EL MERCADO Y EL EFECTO INFLACIONARIO INFLACIÓN CRECIMIENTO Y DESARROLLO ECONÓMICO...
Economía para los Negocios
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
UNIDAD 1. EL MERCADO Y EL EFECTO INFLACIONARIO: 1.1.1 EL MERCADO Y SU CLASIFICACIÓN SIGNIFICADO DEL MERCADO: Originalmente, mercado proviene de trueque o transacción: significaba el lugar al que acudían periódicamente compradores y vendedores para efectuar el intercambio de productos y servicios. En sentido económico, se entiende por mercado, el conjunto de las demandas y ofertas respecto a las mercancías.
Otro concepto obtenido de Paul Samuelson: Mercado es el lugar de transacción entre oferentes y demandantes.
Hablar de mercado es referirse a todo ese ambiente donde compradores y vendedores están continuamente realizando transacciones económicas, ya sea que éstas tengan lugar en una oficina, en la bolsa de valores, en un café, en un banco, etc. Toda esa actividad gira en torno a los a “precios" que, de acuerdo con su nivel, le estará cerrando la puerta a muchos consumidores, o abriéndolas ampliamente a otros en forma tal que el consumo se incrementa. Las variables principales del mercado son: El precio, la oferta y la demanda de los artículos o productos.
1.1.2 CLASIFICACIÓN DE LOS MERCADOS: Los mercados pueden clasificarse en función de varios criterios: A) Por tamaño B) Por estructura o número de competidores C) Desde el tipo de vista geográfico. D) Desde el tipo de vista del cliente E) Según producto o servicio ofrecido F) Según mercadotecnia G) Según intensidad de oferta y demanda H) Según relación de intercambio
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
1.3 Medianos mercados 1.4 Grandes mercados El tamaño varía según la magnitud donde está localizado y por cantidad de clientes y de producto o servicios ofrecidos y demandados.
B).- Por estructura o número de competidores: Considerando el mercado en cuanto a su estructura, se clasifica en: ! 2.1 Mercado de competencia perfecta, pura o libre. son : ! 2.2 Mercado competencia imperfecta son: Monopolio, oligopolio y competencia monopolística, monopsonio.
2.1 Son mercados de competencia perfecta aquellos en que todos los posibles compradores y vendedores se dan cuenta de los precios que privan y que se pagan en cada transacción. Además, se sabe cuáles son las ofertas que se hacen en absoluta libertad de operar compradores y vendedores. Debido a las ofertas considerables que pueda hacer un competidor, los precios que prevalecen en un momento dado, varían, dándose la libre competencia. Para precisar más lo que se debe entender por mercado de competencia perfecta, se utiliza la siguiente idea: competencia perfecta es aquella situación donde se tiene infinidad de vendedores de un producto idéntico, cada cual actuando in- dependientemente y en una magnitud muy pequeña con relación al mercado total, de tal manera que no se ejerce ninguna influencia sobre el precio. La actividad que más se acerca a esta situación, es la del sector agrícola. 2.2 Competencia imperfecta es aquella situación donde se tienen muchos vendedores de
un producto que puede ser diferente por algún aspecto, de tal manera que cada cual puede ejercer alguna influencia sobre el precio. En los mercados de competencia imperfecta no existe el libre juego en el mercado. 1 Monopolio: Un solo vendedor
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
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1. El monopolio es la forma de mercado en que existe una sola empresa como único vendedor. La palabra monopolio está formada de los vocablos griegos monos que significa único y polein que significa vender. Para abundar más en la explicación del monopolio , se puede decir que es aquella situación donde se tiene un sólo vendedor de un producto que no tiene sustituto, y que ejerce un total dominio sobre el precio. Es difícil encontrar esta situación, excepto en el caso de un servicio público que no admite sustituto que pueda influir en el precio. En México ejemplos de monopolio son Petróleos Mexicanos y Teléfonos de México. Ahora bien, si en la economía mexicana actual existen casos de monopolio, se debe a causas técnicas y legales inevitables. El Estado ha tratado de regular al monopolio; para ello ha recurrido a las reglamentaciones directas y las medidas fiscales. Sin embargo, las medidas fiscales se han empleado hasta ahora con la finalidad de regular los monopolios de hecho. 2. El duopolio y oligopolio son muy similares; compiten casi en los mismos criterios: precios, calidad, servicio, producto etc. 3 El oligopolio es aquella situación donde se tienen pocos vendedores de un producto que puede ser idéntico o diferente en alguna forma, pero donde cada cual tiene una gran influencia sobre el precio, la palabra oligopolio proviene también del griego oligo que quiere decir pocos. Las empresas oligopólicas no buscan competir con base en el precio sino que manejan su competencia con productos diferenciados, valiéndose de la publicidad y la promoción, con lo que logran incrementar sus ventas. La característica que distingue al oligopolio en el mercado, consiste en que es muy reducido el número de empresas que compiten. 4 La competencia monopolística se presenta con base en el tipo de producto, el precio, la publicidad y las marcas de fábrica. Es decir, este tipo de competencia se reduce a la diferenciación de la mercancía que se puede ofrecer. Por ejemplo, un fabricante de muebles buscará abrirse paso en la competencia con un producto que tenga la aceptación y pueda venderlo a precios relativamente más lentos sin
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
C).- Desde el punto de vista geográfico, también conocido por límite de mercado: Si se toma el primer criterio, se entiende por mercado: el área geográfico-económica a donde concurren compradores y vendedores a intercambiar bienes y servicios por dinero, transacción que se realiza en función de los precios. De acuerdo con este criterio el mercado se subdivide en: ! Local ! Regional ! Metropolitano ! Nacional ! Internacional o Mundial
4. Desde el punto de vista del cliente o consumidor: a) Mercado del consumidor: para uso final b) Mercado del productor o industrial: para producción de otros bienes o servicios c) Mercado del gobierno: compra de bienes y servicios para llevar a cabo sus funciones d) Mercado del revendedor, son distribuidores: mayoristas, minoristas, corredores, etc 5.-Segùn tipo de productos ofrecido. a) Productos provenientes de recursos naturales: agropecuarios, del mar, ganaderos, etc. b) Materias primas c) Productos manufacturados d) Servicios e) Activos financieros. f) Ideas 6. Según mercadotecnia: Actuales o reales: Compran actualmente Potenciales: Los que comprarán a futuro 7. Según intensidad de oferta y demanda Mercado de vendedores: La demanda supera a la oferta
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
c) De relaciones: Son transacciones sin contrato (compraventa vendedor-consumidor) d) Contractuales: Son por contrato con duración limitada e) Franquicias: Contrato a otra empresa o persona que le le concede trabajar trabajar su marca o empresa con amplia gama de prestaciones de servicios. Ejemplo: oxxo f) Obligacionales: Contrato duradero: Ejemplo: contrato en el mercado de trabajo a largo plazo.
1.1.2 OFERTA Y DEMANDA DE MERCADO MERCADO Introducción: El modelo de la oferta y demanda describe la interacción en el mercado de un determinado bien entre consumidores y productores, en relación con el precio y las ventas de dicho bien. Es el modelo fundamental de la microeconomía, y se usa para explicar una gran variedad de escenarios microeconómicos. Además, sirve como base para otras teorías y modelos económicos. El primero que describió este comportamiento fue Antoine Augustin Cournot y fue Alfred Marshall quien lo popularizó posteriormente. El modelo predice que, en un mercado libre y competitivo, el precio se establecerá en un punto -llamado 'punto de equilibrio'- en el cual tanto la oferta como la demanda se igualan. Es decir, el precio funciona como un mecanismo igualador entre lo que se demanda y lo que se produce, el punto de equilibrio siendo aquel en el cual los consumidores estarán dispuestos a adquirir todo lo que ofrecen los productores al precio marcado por dicho punto y los productores estarán dispuestos a producir todo lo que se demanda a ese precio. Si la demanda aumenta (de curva D1 a curva D2 en el diagrama) el precio aumentaría (P1 a P2). Similarmente, si la oferta aumenta (imagínese una curva S1 a la derecha de la curva S en el diagrama) el precio caería. Historia La expresión "oferta y la demanda" fue acuñada por James Denham-Steuart en su obra Estudio de los principios de la economía política, publicada en 1767. Adam Smith usó esta frase en su libro de 1776 La riqueza de las naciones, y David Ricardo, en su libro Principios de política económica e impositiva de 1817, tituló un capítulo "Influencia de la demanda y la oferta en el precio". En La riqueza de las naciones, Smith en general asume que el precio de oferta es fijo, y que es únicamente la demanda la que hace que el precio suba o baje. Ricardo, en los Principios
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
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de
Durante los últimos años del siglo XIX surgió la escuela de pensamiento marginal. Este campo fue iniciado por Stanley Jevons, Carl Menger y León Walras. La idea principal es que el precio se establecía a partir del precio más alto. Fue un cambio sustancial respecto a las ideas de Adam Smith sobre la determinación del precio de oferta. Este modelo fue desarrollado y popularizado más tarde por Alfred Marshall en su ensayo Principios de economía. Junto con León Walras, Marshall se centró en el punto de equilibrio en el cual las dos curvas se cortaban. Desde finales del siglo XIX, esta teoría de la oferta y la demanda se ha mantenido prácticamente inamovible. La mayoría de los estudios posteriores se han centrado en buscar las excepciones del modelo como los oligopolios, los costes de transacción o el principio de no racionalidad). Teoría fundamental
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
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Según la ley de la oferta y la demanda, el precio de un bien se sitúa en la intersección de las curvas de oferta y demanda. Si el precio de un bien está demasiado bajo y los consumidores demandan más de lo que los productores pueden poner en el mercado, se produce una situación de escasez, y por tanto los consumidores estarán dispuestos a pagar más. Los productores subirán los precios hasta que se alcance el nivel al cual los consumidores no estén dispuestos a comprar más si sigue subiendo el precio. En la situación inversa, si el precio de un bien es demasiado alto y los consumidores no están dispuestos a pagarlo, la tendencia será a que baje el precio, hasta que se llegue al nivel al cual los consumidores acepten el precio y se pueda vender todo lo que se produce.
DEMANDA DE MERCADO La demanda es la relación de bienes y servicios que los consumidores desean y están dispuestos a comprar dependiendo de su poder adquisitivo. La curva de demanda representa la cantidad de bienes que los compradores están dispuestos a adquirir a determinados precios, suponiendo que el resto de los factores se mantienen constantes (cláusula ceteris paribus). La curva de demanda es por lo general decreciente, es decir, a mayor precio, los consumidores comprarán menos. Los determinantes de la demanda de un individuo son el precio del bien, el nivel de renta, los gustos personales, el precio de los bienes sustitutivos, y el precio de los bienes complementarios. La forma de una curva de demanda puede ser cóncava o convexa, posiblemente dependiendo de la distribución de los ingresos. Como se ha dicho antes, la curva de demanda es casi siempre decreciente. Pero hay algunos ejemplos extraños de bienes que han tenido curvas de demanda crecientes. Un bien
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
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Como se puede ver, la demanda no es una simple cantidad de un producto, sino que es toda una relación o lista de las cantidades de una mercancía que los compradores estarían dispuestos a adquirir, a los diversos precios posibles. Por último, se entenderá por demanda la cantidad de un artículo que se compra a un precio dado, por unidad de tiempo: un día, una semana, un mes.
Ley de la demanda
La ley de la demanda se expresa así: al aumentar el precio (P), la cantidad demandada (CD) disminuye; y al disminuir el precio (P), la cantidad demandada (CD) aumenta. Esta expresión queda representada de la siguiente manera: - P + CD + P – CD
Como se observa, existe una relación inversa entre precios y cantidades. Explicado de otra manera, resulta que las personas estarían dispuestas a comprar más bienes o servicios, a medida que el precio disminuyera. Y al contrario, a medida que se incremento el precio, sería menor la cantidad que el consumidor desearía adquirir. Para representar a la demanda (D) en forma objetiva, se puede utilizar un gráfico cartesiano con el que se obtendrá una "curva típica de la demanda". Este gráfico se puede construir tomando como base los datos de la tabla anterior. "precios posibles se indican o representan
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
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La explicación al gráfico de la demanda indica que al unir los puntos localizados, representan la relación entre el precio y la cantidad que puede ser demandada (vendida), esto es "cuanto más se eleven los precios de un producto cualquiera, menores serán las cantidades que los consumidores estarían dispuestos y en condiciones de adquirir, en determinado período de tiempo.
FACTORES DETERMIANTES DEMANDA Y SU IMPACTO: El precio es un determinante de gran importancia para la demanda, ya que las personas, a
medida que los precios disminuyen, tienden a comprar más bienes y servicios. Con esta
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
También las campañas publicitarias influyen en los gustos de manera determinante, al grado de preferir el cambio total de cualquier artículo. Por ejemplo, si antes se usaba la corbata ancha y ahora está de moda la angosta, ocasionará la preferencia por las corbatas angostas. Es decir, un aumento en el deseo por un elemento cualquiera, tiende a incrementar su demanda afectiva. Condiciones climatológicas . Depende del clima el uso o compra de productos y servicios. La temporada es determinante total porque
existen temporadas de calor, de frío, de vacaciones, etc, que son muy importante para el mercado. En consecuencia, puede aumentar o disminuir la demanda en la cantidad de un producto, como resultado de la moda o de la publicidad. Ingresos del consumidor
Cuando se presenta una modificación en los niveles de ingreso, se produce un incremento o una disminución en la cantidad demandada. Supóngase que el ingreso real de un consumidor se incremento en 30%, es probable que el consumo de varios bienes se eleve en la misma proporción. Aunque también es probable que se compre ciertos bienes que antes no se consumían y quizá se reduzcan las compras de otros. Resumiendo, cuando los ingresos reales suben, aumenta la demanda, y cuando disminuyen, también disminuye la demanda. Aplicación de tarea 2 y 3.
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
2. Cuando mejoran los ingresos de los demandantes, cambian sus hábitos de consumo y sustituyen bienes de inferior calidad por otros mejores
Cambios en la demanda y cantidad demandada
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
Además, la pendiente de una función curvilínea de oferta suele ser también creciente (es decir, suele ser una función convexa), debido a la ley de los rendimientos decrecientes. A veces, las funciones de oferta no tienen una pendiente creciente. Un ejemplo es la curva de oferta del mercado laboral. Generalmente, cuando el salario de un trabajador aumenta, éste está dispuesto a ofrecer un mayor número de horas de trabajo, debido a que un sueldo más elevado incrementa la utilidad marginal del trabajo (e incrementa el costo de oportunidad de no trabajar). Pero cuando dicha remuneración se hace demasiado alta, el trabajador puede experimentar la ley de los rendimientos decrecientes en relación con su paga. La gran cantidad de dinero que está ganando hará que otro aumento de sueldo tenga poco valor para él. Por lo tanto, a partir de cierto punto trabajará menos a medida que aumente el salario, decidiendo invertir su tiempo en ocio-. Este tipo de curvas de oferta ha sido observado en otros mercados, como el del petróleo: después del récord del precio provocado por la crisis de 1973, muchos países exportadores de petróleo disminuyeron su producción. Otro ejemplo de curvas de oferta atípicas lo encontramos en las compañías de Servicio público. Debido a que una gran cantidad de sus costes son costes fijos, el coste marginal de estas empresas es prácticamente una constante, con lo cual su curva de oferta es una recta creciente.
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
Los datos de la relación numérica muestran lo siguiente: a) A mayor precio siempre hay tendencia a ofrecer más que a un precio menor, y la
inversa. b) Cuando aumenta la oferta disminuye el precio (más adelante se presenta la gráfica al .tratar la ley de la oferta).
Ley de la oferta: La ley de la oferta se expresa así: Al aumentar el precio (P), la cantidad ofrecida (C0) aumenta; y al disminuir el precio (P) la cantidad ofrecida (C0) disminuye. La representación gráfica de la ley se presenta de la siguiente manera. + P +CO - P - CO
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
El gráfico de la oferta se interpreta considerando que las cantidades ofrecidas aumentan a medida que los precios aumentan; las relaciones precio-cantidad son directas, esto es "cuanto más se eleven los precios de un producto cualquiera, mayores serán las cantidades que los productores estarán dispuestos a ofrecer, aunque no siempre en condiciones de producir a corto plazo". Las propiedades de la curva de la oferta son: a) La curva de la oferta es descendente de derecha a izquierda. b) Cuanto más bajan los precios, la curva tiende a ser paralela al eje de las ordenadas (Y). c) Cuanto más suben los precios, la curva tiende a ser paralela al eje de las abscisas (X).
FACTORES DETERMIANTES DE LA OFERTA Y SU IMPACTO: Existe una diversidad de factores que sirven para revisar lo que son los determinantes de la oferta. Muchos de ellos, como la actitud de los empresarios en cuanto al margen de ganancia
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
A fin de proteger a la población de bajos ingresos, ingre sos, el gobierno proporciona una determinada cantidad de dinero o de estímulos a las empresas o industrias para que los productos o servicios que ofrecen no dañen la economía del consumidor de escaso poder adquisitivo o bien, para evitar el aumento en el precio de una mercancía de consumo masivo, el gobierno proporciona dinero a los productores para que no incrementen el precio de venta. Otro ejemplo es el subsidio que se destina para la transportación colectiva, como es el caso del METRO, cuyo costo de operación es mucho mayor que los ingresos. Las condiciones climatológicas. Las variaciones del clima es un factor determinante para
muchas empresas y oferentes porque depende en gran medida los resultados de su producción y venta.
Ejemplo: oferta y demanda en una economía de 6 personas El modelo de oferta y demanda se puede estudiar mediante individuos que interactúan en un mercado. Supónganse una economía simplificada en la que participan los seis individuos
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
está dispuesta a vender a ese precio (nuestra empresa). Cristina se entera y como no quiere perder esta gran oportunidad, ofrece 16 a nuestra empresa por habitación. Ahora Place también está dispuesta a vender, con lo cual tenemos dos compradores y dos vendedores a ese precio (nótese que podría haberse establecido cualquier precio entre 15 y 20). Aquí parece que los cuatro están de acuerdo. Pero ¿qué ocurre con Hoteles Master y Alicia? Ambos no están dispuestos a negociar entre ellos, debido a que Alicia sólo está dispuesta a pagar 10 y hoteles master no desea aceptar nada por debajo de 25. Alicia no puede mejorar las ofertas de Bruno y Cristina para comprar a Nuestra empresa, con lo cual Alicia no puede negociar con ellos. Master no puede rebajar el precio de venta tanto como
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre: •
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
Tres personas están dispuestas a pagar 10 euros (Cristina, Bruno y Alicia).
La oferta sería: •
•
•
Una persona está dispuesta a alquilar por 5 euros (nuestra empresa). Dos personas están dispuestas a alquilar por 15 euros (nuestra empresa y hoteles Place). Tres personas están dispuestas a alquilar por 25 euros (Nuestra empresa, hoteles Place y hoteles Master).
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
verdaderas leyes de la naturaleza. Éstas expresan las relaciones según las cuales se encadenan realmente los hechos, no la forma en que sería bueno que se encadenaran. Lo que decimos de esta ley se puede repetir de todas las que la escuela económica ortodoxa califica de naturales y que, por otra parte, no son apenas sino casos particulares de la precedente. Son naturales, si se quiere, en el sentido de que enuncian los medios que parece, o debe parecer natural, hayan de ser utilizados para alcanzar tal hipotético fin; pero no debe dárseles este nombre si por ley natural se entiende toda manera de ser de la naturaleza comprobada inductivamente. No son, en suma, otra cosa que consejos de prudencia práctica y, si ha sido posible presentarlos de un modo más o menos especioso
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
d) Un aumento de la oferta tiende a provocar una baja del precio y una extensión de la demanda; una disminución de la oferta tiende a provocar un alza del precio y una contracción de la demanda.
1.1.3.- EQUILIBRIO DE MERCADO EQUILIBRIO
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
Al igual que en la demanda se presentan tres tipos principales de elasticidad: elástica,
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
D
4
Economía para los Negocios Primero 2000
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Techo de Mercado
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
3.1 CONCEPTO Y CARACTERÍSTICAS Las PYMES son Pequeñas y Medianas Empresas, con un número no muy grande de trabajadores, y con una facturación moderada. En diversos países, estas empresas son consideradas, como el principal motor de la economía. Y es que en muchos casos, las PYME, son las empresas, que más empleo generan dentro de una nación. Y es muy sencillo, tomar nota del por qué. En toda nación, la mayoría de las empresas no pueden ser grandes corporaciones o holdings. De hecho, lo antes mencionado, ocurre en todos los países del globo; en México entran Pymes y Mipymes las cuales concentran el 99% de las empresas nacionales. En España, por ejemplo las PYME constituyen más del 99% de las compañías. Es así, como un importante espacio del mercado, es cubierto por medio de estas empresas. Y no sólo nos referimos en cuanto la oferta que puedan llegar a proporcionar dichas PYMES. Sino que principalmente, las fuentes de trabajo que ofrecen a la comunidad. En España, las PYME generan el 67% del empleo. En Chile (nación con altos estándares de libertad y competitividad económica), las PYMES significan el 80% de la oferta de mano obra, dentro del país. Con respecto a términos técnicos, en cuanto a lo que son las PYMES, estos nacen de la Comisión de la Unión Europea. Estas son clasificaciones, que se han ido estandarizando, en varios de los países del globo. Para que las PYMES sean consideradas como tales, tienen que tener como número uno, menos de 250 empleados contratados. Y nos referimos a los de planta, como también a los empleados externos que se puedan llegar a subcontratar. El volumen de venta de manera anual, debe de ser inferior a los US$ 32 millones de dólares o en su defecto, un balance general inferior a los US$ 19 millones de dólares. Por último, pero no menos importante, es el hecho que dentro de la PYME no puede participar otra organización, en cuanto a su capital accionario, en más de un 25% si no califica dentro de las especificaciones anteriormente señaladas. Estas especificaciones, datan del 3 de abril, de 1996.
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Fecha: Hoja:
Plan de estudios: 2012
de
El Fondo de Apoyo para la Micro, Pequeña y Mediana Empresa (FONDO PYME) es un instrumento que busca apoyar a las empresas en particular a las de menor tamaño y a los emprendedores con el propósito de promover el desarrollo económico nacional, a través del otorgamiento de apoyos de carácter temporal a programas y proyectos que fomenten la creación, desarrollo, consolidación, viabilidad, productividad, competitividad y sustentabilidad de las micro, pequeñas y medianas empresas. En el caso de nuestro país, los diferentes programas que existen son básicamente estructurados a través del estado. La secretaria de economía es la que se encarga de apoyar al desarrollo de las PyMES.
3.3 POLITICA DE PYMES: Estas son algunas de las variables que se tienen en cuenta para determinar la magnitud de las empresas. Cada país tiene sus propios topes, sobre todo en lo que respecta a la cantidad de personal, que en general oscila entre 50 y 500 personas. Así se consideraría que una empresa es: •
•
•
Pequeña: hasta alrededor de 50 personas Mediana: entre 50 y 500 Grande: más de 500
Esto depende del país y del sector productivo o de servicios en el que realice sus actividades. Además esos topes se van actualizando de acuerdo con la realidad económica y social. En Argentina, el Ministerio de Economía estableció los topes para que las empresas sean consideradas Pyme, a los efectos de las diferentes medidas de apoyo, tanto a lo que se refiere a la política económica, como fiscal, a la crediticia y otros. 4Caracterización Sector Industrial. •
•
•
de
pequeña
y
Personal Ocupado 300 empleados Ventas anuales (sin IVA ni impuestos internos) $18.000.000 Activos productivos $10.000.000
Sectores Comercial y de Servicios. •
•
•
Personal ocupado 100 empleados Ventas anuales (sin IVA ni impuestos internos) $12.000.000 Patrimonio Neto $12.500.000
mediana
empresa
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
Sector Personal ocupado 300 empleados •
Ventas anuales (sin IVA ni impuestos externos) $15.000.000
Sector Agropecuario. •
•
Ingreso bruto anual (sin IVA ni impuestos internos) $1.000.000 Capital productivo $3.000.000
3.4 RELACIÓN TAMAÑO-PRODUCTIVIDAD •
•
Tanto el análisis teórico como estudios estadísticos realizados indica que existe una relación entre tamaño de empresa y productividad. Dado que mayores tamaños en la estructura significa mayor concentración en los resultados, existe también una leve correlación positiva entre concentración y productividad. La relación tamaño-productividad debe analizarse por sector de la economía. En los sectores manufactureros y agropecuarios el fenómeno de economías de escala tiene mucha importancia.
En algunos casos este tema define el tamaño óptimo mínimo de una planta o empresa. Esto no quiere decir que no existan oportunidades para empresas pequeñas. •
La aparición de nuevas tecnologías, por un lado, y la búsqueda de una contemplación entre resultados económicos y sociales, por otro está llevando a la industria en otros países, a diseñar plantas industriales de un tamaño en muchos casos inferior al que hubiera adoptado una década atrás. Si esta tendencia se generaliza, a largo plazo esta conducta empresaria modificará la estructura industrial.
3.5 IMPORTANCIA DE LAS PYMES: Las MIPYMES y pymes son el pilar fundamental de la economía del país, sustento de empleos y generador de riqueza. Como tal, merece una atención especial de tal forma que pueda aprovechar las oportunidades que brindan México y el Mundo, y pueda cumplir su tarea de generación de empleos y riqueza. La importancia de las Pymes en la economía se basa en que:
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre: •
•
•
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
Reducen las relaciones sociales a términos personales más estrechos entre el empleador y el empleado favoreciendo las conexiones laborales ya que, en general, sus orígenes son unidades familiares. Presentan mayor adaptabilidad tecnológica y menor costo de infraestructura. Obtienen economía de escala a través de la cooperación interempresaria, sin tener que reunir la inversión en una sola firma.
Son importantes como unidades de producción de bienes y servicios, en nuestro país y en el exterior justifica la necesidad de dedicar un espacio a su conocimiento. Debido a que desarrollan un menor volumen de actividad, las Pymes poseen mayor flexibilidad para adaptarse a los cambios del mercado y emprender proyectos innovadores que resultaran una buena fuente generadora de empleo, sobre todo profesionales y demás personal calificado. En la casi totalidad de las economías de mercado las empresas pequeñas y medianas, incluidos los microcréditos que constituyen una parte sustancial de la economía. Veamos la siguiente gráfica:
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
Por lo tanto se puede contemplar y revisar que el sector más amplio son los servicios, transporte y comercio que ambos ambos entran en las las micro, pequeñas y medianas empresas.
La importancia de las pymes en el ámbito mundial: En la unión europea, las Pymes representan más del 95% de las empresas de la comunidad, concentran más de las dos terceras partes del empleo total; alrededor del 60% en el sector industrial y más del 75% en el sector servicios. Es por eso que en las "reuniones de los jefes de estado de la comunidad europea se subraya la necesidad de desarrollar el espíritu de empresa y de rebajar las cargas que pesan sobre las Pymes". En Japón también cumplen un nivel muy importante en la actividad económica, principalmente como subcontratistas, en la producción de partes.
3.6 INSTITUCIONNES DE FOMENTO Y APOYO APOYO A LAS PYMES PYMES El programa: México emprende comprende grupos de trabajo y atención a pymes y minipymes. Gobierno Federal apoya en:
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
Además apoya con programas de vinculación, seguimiento y evaluación a las empresas.
FUENTES DE FINANCIAMIENTO: Se aplican diferentes fuentes de financiamiento en cada país. En México se encuentra el Fondo Pyme Apoyo por parte de la Secretaría de Economía a través de programas como FONAES, NAFINSA, SIFIDE, etc Los créditos se otorgan desde $1000.00 hasta 500,000.00 comprobando tamaño, productividad y solvencia del negocio.
3.7 INTERVENCION DEL LAS PYMES EN EL MERCADO DE TRABAJO La intervención de este sector tiene tanto aspectos positivos como negativos. "El lado negativo de manifiesta es razón de que muchas empresas del sector tienden a integrarse al tramo informal del mercado de trabajo. Esto nos conduce a la evasión impositiva, la no adecuación de las leyes laborales y la falta de agremiación sindical. En definitiva, son empresas que alteran las leyes de juego del mercado institucionalizado, lo que provoca la queja de las grandes firmas, que ven esta situación como una transferencia de recursos implícitos en favor del sector que nos ocupa. La movilidad laboral refleja la faz positiva de la intervención de la pequeñas y medianas empresas en el contexto del mercado de trabajo de lo que se trata, en definitiva, es de alcanzar una mejor reasignación de los recursos humanos, ya se trate de obreros calificados como no calificados." En el primero de los casos nos referimos a la posibilidad que tienen de abandonar su trabajo en una empresa grande, tal vez con cierta estabilidad pero sin posibilidades de progreso,
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Se observa que el 80% el empleo se inserta en pymes y minipymes. Leer el siguiente artículo: POLÍTICA
PYME MADE IN MÉXICO
Fecha: Hoja:
de
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Fecha: Hoja:
de
Como por ejemplo la creación de un MODELO DE PREINCUBACION que ya se está probando en casos que demuestren su viabilidad. Se juzgó que era un gasto enorme invertir en incubadoras y procesos de incubación que atienden a proyectos que finalmente acaban el proceso demostrando su inviabilidad. Proyectos empresariales en los los que se invierten invierten más de 100 mil pesos para concluir un PLAN DE NEGOCIOS que demuestra inviabilidad de la empresa que se plantea. Entonces se procedió a crear una suerte de MODELO DE PREINCUBACION que preste servicio a los emprendedores que concluya precisamente con un PLAN DE NEGOCIOS que demuestre viabilidad. En este caso el proyecto avanza hacia un trabajo de incubación en una futura empresa que SI TIENE perspectivas de sobrevivencia. Un modelo surgido del trabajo conjunto entre el Instituto Politécnico Nacional, el Tec de Monterrey y la Fudación E. y que encargó la Secretaría de Economía. El modelo ya se aplica para su evaluación y pudiera comenzar a aplicarse el año entrante EDUARDOTORREBLANCAJAQUES
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Toda la información correspondiente a LAS PYMES en México, se puede encontrar en las siguientes direcciones:
http://www.fondopyme.gob.mx/ http://www.economia.gob.mx/?P=7000 http://www.ipyme.org/es-ES/Paginas/Home.aspx
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UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLÓGICA DE SAN LUIS POTOSÍ CARRERA: ING. EN DESARROLLO E INNOVACIÓN EMPRESARIAL MODALIDAD MIXTA Asignatura : Cuatrimestre:
Economía para los Negocios Primero
Plan de estudios: 2012
Bibliografía
Emile Durkheim LAS REGLAS DEL MÉTODO SOCIOLÓGICO Fondo deCultura Económica México
Case Fair PRINCIPIOS DE ECONOMÍA. Ed. Prentice Hall. Parkin Michael. MICROECONOMÍA. Ed. Addison.
Helbrones ECONOMÍA. Ed. Prentice may.
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