types of verbs (cf. MHG $ ror, vii), e.g. (separation) furldz xtnsunsara sculdi; ldsen; biroubdn; (need)thurfan; intberan; mangaldn; gibristit imo des g,isiunes ('he lacks sight'); (partitive) cordn ('to taste, test'), costdn (also acc.); hordn wolta sin Got; walten, &c.: so brfihheer es lango; huotenEwo; (aim) ilen; gdhen; gerdn; fragEn; beitdn ('to await'); ihten (,to persecute'); zilot iuet ; sin quemantes bitan; (mental)denken; dingen ('to hope'); huggen; suorgen ('to take thought for'); zwifaldn; rehtes siegithahtun; wdnit sih kindda; (communication) jehan ('to say'); bijehan ('to confess'), also acc.; (fur)lougnen; (emotion) lachen, klagdn. 5.4. The Dative is used for the indirect object, e.g. sd ztir furldzamds unsarEn sculdigdn; giwalt gab rnannurn; dat sagdtun laai; garwen truhtine thuruhthigan folc; of. motion, e.g. boton quementmlne thir; nu willih thaz rnft folgo.-z;(OS) irn gigangan; wi irn folgddun; for the sole object of certain verbs (cf. furldzan above and with acc. desesolihhe farlazzante saar dei iro sezl willoom eiganeem farlazzante), e.g. helfan; fluohhen; Sod.ethancodun;dhergerno gode dhionot; (OS) gode thiondda;(OS) ne williad rro drohtine hdrian(btfi hElag word hdrian); dativus commodi or incommodi, e.g.

f'

CASES

7r

her imos (cf..5.:); iu scalslnheil; zoddemo inoizstri; including with another dative, e.g. th6n wortun rll,ir giloubi; ginad1t er uns thEn sElon; with impersonal, e.g. chiliihheda iru in imzt mineru s6ulu; ethic, e.g. scein uns der sterro; also dir tet panttela; and cf. 5. rz; with nominal expressions,e.g. ther in drost was; gradating into equivalentof genitive: (OS) wdrun imu friund; ni ward in sun (cf. Gothic ni was irn barne); themo namo u)asJoseph; dd wart demo Balderes volon s1n vuoz hirenhit; ni ist in hihuttin himilskin gote; with certain adjectives, e.g, chid was her chonnEm mannum liuten kelop; OS gilik drohtine; adverbiallyfor time, place,manner, e.g. eineru stunthwilu; ju rnanagerw ziti; sario thEn stuntdn; dritten tage; morgane; ther gotes wizzode kleib; dE habEs hdrne herron gdten; allEn halb6n; selb6n thesEn worton; vollen guot; einazzEn; luzig€m; smalihhEm; offenlihin; thus absolutely with participles, e.g. iifganganteru sunnun; tougalo gihalot6n magin ('the magi having been summoned secretly'); bin gote helphante thero arabeito zi ente; bislozanEn thinen turin; ce himele fuor, sindn iungerEn ana sehentEn; selbemu g,otes sune gibuntan6n quhedhendemu; gisantEn sinen herin; sinEn fuozin inti hentin; and of comparison,e.g. thesEn mdr; hlittrdr liohte; wizero snEwe; bezzer sint dine spunne demo wine; waz ist hugelicheraunde minnesamerawine?i beziron theru iuweru guati; cf. Gothic swinpoza mis ('mightier than I'). 5. 5. The Instrumental or Dative is usedfor instrument or means,e.g. swertu hauwan; lambesgiskirmler bluote; (OS) ddpte Krist handun sinun; ztili mih dinu speru werpan; cheisuringu gitan; cf. OS wordun wehslan; hordtn imu wordu; cause,e.g. hungiru irsterban;(OS) wundun $oh, wApnum wwnd; accompanying circumstance, e.g. (OS) listiun talde; (OS) hreopunhltidero stemnun, stridiun geag

SYNTAX

(cf. tholoda githuldion); hltittru muatu singit; fuarun sEragemo muate; liutif.Eherno muate; respect,e.g. (OS) wordun wts,handungibundan; thus measurewith compara_ tives, e.g. liuzelu minnerun;michilu menigiron;(OS) sehs nahtun e7,mikilu betara, suliku swlsor; diu mi-r; thi wirsi: (des) diu Daz; desde drahor; (in demonstrativepronoun) as correlativeof causalconjunction, diu daz, diuztanta(cf . -5. -3g); (also confined to demonstrative)diu gilih (and,cf. 6). 5. The constructionwith mit (or other prepositions,cf. 5. 6) and Instrumental or Dative that finally altogether ,rrppl".rt"i the instrumental expressionwithout preposition, is found from the earliest, e.g. mit eetu, mit dinEm wortum; bretdn mit sinu billiu. The distinct instrumental caseis formed only from nouns (cf. 4. r) signifying tools, parts of the body, weapons,material, abstracts (not from animates, cf. the possibly agential dative fatere giboran), and is not used with individuating quali_ fiers (exceptionsoccur hke mit diu lrriru), e.g. mit drostu, mit tlnerno droste, mit scazzu, mit rnihhilerno scazze, mit ezzichu, mit bittererno tide (theheino rnezzo is an appa_ rent exception). It is formed from adjectives and p.orro,rr,, usually only in the substantival neuter, but there "r" "*..p_ tions (someamong examplesabove),e.g. mit sinu nide. 5. 6. Prepositions govern Accusative: iino, duruh, furi, suntar, umbi. unz (an). Dative: aba, az,6r, gegin, oba,iz (izze),izzat. Dative or Instrumental: fona, ndh. Dative, and pronominal Instrumental diu wiu: after. zuo. Accusativeand Genitive: inne. Accusativeand Dative: fora, hintar, obar or ubar, iiffan, untar. widar.

t cAsEs

73

Accusativeand Dative or fnstrumental: ana(n), bi, in. Accusative,Dative, and Genitive: innan, ttzzan. Instrumental or Dative and Accusative:mit. Some pronouns present other peculiarities:governmentof different cases,e.g. after des, dno sin; use with prepositions of the demonstrative (and relative) and interrogative adverbs ddr, wdr, danndn, &c. An;ncrrvns 5. 7 . The weak adjective is used after the definite article, e.g. thia dzgalichfi'n zuhti; der rnahtigo khuninc; thie h6hun altfatera; daz luzzela , . . daz michela; and after the pronoun dese, e.g. diz guota barn; but is also found without these preceding,both as substantivizedadjective,e.g. neriento, almahtiso; oh the indun unchilaubun Iudeo liudi; and qualifyingnoun, e.g.himiliskin (cf. 5. rc) gote; engilgotes guato;/oz himilisgen liohte (all these containing a definite meaning); unser tdgelicha brot; including in vocative use, e.g. truhtin guoto ; cot almahtigo. 5. 8. The strong adjectiveis used with no qualifier preceding, e.g. iudiisg6r man; ez sdligeru ziti; fonll.eidinemo wibe; including vocative, e.g. heil magad zieri, thiarna so-sc6ni; after ein and the possessives,e.g. ein tiurlih marigreoz; unsere? sculdi$En; unsar brdt tagallhb:az1' broot unseraz ernezzigaz; and substantivally, e.g. gab atmEr joh ther rtcho antu:urti gilicho; der ddr arteillan scal totEn enti quekkhEn; blinte gisehent,halze gangenl; snel indi kuoni, thaz was imo gehunni; atd in mir armeru ; zzs firddn6m ; but is also found after the definite article, e.g. thes christanes folches, then fronisgan zt:ln (beside then guaton win), thero scdnero v,torto,dea kahdnte. The 'inflected' or pronominal forms of the nominative and accusative(4. r8-I9) are found predicatively as well as

SYNTAX

ADJECTTVES

attributively (attributively they are more usual (with the exception of NAPN) after the noun than before it (cf. 5. g+), e.g. giwellh buohhdri gilErtEr in rihhe himilo), e.g. thn lichamo 'istiu fhl6r; thaz wig thaz zsfsahebigaz; wdrun steininiu thiufaz; enf,Er wec ist; thd anrd ther fater alttu goteswihi irfult$r; fon in ward ouh libotaniu sin muater; dia fianta v'zf bifangul6te; siewurtun sldlentefonamgilon gimanbte; deakaladilte utdrun; er fand inan tdta;n; thdr findist inan eizaltan; (OS) quidi wndad wdra; usurdungidgida; werostind kumane; fand ie sldpan sotSandie; hie habit sia farfarana; and the nominal forms of the SN (and Neut. A) are found attributively, e.g. prooth unseer emezzihic; blint man; eogawelih sctiba galdrit in rlhhe hirnilo; as well as predicatively, e.g. alt was siu jdro; thiz was szs gibdri; but the AS and NAp only predicatively, e.g. er fand inan tdt; khenfun sint sd kreftic; thie ziti. sint sd heilag; thfr findist fiol then salmonfon thes*n thingon; (OS) findis thil lisund (beside eisundan) magujungan tnan. The present participle, however, is found in its uninflected form (cf. 4.4) not only in both numbers of the nom., e.g. inan ni findanti fuorun widar, but in the Dative Absolute ("f. 5. +), e.g. twdla tuonti themobrfitigomen.

'alone' is weak (+. Ein : ::), e.g. steigin bug eino betdn(but also wer mag furldzan suntd noba ein gol?); *non muot'in; wanona sculun Francon einon thaz bhpankdn. Al is always strong, most often uninflected, or al in all cases before der; e.g. elliu aseroltl thisu worolt ella; all(az) daz tuoni al daz in lusta. Selb has all forms, e.g. selb druhtines; selbEr ther diufal; selbo druhtln; des birit rr ez selbun archundun. In Otfrid it is mostly weak, in Notker mostly strong.

74

5. 9. Most indefinite pronouns are always declined strong (+. +6); the comparative and superlative always weak (4. 25, z6), e.g. thrt bezzisto Theophile; Adam was manno Eristo; a zoard altero; er mir liobdsto was; er lsl furisto; similarly ordinals, e.g. nu zsrthritto tagl er thrittiin stunt nan gruazta

G.lz, z6). Ein strong (+. :t) has uninflected forms preceding noun, with andar, or with genitive, e.g. thero gomonoein; inflected when alone, e.g. sag€nih thir einaz (also ih sagin thir ein), precededby genitive plural of a personal pronoun, or correlative with ander6r, e.g. einEr bno den stuol ze Romo undergieng unde alla ltaliam, ander6r ndJtor imo Greciam begreif.

7S

PnoNouws 5. 10. TheDefinite Article (4.4r), originallya demonstrative, indicates something already referred to, e.g. surniufielun in thorna, tho wohsun thie thorna; thahta, wekh wari thaz wola' mean'); gradatEteti ('she wondered what this greeting might sineniungiron, ziteilta inti e.g. brah ing into generally definite, joh th6 mdri thaz ouh htnd.tun thiln manigin; thie iungiron thd q ther kuning wdri; sdr sd ih diu sElain den ind arher.]itenti sr den Trhhamunlikkan lazzit; (OS) an therrr hi.milo rikea; including with substantivized adjective, e.g' thio tumbunthEn spahonEtddun; or generic, e.g. denne det man in pardiru pii hfuiinnit. Definiteness may be expressedwithout the article, e.g. sunna ni skinit; huob er S,undfanon frf; ddr scal denne hant Erehhaa, houpit sagen.Thus with proper names, e.g. Ktist guatEr, and similar nouns (having pronominal accusative, 4. 2d), e.g. holddainan truhtin; ni ist in kihuctin himiliskin gote; and usually with prepositions, e.g. in etdu, ufi'n himile, fiz lante, zi holza, in henti, zi h:etzen; tumbo saz inbetge. Usagevarieswith noun qualified by noun in genitive, e.C.@er)botogotes;mannessun habetgiztsaltin erdu (cf. above) zi furldzzene suntd; or by possessivepronoun' e.g. (der)fater tnin, or by adjective, e.g. saasatchind ; hwitte scilti ther ira sun guatdr.

r 76

SYNTAX

5. 11. The Indefinite Article (4. 46) gradatesfrom its original senseof oze, including translating Latin unus, e.g. hier zsl ein kneht (puer unus) ther habet fimf leiba; fundanemo thanne einemo (una) diuremo merigrioze; ein6r (unus) fon sineniun_ girdn; sd quimit ein heri fona himilzungalon, daz andar fona pehhe; through 'a certain', e.g. sie . , . sterron einansdhun; einan kuning weiz ih, heizit her Hludowig; in dagon eines huningeswas ein iwarto; and .a caseof', e.g. thi mohtis einan ruamjoh ein g{uari mir giduan; (plural:) uaptun thdr thie liuti eino briltloufti (cf. eino ziti, in einEn buachon);abacuszsl ein descriptio,daz chit ein bilde; to,some', ,any', e.g. ein bilde an einemo brete alde an einero pagina; philosophi habe-tonein bretfore in, daz siehiezenmensam;this last useis fully developed in Notker (though in OS the Heliand alreadyhas it). The in_ definite article is often omitted (cf. ro), ,.g. quo*boto 5. fona gote; daz ist reht firinlih ding; especiallywith internal object (Notker always, Otfrid sometimes),e.g. gibirit sun; regularly in the plural, e.g. dat sagetunmt sEolid.ante; and particularly in the 'any' sense,e.g. thie thdr (S. tS) gisihit wib; gilih ia rihhi himilo (S. ro) tresewe giborganemoin accare; so man g,uatemo scal, sd muater kindeline duat; with abstract nouns, e.g. $ habeta gilouba filufesta (,she had a very firm faith'); with negatives,e.g. nist tn n, thaz gumisgi al'gizeile ('there is not a man that could count the whole human iace'); with words like s6, sus, e.g. dat (5. 3z) zoass6 friuntlao, *u, ('he was so friendless a man'); and with prepositions,e.g. steigthdrn skifelin. fn the more definite senses(,a certain', .one' and ,other') is found sum, usuallyuninflected(contrastGothic sums, 5. r4), e.g. sum man habetu zztsdnesuni; sum sr4s lugindri, sum skachdri; but inflected in sumEr Descd 5. 12. The personal pronouns, when subjectapart from im_ personal 3 S, e.g. mih hungirit, dih es lustit, brast thes

PRONOUNS

ufines,watd tho (cf..sdz regendt,sd ndzzent ti bouma,sd iz wdt, s6 wagdt iz; in sinendagon was iz fram; iz mohta il)esansetcta zit), are usually expressed,e.g. dat gafregin ih; ik gih1rta dat seggen;was iz ouhgiwdro gotesdriit; at leastthe first time in the sentence,e.g. thifundi huldi mit gote,s€nonrt inphdhis in reoe inti gibiris sun; cf. her th6 arstantentiskumofora in nam thaz thar(5. 15) her analagi but, whether as survival of IE usage or as imitation of Latin, are often omitted (more frequently in Tatian than in Isidore), e.g. pifilhu min herza; thdl fundist inan gizaltan; utio ddti sd bi then win?; sprichist, thaz (5. r5) zi scalt. They are regularly omitted in imperative, e.g. faramEs, but may be insertedfor emphasis,e.g. heil zostht' especiallywith negative, e.g. ni forhti thrD thir. They are also found pleonastically (or for emphasis) with nominal subject, e.g. Lazarus er was iro ein (5. tt); selboMoyses et quidit, as is der, e.g. thie morganlihho tag ther bisuorget ih selbo; Agamemnon,det irrah an derozestdrdoTroiae.. . . Der is found elsewherefor er, e.g. der hapet in ruoau rah1no ttehha; fundanemo. . . einemodiuremo merigrioze . . . coufta then. Reflexive pronouns (+. :8, 39) gradate to pleonastic and ethic dative use, e.g. siln druabte thes muates; ni miduh rnih thcro worto; mannolih sin goume; sie sorgentito thdre; zi hiun er irno quenfinlas; ik rni dE ddre wit (cf, Gothic miton sis); er sah itmo thaz iamar; du bist dir aher Hun, ummetspdhEt. For r, 2 S reflexive genitive, Otfrid uses with selb the 'es form of the possessivepronoun, e.g. thines selbes /e7a; mines selben wisi; and so emphatic a S faru ia sines selb gisihti. 5. 13. The indefinite personal Pronoun is man (cf. 4, 46), 'a gradating from meaning of man', e.g. wanta ir ni hdrta rnan thaz, thaz io fon magadburtim;an giboran uturti; ddr rnan poah pirgit; bitet inti iu gibit man. But the indefinite meaning is also expressedby er (zi manne' with negativ€, . . . er), e.g, ni

SYNTAX

PRONOUNS

wctrd et io z1 tnanne ('there was not born any man'\, ri et gisehe annne . . . then druhttnes heilant; or by 3 P, e.g. dltazs danne sie inan chisdhin dhoh sd chihubiclin.

ouh wirsqa was; cf.. Gothrc wcit atta izanr pizei jus pairb,up, and contrast (as well a-swaz in 5. 16) (OS) hie it gilruggionni muot, thes hie Utharf. Or one word may combine form of relative and case of antecedent ('attraction of relative') with or without antecendentseparatelyexpressed(casesabove like er rihtit t\az in worolt ist could be regarded as a special case of this), e.g. thia gilouba . . .lAz dft themo iz lisit thm; alles des ih io nissagrahl des wazares des man gisdhe; dera calaupa, dera ir in herzin cahuctliho hapEn sculut; allero minno sunteno thero ih gi.ddhda; denne anrit er ze detu mahalsteti deru ddr kitnarchdt ist; mit wortun then er tbie altun torasagon zaltun', cf. Gothic fua aileip ei taujau pamnei q;pip piudan Iutlaie? Relative adoerbsof place (cf. 5. 38) are used with or without preposition (cf. 5. 6), e.g. daz leitit sia sar, dat iru leid wirdit; dero burg io, danndn du burtig pist; (OS) te them knuosle, thanan hie ans; (OS) fuor hie thdr hie wolda; bfrohchamera tat tt gerno inne sdze; er uondn magedelibe menncsgenlihhaminfinc, ddt er unsih mite l6sta. The adverb ddr (dar, der) is found together with the relative pronoun, e.g. tninm wortun, thiu thar Sfultu arcrdentl ther ther thannethi.obwas; geizzo corter('a herd of goats') daz der gat iifre demo berge Galaad; der dir skephan ist himilis; ther thir Heinih ni gerade; (OS) buotta thern thar blinda wdrun; and forming a relative expression with a personal pronoun, especially z S, e.g. fater unser, thu thar bist in hinilc; wir dar nihhil teil birun; ih tir €r tita frokhhiu sdng; the personal pronoun alone is also used as relative, e.g. fater uttrer, thv in himilnn bist; cot almahtico, dn himil inti erda gaanrahtds; heil thil krist, tha therero liuto kuning bist; Erah Thonas, er ein thero einlifo was. Another relative expression,especiallyin Otfrid and in OS, is the particle the for all parts of the pronoun, e.g. thie wega ihtct olb the ze herzen iu gegangen;in berge,tbre er mo zei.nti;

78

5. 14. The following pronouns (ct. a.44-46) are followed by the genitive, plural or neuter singular: welih, gilih, wiht, niwiht, iht, niht, waz, wet, weder, nohhein, dehein, nloman, e.g. albro lido welihc; rahhdno welihha; ni allero rnanno welih; albro ubilo gihuelih; allero teilq gilih; chunno Silih;az; ist thdr wiht so-sarphes odo iawiht ouh sd gelphes; zs, iaman hiar in lante es iawiht thoh fastante?; ni habe-s,quad si,fro min, fazzes wiht .g, thiu hera in, . . ?; hwer fin fater utdri fireo ; waz ist libeldses. . . ? (cf. daz upiles; al daz tir lewdhtllches dsr); (OS) manno ni$En, hwat manno, hwederon seathero ffieio tuomian weldin; cf. Gothic sums manne. So also corresponding adverbs, e.g. sd wdr sd er lantes giang; wanana lantes thu szi. 5. 15. The Relative Pronoun is sometimes omitted, e.g. then weg, sie faran scoltun; mit therno brunnen, thii nfr. gtlst; funtun einan tnan, mit namon Simeon hiez; ein slahta natardno, heizit aipera; w€ demo (cf. below) in ztinstri scal sino ttirinii stfre-n;ih scal iu sagenimbot, gibdt ther himilisgo got. The usual relative pronoun is der, with or without correlative demonstrativeder, e.g. der fi doh nu argdstodstarliuto det dir nfr wigeswarne; ter detnodimot, tet ist follrtn ori; then tag, in themo thise vterdent; birit dar durih den drdchen d6r iro uiret; o sponse,den ih mit allcn chreften minno; ih bin Gabriel, thie azstantufora gote; thaz may be used for other genders, e.g. nist man, thaz gumisgi al gizelle. The antecedent may be not expressed,e.g. tho quaman6stanain thaz ldnt thie hkantun vinnun fart; niuse dE mdtti ('try who may'); gode thancodun thd sin beidddun; sprihhist, thaz ri scalt; tho anrd thar irfullit thaz forasago singit; tuont daz ie ni muozun tuon; unde daz

79

8o

SYNTAX

furi thie tble giloubenti sint; thih waltu (: thero); in douJetlr'e (beside thiu) unih reindt; (OS) thena balhon the thil habes; (OS) thia the thdr gfulda indun; this is also combined with the relative pronoun, e.g. Judas, nalles thetde hariothis heiza#; (OS) mannonsagdatherntll.e hie gihoran habda; cf. OS manegawdron, the sia iro mddgespon.The relative adverb of manner sd gradatesinto anotherpronoun-equivalent,e.g,pist alsd gialtat man, s6 dfr Awin inwit fuortds; ne teta er ze E-rest nieht uber daz sd democheiserelieb was; therogiloubun sdso e/ gisah; allaz s6 thir liub ist; (OS) allaro erlo gihwdm, s6 im fruokno tuo ferahes dhtid; (OS) kuningduom,s-oina thie hc'sur

r

VERBS

8r

sight of') then sterron gifdhun; ipu sia daz Satanazseskisindi kiwinnit (winnan, 'to struggle'). In certain verbal forms the determinate meaning is extended to one more associatedwith tense; but note that this is aol generalizedinto an obligatory expression of. perfectioe aspect (cf. 5. zz) as in the Slavonic languages.Thus in PP (S. :+), dependentinfinitive (5. z7), and subjunctive(5. +z); in preterite, Perfectic meaning(5. zo); in present, future meaning (5. t8); but in all exceptPP of most verbs (5. 34) the unprefixed form also occurs (seeexamples there).

Tense

5. 18. The Present, besidesbeing used for presenttime, e.g. (OS) $ sind nfr sd d.ruobia,and general time, e.g. ndt nimet ten gezralt,(OS) thu bist lioht mikil, is found at least once for past, Historic Present: thd ni was iz burolang,fand her thia Northman: Godel6b sageda,her sihit theshergerida; and often for the future, e.g. Eksabeth$ibirit thir sun inti nernnis thfr sinan namonlohannem; ih itstdn after thiu; after dhiu sd dhrt sldfis (dormieris) mit dhinemfaterum; quimit he gisund fi2, ih grldndn imoz; qaernent noh thio ziti; fon thir quimit tuomo, ther tihtit min folc lvahel; luzzila stunta ni gisehet ir mih; karisit denne,daz allero manno welih ih selpan des atirdicangatde (5. z5), cotessunze zt)esan;sddaz Eliasespluot in erdo kitriufit; sd hztanne so-(5. 16) dhi dhina daga afiullis (impleveris).

5. 17. Aktionsart and Tense. Aktionsart is the linguistic category expressing the temporal character of the action in itself. The determinate Aktionsart indicates a specificterminus to the action, e.g. findan beside suohhen; this may be its inception (ingressive),e.g. gistantan (which comesto mean 'begin' general(5, in .Z), e.g.herfragengistuont). All prefixed verbs are determinate, e.g. ni ist s6 listic man der ddr iowiht arliugan megi; thus almost any simple verb may be made determinate by the prefix gi-, e.g. sie g,isehente ('catching

5. 19. The Future is also expressedby auxiliary verb with infinitive, e.g. bergasculun swinan; daz hdrtih rahhdn . . . , daz sculi der antichristomit Eliase p6gan; sddenneder mahtigo hhuninc daz mahal kipannit (5. t7, t8), ddra scal queman chunnokilthaz; nfr scal mih swdsatchind swertuhauwan; inde in Ewun sinro thenken sal dages inde nahtes; zft arwehhu dhinan sdmun after dhir, dher wesan scal fona dhinem sunim; (OS) e? skrl iu seggean; wuo rnag daz sin?; wdr rrrugrun stir nfr.big,innan, mit koufu brdt Qiwinnan?; vtio rnet iz io

caf. 5. 16. The generalizingrelativepronoun is (sd) wer s6 (wdr sd, &c.), e.g. (sd) hwer sd ztili gihaltan wesan;sd hwer sd faruh forstilit; sdwdr sdse e/ wilit sachun sinu ce geuene; sduerse sachunsimuthuruhesdlichedisdlu sineru . . . oersellan wikt; swer zuo ir beginnetoan, si machdtiz imo alsoztunderlieb, Without the relative adverb of manner sd (cf. 5. 15) the indefinite-interrogative pronoun is also used as relative, e.g. thaz er thaz gihdrti,waz druhtin thesgiqudti; (OS) ze mag that gitellean man,hwat thdr usard. Vnns s

8z

SYNTAX

werdan zttdr,thaz ih werdesanngar?; andero werlte mvozzint ir fressanhabin; ih willu faran betdnnan; wil thii thaz richi itsezzen; er scal sinen drfrton thrdto Qimuntdn, then altan Satanasanwilit er gifdhan. For expressionof the Conditional seeS. 44. (Preteriteindicative of the 'future' auxiliaries is used only for 'future in the past'(inasmuchas non-modal,cf. 5.2+).) 5.20. The Preterite, besidesbeing used for simplepast,e.g. ther hneht wdrlthho wuohs inti stran{Eta; (OS) giwEt imu an Galileo land; is used for perfect, e.g. e&gihdrta dat seggen; (OS) sa alde man sprdkun; or pluperfect, e.g. so-imo se dq chuning gap ('which the king had given him')i thiz zeichan deta druhtin hrist mennisgdnzi Erist sid er hera in worolt quam joh manneslichamonnarrr; tizzan er iz mit alamusanuhtrivie$i; thd sielihdrtun thencuning,fuorun It is also used gnomically, i.e. for general statements, e.g. ungildndt zi bileip, dn gotes -ahta wizzddekleib ; io thesguaten,ther thdr ubil was; and for wishes, e.g. kesah in got, der ih kefi iro ze gesatdnfle;watd wola in thdn thingon. 5.21. The Ferfect is also expressedby auxiliary verb with past participle, e.g. unseruliohtfa,ssint erlosganu; nfr ist er queman herasun;min quenafram ist giSangan in ira tagun; (gradating from objective complement) phigboum habEta Sipflanzdtan (arborem . . . plantatam); v'e eigun mir ginomanan lioban druhtin minan; er habEt uns lizeisdt; tfr hab6st tih selbo vertriben: nii habEt Uodalr.rchfirloran irdno gilih; heigun (+. 6z) sa Northman harto biduungan; thdr sah si druhtin stantanjoh hab6ta inanfantan; pidaz er in werolt kiwerkdt hapEta; denne dn paldet dn kipuazzit habEt;OS: sind minatidi kumana; siawdtunkurnan; hi is ferahes habad farwerkot; habda sr'eginerid; habda im hdlagnagest bifolhan1' that sea bihlidan €gun; habdun izr widersakongihaloden te helpu. It is found for preterite in

VERBS

8g

Otfrid for rhyme's sake, er habEt in thar gizaltan drdst managfaltan. Notker has perfect infinitive (zigen si mih pesrmizzen habEn) beside present for perfect (uter zwtaelot Romanosiu wesen allero richo lterren). 5. 22. Auxiliary verb with present participle is used to translate the correspondingconstruction,and others,in Latin, and may be regardedas expressingan imperfectiveaspect(i.e. not marking the action as completed),including the continuous meaning of the correspondingEnglish construction,e.g. l,rith wesan: thiu menigi was thesfolkes fizze bet6nti; so-wdrun sie unz an enti thaz llb leitenti; joh was sih ldsenti theru zunghn gibenti; (engil) was sm beitdnti; was thaz folc beitdnti; auh ist galihsam himilo rihhe demo suohhenti ist guote marigreoza; was er liut beranti; (OS) thia tnuoderthes mendendia sind; fon anagengeworolti ist er ginAddnti; vyithwerdan (cf. 5. z3): wirdist swigenti; thowatdmund sindrsdr sprechantEr ; wio er sehanti wurti; (OS) wurdun im is wangunblikandi; cf. Gothic was lohannesdaupjands. Voice 5. 23. The Passive, which in the PresentGothic expresses by inflection, e.g. prailfetus hauhistins haitaza ('thou shalt be called prophet of the highest'),is expressedby the auxiliaries wesan or werdan w'ith PP (cf. Go qamIesusjal daupips was fram lohanne;sabbatoin manswarp g,askapans).The ingressive meaning of werdan can develop into future meaning (cf. 5. r7), cf. thar wirdit wuoft inti clafungazenio ('there will be wailing and gnashing of teeth'), (OS) lies wirOid sd fagan man, and(5.zz) wirdistswigenti, e.g.dennewirdit urztarinwlc arhapan, cf. Go gaaiskwops wairpa('I shall be ashamed'). From the ninth century werdan and wesan begin to have the MHG meanings(MHG $ ro9), cf. Go pamelip ist ('it is

r 8+

SYNTAX

written'). E.g. si giheilagdt thin namo; sangwas glisungan, atig was bigunnan; kepiotantesstimma tdtim si kefolgEt; (OS) nfr ist Krist giboran, Erodeswas gikoran; din namo werde geh6ilig6t; gientdt werde ubarloubnissi; ddr der heligo Christ ana arhan{an ward; wdrun fragenti, wdr et giboran wurti; (OS) werdad mina hendi Qibundan; wurdun farworpan. Passiveinfinitive is found, e.g. mugut e'rgitoufit wesan ; cf. Go shal sunus mans uskusans wairpan; but fona discoom keban kerisit; ir gisehetumbi$eban fon here Hierusalern; cf.. Go qemunpan motarjos daupjan; and mixed, bezzera vind,en mugunwerthan. Mood 5. 24. The Indicative is the mood of reality, including in subordinate clauses,e.g. sa-zoirfurldzemCsunsaro-nsculdig1n; bithiu wanta Elisabeth was unberenti; ibu du mi Enan sagis,ik mi dE 6dre wEt; fliuhit er in then si, thdr giduit er imo wE. It may be used as in Latin with modal auxiliary verbs, e.g. se'emohtun bringan mEra('they could have(poterant) brought more'). 5,25. The Subjunctive is used in main clauses(Present)for jussive (including first person imperative), will or wish, e.g. singEm; petd6m; duruch wach€Em; n[ frew€n szZ es alle; ni gileitEst unsih in costunga;queme thin rihhi; gisegendt sis thfr untar utibun; wese mir after thinemoworte; themo si iamer heili; thin herza mir geloube; OS faran wil, witin gil, diurida si drohtine!, wita kiosan!; (Preterite) unreal wishes (Latin utinam), e.g. wolti gor, hab€tin wir deheina; wolti got, erwundin disezite (utinam redirent); (Present and Preterite) deliberative or dubitative questions,e.g. waz tuoien wirs (5.3) bruodera?;thu susinan nfi l6z6s?; scolti er sin Krist guat€r?; (exclamatory)anr eodiz lahldtti! ; (Present and

VERBS

85

Preterite) hypothesis conditionally possible of fulfilment or (Preterite) hypothesis impossible of fulfilment, e.g. wArist th& hiar, ni tllrtrltin wir nE thesa quist; iz ne rnzhti nioman anderrogetuon; guot wdri imo, thaz giboran ni wdri ther man; sdsemin sculd wdri ('as I should have done'); OS:. ef wi gisaldin silubershattota6 hund samad,twehowdri esnoh than; nio it than te suliharufrumu ni watdi; w€stthi, that thfi giwald hebbianzi mohtis; potential, e.g. ih wane, therErfulle alla, thaz ih wille; thu mohtis ein gifuari mir giduan (besidemaht, wdri thesfiriwit mikil t e ztitanne; thfr rnallLtis cf . 5. z4) ; (O S) z:.s man wesanthesthe thdr sftd, On Subjunctive in various types of complex sentencessee 5. 40-50. 5.26. Examplesof the Imperative are: arldsi unih fona ubile; heili thih selbon!; Biheili mih fon theru stuntut; giougi thih themobiscofe!; ouget mir thenmuniz theszinzes!; fatam6s; bittemEs; (conditional) stip nidar, wir giloubenthir sdr. Non-Finite Verb Forms 5.27 . The Infinitive is used with auxiliary verbs (cf. 5. r9), e.g. atir wollemEs then heilant gisehan; bimidan thu ni wollEs; hiar mag er lernEn; ai mohtun giheilan inan; ni kan inan bimidan; (OS) skalt thfi libbian, (omitting infinitive) gi an that fiur skulun ; and other verbs, e.g. ih meino danchdn guotdn unde undanc}adn ubilin; (OS) inan nidar werpan hogdun; expressingpurpose with verbs of motion (Latin Supine), including (gi)stantan (5. t7), and wesan, e.g. si wdrun in thero burg, koufen iro ndtdurf; sttonden {ro ding slifen; OS geng zuidiro kind spreken, fuotan that barn sehan, leng im gisittian, len$ furi is thiodan stdn, ine warvn weros wiggeo gomean; OS giw6t im faran (gangan), giwitun im si6on, sidodun gang,an; similarly after verbs of sending with (or without) object, e.g. ih santa

r 86

syNTAX

iwih atndn (si santun zi Kriste ; kunden iro ser); andtransitive verbs generally, e.g. aethici sint the unsih lErent haben rehte sire; (OS) thi is bddon l6ras ; obaiz irloubit si in sambaztag zaola tvon odo ubilo; then fater hdrt er sptechan; daz hdrtih rahhdn dia weroltrehtwison; (OS) hie ina kuman gisah, gihdrdun ina tellian; ih irkanta thia kraft faran fona mir; (OS) fundun ina sittian; her wolta inan ginemnitan wesan; (OS) thfi mahtis that hiis standan giduon, thuo bddan thia liudi that word wendian, bddun drohtin antliikan t hi a l4ra, thes ik sia lEstian hEta ; ni liaz re gon6n ; (OS) that man ina gangan liet, ik giwaldan muot thik quihan ldtan; gradating into accusativeand infinitive for indirect speechas in Latin, e.g.nihhil gdtlth ist,daz der man den almahtigun truhtin stnanfater \vesan quidit; nu quedet ir rnih wesan; Mercurium saget kehiien ze philologia; bikndta e/zsia wesan mina ammfrn; er sih sagEt got sin; er chad sih finden sin herza; wiintun sih geist gisehan; (OS) thdr he thena man wissa goma thig{ean. It is also found insteadof participle (5. zg), e.g. (OS) werosSanSan qudmun; swdgan quant engil. 5.28. The Infinitive as Substantive.Nominative or accusative, e.g. minnon mEraist thaz; d,az trinkan; daz firstantan; ld din menden sIn, ld din furhten sia. Genitive, e.g. gilustenweindnnes; tra$annes anst; fona minnu des anaplasannes; ni gab si. . . thes ruaffennes stal; petrus sdr thessindesswimmannes begonda ; (OS) ik giuhusweriannias, kussiannias. Dative, e.g. hweo ist in Salomonezi firstandanne; forgip mir tiufl.an zi widarstantanne; ih habdn giwalt thih zi irhdhannei tDasgiwon ther grazsozi forldzzaflne; uns sint hint zi beranne dagafuriJarane; habo ih ztt ze ougenne; ih tuon dir stata ze sprechanne; garo bin zi faranne; wedar ist 6dira zi quedanne . . odo zi quedanne . . .; ddira ist olbenthnthuruh loh ndtdfrn zi faranne;

VERBS

87

was ubeimo ne tohta ze lebenne ; waz scal essd zi frd$enne ; oba iz anrd zi fehtanne; senta er mihfon himile thiz selbathir zi sa$anne; si qudmunal zisamanethaz kindilin zi sehanne; giengut ir mit suerton inti mit stangon mih zi fdhanne; sle blyent sar zerthorrenne; ziu si iro frowun etewaz nelieze slafen, iro scdni ze behaltenne; za petdnne ist; nist zi chilaubanne; mannessun ist zi sellenne (tradendus est) in hant manno; ih habenthir sihztaz zi quedanne; thd sleih ther fdrdri irfindan, wer er wdri, thaz zi irsuachenne ubar al; in gikmphit zoahsan,mih zi minnirdne; (OS) gisendid was te rihtianne; fundos te faranne ; hAim bifalh te segseanne; hie kan te gethenkianne; us girisid gihzriltk re gifullianne; giwald habda te gitdgianne; garo te gebanne; fts te faranne; thatis rnin te duonne. 5.29. The Present Participle is used predicatively(uninflected, but also, like adjectivesin general(5. 8), inflected, cf. examplesin 5. zz and (OS) thar hie utissahriohantondi, fand vZ sldpandia), e.g. betolonti izzen, dawaldnti liggen, forahtenti stantanl fuar druhtin bredigdnti; joh fuar er kundinti thaz; (OS) quam thar tuo lan{andi; also attributively after noun (cf. 5. 34), with object in imitation of Latin, manfilu ezzenti. Where the predicative use is quasi-adverbial, an adverb formed from it in -o may be used instead, especially translating Latin ablative gerund in -d, e.g. er fuar ilento; oh sie danne zellarrto (dicentes) quedant; inti unsih sehanto (videndo) hirihti; singento odebetento; wanta jil Er consules in curru ritento ad curiam darfrfe sdzun, 5. 30. The Past Participle is alsousedpredicatively(besides in periphrastic verbal forms, cf. 5, zr, z3), e.g. giscriban liggen; mit thAn er lag biwuntan; zuir se stdn; bitraban sehEnSenErdte ; (OS) humadgifaran. All verbs that have not alreadyan inseparableprefix take gi- (5. t7), except(usually)a few that are necessarilydeterminate in themselves:enili wardh

"'/ t ll

88

89

SYNTAx

VERBS

wordan druhtines wort; iz dunhal eigun funtan; zudne chilningantirdendnch6mene ; brdht ; troffan; and exceptin a few particular phrases,e.g. wuntane baugd;filu kepan (valde data); preitit ward; and except original participles that have becomeindependentadjectives:from preterite-presents,e.g. kund; from other simplex verbs, e.g. trunkan; in compounds, e.g. Eristboran.

with subjunctive after negative present): thd ni. was lang the thiu, ni it gilastid ward; ni mahta he- bimidan, ni hd sprak; nis thestweho6nig,ni siefargelden; that eo ni bilihd, ni he thes I1n shuli antfdhan; gi biwardonni mugun,ni gi awerdiat.

5. 31. Negation is expressedby the adverb ni before the verb, alone, e.g. ni princ unsih in hhorunha; (OS) ni tharft thfi stunt wesan; or with indefinite pronoun or adverb, e.g. ni wdniu ih in lip habbe; er wiht es thoh ni westa; (OS) that sia im wedaresgiutin wiht ni andridin; (OS) ni was iu tperd eowiht; or some other general expression,e.g. neo dana halt; nio in altare ; or with other negatioewords, e.g. nioman nist in thinemocunne;sie ne quedentimo niowiht; noh poum noh peregni z/ras;tm ne waltest neheinmanegi nieht; nales forhta nihlein; rihtuorn ne ist dndereytio nleht hemeine;OS: ne ik gid mannesne anrd aei; nek it dk god ni gesk6p; noln inig gumononi skal; nia thana wih ni forle-t; ne ik thi ni deriu neowiht; ni slerea neoman; ni was im twehoni$6n. The adverb ni is found in subordinate clausesafter verbs of prevention, and in subordinate clauses without conjunction G. SZ),gradating into use as conjunction itself (5. 38, 44), ".g. er mo firbdt thio ddti, thaz er ni suntdti; thaz man sih ni firswerie,thaz, wdn ih, zoizzddwerie; miniu ztsortthiu zlerrent, thaz h sdr ni suenent; nist man nihein, ther quemezi themofater, ih inan ni leite; nist ther in himihichi quetne, ther geistjoh wazzar nan nirbere; joh mcnnisgonalle, ther se iz ni untarfalle, al eigunsi iro forahta; sdduan ih, ddt ni rette mir iz, al thaz thil, gibiudist; ni magin die biderbinoergin sih desnieht irzoergin si ni muozzinfoleztaranzi desmeis parm; ni frliaz in thn ndti ni i imo folgeti; zt)ananasculun Francon einon thaz biwankdn, ni siein frenhhgon biginnen,siegotes l6b singen?; OS (usually

CoNcono 5. 32. Gender. Violation of grammaticalgender concord by natural gender concord is found, e.g. (OS) gisdhunthat barn Enna standan; iogiwelth thie thdr gisihit wib sie zi gerdnne; thiz wib firworaht habet ira l7b, bifangan rst si . . . ; qudmun zi bisnidannedzz kind' namtun inan Zachariarn; gieng in, thdr thaz magatin lag, inti fieng ira hant inti quad iru; r'sr thiz kint iuer, ther blintEr zoard giborandr. Neuter plural is used for different genders combined, e.g. siu (Zacharias and Elisabeth) wdrun rehtiu beidu, cf. Go anesunuhpan Sarzihta ba; (OS) th;iru g6dun tw6, Josep endi Maria, be iu; (OS) win endi brod wihide bEdiu. Apparent lack of concord may be due to adjective, but not noun, following sint Latin gender, e.g. mana$iu (multa) enti unertknitiu mino sunta. The identifying pronoun does not necessarily agree in gender with the identified noun' e.g. (OS) sagdethat hElit iro hErro was. Similar (but cf. also OS in 4. 25, z6) is use of neuter comparative or superlative, e.g. thrt mo liabara bist thanne al gifugiles; bist thil ni zi wdre furira Abrahame; theist dagesheizesta joh arabeito meista; manno liobdsta; to-dowirsesta. 5. 33. Number. The identifying pronoun doesnot necessarily agreein number with the noun, while the verb does with the latter, e.g. thiz sint buahfrdno; (OS) thit sind thie shuldi. Similarly with a pronoun referring back, e.g. thd wdhsanthie thorna, inti h$t}lrarrrfnrn iz. A verb may be singular with singular subjects co-ordinated, e.g. $ab armErjoh ther icho antrrurtigilicho; (OS) wanwind endizprter; or evenwith plural

sf90

SYNTAX

(neuter) subject, e.g. wuofit sih allu erdcunnu;(OS) themu is be iu gidfian. A singular pronoun or adjective may refer to plural noun or pronoun, e.g. alte joh junge, in thiu et tharazua githinge, nietdt er ich libes; sd sint se alle ginit, thes usiges gimenit, ther in thera ndti. thdr imo folg4ti; thoh sie sih westin reinan (to rhyme with einan). Collective singulars may be referred to as plural, e.g. liut sich in nintfuarit, ni sie in thiondn; gisah rneni$i sturmenta inti wuofenta inti weindnte. Wonn-Onorn 5. 34. The Noun is most often precededby its adjective,but for emphasis or in verse the adjective often follows, e.8. fan altEn ztsizagdn;thia dfl{alicllrun zihti; thaz rninnisti deil; Krist hdrron SdtEn barn unwahsan; gfrdca timeinin; guat6r; kuningin thia richlD'n; broot unseraz ernezzilaz. Similar variation is found with personal pronoun, the combination being preceded or not by der, e.g. thin narnoi narno thin; ntimo thiner , . .thinaz richi . .. thines selbes /era; ther ira sunguat€r; thaz sin adalhunni; and with genitive, with or without the genitive article, e.g. (der) $otes Dolo,(det) boto gotes; des hiises wirt;fon anagengewerolti; ze ende deto werlte. 5. 35. Preverb, Preposition. Stressedpreverbsareseparable from the verb except when it is finite and final (5. :6), e.g. suohtuninan in zi tra$anne; min quenafram est gigangan in ira tagun; dd quam desAdamessun und sluo$ /es tiufeles s-u.n zvo zeinero stfrdon; dea ubilun aoar wurphun iiz; thie ubil.on iizwurphun. Separablepreverb gradatesinto postposed preposition, e.g. ic dir ndch sihe,ic dir ndch sendi; s6 ih ia diu ougon anz firliaz; der rihtuom einemozuo slingit; ist in iowiht ana; (OS) stddina zoerodumbi,ina dno. 5. 36. Position of the Verb. Normal position for the verb in a main clause is the second place, with either subject or some

i

woRD-oRDER

9r

other part (including interrogative words other than conjunctions (5. 5o)) preceding, e.g. dln riche chome, d.in willo $esc6he . . .; dhazs kind was gerdndi fona muoter brustum; ich scal imu wesaninfater stedi;gizt;ihitsi namothin; unsarbrdt tagalihhaz gib uns; ni unih firleiti in khorunha; unde in chdrunga ne IEitCst du ilnsih; taz urlub kab imo Zeno; s6 chimen aber nordendn Langobardi; lo-t ist Hiltibrant; thd quam Herodes; zi gote rihta seiro muat; mit gEru scal man geba infdhan; wela gisih.u ih in dinem hrustim; jd bin ih scalc thin; unde charn mir ougdn keht; wittu irmingot, quad Hiltibrant, obana ab heoane; sorg€ntnac diu sdla; pidiu scal imo helfan des hhniles kiwaltit. Final place occurs as survival in verse, and, even where not in Latin original, in prose before Notker, e.g. sunufatarungoiro saro rihtun; ik mi de 6dre wEt; forn her dstar fiweit:. sid Ddtrthhe darbd gistuontun;;foaa hreoe aer Lucifere ih dhih chibar (genui te). Initial place is emphatic, found in questions without interrogative word (cf. 5. 5o), with imperative with or without subject or jussive, &c., subjunctive (5. z5), and in graphic narration, e.g. si thln willo; si giheilag1t thtn namo; (OS) gef fis dagogehutikhesrdd; wand her dd ar arme wuntanebauga; holdda inan truhtin; lietz her heidineman obar seohdan: faar thd sanctaMaria. In subordinate clausesthe verb may be found in any position, e.g. thil thdr bist in himile; sd zuir farldzettrEs unsarEn sculdigdn;ein bret . . . daz sie hiezen mensam;taz tu ne weizt noh ne chanst chedenchuospinci;daz hdrtih rahhdn dia v,terolt reht wison, daz sculi der antichristo mit Ekasepdgani but the tendency is to position after two elements, including final position, e.g. fater unser, thu in himilom bist; (OS) al sd zoi dthrum mannunxddan; Er Antichristo richesdnbegondi; daz Elias in demo wige arwartit werde; sd daz Eliasespluot in ztsantaer ni hdrta man thaz io fon magadburti erda kitriufit; dd ddr niwiht ni was (cf. dd was der giboran wurti; man (cf. so-nazzent die bouma); si garo ze regendt ei.no); sd ea

92

SYNTAX

aergebennedaz luzzela alsd er welle daz imo vergebenwerde daz michela; bifiem wir, thaz sin namo'in ans rnannomwerdhe giwlhit thuruh guodiu werc; peuitimate position is often found, in particular when the finite verb is part of a periphrastic form or otherwise accompanying non-finite part, e.g. thaz wir sin thiondnti ; dd manigeliute . . . hara uberebigondon varen ; soharcr sd wdnit, dhazs izs in Salomonewdti al arfu.llit. Thus the order in clausesgenerally may vary between the extremes of apparently conforming completely to Modern German usage, e.g. dd quam des tiufeles sun iif Adames bruggen unde sciteta einen stein ce witel Petrus lesanta Paulurn sinen bruoder,daz er Aderfina dderonferbunde; and diversity like ahd artruknent, muor varswill;.it sih, suilizdt lougiu der himil, mdno valit, prinnit nittilagart, st€n ni kistentit. Cleusrs 5. 37. Clauses may be in effect co-ordinated or subordinated without conjunctions, e.g. qudmunfleogente,frdzun daz; spenis mih mit dinem wortum, atili mih dinu speru werpan; eindrfrdgEt, anderEr antztturtit; anrd th6 in themo ahtuden tage, qudmun zi bisnidanne thaz hind; (OS) Johannesstdd, ddpte allan dag; ich weiz her imos ldndt; ni utdniu ih iu lib habbe; quad, himilrichi ndhti; stimma mdndt, quedEmldb truhtine; (OS) qilan, hd is geld gerewedi.Thus conditional clauseswith initial verb, e.g. ni duas thfi sd,ldn ni habdsthfi esnihein; wile du uizen annniin du burtig sist. . ,; quimit hi gisund iiz, ich gildndn imoz; (OSl w-ad it nil thin wilko, than ni zadrifis wiht s6guod; (OS) wissin sia that, than ni. gidorstin sia; nist ther thia (jungistun zVQ gizeino, ni si min fater eino; thfr alleswio ,ri ddi, ni si a/ sotr ih thih bdti; OS; mid is, ni si that ima god helpafarlihe; bi futrt it mahti giwer an so-,ni weri that it gibod godesselbeswdri; ne wdri that it thi god fargdbi. Expressionslike ni si, and ni (5. 3t), gradateinto conjunc-

CLAUSES

93

tions, as do correlated demonstratives like der and sd (cf. 5. r5), while new correlative expressionsemerge, e.g. sd unpililono enti sd irlicho sdsd d€ mgila in demo himile dlnan uillun arfullant, des tnezzes wir inan arfullan muozzin. 5. 38. Conjunctions. Co-ordinating: avar, but, again, d6, duo, but, for, doh, yet, but, aho, eddo (odhe, &c., OS efdo), or, eddo . . . eddo (OS also the), either . . . or, enti, and, ia (ouh), and, joh, also, eoen, and, noh, and not, oh (OS ak), but, yet, ouh, also, but, for, suntar, but, izzan, exceptthat, unless,but, izzat, unless,but, izzotth, but, wanta, for. Subordinating: danin, whence,wherefore(5. t5), danne, when,because, than(5. 43, 46, 47), danta,because(5.47),ddr, where(5.rS, 44), dara, athither(5. r5), daz,that (5. 4b43, 49), diu, the with comparatives(5. 47, 4r), after diu, ndh diu, after (5.43), bidiu, because (5.46), fone diu, therefore,in diu, when, if (5. +2, ++), innan diu, while (S. +:), rnit diu, athen, while(5.43), zi thiu, in orderthat (5.4r) (all of which may have daz after diu), doh, although(S. +S), dd, duo, as,when,while G.n, +7),6r (6), before(5. 43,44,47),ibu (oba, ube, OS ef, of),iJ,tthether (5.44, 5o), inu, nonne,num (5. 5o),ni,unless, that not (5. gt), niba, unless,exceptthat, but (5.44), niwan, unless,exceptthat (5.44), n[ (nu), num, numquid (5. 5o), sid, since, because(5. +5r 46), s6, as, as when, as soon as, so that (5. +2, 43,47), sama s6, just as (5. +j), sd . . . sd, a.s. . . ds, the . . . the (5. 47),suntar, but that(S. +8), unz, until (S. +S), izzan,unless(5.44),wanta, because(5.46), wedar. . . eddo, whether. . . or (5.5o), wio, as, as tthen (5. +il. 5.39. Mood and Tense in Subordinate Clauses.Mood in subordinate clausesdepends on whether the reference is to reality or on the type of clause(5. 4o-5o), tense dependson the tense of the main clause; e.g. zi thiu thaz ir wizzit . . . thir quidu; in ldzze framgieng thaz her toihrouh branti; ih sentu, thaz ir irkiasEt; tiat er, wio er Abelan sluagi.

{94

SYNTAX

CLAUSES

95

Apparent exceptions are due to expression of further time relations or to direct quotation, e.g. ni huti ztteihthir sa$6ti; (OS) skerida im, that he ni mrahta sprehan,er than thi wir' did hinit giboran; or in Otfrid to rhyme, e'g. $iduent see lfrtmdri, thaz er io druhtin wdri; kundt er imo in droume,er thes wibeszttola Soume,

gengun, that sie wid Krist sprikun; habad gimarhot, thzt u,ti skulun ; gikoran habda, that hd welda ; cf . gibodanhabad, that de wardos sind; verbs of admitting take subjunctive only when they are in preterite, e.g. OS: im giwald fargaf, that sie mdstin; im habdefarliann, thLa/'he mohte; ni was im thiu fruma gibidig, that sie mdstin.

5.40. Indirect Command has the transpositioninto subordinate clause of the jussive subjunctive(5. z5), e.g. god mir gibod thaz ih hier $ivuhti; SanctusPaulus hehiez . . . t^z et Er nechame,e, (5. lil . . .; butemzuir dhaz sin namoin mannom werdhe giu;ihit; nemetgouma thaz ir ni sit thie bouma; OS: hiet, that fruod gumo foroht ni wdri; gibdd, that git it hBtin s6; kudda, that sie buottin; wisda, that seelEstin; ni gibu ik that te rdde, that hE bi$inne; bddun, th^t ve mdstin; thigida ina, that &eemuosti al6sian; ne welleoih, th:at gi it wiodon; thes willeon habad, that he flilEstea1' cf. (OS) 6wa gibiudit, th^t thfr man ni slahl

5. 42. Result Clauseshave subjunctive, especiallyafter negative, e.g. sd thaz . . . thaz einnisi in thrinissezi €rennesi; OS: ni was fimea sd gdd, that siu lang libbian m6sti; wit thes gighnan ni.mohtun, that ait erbiward e-ganrndstin; hwd mag that giwerdan so-,that ik magu fddie?; ni mahtun giwinnan, that ie farfeng,in; he ni mahta gibiddian, that man weldi ; god ni. giskuop, tlral the bdm b:afi; or indicative, e.g. OS: habda them herishipie herta gisterkid, that sia habdun bithutungana thiodo gihwiliha; atillik thi tdgean sulik tdkan, sd thfr an treuwa tnaht wesan an werolde; stuod €n man garo, that hie nami he habad maht, that hE aldtan rnag.

5. 4l . Final (Purpose)Clauseshave similar subjunctive,e.g. brdhtun. ., thaz sieinangoteliantwurtin ; ddz -' . tfi - . . in n6t prdht wlrdlst ; thaz ig iz cosanmuozi ; daz er sin reht allaz OS: hirahhdn rnuozzi; solihhiugisaraztti,diu dih skirmtin; ni hE godes that marcoda, god, mahtig harmskara,the im h\lag gehalon hebanriki tb'e ih thiu dfran, an forgiti; hwat skal ik mdti?; sie hietun im hwit giwddi umbi leggian,tllriu tnEt hie wurdi them liudion te gamne; ne wdrun geuwno, that sie gehdrdin; ik biumgaro, that ik fasto $istande; gern ans he-, that hi mdsti; wirdig is the ztturhteo,thatman ina fddea; thea gumongiward, that sieina lihdbin; is betara, that hE wetpz; liof is gihzlilihumu, that man ina aldte; znasim tharf mikil, thzt ve Siho$din ; that is min te duonne,that ih mina fuoti sette; but indicative if the ef thfr gikiosan wili, that man liwitkea; (cf. 5. 4z), e.g.OS: result an achieved also as is stated f,rrpo* seola $isettun; barm an Abraharnes ie that ldddan ina ford,

5. 43. Temporal Clauseshave indicative after most conjunctions, subjunctive after Er when the main clause is not negative, e.g. Er an himile stemon skin€n; OS: ztit habdun aldres twentig wintro, Er than qudmi thit wif; thes sie ni mahtun farstandan, Er it im Krist seggeanwelda; cf. OS: that jdr furder shrid, und that that barnfiartighabda dago;bethat hE thea wurdi farsihid, than wdt hi; sd hE thma toirdk drd!, gruios qudmunim. 5.44. Conditional Clauseshave both Moods, e.g. rihtuom, den manigehab€nni mugun, ander€nni arrne; in thiu thaz et mig s6sama duo; OS : ef thil nibist that barn godes,bist thfr than Helias?; hil skulun wit libbian, ni hier ztind kurrrit?; hie ri mohrta sprekan,newan that hi wisda; the subjunctive is used when the condition (whether or not possible) is unreal (the apodosis may be indicative, e.g. (OS) wdh war6

f, 96

SYNTAX

thesarovteroldi, ef. thil iro skoldis giwald' egan; (OS) welda 'ina man gerno farldtan, thdr hie is habdi giwald; ot (cf . 5. z5) rna! gizuinnan heriscaf, engilogiwelti, ob ih iz duan wolti), ih ubi Christus Got ni wdri; OS : ef ube uberwunde; e.g. er in wurdi gi6 the dag kuman; libes muosti, than ne it giwerdan rnahiti; thdr thfi mi nahor wdris, of. hi weldi ina bil1sian, an thiu the sea kbbian harm tholon; than ni thorfti ih rulik 'unless', e.g. nioman mag (unlike after Gothic) weldin; or quemanzi mir, nibi thie fater ziohe inan; sd thaz winloub ni nibi,g wone in theru winrebun,sd lr, nibi mac beranzoahsmon, ir in mir wonilt; mo unsar €an tuomit siu man, nibi $ill.dte fon imo; OS: (cf. nisthi werd eoutihtte bimidanne, nebo thf imlun that reht sprikis) it wesanni mag, nebu eft tholoie; n:i was im tutenonigEn, neba sie weldin sidon. 5. 45. Concessive Clauseshave usually subjunctive, e.g. dhoh er in Cyresnamin qtdti; iznan er iz mit alamusanufurivie$i; OS: ne ldt thil ie thi thiu ledaron, thoh srlt ESi barn; ward spraka bildid, thoh ha spdhan hugi bdri; but (OS) thoh thii. .. habes. 5.46. Causal Clauseshave indicative, e.g. bi thiru,thazih irdualta . . . scalih iz mit willen. . .; OS : that was sd sdbgman, hwand hie gerno gode thionoda; ik thi skal biddean, ni ik susgigamalod bium; sd (S. :Z) wit sd rnanagandag wArun an thesaru werold:i, sd mi thes wundar thunkid. 'than' in general have 5. 47. Comparative Clauses with Potential Subjunctive, but sometimesindicative after negative main clause, e.g. gituost . . . kurziron tag dante d.iu naht si; t h a n n e t h e rh u n i n gd d t i ; O S : t h i u h a b a d fuar $...ba2... than man E$in; ni gisah €nig mhon minnia, miran, thea fidu tLran he tu them nlannuln $inam; thia man hangonni lietun lengeran hwi.la, than im that /y' skridi; betara is imu thnn 6dar, that hi thana ftiund farwerpa, than srehelligithaing bedea

CLAUSES

97 gisdkean i d muguniuuta werh biholanwerdan, than mEr tlcle thiu burg ni rnzg, thiu an bergestdd, biholanwerdan.Comparisons of equality and clausesof manner have mood depending on reality, e.g. OS : habda nc"gilistid, al sd r gigengi was; was im thi, al sd he-thritig habdi wintro; so dedathe sunu,sd neoJudeonumbi that thiu mEr zi gildbdun; id humid the dag, sd it 6r theseliudi ni witan. 5.48. Relative Clauseswith superlative,and genericrelative clauses(5. r5, 16) in general, as also negative relative clauses, also have potential subjunctive, e.g. (OS) hdrdesmEst thero thie gzbman elllti (beside(OS) allero /zdolofsamost thero the ik eo lisaln) ; ih wirdu bijihtig, thes (5. r 5) ih mrehte.sgisdhi ; swer (5. t6) dar-inne welle zimberdn;niusedE mdtti; nist man nihein in znorolti,thaz saman a/ irsa$6ti . . .; nist boumnihein . .. suntar iu nan suente; OS : 6astthi Enigthero thi hier Er wdri?; sd hwat sio ih thes gidida, thes zuithar mineru hristinh4di wdri; ni utas forlebid wiht, that shenkin druogin (besidene ailliad thesfarldtan zttiht,thes ve spenit). 5. 49. Indirect Speech has subjunctive, e.g.joh kundtun ouh tho tndri, thzz er ther hning wdri; quedant, dhaz noh Christ ni qwdtni; daz hdrtih rahh6n, daz sculi der antichristo mit Ekase pdgan; OS:-quddun, that ie wissin; hiet shliban, that that w-ari huring Judeono; drund,ibrdhta, that siu gisdwi; sum sagad, that thfi Elias sis; hie sagit, that hie drohtin si; sagda, that kuman skoli e? kuning; sagda, that hie weldi; ni weldun antkewtian, thzt he-god wdri; ni gildbdun, that hie alowaldo wdri; afiniu ik, that thanan stankkarne; mt tlrunhid, that hie si betara; gitruoda siu, that is waldandesbarn helpanweldi; antrid,that ie biniimin; also indicative for facts, e.g. OS: seggiu ih iu, that gt ne tnugun fargeban; sagda, thzt barn huning sokeanwelda; and with affirmative verbs of objective perception, e.g. OS:- gisdurun, that thandn bluod endi water H

f98

SYNTAX

sprung,un; farstdd, that hie hirron habdun; rlras that skin, that hi drohtin was; gihfidda, that hie habda hraft. 5. 50. Indirect Question has similar use of Moods, e.g. sih wio wit i si; sorgin mac diu s/-la, zi wederemo herre siu gihalot werde ; er frag€n gistuont . . . wer sinfater wdri ; OS : fragodun, ef. he wdri that barn godes; anlda is muodsebanundarfindan, hwat hie rnohti; bigan thenkeanhwo he sie fotlEti; gibod, hwdr s/egangan skoldin; ztundrodun,bihwi he thorfti; hwat quedat these,bwat zft sil; hie it gihuggian ni mdt, hwd hie liwirkie; habda gilEid, hw6 sre l6f tuirkean skoldin; sagda, hwilik thero wdri; rooldashriban, hw6 seZ skoldin frummian; hdrdun, hwd thiu engilo hraft ldbodun; ni forstodun, bi lrwi ie pisprak ; ztsitgod, hwes thea bithurbun; hfrddun,hwilik im thar bilidi watd gitagid; ni ztilliu ik helan, hwat iu skal te sorgu gistandan; he gihugid, hwzt h€ gifremida; skal le-rean,hwdseaskulun; mag seggian,hwd it giwerdan skal; giskriban u)as it, an bdkun giwritan, hw6 gibodenhabad alomahtigfader; seggiueA,hw6 eo gibiudit. Direct questions may be introduced by the conjunctions that introduce indirect questions,funetioning as interrogative adverbs, like Latin -ne, nuntr,nonne, with or without 'or', e.g. enoni tuont tltaz heidaneman? (nonne); inno trifet tih tero deheinezana? (num); (OS) hweder lediad gt wundmz gold?; (OS) hweder thfi that fan thi selbonsprihis, the ;t thi 6dra sagdun?(cf. (OS) is it reht, t}ae nis?).

VI S P E C I M E NO F O H G D I A L E C T S AND OTHER OLD GERMANIC LANGUAGES 6. 1. East Franconian, ninth century, Tatian. Fater unserl, thU2 ther3 bist+ in himiles, si6giheilagdtzthin namo8,quemeethin rihhito, si thin uuillotr, sdt2herl3 in himile ist, so si her in erdul4, unsarrs brdt tagalihhazr6gibtT uns hiuturs, intile furlez2o uns unsara2l sculdi2z, so uuir furItrzemEs23 unsar€n24sculdig6n25,inti ni gileitcst26unsih2Tin costunga, fizouh28arldsizsunsih fonalo ubile. r. 4.40, cf. nn. 14, 19. 2. tlr- 3.4r. 3. 5.15.

+ .4 . q .

5. 4. z, 5. ro. 6. 4.63,9.25. 7. 4.6c. 8. 4. rz; on ordersee5. 36. g. +. 49 and 53,MHG $ 36,ii. ro. 4.3. r r . S e en . 8 ; u u 2 . 3 . 1 2 .5 . 3 8 . 4. 4.38c. 1 4 .4 . 5 , 5 . r o . 15. 4. +oa. 16. 4, rg. 17. +.49 and54. 18. From *hlu (cf. +. :8c) tagu, instrumental. 19. 5. 38. H2

i

roo

SPECIMEN

OF OHG DIALECTS SPECIMEN

z o . 4 . + g a n d 5 6 ; - r d -3 . 2 7 . 2 r . 4 . 4 0 ( a n ds e en . 1 5 )a n d 4 . r y @ f . 4 . z a ) . 22. 4. ro, 23. 4.+g and56. 24. 4.40 and 19. 2 5 .4 . 2 2 . 26. Subjunctive,4. 58, 5.z.5. 27.+.3828. 5. 38. zg. 4. 58; a- 3.27. 30. 5. 6. 6. 2. South Rhenish Franconian (a) eighth century, WeissenburgCatechism. Fater unsEr, thu in himilomr bist2, giuuihitl si namo thin4, quaemesrichi thin, uuerdhe6uuilleoz thin, sama8sd in himile endis in erthu. Broots unseraz emezzigazgib uns hiutu, endi farldzrouns sculdhi unsero, sama so tuir farldzzemloscol6m unser6m, endi ni gileidi unsih in costunga,auhrl.arldsi unsih fona ubile. r. +.2. 2' 5.36. 3. uuih- vocabulary sharedwith Go, as opp. Tatian (6. r) (and Notker (6. 5) and later German generally) heilagshared with OE (and ON). 4. 5.34. 5. 2.2' 6' 3.4t. 7 . 2 . 3 , 3 . 4 8 , 4 .1 3 .

8 .s . : 8 .

9. 3.43. ro.3,27,4.49. n. 5.26.

OF OHG DIALECTS

(D) ninth century, Otfrid (II. zt,v.

IoI

z7-4o).

Fdterr unser gtrato2, bist dnlhtin thu gimfato in himilom io h6her, uuih si n6mo thiner. Biqudme uns thinaz richi, thaz hoha himilrichi, thdrar uuir zua io gingena ioh emmizigens thingen. So uuillo thin hiar nidare, sos 6r ist ufin himile6. in 6rdu hilf uns hiare, so thu engilon duistT nu thrire. Thia d6galichun8 zrlhti gib hiut uns mit ginrlhti ioh f6llon ouh, theiste m6ra, thinesro selbes lera. Scrlld bilaz uns iillen, so uuir ouh duan uu6llen, srlnta thia uuir thdnken ioh 6mmizigen uuirken. Ni firllzerr unsih thin uuira ir1 thes uuidaruuerten fdrar2, thaz uuir ni missig6ngen, thara dna ni gifiillen. L6si unsih io thdnana, thaz uuir sin thine thegana ioh mit ginddon thinen then uu6uuonre io bimiden. Amen. r. Otfrid marks stressed vowels z. 5.7; -ua- 3. 16.

',

cf.. 6. 5.

3. 5.6. 4. 4.58. 5. 5.4. 6. 5. ro.

7.+.6+. 8 .s . z . 9 -4 . + r . to. 5. rz. r t . 5 . 2 5 ,3 . 2 7 . 1 2 .5 . 3 13. 4. 12. 6.3. Alemannic,eighth century, St. Gall. ' Fater unseer,thu pistr in himile, uuihi namun dinan, qhuemez rihhi din, uuerde uuillo diin, s6 in himile sdsa3in erdu. Prootha unseer emezzihic kip uns hiutu, oblaz uns sculdi unseero,so uuir oblezcm uns sculdik€m, enti ni unsih firleiti in khorunkas, itzzan6kaneriz unsih fona allEm suntdn.

,\\IO2

SPECIMBN

OF OHG DIALECTS

t- 3.+3. 2.3.+2. 3.5.38. 4. 2.2. 5. 3.42 and43. 6. Ct.6. r, n. 26. 7. 3.27. 6. 4. Bavarian, ninth century, Freisingen. Fater unser, du pist in himilum. Kauuihit si namo din. Piqhueme rihhi din. IJuesaI din uuillo, sama sd in himile ist, sama2in erdu. Pilipi unsraz3 emizzigaz kip uns eogauuanna.t. Enti flAzsuns unsro6 sculdi, sama so uttir fldzzam€sunsrEm scol6m. Enti ni princ unsih in chorunka. Uzzan kaneri unsih fona allem suntdn. r. See6. r, n. 19. 2. 5.373. +. 194. eo (MHG ie) and S,awanna, cf. giwelih ^ +. +6. 5. 3.27.

6. 4.+o-

6. 5. Tenth to eleventh centuries, Notler, Bavarian. Fdter unser dirl in himele bist, din nimo werde gehdiligot. Din richez chome3,din wlllo gescdheain erdos,ils6 in himele. Unser tdgelicha6brot kibz uns hiuto unde rinsere scrllde bellz rlns, dls6 duh wir bellzen unserdn scr1ldig6n8.Unde in ch6runga ne liitdst du rlnsih. Nrlbe l6se 0nsih fdne ribele. r. Notker marks stressed short vowels ', stressed and somc ^, unstressed long diphthongs on first vowel (cf. z. z), closing ones(i.e. nnirower vowel last) and iu ', opening'. For the Anlautsgesetzsee 3. 43. 2. 3.23. 3. 4.42. 4. 3.27.

SPECIMEN OF OHc DIALECTS ).

ro3

J. ).

6. 4. zz,5.7. 7.3.43. 8.s.8. 6.6. Old Saxon,ninth century, Heliand. Fadarr iisa2, thu bist an thema himilo rikeaa. Geuuihid si thin namo. Cuma thin riki. Uuertha thin uuilleo, s6 sama an ertho, so an them himilo rikea. Gefs os6 dagoz gehuuilikess s5de, endi aletro us managoro m€nsculdiorr, al s6 uu6r2 6thrumr3 mannum d6anr4.Ne lit us farledeanl€tha uuihti, acts help us uuithar allun ubilon dadiun.Ir

r . 3 .+ r , 2 3 . 2.3.49,4,4o.

3. Alternativeto tiemu (4.4t), u -m to -mu in adjectives (4. r9);5. ro. 4 ' 3 ' 4 2 , 4 84' . 3 ' 5. 3.5r.

6. s.+ g. 7 .+ , 2 . 8. +.+6.

9. NHG Rat. ro. a- : OHG ar-, with *-z- lost before consonant (as in WGc *mEda (f . 16), Go mizdo) after unstresscdvowel. rr. 4. ro; m6n : O}lG mein, crime. rz. 4.38. 13' 3'49,4'19' 14. Frisian form (cf.4.64). 1 5 .5 . 3 8 . 6.7. Gothic. Attat unsar pu in himinam2, weihnai3 namo+ Fein. Qimai piudinassusspeins6.Wairpaiz wiljas peins, sweein himina jahto psnat{ sinteinan gif une himmats arnrI afrpu. Hlaif t2unsara113t3

'qTO4

daga. Jah aflet uns pateil6 skulanslT sijaimals, swaswerejah weiszoafletam Paimzt skulam unsaraim. Jah ni briggais22uns in fraistubnjaiz3ak24lausei2s uns af pamma ubilin26.

.

S P E C I M E NO F O H G D I A L E C T S

,SPECIMEN OF OHG DIALECTS

r. Go fadar occursonly once,in SN, cf. 4. 16. z. 4, z;differentsuffix (-n-) from German(-l-), cf. 6. 8, n. 5. 3. -n: inchoative suffix, Go 4th weak conjugation.

, . 4. Neuter,4.13. , S. 4. r r ; from piudans, hing, piuda, people,OHG diot-. . . 6. 4.40,19. , 7, 2.2.

8 .: . s s .

g. as,cf,s6, 5. 38. ro. OHG joh, 5. 38. r r . 5 .6 . :' rz. brbad,OE hlef, OHG leib (S. So). 13.4. ry-OHG unsaranby 3.t9.

r+-4.+r-

1 5 .4 , 3 8 c . 16. -ei forms relative pronouns; thus : daz conjunction. 17.+. 12. 18. Regular subjunctive inflexion added to subjunctive stem of *es- (cf. +. +9, q). r9. Cf.n:9. zo. 4.38. 2r. 4.4r,5.3+. zz. 5.25,4. 58. 23.+.3. 24. Cf.6.6, n. r5. 2 5 -+ . 5 8 . 26. 4. 13. 6..8. Old English. " Fagdert trre3.dtr 6e3 earta.on.heofonums, si din narrra gehalgod, Td becume din qice. Gewurde din willa on eorpanO

ros

swd swd on heofonum. UrneT daghwEmlican hlaf syle8 us td dag. And forgyf us ure gyltaso, swi swii wE forgyfaplo Urum gyltendum. And ne geltrd dtr Us on costnungaac 6lls us of yfele. r. 3. rz. z. Possessive pronoun from GP iire besidetiser. 15. Cf. 3. 5. :earon aie 4. a broken to ea before r; this z S and pl. ' probably from perfect of *er-, Latin orlor. G o h i m i n w i t h d i s s i m i l a t i o no f m , s o O S 5.2.+l: heban besidehimil (6. 7, n. z). 6 . e broken (n. 4) to eo. d.

4.19OHG sellen, OE also sellan.

9. 4 . 2 . ro. 4 . 4 9 . 6. 9. Old Norse. pitts. Til kome Fader vdrrr, sd pt ert i2 hifne, helgesk:nxf11+ pitt rike. Verbe pinn6 vile, suii 57 iQr68 sem 6 hifne. Gef oss i dag vdrt dagligt braud. Ok fyrerlnt osseossarskulder, sud sem vEr fyrerldtom ossom skuldo-nautom. Ok innro leid oss eige i freistne. HeldrlI frels pu oss af illo. r. New formation from F 6r (cf. z. +) < xunsard- (cf. ossar, ossom below, and n. 9), with v- from vEr. 2. < *in, with'compensatory' lengthening. 3. Middle voice, cf. 4. 47 (from suffixed -sik). 4. < -rnn-, cf. 6. 8, n. 5. 5. ( -ntr cf. nn.2,9. 6. < -nr. J. 1*an, cf. n. a. 8. e vUmlauted (2. $ to jg before*-u < *-d (+. S). *uns, cf. n.5 (and n. r). 9. <

F106

SPECIMEN OF OHC DIALECTS

ro. OHG inne. rr. Go haldis' OHG halt' rcthor. 6. 10. The Latin Original. Pater noster, qui es in caelis,sanctificeturnomen tuum. Adveniatregnumtuum. Fiat voluntastua in caeloet in terram. Panemnostrumcottidianumda nobishodie.Et remittenobis debita nostra, sicut et nos debitoribus nostris. Et ne nos inducasin temptationem,sedliberanosa malo.

S E L E C TB I B L I O G R A P H Y r. OHG GRAMMARS Armitage, L., An fntroduction to the Study of Old High German, Oxford, r9 r r. Braune, W., Althochdeutsche Gram.matik, siebenteAuflage (bearbeitet von K. Helm), Halle, r95o. z. OHG READERS Barber, C., An Old High German Read.er,Oxford, r95r. Braune, W., Althochdeutsches Lesebuch, elfte Auflage (bearbeitet von K. Helm), Halle, 1949. Jolivet, A., and Moss6, F., Manuel de l'allemand du moym 6ge, Paris, 1942. 3. HISTORY OF GERMAN A., An Introduction to the Historical Study of Neu High German, Manchester, rgz3. Priebsch, R., and Collinson, W., The Gernun Language, second edition, London, 1946. Walshe, M. O'C., An Etymological German Dictionary, London, I95I. Wright, J., A Middle High Germnn Primez, fourth edition revised by M. O'C. Walshe, Oxford, rg5r. Kirk,

LANGUAGES a. OTHER GERMANIC Gordon, E., An fntuoduction to Old Norse, Oxford, rgz7. Holthausen, F., AltsdcltsischesElementarbuch, Heidelberg, r 9z r. Sweet, H., An Anglo- S axon Reader, Oxford, r 9o8 ( r zth ed., r g5o). Wright, 1., An Elementary Old English Grarnmar, Oxford Gg4), I 9 5I . - Grammar of the Gothic Language, Oxford (r9ro), 1948. 5. GENERAL GERMANIC H., Handbuch des Urgennanischen, Heidelberg, r93r-z (z vols.). Loewe, R,, Germanische Sprachzlissmschaft, Leipzig (Gdschen), rgo5. Prokosch, E., A Comparathte Germnnic Grammnr, Philadelphia, r939. Hirt,

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