El Problema Agrario en Venezuela

 

YH]ÕINCFO ILNCROYCODO GH RHDHUXHNO XDCRHYVCGOG DOFCLDON HZ]HYC@HDWON GH NLV NNODLV FHDWYONHV „YÖ@XNL AONNHALV‐ ÏYHO GH FCHDFCOV ]LNÀWCFOV X EXYÀGCFOV ]YLAYO@O @XDCFC]ONCUOGL GH BLY@OFCÖD GH GHYHFJL

 HN ]YLINH@O OAYOYCL HD  RHDHUXHNO

IOFJCNNHYHV5

@OYHNSV YHILNNHGL F.C5 R-?7.?39.=38 @OYCO AOIYCHNO OYCOV F.C5 R-9:.6?2.867 JHFWLY YLGYCAXHU F.C5 R-9:.997.972 ONROYL BHYDODGHV F.C5 R-3.?9=.=81 ONHEODGYO G OALVWL F.C5 R-?8.28?.16:

]YLBHVLY

JX@IHYWL @LYONHV

VOD EXOD GH NLV @LYYLV, @OYUL 9=9=

 

CDWYLGXFFCÖD No prlguffcöd oaràflno `ïs quh `ufjos ltros oftcvcgoghs ju`odos hstï ghthr`cdogo  plr boftlrhs gh lrghd ahlarïbcfl, fnc`ïtcfl y hflnöacfl ghn nuaor gldgh sh ghsorrlnno. ]hrl to`icãd hstï ghthr`cdogo plr nos fldgcfcldhs slfconhs hd quh sh ghshdvuhnvh, schdgl hn  prlinh`o gh no plirhzo y hn jo`irh prlinh`os plnàtcfls y hfldö`cfls. Nuhal gh udo jcst jcstlr lrco co trïa trïacf cfoo gh gl gl`c `cdo dofc fcöd öd,, o po port rtcr cr gh bcdo bcdonh nhss gh nl nlss oÿls oÿls := gh ghnn sc scan anl l posogl posogl,, h`ph h` phzo zorl rld d o sura suracr cr hd hn fl fldt dtcd cdhd hdth th ud udoo sh shrc rchh gh `lvc `lvc`c `chd hdtl tlss slfc slfcon onhs hs qu quhh sh outlprlfno`oiod fl`l h`odfcpoglrhs h cauonctorcls. Ghsgh udo hstrothaco nhaon y hnhftlron onaudls gh hnnls jod nnhaogl o puhstls gh fldtrln dofcldon l nlfon y ospcrod o quhgorsh plr  `ufjl tch`pl. Ghdtrl gh no ofogh`co hsto flrrchdth jo thdcgl gcstcdtos ghdl`cdofcldhs5 alichrdls onthrdotcvls, gh`lfrïtcfls, gh czquchrgo, prlarhscstos, slfconcstos, phrl hd tlgl fosl, sh flcdfcgh hd gornhs fchrtos forofthràstcfos fl`udhs, ghdtrl gh hnnos, no iõsquhgo gh `helrhs fldgcfcldhs gh vcgo poro sus puhinls. Hd hn `orfl gh hsos plscicncgoghs hn alichrdl vhdhzlnodl o portcr gh ?333 jo scgl udl gh nls `ïs rhfldlfcgls o gcstcdtls dcvhnhs. Vh fldscghro ghdtrl ghn hsphftrl gh nos vorchgoghs udl gh nls `ïs rogcfonhs, plr su dltlrcl gcsfursl odtcdlrtho`hrcfodl y su  prlpuhsto gh `lghnl „slfconcsto‐. Hd ud `l`hdtl hd quh hsto onthrdotcvo on fopctoncs`l hstoio fld gcbcfunto gcbcfuntoghs, ghs, hn alichrdl alichrdl ilncvorcod ilncvorcodl l no prhshdtö prhshdtö fl`l hn õdcfl fo`cdl fo`cdl plscinh plscinh jofc jofcoo vhrg vhrgog oghr hrls ls fo fo`i `icl cls. s. Vo Voih ihrr quh quh hs hstï tï po poso sodg dgl l hd Rhdh Rhdhzu zuhn hnoo dl gh gheo eo gh sh shr  r  suprh`o`hdth `ltcvodth, hd `hgcl gh ud podlro`o hd quh supuhsto`hdth hn buturl yo hstï hsfrctl y dl hs onhdtoglr poro quchdhs prlvhdc`ls ghn `udgl ghn troioel. Gh odth`odl soih`ls quh no hstrufturo oarorco dl jo scgl no `oylr prhlfupofcöd gh nls alichrdls vhdhzlnodls, phrl hstl sh supldh quh ghih fo`icor hd ud rãac`hd plnàtcfl fuyo `oylr  cdquchtug sho hn ichdhstor gh no plinofcöd, hsphfcon`hdth no `ïs plirh.

 

HN ]YLINH@O OAYOYCL HD RHDHUXHNO Hn prlinh`o oarorcl hd duhstros slfchgoghs. ]lgrào`ls forofthrczor su hxcsthdfco, ghsfrc ghs frcich ichdgl dgl rhsu`c rhsu`cgo` go`hdt hdthh no prhshd prhshdfco fco gh nls scauch scauchdth dthss bhdö`h bhdö`hdls dls hfldö`c hfldö`cfls fls y slfconhs5 - On Onto to fl fldfh dfhdt dtro rofc fcöd öd gh no prlp prlpch chgo gog g gh no tc tchr hrro ro.. Hn no notc tcbu budg dgcl cl hs no bl blr` r`oo  prhgl`cdodth y fldtrlno no `oylrào gh nos tchrros hd duhstrls poàshs; - No `ono utcnczofcöd gh no tchrro y gh`ïs rhfursls doturonhs. rhfursls doturonhs. Fl`l no prlpchgog hstï fldfhdtrogo hd no lncaorquào ruron, quh dl dhfhsorco`hdth dhfhscto gh tlgo no tchrro poro ofu`unor, arod porth gh hsos tchrros sh `odtchdh c`prlguftcvo, fld `uy ioeo utcnczofcöd; - Nl quh hs prlgufcgl hd no tchrro. Nos nàdhos gh prlguffcöd oglptogos hd nos tchrros `ïs bãrtcnhs gh duhstrls poàshs dl sh ghgcfod o funtcvls ghstcdogls o no onc`hdtofcöd gh onc`hdtofcöd gh duhstrls puhinls, scdl quh, `ïs ichd, sh ghstcdod on `ldlfuntcvl gh hxplrtofcöd, quh cdthrhso o nls poàshs fhdtronhs, l o no prlguffcöd gh `othrcos prc`os vcdfunogos o no arod oarlcdgustrco `untcdofcldon. - Hn rhsuntogl gh nos forofthràstcfos odthrclrhs hs gh quh hd fosc tlgls nls poàshs  phrcbãrcfls hn jo`irh hs fl`õd y obhfto o ud hnhvogl plrfhdtoeh gh no plinofcöd. Hd hn fosl gh Iroscn, Iroscn, sld 69 `cnnldhs gh phrsldos quh posod jo`irh tlgls nls gàos, gh ud tlton gh ?8= `cnnldhs, y ltrls 28 `cnnldhs sh onc`hdtod, shaõd no Lraodczofcöd @udgc Lraodczofcöd @udgcon on gh Vonug, Vonug, plr  ghioel gh nos dhfhscgoghs `àdc`os. - Hn ãxlgl ruron blrzogl y no `carofcöd o `carofcöd o rhacldhs brldthrczos fld ltrls poàshs. Nls fo`phscdls yo dl tchdhd buturl hd sus nuaorhs gh rhscghdfco y sld lincaogls o `caror o nos fcugoghs l o ltros rhacldhs nheodos. - Hn `lgh `lghnl nl th thfd fdln lnöa öacf cfl l udo nöacfo  nöacfo õdcf õdcfo` o`hd hdth th

flds fldsu` u`ccsto sto

og oglp lpto togl gl hd no noss oa oarc rcfu funt ntur uros os ph phrc rcbã bãrc rcfo foss gh

prlg prlguf uftl tlss

oarl oarlccdgus dgusttrco connhs

sc scau auhh

pr prlg lguf ufccgls gls

 plr h`prhsos  h`prhsos trodsd trodsdofc ofcldo ldonhs nhs.. S dl tchdhd tchdhd dcdaudo dcdaudo rhn rhnofc ofcöd öd fld hn fnc fnc`o, `o, fldgcfc fldgcfcldh ldhss gh suhnl, suhnl, gh duhstrls poàshs. Hs ud `lghnl thfdlnöacfl trosnogogl `hfïdcfo`hdth gh nls  poàshs fhdtronhs, y hstïd troyhdgl hdlr`hs fldshfuhdfcos, cdfldtrlnoinhs, todtl poro nls

 

rhfursls doturonhs gcspldcinhs, fuodtl poro no slirh vcvhdfco ghn jl`irh, jl`irh, osà fl`l poro hn ou`hdtl phr`odhdth gh no prlguftcvcgog no prlguftcvcgog plr  plr jhftïrho.

FOYOFWHYCUOFCÖD NO OAYCFXNWXYO HD NO HFLDL@ÀO ANLION No oa oarc rcfu funt ntur uroo fl fl`l `l fl fl`p `pld ldhd hdth th prc` prc`or orcl cl gh ghnn oiost oiosthf hfc` c`ch chdt dtl l on onc` c`hdt hdtor orcl cl,, fl`pr fl` prhd hdgh gh no ahdhr ahdhrof ofcö cöd d gh rh rhda danl nldh dhss on onc` c`hd hdtc tcfc fcls ls hd no noss ro ro`o `oss vhaht vhahton on,, od odc` c`on on y  phsquhro. Dl listodth, ghdtrl ghn hdblquh hn scsth`o oarlonc`hdtorcl, hsto budfcöd iïscfo gh ahdhrofcöd gh prlguftls onc`hdtcfcls, dl fun`cdo oquà, scdl quh oiorfo ogh`ïs, hn osphft osp hftl l oarlcd oarlcdgus gustr trcon con y gh fl`hrf fl`hrfcon conczo czofcö fcöd, d, gldgh gldgh sh rhonc rhonczod zod nos trodsb trodsblr` lr`ofc ofcldhs ldhs dhfhsorcos on prlguftl poro su gcstrciufcöd y fldsu`l bcdon. Cauon`hdth, ghdtrl gh hsth fldthxtl gh hdblquh scstã`cfl, hn fl`pldhdth hxthrdl quh cdfnuyh nos c`plrtofcldhs y hxplrto hxpl rtofcl fcldhs dhs gh onc`hd onc`hdtls tls y `othrc `othrcos os prc`os prc`os poro poro no oarlcd oarlcdgus gustrc trco, o, osà fl`l fl`l ltrls ltrls cdsu`ls, hqucpls, sh`lvchdths, thfdlnlaào, rhfursls ju`odls, htf., sld porth budgo`hdton ghn shftlr oarlphfuorcl. Rcstl hn shftlr oarlphfuorcl fl`l ud scsth`o oarlonc`hdtorcl, cdshrtl hd ud `lghnl gh Ghsorr Ghsorrlnn lnnl l Hfldö` Hfldö`cfl cfl Vusthd Vusthdtoi toinh, nh, su @cscöd @cscöd,, ghih shr hstoin hstoinhfh hfhrr udo duhvo duhvo ãtc ãtcfo fo hfldö`cfo, hfldö`c fo, quh opudth o no rhonczofcöd rhonczofcöd gh oftcvcgoghs oftcvcgoghs hflnöacfo`hdth hflnöacfo`hdth susthdtoinhs, susthdtoinhs, gldgh no prlgu prlguff ffcö cöd d oaràf oaràfln lnoo prc` prc`or orco co y oa oarl rlcd cdgus gustr trco con, n, jo joaod aod ãd ãdbo bosc scss hd no noss pr prof oftc tcfo foss fldshrvofcld fldshr vofcldcsto cstos, s, dl fldto`cdodt fldto`cdodths, hs, fld thfdlnlaàos thfdlnlaàos nc`pcos, poro onfodzor onfodzor nls dcvhnhs dcvhnhs oghfu ogh fuog ogls ls,, hd vl vlnõ nõ`h `hdhs dhs,, fo fodt dtcg cgogh oghss y rh rhdgc dgc`c `chd hdtl tls, s, quh ao aoro rodt dtcf cfhd hd no sh shau aurc rcgo gog g onc`hdtorco y bofcncthd udo lrghdofcöd susthdtoinh ghn thrrctlrcl. Ghdtrl gh hsth fldthxtl, nls Liehtcvls ghn shftlr oarlphfuorcl ghihd shr5 C`punsor hn frhfc`chdtl slsthdcgl gh ud `lghnl gh ghsorrlnnl oaràflno susthdtoinh, hbcfchdth y fl`phtctcvl, hd budfcöd gh duhstros vhdtoeos fl`porotcvos y no shnhffcöd gh ruirls hflnöacfo y funturon`hdth ichd ogoptogls. ]rlphdghr o no sotcsboffcöd, hd hn `hgcodl pnozl, gh nls rhquhrc`chdtls onc`hdtorcls gh no plinofcöd hd tãr`cdls gh subcfchdfco pnhdo, nl fuon hxcah quh no prlguffcöd cdthrdo fuiro on `hdls hn 17% gh nos dhfhscgoghs gh dutrchdths gh no plinofcöd. Fldtrciucr on oiotc`chdtl gh nls dcvhnhs gh cdbnofcöd o trovãs ghn cdfrh`hdtl gh no lbhrto gh prlguftls oarlphfuorcls.

 

Blrtonhfhr hn nlarl ghn hqucncircl hd no ionodzo gh poals, `hgcodth no ghthr`cdofcöd gh nls ruirls prclrctorcls poro hn fldsu`l cdthrdl y poro no hxplrtofcöd, gh ofuhrgl o nos vhdto vhd toeo eoss fl`por fl`porot otcv cvos os y no fl fldfh dfhrt rtofc ofcöd öd gh ghfcs ghfcscl cldh dhss hd hdtr trhh nl nlss pr prlgu lguft ftlr lrhs hs y nl nlss oarlcdgustrconhs. Rhnor plr hn `helro`chdtl gh nos fldgcfcldhs gh vcgo y prlguffcöd hd hn `hgcl ruro ruron, n, cdfr cdfrh` h`hd hdto todg dgl l no ahdhr ahdhrof ofcö cöd d gh h`pn h`pnhl hl gc gcrh rhft ftl l h cd cdgc gcrh rhft ftl, l, op oplyo lyodg dgl l fl fld d bcdo bcdodf dfco co`c `chd hdtl tl og oghf hfuo uogl gl o

nls nls

prlg prlguf uftl tlrh rhss

y op opnc ncfo fodg dgl l

cd cdfh fhdt dtcv cvls ls y

`hgc `hgcgo goss

 prlthffcldcstos. Hstoinhfhr plnàtcfos gh lrghdofcöd thrrctlrcon quh prhshrvhd nos tchrros gh vlfofcöd oaràflno oaràfl no poro hsth sönl prlpösctl, prlpösctl, `hgcodth `hgcodth no zldcbcfofcöd zldcbcfofcöd gh funtcvls funtcvls y ghsfldfhdtro ghsfldfhdtrofcöd fcöd gh oftcvcgoghs.

HN NOWCBXDGCL WYOGCFCLDON GCVWCDWOV FNOVHV GH NOWCBXDGCL Hn notcbu notcbudgc dgcl l hs udo hxpnlt hxpnltofc ofcöd öd oarorc oarorcoo gh arodghs arodghs gc`hds gc`hdscld cldhs, hs, usuon` usuon`hdt hdthh gh prlpchgog gh prlpchgog prcvogo prcvogo y  y fld ud rhdgc`chdtl prlguftcvl cdbhrclr on quh phr`cth no tchrro, ioeo fopctonczofcöd y prhforco `odl gh liro. Nos fldscghrofcldhs rhsphftl o quã gc`hdscldhs `àdc`os tchdh ud notcbudgcl, dl listodth, puhghd vorcor gh ofuhrgl o no rhacöd y no funturo. funturo. Hn tãr` tãr`cd cdl l no notc tcbu budgc dgcl l fl fldt dtch chdh dh ud udoo fo fora raoo ph phyl ylro rotc tcvo vo,, vc vcdf dfun unog ogoo fl fld d hn us usl l cdoprlpcogl l plfl hbcfchdth gh nos tchrros y udo ahstcöd prcvogo `ïs cdthrhsogo hd no  plshscöd gh nos `cs`os quh gh prlgufcr onc`hdtls poro no plinofcöd no plinofcöd.. Gh jhfjl jhfjl,, hn tã tãr` r`cd cdl l „n „not otcb cbud udgc gcst sto‐ o‐,, fl fld d quh quh sh dl dl`i `iro ro o qu quch chd d pr prof oftc tcfo fo hn notcbudgcl, suhnh oslfcorsh hd O`ãrcfo Notcdo fld Notcdo fld nls arodghs thrrothdchdths jhrhghrls gh nos nos ãnc ãncths quh quh ghth ghthdt dtor orld ld no prlp prlpcchgog hgog gh no tchr hrrro hd ãplfos ãplfos flnldc flnldconh onhss l pl plsst cdghphdghdtcstos. Vcd h`ioral, hd tãr`cdls tãr`cdls hstrcftls, hstrcftls, ud notcbudgc notcbudgcl l puhgh hstor og`cdcstrog og`cdcstrogl l plr udo flnhft fln hftcvc cvcgog gog fuonqu fuonquchr chro, o, h cdfnus cdfnusl l shr porth porth gh prlyhf prlyhftls tls flnhft flnhftcvl cvlss l fl`udo fl`udonhs nhs gh  prlguffcöd.

FNOVHV GH NOWCBXDGCLV

 

?. Notcbudgcl Hfldö`cfl5 Ghbcdcgls plr nos arodghs hxthdscldhs gh tchrros lfclsos l cdsubcfchdth`hdth funtcvogos. Flcdfcgh fld hn fldfhptl trogcfcldon gh notcbudgcl. 9. Notcbudgcl Vlfcon5 ghsfodso slirh no thdhdfco gh nos tchrros, hstl hs fuodgl no tchr tchrro ro dl hs funt funtcv cvogo ogoss gcrh gcrhft fto`h o`hdt dthh pl plrr hn prlpc prlpcht htor orcl cl,, sc scdl dl o tr trov ovãs ãs gh oporf oporfhr hrls ls,, orrhdgotorcls, `hgcodhrls u lfupodth. Vh utcnczo u tcnczo no tchrro fl`l fopcton rhdtoinh 6.

Notcbudg dgccl

Doturon5

ghih

su

tcpcbcfo foffcöd

o

fldgcfcöd

ahlarïbcfo,

budgo`hdton`hdth. Vu fldthdcgl sld tchrros `oracdonhs, onheogos gh nls fhdtrl gh fldsu`l y forhdth gh vàos gh fl`udcfofcöd.

HN NOWCBXDGCL @LGHYDCUOGLV FLDFH]FCÖD OFWXONHV Nls notcbudgcls sld porfhnos gh arodghs hxthdscldhs y yo quh su to`oÿl hs gh gc`hdscldhs hdlr`hs, phr`cthd ud funtcvl `ufjl `ïs prlguftcvl nl quh o su vhz prlgufh ud `oylr rhdgc`chdtl gh nls rhfursls hfldö`cfls. Wlgos hstos vhdtoeos rhsu`cràod no `oylr fodtcgog gh prlguffcöd y no rhguffcöd gh nls prhfcls gh nls prlguftls rhsuntodths, `ïs iorotls hd hn `hrfogl, nl quh prlgufh hd ghbcdctcvo ud ghsorrlnnl hfldö`cfl. Hd ltros  ponoiros, plr no suphrclrcgog tãfdcfo gh no arod prlguffcöd,9 prlguffcöd, 9 hn notcbudgcl ghihrào phr`ctcr  no prlguffcöd o arod hsfono y o ioels prhfcls, gh `othrcos prc`os poro no onc`hdtofcöd y no oarlcdgustrco. Vcd h`ioral, hd vorcls poàshs no arod prlpchgog gh no tchrro dl jo fldgufcgl on ghsorrlnnl gh no oarcfunturo, ghicgl o quh sh prlgufhd prlfhsls gh ofoporo`chdtl, fld bcdhs gh hsphfunofcöd fld hn prhfcl gh no tchrro. Oporthh gh no hxthdscöd, Oport hxthdscöd, hxcsthd ltrls hnh`hdtls hnh`hdtls forofthràs forofthràstcfls tcfls gh nl quh sh fldlfh fl`l notcbudgcs`l5 ioels rhdgc`chdtls udctorcls, rhdgc`chdtls udctorcls, utcnczofcöd gh no tchrro plr ghioel gh su dcvh dcvhnn gh `ïxc `ïxc`o `o hx hxpn pnlt ltof ofcö cöd, d, io ioeo eo fopctonczofcöd fopctonczofcöd,, io ioel el dc dcvh vhnn th thfd fdln lnöac öacfl fl,, `odl `odl gh liro h`pnhogo liro  h`pnhogo hd fldgcfcldhs prhforcos y, hd fldshfuhdfco, fld ioel dcvhn gh vcgo. Hn notcbudgcs`l jo scgl trogcfcldon`hdth udo buhdth gh cdhstoicncgog slfcon, hxfhptl hd nos ïrhos ïrh os gh duhvl duhvl ghsorr ghsorrlnn lnnl l (oarc (oarcfun funtur turoo pcldhr pcldhro) o) gldgh gldgh hsfosh hsfoshoo no `odl `odl gh liro. liro. ]or ]oroo slnufcldor nls prlinh`os lrcacdogls plr nls notcbudgcls, sh jod prliogl gcvhrsos bör`unos, ghphdgchdths ghn tcpl gh alichrdl hd hn quh sh hdfldtroiod5 ghsgh hn fo`icl gh hstrufturo gh no prlpchgog (rhblr`o (rhblr`o oarorco), oarorco), fld hxprlpcofcldhs cdfnucgos, josto no `lghrdczofcöd gh `lghrdczofcöd gh no hxpnltofcöd (oarcfunturo (oarcfunturo gh `hrfogl). `hrfogl).

 

VLNXFCLDHV JCVWÖYCFOV ON ]YLINH@O OAYOYCL Hn prlinh`o oarorcl hxcsth y tchdh sus roàfhs hd hn `lghnl gh ghsorrlnnl fopctoncsto oglptogl jcstörcfo`hdth plr duhstros ãncths flnldczogos y ghphdgchdths. ]hrl, hd no õntc`o gãfo gãfogo go sh oaro oarovö vö oõd oõd `ïs, `ïs, fld fld no oglpfcöd  oglpfcöd gh no noss pl plnà nàtc tcfos fos hf hfldö ldö`c `cfo foss nn nno` o`og ogos os dhlncihronhs. L quã scadcbcfod hsos plnàtcfos poro no oarcfunturo y oarcfunturo y hn `hgcl ruron< Vcadcbcfod ud oarovo`chdtl ghn prlinh`o oarorcl. ]lrquh no oglpfcöd ghn `lghnl dhlncihron rhprhshdto no su`csc su` cscöd öd fl`pnh fl`pnhto to gh nos ãncths ãncths dofcld dofcldonh onhss quh oiodgldo oiodgldorld rld tlt tlton` on`hdt hdthh  prlyhftls gh  prlyhftls gh ghsorrlnnl dofcldon y sh sl`htchrld o no vlnudtog ghn fopcton bcdodfchrl, y ghn fopcton hxtrod hxt rodehr ehrl, l, hd duhstr duhstrls ls poàshs poàshs.. Wlgo Wlgo no no plnàtcfo  plnàtcfo  hf hfld ldö` ö`cf cfoo sh io ioso so hd no ophrt ophrtur uroo gh nls `hrfogls  `hrfogls po poro ro no noss `hrf `hrfod odfà fàos os cdgus cdgustr trco conh nhss y oa oarà ràfl flno noss gh nl nlss poàsh poàshss fh fhdt dtro ronh nhss y fldtrlnogls plr h`prhsos trodsdofcldonhs. ]lr ltrl nogl, rhprhshdto rhprhshdto udo blr`o gh hxpnltofcöd hxpnltofcöd gh duhstro duhstro rcquhzo, yo dl `ïs o trovãs gh arodghs pnodtos arodghs pnodtos cdgustrconhs,  cdgustrconhs, l gh `othrcos prc`os iorotos, scdl quh ojlro o trovãs gh hnhvogls tcpls gh cdthrãs poaogls cdthrãs poaogls on fopcton bcdodfchrl, quh fjupo gh duhstrls poàshs plr  hn poal gh rlyontchs. L gcsbrozogo g csbrozogo plr tcpls gh fo`icl crrhonhs. fo`icl crrhonhs. No oarcfu oarcfuntu nturo ro gh duhstrl duhstrlss poàshs poàshs hstï hstï sc schdgl hdgl ghstr ghstrlzog lzogo. o. S lraunn lraunnlso lso`hd `hdth th no  iurauhsào gl`cdogo, sh ubodo on ghfcr quh ojlro no oarcfunturo phso `uy plfl hd hn ]CI ]CI  dofcldon,

y

quh

no

plinofcöd

ruron

hs

`cdlrctorco

hd

hn

poàs.

Fl`l scadls gh scadls gh `lghrdcgog. `lghrdcgog. Fuodgl, hd rhoncgog, rhprhshdtod scadls gh `oylr `cshrco y plirhzo.  plirhzo. S sl slir irhh tlgl tlgl gh oiodg oiodgldl ldl gh fuonq fuonquc uchr hr prlyhftl  prlyhftl  gh ghsorrlnnl ghsorrlnnl outödl`l, outödl`l, dofcldon y on shrvcfcl gh shrvcfcl gh nos `oylràos. `oylràos. ]hrl, sc plr ud nogl hn dhlncihroncs`l vo dhlncihroncs`l vo o ghstrlzor  no outldl`ào gh duhstros oarcfunturos, sc plfl nh c`plrto hn ghstcdl gh nos o`pncos `oylràos gh no plinofcöd ruron. ]lr ltrl nogl, no prlpuhsto gh rhblr`o oarorco, gh rhslnufcöd ghn  prlinh`o oarorcl, ojlro `ïs quh dudfo, sh jo vuhntl ud prlinh`o dofcldon, ud prlinh`o gh fnosh. S on fldtrorcl gh nl quh sufhgcö hd Hurlpo y Hstogls Xdcgls, gldgh buhrld nos  iurauhsàos dofcldonhs quchdhs rhslnvchrld hn prlinh`o oarorcl, hd Notcdlo`ãrcfo y hd hn Whrfhr @udgl hn prlinh`o oarorcl slno`hdth plgrào shr rhsuhntl ojlro plr nos buhrzos

 

 plpunorhs. Hs `ïs, no c`pnodtofcöd gh udo rhblr`o oarorco hd no oftuoncgog dl sh nc`cto o fl`iotcr no fldfhdtrofcöd gh no prlpchgog, gh nls "rhsqucfcls bhugonhs", scdl quh udo rhblr`o oarorco thdgrï quh fl`iotcr tlgos nos forofthràstcfos shÿonogos orrcio, fl`l porth ghn prlinh`o prlinh`o oarorc oarorcl, l, y hd hso `hgcgo, `hgcgo, sh trodsb trodsblr` lr`oo dl hd slnufc slnufcöd öd ghn ghsorrlnn ghsorrlnnl l fopctoncst fopct oncsto, o, scdl quh hxcah fo`icls hstrufturonhs hstrufturonhs prlbudgls gh duhstros duhstros hfldl`àos, hfldl`àos, quh no  iurauhsào dofcldon dl quchrh y dl tchdh dc vlnudtog dc fopofcgog gh c`punsornls. Hd hso `hgcgo, sc plr ud nogl hn dhlncihroncs`l oaugczö nls prlinh`os hfldö`cfls y slfconhs gh nls poàshs ghphdgchdths, plr ltrl nogl, prlbudgczö nos fldtrogcffcldhs gh fnosh, quh dls nnhvorld o quh no prlpuhsto gh rhblr`o oarorco sho hd rhoncgog udo prlpuhsto gh fo`icl fo` iclss gh no hfldl`ào, hfldl`ào, gh fo fo`i `icl cl gh nls nls no nozl zlss gh gh ghph phdgh dghdf dfco co.. Xdo Xdo pr prlpu lpuhs hsto to gh ncihrofcöd dofcldon gh duhstrls puhinls.

NO YHBLY@O OAYOYCOV WL]LNLAÀOV JCVWÖYCFOV Nls phdsoglrhs fnïscfls fnïscfls jod forofthrczog forofthrczogl l no hxcsthdfco hxcsthdfco gh ud prlinh`o oarorcl hd nos slfchgoghs  slfchgoghs fo fopc pcto tonc ncst stos os gh ghnn sc scan anl l po poso sogl gl,, on ph phrf rfci cicr cr qu quhh no fl fldf dfhd hdtr trof ofcö cöd d gh no prlpchgog no prlpchgog gh  gh no tchrro, tchrro, lrcacdorco gh nls rhsqucfcls ghn bhugoncs`l y bhugoncs`l y gh no lncaorquào ruron, sh trodsblr`ö hd listïfunl on ghsorrlnnl gh nos buhrzos prlguftcvos hd hn fo`pl y hd no cdgustrco cdgustrco.. Gh hso blr`o, blr`o, nos ãncths ãncths iurauh iurauhsoso-cdg cdgust ustrco rconhs nhs rhfcãd rhfcãd nnh nnhaog aogos os on on plghr   plghr , o portcr gh no rhvl rhvlnu nufc fcöd öd brod brodfhs fhso, o, fl`pr fl`prhd hdgc gchr hrld ld no `oadc `oadctu tug g gh hs hsth th pr prlin linh` h`oo oa oaro rorc rcl, l, gh no fldfhdtrofcöd gh no prlpchgog fl`l udo troio on ghsorrlnnl `cs`l ghn fopctoncs`l, fopctoncs`l, y trotorld gh iusfor udo slnufcöd shdfcnno. ]rlpuschrld no gcstrciufcöd, gcstrciufcöd, no gh`lfrotczofcöd gh no prlpchgog gh no tchrro, tchrro, y nno`orld o hsh prlfhsl hsh prlfhsl gh  gh rhblr`o oarorco. oarorco. Yhvcsodgl nos hxphrchdfcos jcstörcfos gh fö`l hso iurauhsào cdgustrcon c`pusl prlfhsls c`pusl  prlfhsls gh  gh rhblr`o oarorco, sh plgràod hdu`hror gcstcdtos boshs prlarhscvos. 

?ª Bosh5 Ghspuãs gh nos rhvlnufcldhs iurauhsos

Hd hn scanl posogl, ghspuãs gh nos rhvlnufcldhs iurauhsos, hd prïftcfo`hdth tlgls nls  poàshs gh Hurlpo lffcghdton, Hurlpo lffcghdton, sh nnhvorld o foil prlfhsls gh rhblr`o oarorco. S sh c`pnodtö udo hstrufturo gh hstrufturo gh phquhÿos y `hgcodos prlpchgoghs, quh jo phrgurogl josto duhstrls gàos.

 

Hd nls Hstogls Xdcgls gh Xdcgls gh O`ãrcfo, O`ãrcfo, fl`l porth gh no vcftlrco gh nls dlrthÿls, brhdth on notcbudgcl hsfnovcsto ghn Vur, sh c`pnodtö udo nhy gh flnldczofcöd ghn lhsth, quh hstoinhfcö ud to`oÿl gh prlpchgog prlpchgog `ïxc`o gh onrhghglr onrhghglr gh ?== ofrhs (:3 jhftïrhos) jhftïrhos) plr bo`cnco, bo`cnco, quh budfcldö fl`l udo hsphfch gh rhblr`o oarorco, slirh nos tchrros põincfos, aorodtczodgl hn offhsl `ïs gh`lfrïtcfl o tlgls nls quh qucschrod troioeor no tchrro, gh blr`o bo`cncor. 9ª Bosh5 Ghspuãs gh no ]rc`hro Auhrro @udgcon Auhrro @udgcon



Hn hstonncgl gh no prc`hro rhvlnufcöd prlnhtorco ghn `udgl, hd Yusco, Yusco, ioel hn nh`o gh tchrro,  pod y ncihrtog, ncihrtog, buh hn arctl gh onhrto o ltros iurauhsàos hurlphos quh tlgovào dl joiàod c`pnodtogl no rhblr`o oarorco. S fld hn th`lr gh quh sh rhpctchro no rhvlnufcöd ruso hd sus  poàshs, hd hn phràlgl gh ?3?1-9=, ?3?1 -9=, sh c`pnodtorld nhyhs gh nhyhs gh rhblr`o oarorco hd prïftcfo`hdth tlgls nls poàshs gh Hurlpo lrchdton, cdfnusl Sualsnovco. 6ª Bosh5 Ghspuãs gh no Vhaudgo Auhrro @udgcon



Fld

no ghrrlto

gh Eopöd  Eopöd hd

no Vhaud udg go Auhrro

@udgc gcoon,

y hn gl`cdcl or`ogl gl`cdcl or`ogl

dlrtho`hrcfodl hd prïftcfo`hdth tlgo Osco, Osco, sh oircö hspofcl poro quh sh rhonczorod hd Osco, to`icãd rhblr`os oarorcos dhto`hdth fopctoncstos. Ioel no lrghdodzo gh nos buhrzos or`ogos cdthrv cdthrvhdf hdfcld cldcst cstos os ghn Aon. Aon. @ofOrt @ofOrtjur jur,, sh ghsorr ghsorrlnn lnnorl orld d cd`hgc cd`hgcoto oto`hd `hdth th ghspuãs ghspuãs gh no Vhaudgo Auhrro @udgcon @udgcon,, nhyhs nhyhs gh rhblr` rhblr`oo oarorc oarorcoo iostod iostodth th rogcfo rogcfonhs nhs,, opncfo opncfogos gos hd Eopöd. Ghspuãs gh no vcftlrco gh Fjcdo ]lpunor Fjcdo ]lpunor (?373), Hstogls Xdcgls c`pnodtö sus `cs`os nhyhs gh rhblr`o oarorco hd no prlvcdfco outödl`o gh Wocwïd, y plsthrclr`hdth, ghspuãs gh no auhrro gh Flrho (?386©82), sh opncfö no rhblr`o oarorco hd Flrho ghn Vur. Gh cauon blr`o, hd

hn

`cs`l

phràlgl,

ioel

hn fnc`o  fnc`o gh

gh`lf lfrrotczof ofccöd

gh

no

vc vcfftlrco

gh

no rhscsthdfco rhscsthdfco  ctonc ctoncodo odo,, hn duhvl duhvl alichr alichrdl dl gh floncf floncfcöd cöd c`pnh` c`pnh`hdt hdtö ö udo nhy gh rhblr` rhblr`oo oarorco slirh nls rh`odhdths gh notcbudgcls otrosogls hd hn Vur gh Ctonco. Ctonco . Arofcos o hsls prlfhsls gh rhblr`o oarorco sh oircö hspofcl poro hn ghsorrlnnl gh nos buhrzos  prlguftcvos hd hsls poàshs, sh frhö ud o`pncl `hrfogl  `hrfogl cd cdth thrd rdl, l, y ju juil il ov ovod odfh fhss gh ghnn ghsorrlnnl fopctoncsto, fld gh`lfrotczofcöd gh no prlpchgog gh no tchrro. Hd hsh `cs`l  phràlgl, juil ltros hxphrchdfcos gh rhblr`o oarorco rogcfonhs, nno`ogos rhvlnufcldorcos,

 

 plrquh buhrld cdcfcotcvos gh nos `osos. No `ïs scadcbcfotcvo buh no rhblr`o oarorco `hxcfodo, jhfjo on fonlr  gh   gh no rhvlnufcöd gh ?3?=-9= quh, oporth gh su forïfthr  rogcfon  rogcfon y vclnhdtl, dl trosposö nls nà`cths ghn nà`cths ghn fopctoncs`l. Juil `ufjos ltros rhblr`os oarorcos hd nls poàshs ghn jh`csbhrcl dlrth, phrl yo hd hn `orf `o rfl l gh no trod trodsc scfc fcöd öd gh ghnn scsth`o  scsth`o hfldö`cfl hfldö`cfl fopctoncst fopctoncstoo on slfconcs`l. slfconcs`l. Hsos Hsos rhblr` rhblr`os os oarorcos sh forofthrczorld dl slno`hdth plr no gcstrciufcöd gh no tchrro hdtrh nls fo`phscdls, scdl scdl quh quh to` to`icãd icãd rhpr hprhs hshd hdttor orld ld no dofc dofcld ldon oncz czof ofcö cöd d

gh no pr prlp lpcchg hgog og slfco lfconn gh

nls `hgcls gh `hgcls gh prlguffcöd  prlguffcöd oaràflno,  oaràflno, y no hnc`cdofcöd gh nos gcbhrhdfcos slfconhs hd hn fo`pl. Osà lfurrc lfurrchrl hrld d nos rhblr` rhblr`os os oarorc oarorcos os slfcon slfconcst cstos os gh Yusco Yusco (?3?: (?3?: hd oghnodt oghnodth), h), Fjcdo Fjcdo (?373), Fuio (?32=), Fuio (?32=), Hurlpo ghn Hsth (ghspuãs) gh no Vhaudgo Auhrro @udgcon), Flrho ghn  Dlrth (?382), Rchtdo`, htf. ]hrl hnnl dl hs liehtl gh hstls fl`hdtorcls, y plr hsl, dl dls  prlpldh`ls prlbudgczor slirh sus nlarls.

NO YHBLY@O OAYOYCOV HD O@ÃYCFO NOWCDO No rhblr`o oarorco hs ud prlfhsl gh trodsblr`ofcöd slfclhfldö`cfl quh supldh ud hsbuhrzl `oscvl plr cdflrplror o no plinofcöd ruron `oracdon hd hn shdl gh no slfchgog, o trovãs gh fo`icls rogcfonhs hd nos hstrufturos gh prlpchgog, thdhdfco y offhsl o nls `hgcls gh prlguffcöd. ]lr nl todtl, tlgo rhblr`o prlbudgo cdvlnufro onaõd arogl gh prcvofcöd gh nls shftlrhs thrrothdchdths hd todtl ghicncto nos ioshs gh su plghr hfldö`cfl y plnàtcfl. Dl ghih hxtroÿor, hd fldshfuhdfco, quh plfls cdthdtls rhblr`cstos jod plgcgl `othrconczorsh. Fl`l no rhblr`o dhfhsorco`hdth fldtrorào nls ionodfhs gh plghr  Hd no `oylrào gh nls poàshs notcdlo`hrcfodls, nls thrrothdchdths `odtuvchrld plr  gãfogos ud vcrtuon fldtrln slirh no hstrufturo ghfcscldon ghn hstogl, nl quh nhs phr`ctcö brustror fuonquchr cdcfcotcvo lrchdtogo o hstoinhfhr udo rhblr`o oarorco. Fl`l prl`cdhdths `ch` `ch`ir irls ls gh no fn fnos oshh gl gl`c `cdo dodt dth, h, buhr buhrld ld sc sch` h`pr prhh fh fhnl nlsl slss th thst stca cals ls gh no of offc fcöd öd auihrdo`hdton, poro osà oshaurorsh o trovãs gh cdthrvhdfcldhs lplrtudos quh no plnàtcfo lbcfcon sch`prh fldblr`orào sus cdthrhshs y `odthdgrào sus prcvcnhacls. ]hrl gurodth hn  phràlgl shÿonogl, scd h`ioral, no sctuofcöd ruron gh O`ãrcfo Notcdo sh ghthrclrö josto ton  pudtl quh hn rodal gh lpfcldhs gh plnàtcfos trogcfcldon`hdth opncfogos fl`l poncotcvls ghn  prlinh`o oarorcl, sh buh oaltodgl rïpcgo`hdth. @ïs oõd, hn ghsorrlnnl fldfl`ctodth gh vorcls prlfhsls plnàtcfls quh hxo`cdorã `ïs oioel, rhblrzö buhrth`hdth no thdghdfco, yo

 

quh dl sönl `ufjos rhfhtos fldvhdfcldonhs buhrld ghsfortogos scdl, ogh`ïs, plnàtcfos oichrto`hdth fldbncftcvos fld nls cdthrhshs gh nls thrrothdchdths fl`hdzorld o shr og`ctcgos fl`l slnufcldhs plthdfconhs. Hstl puhgh porhfhr fldtrogcftlrcl fld hn jhfjl gh quh sönl ud puÿogl gh alichrdls oplstorld o c`pnh`hdtor plnàtcfos lrchdtogos jofco udo hbhftcvo rhgcstrciufcöd gh no tchrro y udo frhfchdth portcfcpofcöd gh nos `osos ruronhs. Cdfnusl `ïs, no hvcghdfco `uhstro quh hd no `oylrào gh nls fosls nls hstogls gh no rhacöd oprliorld nhacsnofcöd gh forïfthr puro`hdth rctuoncsto, gcrcacgo o hstoicnczor hn dcvhn gh hxphftotcvos slfconhs l o sotcsbofhr prhsfrcpfcldhs c`puhstos hxthrdo`hdth. ]hrl hn `hrl jhfjl gh quh hsth tcpl gh nhacsnofcöd buhro vcstl fl`l dhfhsorcl rhvhno quh onaudls fo`icls fl`hdzoiod o shr plnàtcfo`hdth gcahrcinhs. Flnlfogls hd udo phrsphftcvo oprlpcogo, nls ghsorrlnnls quh thdàod nuaor hd no ãplfo, fldbcr`oiod sc`pnh`hdth hn jhfjl gh quh nls thrrothdchdths joiàod gheogl gh shr nls  prcdfcponhs ïrictrls gh no hsfhdo plnàtcfo. Vu plghr rhnotcvl joiào subrcgl ud aroguon y oporhdth`hdth crrhvhrscinh prlfhsl gh ghthrclrl, nl fuon bovlrhfào nos fldgcfcldhs poro udo rhblr`o oarorco Hd Orahdtcdo y Iroscn hsh ghthrclrl dl nnhaö o dcvhnhs tonhs fl`l poro  prlgufcr fo`icls, oudquh sc sh blrtonhfcö hn shftlr „cdgustrconcsto l ghsorrlnncsto‐ gh `lgl ton gh quh nls thrrothdchdths dl hehrfchrld ud gl`cdcl oislnutl). O su vhz, hn prlpcl prlfhsl gh rhblr`o joiào ghicnctogl shrco`hdth nls cdthrhshs y prhstcacl gh nls guhÿls gh no tchrro, nl fuon ofhnhroio su ghfncdofcöd fl`l udo hncth gh plghr. Gh oquà quh udo cdthrprhtofcöd fljhrhdth gh nls prlfhsls gh rhblr`o oarorco ghih fldscghror oquhnnos vorcoinhs plnàtcfos quh fldtr fldtrci ciuyh uyhrl rld d o rh rhgu gufc fcrr no cdbn cdbnuhd uhdfc fcoo gh nl nlss th thrr rrot othdc hdchdt hdths hs sl slir irhh no hs hstr truft uftur uroo auihrdo`hdton y o fldvhrtcr o hsto fnosh gh plnàtcfos hd ud cdstru`hdtl `ïs nhaàtc`l gh fo`icl slfcon. Hd no iõsquhg iõsquhgoo gh ton cdthrp cdthrprht rhtofc ofcöd öd slsthd slsthdgrã grã quh, quh, iïs iïscfo cfo`hd `hdth, th, sld tr trhs hs nls  porï`htrls quh jod fldgcfcldogl nls prlfhsls gh rhblr`o oarorco hd O`ãrcfo Notcdo. ]rc`hrl, hn arogl y tcpl gh fldbncftl slfcon ghsorrlnnogl hdtrh nls thrrothdchdths y ltrls arupls slfconhs. Hdtrh ltros flsos, hstls fldbncftls jod vorcogl gh ofuhrgl on arogl gh cdtharofcöd gh nos hncths, gh sus ïrhos gh slncgorcgog brhdth o ltrls cdthrhshs shftlrconhs l gh fnosh, y ghn arogl gh plnctczofcöd gh no plinofcöd ruron. Vhaudgl, no lrchdtofcöd dlr`otcvo  prhvonhfchdth rhsphftl o no rhblr`o hdtrh nos hncths rhprhshdtotcvos quh, hd arod `hgcgo, ghphdgcö gh su phrfhpfcöd ofhrfo gh nos fldshfuhdfcos plthdfconhs -hd tãr`cdls gh vhdtoeos

 

cdgcvc cdg cvcguo guonhs nhs l cdstct cdstctufc ufcldon ldonhshs- quh rhsunt rhsuntorà oràod od gh slsthd slsthdhr hr udo ghthr` ghthr`cdo cdogo go plscfc plscfcöd. öd. Bcdon`hdth, no frhfchdth pnuronczofcöd gh no hstrufturo gh offhsl o nls dcvhnhs gh ghfcscöd  plnàtcfo, quh fldguel o udo gcvhrscbcfofcöd ghn stlfk gh lpfcldhs gh plnàtcfo, cdfnuyhdgl onaudos quh gh onaõd `lgl fldspcroiod fldtro nls cdthrhshs gh nls thrrothdchdths.

FLDFNXVCLDHV No rhbl rhblr` r`oo oa oaro rorc rcoo gh ghih ih os osha haur uror orsh sh `hgc `hgcod odth th no op opnc ncfo fofc fcöd öd gh sc scst sth` h`os os og og`c `cdc dcst stro rotc tcvl vls, s,

fc fchd hdtà tàbc bcfl fls, s,

hd

`oth `othrc rcos os

gh

pn pnod odth tho` o`ch chdt dtl, l,

ro rofc fcld ldon oncz czof ofcö cöd, d,

lraodczofcöd, fldtrln suphrclr fldtrln suphrclr y otrciufcöd prhfcso gh bofuntoghs hshdfconhs o nls öraodls hdforaogls gh su hehfufcöd. Nc Ncihr ihror or o nls nls troio troioeo eogl glrh rhss fo fo`p `phs hscd cdls ls gh su fl fldg dgcf cfcö cöd d gh sc schr hrvl vlss pr prls lsfr frci cich chdg dgl l nls shrvcfcls y shrvcfcls y lincaofcldhs phrsldonhs arotuctos. Hstc`u Hst c`unor nor no fl`hrfconczofcöd  fl`hrfconczofcöd gh no cdgustrco  cdgustrco oarlph oarlphfuor fuorco, co, bofcn bofcncto ctodgl dgl no cdvhrs cdvhrscöd cöd gh duhvl duh vlss fopc fopcto tonh nhs, s, rh rhsp sphf hftl tl o nls nls oa oarc rcfu funt ntlr lrhs hs phquh phquhÿls ÿls y `hgc `hgcod odls ls,, bl bl`h `hdt dtod odgl gl hn fllphrotcvcs`l fllphrotcvcs`l oarorcl.  oarorcl. Fldshrvor nls rhfursls doturonhs rhfursls doturonhs ghn thrrctlrcl, oglptodgl nos `hgcgos tãfdcfos y fchdtàbcfos cdgcsphdsoinhs. ]rlplrfcldor tchrro noirodtào o ¡ls fo`phscdls quh dl no plshhd l quh no plshhd `uy hsfoso, sch`prh quh no troioeod. Bcdon`hdth Bcdon` hdth hn ãxctl gh ãxctl gh no rhvlnufcöd dofcldon, no ncihrofcöd gh nos buhrzos gh prlguffcöd oaràflno, no fldslncgofcöd gh no gh`lfrofco, gh`lfrofco, no udcgog y no poz slfconhs, hd hn lrghd plnàtcfl y hfldö`cfl.