Efective Public Relations, 9th

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EFFECTIVE PUBLIC RELATIONS 9 TH EDITION SCOTT M. CUTLIP, APR, PRSA FELLOW Dean Emeritus Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication The University of Georgia

ALLEN H. CENTER, APR, PRSA FELLOW Distinguished Resident Lecturer San Diego State University Vice President of Public Relations (retired) Motorola, Inc.

GLEN M. BROOM, PH.D. Professor, School of Communication San Diego State University Adjunct Professor, Queensland University of Technology Brisbane, Australia

UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NEW JERSEY 07458

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cutlip, Scott M. Effective public relations / Scott M. Cutlip, Allen H. Center, Glen M. Broom.— 9th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-13-008200-7 (alk. paper) 1. Public relations. I. Center, Allen H. II. Broom, Glen M. III. Title. HM1221.C88 2006 659.2—dc22 2005016701

Editorial Director: Leah Jewell Executive Editor: Deirdre Anderson Production Liaison: Fran Russello Full-Service Project Management: Katie Ostler and Sue Katkus, Schawk, Inc. Prepress and Manufacturing Buyer: Brian Mackey

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This book was set in 10/12 Times Ten Roman by Schawk, Inc., and was printed and bound by Bind-Rite Graphics. The cover was printed by Phoenix Color Corp. Copyright © 2006, 2000, 1994, 1985, 1982, 1978 by Pearson Education Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permission Department. Pearson Prentice Hall™ is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson® is a trademark of Pearson plc Prentice Hall® is a registered trademark of Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson Education LTD. Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd Pearson Education Canada, Ltd. Pearson Education—Japan Pearson Education Australia PTY, Limited

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN: 0-13-008200-7

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In memory Of Scott M. Cutlip (1915–2000) In memory of one of the pathfinders who gave the emerging profession of public relations both its intellectual foundation and its moral compass.

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B R I EF CONTENTS

PART 1

CONCEPT, PRACTITIONERS, CONTEXT, AND ORIGINS . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4

PART 2

FOUNDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10

PART 3

Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14

Step One: Defining Public Relations Problems . . . . . . 281 Step Two: Planning and Programming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Step Three: Taking Action and Communicating. . . . . . 338 Step Four: Evaluating the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

THE PRACTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17

iv

Ethics and Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Legal Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Theoretical Underpinnings: Adjustment and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Communication and Public Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Internal Relations and Employee Communication . . . 222 External Media and Media Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

MANAGEMENT PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Chapter 11

PART 4

Introduction to Contemporary Public Relations . . . . . . . 1 Practitioners of Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Organizational Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Historical Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Business and Industry Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Government and Public Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Nonprofits, Trade Associations, and Nongovernmental Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

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CONTENTS

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

PART 1

CONCEPT, PRACTITIONERS, CONTEXT, AND ORIGINS . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1

Introduction to Contemporary Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Evolution of the Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Defining the Concept in Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Public Relations Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Confusion with Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Parts of the Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Internal Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Publicity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Press Agentry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Public Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Lobbying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Issues Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Investor Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Confusion of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Toward Recognition and Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter 2

Practitioners of Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Number and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Where They Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 The New Majority: Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Education and Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Salaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Work Assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Communication Technician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Expert Prescriber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Communication Facilitator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Problem-Solving Facilitator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 v

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Contents

What Roles Research Tells Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Technicians Versus Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Environmental Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Scanning and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 The Glass Ceiling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Minorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Requirements for Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Chapter 3

Organizational Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Origins within Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Establishing a Public Relations Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Retaining Outside Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Public Relations Starts with Top Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Staff Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Role in Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 The Internal Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 The Department’s Advantages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 The Department’s Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Titles and Reporting Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Determinants of Excellence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Working with Other Departments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Legal Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Human Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 The Outside Counseling Firm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Public Relations Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Advertising Agency Ownership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Specialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Reasons for Retaining Outside Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Client–Firm Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Counselors’ Advantages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Counselors’ Handicaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Counseling Firm Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 New Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Chapter 4

Historical Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Ancient Genesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 American Beginnings: Born in Adversity and Change . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Before the Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Growth and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Press Agentry Origins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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Business Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 First Corporate Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Evolution to Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Seedbed Era: 1900–1916 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Early Firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Early Pioneers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Growth in Other Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 World War I Period: 1917–1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Booming Twenties Era: 1919–1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Roosevelt Era and World War II: 1930–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Postwar Boom: 1946–1964 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Period of Protest and Empowerment (1965–1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Digital Age and Globalization (1965–Present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

PART 2

FOUNDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Chapter 5

Ethics and Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Philosophical Foundations of Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Utilitarian Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Deontological Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Benefits of Deontology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Ethical Foundations of Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Professional Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 The Imperative of Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Professional Privilege. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Social Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Criteria of a Profession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Professional Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Degree Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Continuing Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Research and the Body of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Support for Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 The Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Licensing and Accreditation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Legal Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Accreditation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Professional Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 International Professional Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 National Professional Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Specialized, Regional, and Local Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Student Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Codes of Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Winning Acceptance and Stature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Toward a Promising Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

vii

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Chapter 6

Legal Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 What Is Law? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Public Relations and the First Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Public Relations Access to Mass Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Print Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Broadcast Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Cable Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 The Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Access to Government Information and Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Corporate Political Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Lobbying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Labor Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Representative Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Collective Bargaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Regulation of Publicly Owned Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Copyright and Trademark Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Copyright. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Trademarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Tort Law: Libel and Privacy Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Libel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Other Legal Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Litigation Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Contract Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Chapter 7

THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS: Adjustment and Adaptation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 The Ecological Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Tracking the Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 A Systems Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Environmental Change Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Subsystems and Suprasystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Organizations as Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Open and Closed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Cybernetics in Open Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Open Systems Model of Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Chapter 8

Communication and Public Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 The Battle for Attention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Dissemination Versus Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

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Elements of the Communication Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 The Sender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 The Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 The Medium or Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 The Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Context of the Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 The Social Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Communication Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Creating Perceptions of the World around Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Setting the Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Diffusing Information and Innovation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Defining Social Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Publics and Their Opinions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Definition of Public Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Publics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Individual Orientations and Coorientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Coorientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Coorientational Consensus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Coorientational Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Chapter 9

Internal Relations and Employee Communication . . . . . . . . . 222 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Importance of Internal Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Organizational Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Culture and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Dominant Coalition’s Impact on Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . 227 Worldview and Organizational Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Internal Relations Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Safety and Compliance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Labor Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Organizational Change: Mergers, Acquisitions, and Layoffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Communicating Internally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Vision Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Mission Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Policy Documents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Training Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Internal Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Employee Publications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Newsletters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Inserts and Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Published Speeches, Position Papers, and “Backgrounders” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Bulletin Boards and Electronic Notices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Face-to-Face Communication and the “Grapevine” . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Hotlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

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Meetings and Teleconferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Video and Film Presentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Chapter 10 External Media and Media Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 New Media, New Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Traditional Media, New Uses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Newspapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Wire Services and News Syndicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Cable and Satellite Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Working with the Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 The Person in the Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Guidelines for Good Media Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Guidelines for Working with the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

PART 3

MANAGEMENT PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Chapter 11 Step One: Defining Public Relations Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Management Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Role of Research in Strategic Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Research Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Listening as Systematic Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Defining Public Relations Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Situation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Research Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Informal or “Exploratory” Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Personal Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Key Informants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Focus Groups and Community Forums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Advisory Committees and Boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Ombudsman or Ombuds Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Call-In Telephone Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Mail Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Online Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Field Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Formal Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Secondary Analysis and Online Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

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Content Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Surveys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Chapter 12 Step Two: Planning and Programming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Strategic Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Public Relations as Part of Strategic Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Management Expectations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Strategic Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Mission Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Management by Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Strategy and Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Reasons for Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Writing the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Program Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Role of Working Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Defining Target Publics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Writing Program Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Planning for Program Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Writing Planning Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Anticipating Disasters and Crises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Establishing an Information Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Budgeting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Pretesting Program Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Selling the Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Chapter 13 Step Three: Taking Action and Communicating . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Action and Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 The Action Component of Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Acting Responsively and Responsibly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Coordinating Action and Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Action as an Open Systems Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Communication Component of Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Framing the Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Barriers and Stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Putting It All Together in a Campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Disseminating the Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Reconsidering the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Implementing the Strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

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Chapter 14 Step Four: Evaluating the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 The Push for Measurable Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Evaluation Research Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Levels of Program Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Preparation Criteria and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Implementation Criteria and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Impact Criteria and Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Interpreting and Using Results of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

PART 4

THE PRACTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

Chapter 15 Business and Industry Public Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 The Profit Motive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Public Relations in Corporate Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Corporate Social Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Corporate Philanthropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Corporate Financial Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Business Misconduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Remedies for Corporate Misbehavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Restoring Public Trust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Terrorism and Corporate Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Chapter 16 Government and Public Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 The Goals of Public Affairs in Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Informing Constituents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 U.S. Department of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 International Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 Ensuring Active Cooperation in Government Programs . . . . . . . . 415 Fostering Citizen Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 Public Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Public Opinion Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 Serving as the Public’s Advocate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Electronic Government and Citizen Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Managing Information Internally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Facilitating Media Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Building Community and Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 U.S. Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Other Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

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Barriers to Effective Government Public Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Questionable Credibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Public Apathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Legislative Hostility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Government–Media Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Media Access to Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Government Dependence on Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Media Reporting of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 Military Public Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Government as Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Public Affairs in Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Chapter 17 Nonprofits, Trade Associations, and Nongovernmental Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 The Third Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Defining Nonprofit Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Volunteerism and Philanthropy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Changing Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Role of Public Relations in Nonprofit Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . 449 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Social Service Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Health Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Health Care in Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Health-Care Public Relations and Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 Role of the News Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Public Relations for Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 College Presidents’ Public Relations Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Churches and Other Nonprofit Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Associations and Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Types of Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 The Problem of Serving Many Masters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 Growing Importance of Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 The Nature of Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Labor Unions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 The Role of Public Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 The Problem of Strikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 The Challenge for Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Additional Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476

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P R EFACE

Effective Public Relations (EPR) has earned a legacy matched by few books in any field. Since the first edition was published in 1952, Scott M. Cutlip and Allen H. Center have played leading roles in advancing public relations toward professional status. This ninth edition continues almost six decades of defining public relations as a profession, schooling its practitioners, and serving as a reference for those in the calling worldwide.

CUTLIP AND CENTER For many of those years EPR has been viewed as “the bible of public relations,” often referred to as simply “Cutlip and Center.” “After all,” as one long-time counselor and consultant said, “it was Cutlip and Center, as much as anyone, who gave those of us who strayed or wandered into the profession from journalism and other professional pursuits, a sense of substance and legitimacy about practicing our adopted craft.”1 Many of their ideas and ambitions in the first edition still serve as beacons leading public relations practice and study. The role and function of EPR has changed however. No longer can it serve as the comprehensive encyclopedia of public relations—the body of knowledge has outgrown the bounds of a single book. No longer is it the only credible academic textbook or professional reference. Public relations education and professional preparation have progressed beyond the limits of a single book or course. All the same, EPR is the basic reference for the field worldwide. It is the book used by those preparing for accreditation exams, it is the book most frequently cited in public relations literature, and it has been translated for study in Chinese, Italian, Korean, Latvian, Russian, and Spanish. As one reviewer said, “‘Cutlip, Center, and Broom’ …[is] the standard against which all basic public relations textbooks are measured.”2

Scott M. Cutlip

Allen H. Center

CONTENTS What will you learn from the ninth edition of EPR? First, you will learn basic concepts necessary to understand what public relations is and how it is practiced in various settings. Second, you will learn the concepts, theory, principles, and processes that guide the practice. (Other public relations books and courses cover writing techniques and case studies.) Third, you will learn updated information and examples to help you understand contemporary public relations practice. To help facilitate this learning process, each chapter begins with a study guide that outlines specific learning objectives to help you study and master the material. xv

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This ninth edition is divided into four parts. Part I describes the field and defines basic concepts; it also describes what practitioners do and where they work, and identifies historical leaders and traces the origins of current practice. Part II introduces the principles and theory that underpin and guide the practice, including the professional, ethical, legal, and internal and external contexts, and media and media relations. Within a systems theory framework, chapters also present communication and public opinion theory essential to understanding the function of public relations. Part III applies theory to practice by detailing the “four-step public relations process.” Four chapters outline the strategic planning steps necessary for managing public relations programs. Part IV gives context to the practice by illustrating what public relations does and how it functions in business and industry; government, military, and politics; nonprofit organizations, trade associations and professional societies, and other nongovernmental organizations. In short, the book covers much about the theory and practice of public relations. EPR does not trivialize public relations by presenting brief, oversimplified case studies. Rather, EPR gives you a foundation for subsequent courses and books devoted to implementing public relations programs and developing program tactics. You should be wary of how-I-saved-the-day books that claim to show how to succeed in public relations without first providing a foundation based on the body of knowledge.

CONTRIBUTORS This ninth edition contains new data, ideas, examples, and contributions from many people who influenced both the substance and style of what you are about to read. More colleagues than I can name here provided valuable reactions and useful suggestions on drafts of chapters. They will recognize how their feedback changed and improved the book. Others either responded to my requests for help or through their own publications made significant contributions to this edition. At the risk of offending those not named, the following deserve special mention: James E. Grunig, Ph.D., University of Maryland, College Park, and his colleagues in the IABC Foundation’s Excellence Project; Ray E. Hiebert, Ph.D., University of Maryland, College Park, the long-time editor of the field’s first scholarly journal, Public Relations Review; Elizabeth L. Toth, Ph.D., APR, then of Syracuse University, now at the University of Maryland; and Linda Childers Hon, Ph.D., University of Florida, the two most recent editors of the scholarly Journal of Public Relations Research, which records the body of knowledge that serves as a foundation for this and other books. Among colleagues also deserving credit here are the many authors of other textbooks who keep raising the standards of excellence in books serving our common interest in public relations. Former and current students form a pipeline of new information and examples, for which I am grateful and in their debt. MaryLee Sachs, Chairman, Hill & Knowlton USA, New York, heads that list. Others include Vicki Hoffman Beck, Director–Hollywood, Health & Society, USC Annenberg Norman Lear Center, Beverly Hills, California; Marilyn Kern-Foxworth, Ph.D., APR, President, Kern Foxworth International, LLC, Silver Spring, Maryland; Suman Lee, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Iowa State University; Tom Magnetta, Assistant Account Executive, 21PR, Santa Monica, California; and Rear Admiral Terry L. McCreary, Chief of Information,

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U.S. Navy, Washington, D.C. In addition, students in my classes suggested changes that made their way into the ninth edition. I want to thank them all and hope that you will be as generous with your feedback and suggestions. Likewise, I cannot list all the colleagues in education and the practice who contributed to this edition. I pretested many of the ideas on them in presentations, in discussions or debates, and over extended lunches and dinners. Several responded to my requests for help or served unwittingly as helpful critics. You cannot write a book like this without the support, suggestions, and critical analysis of such friends and colleagues. That long list includes Francisco J. Agraz, J.D., Public Affairs Specialist, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Houston; Ming Anxiang, Professor and Director, Institute of Journalism and Communication, Beijing, China; James Everett, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; Melissa Koski, Specialist, Fleishman Hillard, St. Louis; Robert Masters, FPRIA, Director, Robert Masters & Associates Pty Ltd., Melbourne; Jim R. Macnamara, FPRIA, CEO, CARMA International, Chippendale, NSW, Australia; David B. McKinney, APR, ABC, Public Affairs Manager, Shell Chemical Company, Deer Park, Texas; Kerry Tucker, Chairman and CEO, Nuffer, Smith, Tucker, San Diego; Kenn Ulrich, APR, Fellow, Instructor, San Diego State University. Six colleagues made major contributions to the ninth edition: Shannon A. Bowen, Ph.D., University of Houston, collaborated on the new Chapter 9 (Internal Relations and Employee Communication), and contributed to Chapters 2, 3, 5 and 8; George D. Lennon, USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C., collaborated on updating Chapter 16 (Government and Public Affairs); Richard K. Long, Brigham Young University, collaborated on the new Chapter 15 (Business and Industry Public Relations); Jim F. McBride, McBride Group and San Diego State University instructor, collaborated on the updated Chapter 17 (Nonprofits, Trade Associations, and Nongovernmental Organizations); Barbara K. Petersen, Ph.D., University of South Florida, collaborated on the new Chapter 6 (Legal Considerations); and BeyLing Sha, Ph.D., San Diego State University, helped update Chapters 11 through 14 on the management process. Prentice Hall editors provided able assistance and firm direction in getting the ninth edition produced: Deirdre Cavanaugh Anderson, Executive Editor– Communication, replaced previous editor, Bruce Kaplan. Bruce had patiently guided the book through the early phases, providing support and guidance on how to take the book into the twenty-first century. Deirdre, however, assumed the task of moving the concept to reality. In the final stages, Craig Campanella, Executive Editor–English, ably filled in for Deirdre during her maternity leave. In spite of their seemingly unrelenting pressure to meet what often seemed like unrealistic deadlines (I do have a day job!), I am grateful to all three for their support and encouragement. Katie Ostler, Editorial Project Manager, and copy editor Karen Slaght, at Schawk, Inc., turned the many thousands of words into the pages you will read. I appreciate their help in producing the ninth edition…and relieve them of any responsibility for typos and wording problems created by yours truly. I am also grateful for the love and support of my wife, Betty, a professor of nursing with a demanding schedule teaching students how to help families bring healthy babies into the world. She has been my attentive audience as I talked through ideas on the pages that follow, my proofreader and reviewer of my attempts to put those ideas on paper, and my constant role model for staying on task. All of these people and others played important roles in producing this ninth edition, but you are the most important person. This book is for you. It introduces

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you to the challenging and rewarding calling of building organization–public relationships in an era of instantaneous global communication. I hope the pages that follow help you achieve success and satisfaction in your public relations career. Glen M. Broom

POSTSCRIPT Glen M. Broom

Unfortunately, some important colleagues will not see the fruits of their effort in this edition. First, senior coauthor Scott M. Cutlip died shortly after the eighth edition was published. Much has been written about this dean of public relations education and his many contributions to our field.3 His contributions in this book and his scholarly research made public relations an area of academic study on university campuses, and earned him the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication’s highest honor, the Paul J. Deutschmann Award for Excellence in Research. He was awarded the Public Relations Society of America’s first Outstanding Educator Award in 1970 and was the third person inducted into the Arthur W. Page Society’s Hall of Fame in 1987. It is not a stretch to say that Scott Cutlip was the father of public relations education—worldwide. In March 2003, the field lost one of its most energetic leaders—William C. Adams, APR, Fellow, Associate Professor, Florida International University. He collaborated on writing the business and industry chapter for both the seventh and eighth editions. He drew on his 25 years of corporate practice at Amoco and Phillips Petroleum to build a 13-year teaching career that inspired students to pursue excellence in public relations. Of course, he was their best role model. To fill the void for expertise in preparing the corporate practice (Chapter 15), I turned to Richard K. Long, Professor, Brigham Young University. He had spent 30 years in executive positions in corporate public relations—at Dow Chemical Company (24 years) and Weyerhaeuser Company (6 years)—before joining the faculty at BYU. He published frequently in professional publications and, like Professor Adams, cared deeply for his students and their success in public relations. He provided me assistance far beyond Chapter 15, with his counsel, editing, and enthusiastic support. He died in January 2005 at age 60. (See Chapter 15 and Exhibit 16.2 in Chapter 16.) I surely wish you could have known them, but I am pleased to know that you will learn from them in the pages that follow.

NOTES 1

Stephen H. Baer, Fellow, PRSA, writing in a book review published in Public Relations Review, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Winter 1992), 392. 2 Donald K. Wright, “Review of Public Relations Literature: Basic Textbooks,” Public Relations Review 22, no. 4 (Winter, 1996): 380. 3

For a summary of Scott Cutlip’s career achievements and contributions, see the special edition of Public Relations Review (Volume 17, no. 4 [Winter 1991]: 331–412), featuring articles for the Paul J. Deutschmann Award for Excellence in Research presentation.