eBook - Gopaals Notes on Construction Engineering-Revised Edition- May-12

Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering

– A personal reference compilation of knowledge on Construction Engineering A Compilation on day to day activities, its knowhow and exploration in the form of questionnaire, useful for the beginners and the people from construction industry who would like to refresh their knowledge.

An e-book Compiled By:- Gopaal Dhussa DCE, BTE Delhi, AMIE (India), NICMAR (CODE)

Edition:- 1st, Jan-2012, - ebook Edition:- Revised Edition, May-2012, - ebook Published in: Jan-2012, May-2012 at http://contractorindia.com Distribution:- 1st & revised edition are Free for distribution

Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

The Book is dedicated to my Parents and to my Guruji.

For their Guidance which made me travel so far that I’m trying to create a guide for Civil Engineers

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* Preface to 1st edition This document is compiled from the point of view of creating a ready reckoner for day to day working on the construction sites and managing the projects while being at site and while taking the decisions. The efforts are put up to make a dynamic document which shall be updated on regular basis based on my personal needs and the questions raised by the readers. As the document is compiled from the view point of helping the engineers, contractors, owners and users of the construction industry so we have tried to cover mostly those elements which are required by people on day to day basis. The document can also be used as a preparatory guide and also as a reference. A word of caution is that as most of the information is compiled from various sources (though deemed to be authentic) but while quoting the information from this compilation a person’s own wisdom and jurisdiction is expected. The references are indicated where ever was possible and wherever they are not mentioned has actually skipped and shall be incorporated in next revision. As the book is a dynamic model of knowledge and shall be updated every three months based on the suggestions and usability of this book I would request the users not to print and waste paper.

Readers may send their suggestions at:[email protected] Preface to Revised addition Based on the feedback received from our readers and my colleagues new information is added and the existing information is updated. I’m thankful to my readers and users of these notes for making these notes more useful regularly. The document shall be updated regularly as already committed. Regards Gopaal Dhussa

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

Contents JOB DESCRIPTION & ROLE CLARITY ........................................................................................... 7 RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES OF A CONSTRUCTION ENGINEER .................................................... 8 GENERAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF A CONSTRUCTION ENGINEER......................................................... 8 SPECIFIC DUTIES OF A CONSTRUCTION ENGINEER.......................................................................... 8 POSITIVE TRAITS FOR CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERS TO POSSESS ..................................................... 9 QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED FOR TECHNICAL & TECHNICAL MANAGERIAL INTERVIEWS ....................... 9 MANAGERIAL LEVEL..................................................................................................................... 9 SITE ENGINEER / ASSISTANT MANAGER ....................................................................................... 10 DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES OF A TIMEKEEPER .......................................................................... 11 THE DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES OF ACCOUNTING STAFF ........................................................... 11 DUTIES OF AN ACCOUNTANT ...................................................................................................... 13 KNOW BASICS OF STANDARD SITE OPERATIONS TO REVISE ONE’S TECHNICAL KNOWHOW .. 15 BASIC DEFINITIONS (FROM IS 1200)......................................................................................... 16 COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................................... 18 ALL ABOUT CONCRETE .............................................................................................................. 23 WHAT IS A CONCRETE MIX ........................................................................................................... 23 WHAT IS WORKABILITY / SLUMP IN CONCRETE? HOW IS IT BEING MEASURED / TESTED ..................... 23 WHAT IS AN AGGREGATE ............................................................................................................. 24 QUALITY CONTROL BASICS OF CONCRETE ..................................................................................... 24 WHAT IS WATER CEMENT RATIO & HOW DOES IT AFFECTS STRENGTH OF CONCRETE .......................... 24 WHAT ARE CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES, THEIR TYPE & USES ................................................................ 24 WHAT IS A REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE ................................................................................ 25 CURING OF CONCRETE & ITS IMPORTANCE ..................................................................................... 25 CONCRETE STRENGTH TEST - CONCRETE TESTING......................................................................... 26 CONCRETE COVER ...................................................................................................................... 26 PARADOX ABOUT CONCRETE COVER ................................................................................................. 27 A BRIEF ABOUT CONCRETE MIXER AND READY MIX CONCRETE ......................................................... 27 ADVANTAGES OF READY MIX CONCRETE OVER SITE MIX CONCRETE.................................. 28 CEMENT & AGGREGATES ........................................................................................................... 29 STRENGTH ALTERATION OF CEMENT DUE TO STORAGE ............................................................... 30 CLASSIFICATION OF LIME CLAUSE 3.1.3.1 OF CPWD SPECIFICATIONS ......................................... 30 BULKING OF FINE AGGREGATE CL. 3.1.4.5 OF CPWD SPECIFICATIONS ........................................ 30 FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING CONCRETE CUBES (CLAUSE 14.2 IS 456) ............................................... 31 DRINKING WATER STANDARDS.................................................................................................... 32 ALL ABOUT FORM WORK........................................................................................................... 35 WHAT IS FORM WORK ................................................................................................................. 35 TYPE OF FORM WORKS. .............................................................................................................. 36 MATERIAL FOR FORMWORK - ...................................................................................................... 36 WHAT ARE THE COMMON TYPE OF DEFECTS IN TIMBER / LUMBER AND ITS PREVENTIONS ................... 37 PARTICLE BOARDS .................................................................................................................... 38 CLIMBING FORM WORK............................................................................................................. 38 TECHNICAL TIPS ON FORM WORK / SHUTTERING .......................................................................... 40 ALL ABOUT REINFORCEMENT STEEL........................................................................................... 41 REINFORCEMENT STEEL OR REBAR .............................................................................................. 41 BAR BENDING SCHEDULE ........................................................................................................... 42 WELDING ELECTRODES & PROCEDURES ..................................................................................... 43 CARBON STEEL ELECTRODES ....................................................................................................... 43 PIPE WELDING ELECTRODES ....................................................................................................... 47

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* QUANTITY SURVEY, ESTIMATION, MENSURATION .................................................................. 48 RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF VALUE (SP 27-1987) ............................................................. 49 TABLE FOR MEASUREMENT OF MATERIALS ...................................................................... 51 MENSURATION FORMULAS......................................................................................................... 52 COSTING .................................................................................................................................. 57 BASICS OF COSTING ................................................................................................................... 58 COST ENGINEERING .................................................................................................................... 58 COST ESTIMATE ......................................................................................................................... 59 CONSTRUCTION COST ESTIMATES ................................................................................................ 59 KNOW METHODS TO CALCULATE DEPRECIATION ........................................................................ 61 WHAT IS DEPRECIATION ............................................................................................................. 61 HOW TO CALCULATE DEPRECIATION ............................................................................................ 61 APPLICABLE LAWS / ACTS / IMPORTANT CLAUSES/ IS CODES ................................................. 64 IS CODES................................................................................................................................... 65 IS CODE FOR METHOD OF MEASUREMENTS – IS 1200 ................................................................ 65 CODES AND STANDARDS ..................................................................................................... 67 FOR DESIGN & EXECUTION......................................................................................................... 67 STATUTORY LAWS / ACTS PERTAINING TO INDIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY ............................. 77 PRICE ESCALATION CLAUSE - (TAKEN FROM GCC OF DAE) .................................................. 78 DEFINITION - WHOLESALE PRICE INDEX........................................................................................ 84 DEFINITION - CONSUMER PRICE INDEX.......................................................................................... 84 REFUND OF SECURITY DEPOSIT AND PERFORMANCE SECURITY ................................... 85 FEW METHODS & MATERIALS REPRESENTED FOR READY REFERENCE .................................... 87 DIFFERENT TYPE OF PIPES ........................................................................................................ 88 KNOW FEW DAILY USE MATERIALS IN DETAILS - SOURCE - (SOURCE WIKIPEDIA) .......................... 89 CEMENT..................................................................................................................................... 89 HYDRAULIC CEMENTS ............................................................................................................ 89 DIFFERENT TYPE OF PORTLAND CEMENT ............................................................................................ 89 NON-PORTLAND HYDRAULIC CEMENTS............................................................................................. 90 FLY ASH ................................................................................................................................... 91 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION ................................................................... 91 CLASS F FLY ASH........................................................................................................................... 92 CLASS C FLY ASH .......................................................................................................................... 92 FLY ASH REUSE ....................................................................................................................... 92 PORTLAND CEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 92 EMBANKMENT............................................................................................................................. 93 SOIL STABILIZATION ...................................................................................................................... 93 FLOWABLE FILL ............................................................................................................................ 93 ASPHALT CONCRETE ...................................................................................................................... 93 POLYMERS .................................................................................................................................. 94 ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE ...................................................................................................... 94 BRICKS ...................................................................................................................................... 94 GROUT ...................................................................................................................................... 94 PIGMENT (PAINT) ................................................................................................................... 95 PAINT BINDER ........................................................................................................................ 95 PAINT VEHICLE OR SOLVENT ................................................................................................. 96 PAINT ADDITIVES ......................................................................................................................... 96 EPOXY RESINS ............................................................................................................................. 97 VARNISH .................................................................................................................................... 98

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* PLASTIC ..................................................................................................................................... 98 BRICKS.................................................................................................................................... 98 CONCRETE .................................................................................................................................. 99 TILES ......................................................................................................................................... 99 VITRIFIED TILE ............................................................................................................................. 99 CERAMIC TILE ............................................................................................................................. 99 MARBLE .................................................................................................................................... 99 ALUMINUM COMPOSITE PANEL ACP............................................................................................... 99 CURTAIN WALL & STRUCTURAL GLAZING ....................................................................................... 100 AREA MEASUREMENTS – READY REFERENCE NOTES............................................................. 101 PLINTH AREA MEASUREMENT .................................................................................................. 102 MEASUREMENT OF BUILDING AREAS .............................................................................. 103 METHOD FOR MEASURING OFFICE FLOOR AREA ....................................................................... 105 CONVERSION TABLE .............................................................................................................. 107 CONVERSION - WIRE GAUGE TO EQUIVALENT MM (PLATES) ...................................................... 107 CONVERSION FACTOR - RATE PER UNIT OF MEASUREMENT TO OTHER ........................................ 107 UNIT WEIGHTS - STRUCTURAL STEEL ELEMENTS ................................................................... 112 ISA - HOT - ROLLED STEEL EQUAL ANGLES - (AS PER IS : 808, 1976 AND PART V)............. 113 ISA - HOT - ROLLED STEEL UN-EQUAL ANGLES ............................................................... 115 ISMC - HOT-ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS - MEDIUM CHANNELS (SLOPING FLANGES) ...................... 117 ISMB - HOT-ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS - MEDIUM WEIGHT BEAMS ............................................ 118 WEIGHT OF STANDARD CHEQUERED PLATES ...................................................................... 118 WEIGHT OF REINFORCEMENT STEEL BARS WITH THEIR STANDARD CROSS SECTIONAL AREAS ..... 118 WEIGHT OF G.I. PIPES FOR WATER, GAS & AIR CONFIRMING TO IS 1239 .................................. 120 WEIGHT OF PIPES FOR WATER, GAS & AIR CONFIRMING TO IS:3589/2001 ............................. 122 ANNEXURE – 1 ....................................................................................................................... 123 GLOSSARY OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT TERMS......................................................... 123 ANNEXURE -2 ........................................................................................................................ 145 LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY NORMS FOR CIVIL WORKS .............................................................. 145 ANNEXURE – 3 ....................................................................................................................... 149 TABLE OF SCAFFOLDING MATERIALS PERTAINING TO CUP-LOCK SYSTEM ............................ 149 ANNEXURE - 4 ....................................................................................................................... 160 LIST OF MINIMUM STOCK OF BASIC ITEMS TO HAVE AT ANY PROJECT ................................. 160 ADDITIONS IN THIS REVISED EDITION ................................................................................... 163 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................... 164

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

Job Description & Role Clarity

- for Understanding the Technical Competency of the Engineering & Project Managerial Levels for Construction Project and other Team Members

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* Responsibilities and Duties of a Construction Engineer The role of a construction engineer is one which has multiple tasks and duties associated with it. The construction engineer will implement a construction project and wear many different hats along the way. It is important to detail the specific duties and general responsibilities which go along with this job position as it will show how useful this individual truly is in today’s society.

General Responsibilities of a Construction Engineer In general, a construction engineer is responsible for the planning of the construction project. This includes conducting surveys, engaging in research, analyzing results, planning the construction and overseeing it along the way. The construction engineer will also provide information to the pertinent parties and general public to keep them informed and in the case that any issues arise before, during and after the construction. A construction engineer is the one who plans the project and advises the workers.

Specific Duties of a Construction Engineer A construction engineer will have to fulfill a variety of specific duties on a daily basis. Prior to even thinking about starting a construction project, the construction engineer will have to survey the area. In conjunction with this they will need to produce reports and environmental statements detailing how the project will be done and what areas it will affect. During the pre-construction phase, the construction engineer will prepare diagrams, charts and surveys showing specific information about the area and the desired project. Once the reports, charts and data have been compiled, the construction engineer will then need to discuss such items with related parties such as builders, environmental agencies and local, state and federal entities. These items may also have to be made available to the general public for their objections to be heard.

The construction engineer must also inspect the site to ensure that the building which will be taken place can be accommodated by that area. Tests will be performed relating to the ground and water level. The construction engineer may also have to determine the grade and elevation levels of the area.

Some construction engineers must determine the costs of their construction projects. This is done by proposing bids and determining the costs of labor and materials to ensure that the project can be carried through in keeping with the budget that has been set aside. This will be an estimation on the part of the construction engineer but it must be as close to the true number as possible.

The construction engineer must also provide technical advice to all parties involved with the project. This may relate to any number of topics including the construction of the site to abiding by certain laws, codes and regulations. A construction engineer is something of a jack of all trades in many respects and therefore will be consulted on a number of issues.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* Positive Traits for Construction Engineers to Possess There are a few different traits which would be beneficial for construction engineers to possess. The first is good analytical skills. A large part of a construction engineer’s job is to analyze the situation prior to the construction taking place. This includes performing surveys and research from which the construction engineer will draw conclusions. Once the conclusions have been made, the construction engineer will draft reports, graphs, charts and present data to the pertinent parties. Therefore, superb analytical skills will come in quite useful throughout these various tasks. Construction engineers must also have wonderful problem solving skills. A construction engineer will find that from time to time he/she encounters problems along the way. By possessing good problem solving skills, it will be that much easier for the construction engineer to analyze the situation and then solve the problematic issues which have arisen. Good mathematical skills will also prove useful for the construction engineer. Figures and mathematical equations are commonplace in the job role of a construction engineer. By having adequate mathematical skills, the construction engineer will find that their daily tasks are completed much more quickly and correctly than if they lacked these skills. Another positive trait for construction engineers to possess is good teamwork skills. Although construction engineers may complete a number of their specific job tasks alone, there are other job duties where they must rely on a team in order to properly complete them. By being a good team player, the construction engineer will be able to work in harmony with others around them and make the job that much easier. Communication skills will also come in handy for the construction engineer. A construction engineer will often have to express their findings to individuals or even large groups throughout the course of a construction project. Therefore, it is easy to see how good communication skills will be useful. If one possesses such skills they will be able to detail the information to others in an effective manner and those listening to the details will be able to understand what they are being told. Attention to details is an additional positive trait for construction engineers to possess. When it comes to construction, preciseness is crucial and one who exhibits good attention to details will be more likely to ensure that the construction is performed correctly.

Questions to be asked for Technical & Technical Managerial Interviews

Managerial Level First of all while deciding the candidate for the post of Project head / project manager please ensure that he / she has executed one project independently of at least half the value. For example in our case of a project worth 200 Crores to be completed in 2 years of time a project worth 100 Crores should have been completed by the person of similar nature who wishes to be project

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* head, otherwise this would be difficult for a person to envisage the problems which may come in the project and project sequencing.

We have to check the leadership qualities of a person and ask him: 1. The way he plans to take on / start the project? 2. The method in which he would like to plan the project and his ability to understand the sequence of activities in terms of closing project and final handing over? 3. How will he track the progress of project that is method by which he will determine the direction of project progress in line with original scheduled completion of project. 4. Local coordination with client & consultants on day to day problems like design clarification etc. 5. Is he aware of the statutory laws and the mandatory inspections / clearances required from the local statutory / legal bodies? Can he coordinate with them? 6. Does he understands the bar chart and PERT? 7. Can he monitor the project in MS project or equivalent project planning & monitoring software? 8. In case contractor doesn’t fulfils his responsibilities or delays the project what will be your line of action? Will you be ready will plan B in case contractor intentionally delays the project or doesn’t provide sufficient technical and supervisory manpower? 9. Progress review meetings with contractor and various other agencies and what is expected out of this? 10. How would you achieve quality and maintain standard of quality? 11. Cost control parameters to be adopted. What will he do in case contractor generates unnecessary extra claim? That is his ability to interpret and implement contract is to be judged. 12. Safety to be implemented at site. How will he ensure? What are the checks will he adopt? How will he pressurise contractor to ensure safety at work?

Site Engineer / Assistant Manager 1. Awareness and implementation of Quality procedures like Mix design for concrete (Mix design is different from nominal mix of concrete where we deals in ratios of cement and aggregate, here the laboratory tests the contents of concrete and tells the mix to be followed) M20 stands for Mix with compressive strength of 20 N / Sqmm, cube strength test, other aggregate test like sieve analysis, silt content etc. Setting up of laboratory at site, what is the equipment required – eg cube testing machine. 2. Drawing reading capacity for eg. Ask the cut length for steel to be bent at 90 degrees (Answer the length would be L – 4d, where d is the dia of bar and L is the final length required). Most of the engineers with lesser experience do not know how to calculate steel schedule. 3. Mode of measurement, eg ask him how will he measure a white wash for the purpose of payment where the window is fixed on the outer side of wall. If he has gone through IS 1200 (This is IS code for mode of measurement) then he would be in a position to answer or else no. 4. Ability to check survey and coordinate with drawing to start the building. 5. Cost control parameters to be adopted. 6. Safety to be implemented at site. How will he ensure? What are the checks will he adopt? How will he pressurise contractor to ensure safety at work? 7. How will he behave in case an accident occurs at site?

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* 8. Coordination and reporting techniques he would like to follow. Determination and alarming to Project manager about status of project. 9. Team spirit to finish the project on time.

Duties & Responsibilities of a Timekeeper By Daniel Shin, eHow Contributor

For employees to be paid correctly and on time, they must submit their hours worked either electronically or manually to timekeepers. Timekeepers maintain an accurate track of hours worked for payroll purposes. They typically are hired as acting liaisons between employees and payroll coordinators to ensure the smooth process of pay distribution. Calculating an employee's time worked, production and commission are duties of a timekeeper.

Knowledge Timekeepers must have knowledge in accounting and payroll data software programs. Many organizations require timekeepers to have knowledge in administrative skills such as operating computers, 10-key calculators, word processing and proficiency with Excel spreadsheets. It is imperative for timekeepers to know personnel compensation and benefits relating to hours worked. Knowledge of mathematical reasoning and analytical skills are needed to avoid any errors during work.

Abilities Timekeepers must have the ability to compute and post wages and deductions with employee hours worked. They must be extremely reliable since they are dealing with time-related issues and paycheck distribution. Timekeepers must be capable of multitasking, planning and organizing details while communicating effectively with co-workers and employees. They must be able to attend meetings and inform employees on information that helps prepare for future issues related to payroll discrepancies.

Functions Duties of a timekeeper include maintaining time sheets and accurately inputting time and attendance data into the computer. They verify attendance, hours worked and pay adjustments while tracking overtime hours and approving compensatory time earned. A timekeeper also is responsible for keeping track of leave time such as vacation, holidays, personal or sick days for employees. Duties also include ensuring time sheets are submitted and received by employees on time to issue accurate payroll adjustments.

Places of Work The majority of timekeepers work in cubicles or offices in the human resources department of a company. Some timekeepers work in warehouses or on-site to manage manual time sheets used by labor workers. Timekeepers also work for companies that are contracted by multiple organizations to take care of their timekeeping needs

The Duties & Responsibilities of Accounting Staff By Marquis Codjia, eHow Contributor

Accounting assistants are entry-level positions requiring a two-year college degree in business, finance or accounting. They perform a variety of tasks under the supervision of senior professionals. These tasks could include journal entries, ledger confirmations and bank

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* reconciliations. They also may assist internal and external auditors in evaluating a business' internal procedures. Assistants move up to more senior roles if they receive a four-year college degree and earn a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) license.

Make Journal Entries Accounting assistants record an organization's business activities by making journal entries in sub- or general ledgers. Entering items in a journal means crediting or debiting an account. There are five types of accounts: expense, revenue, asset, liability and shareholders' equity. Expenses are charges incurred. Revenues reflect sales and commissions. Assets indicate what a business entity owns, and liabilities, what it owes. Shareholders' equity represents amounts invested by company owners.

Verify Journal and Ledger Balances Journal and ledgers are accounting records. Bookkeepers enter financial data into journals by making journal entries. Such information is then summarized in sub- and general ledgers. A subledger is a section of a general ledger. For example, Client XYZ's sub-ledger is part of a business customers' general ledger. Accounting staff verify that balances are accurate by checking journal entries, vendor bills and customer invoices.

Reconcile Bank Statements Accounting clerks also perform bank reconciliation duties. A business entity may have several accounts with a variety of institutions. Reconciling bank statements ensures that clerks can verify an organization's cash balance, and that such balance agrees to internal cash ledgers. These employees perform reconciliations on a monthly basis, and follow up on differences with bank staff.

Support Monthly Close Accounting assistants work under the guidance of senior professionals to perform month-end procedures. Such procedures could include reconciling bank statement balances to cash ledgers, making journal entries to adjust unpaid bills or correcting prepaid expense amounts. Prepaid expenses are those that an organization pays prior to receiving goods or services. Examples of such expenses are annual insurance premiums or semi-annual rents. Unpaid bills could be salaries due at month-end but payable five days into the following month.

Support Audit Procedures Accounting clerks also may assist internal and external auditors by providing required data and confirming ledger balances. They work under the leadership of senior staff to ensure that internal policies, guidelines and procedures in journal entry, warehouse, inventory shipment and receiving departments are adequate and operating effectively. These employees may also perform administrative duties for internal or external auditors.

Compute Taxes Accounting clerks also could compute a business entity's tax liabilities. They may work in the tax department or in the finance department under the guidance of professionals. They also could evaluate and analyse sales taxes collected from customers, and ensure that such taxes are transferred to state and local revenue services.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

Duties of an Accountant By Alicia Bodine, eHow Contributor

Accounting services involves much more than just filling out tax forms at the end of the year. Accountants are responsible to keep accurate financial records for individuals, small businesses and large companies. These records should show whether a company is making a profit or whether it is suffering a loss. The accountant can translate the financial records so that problem areas can be pinpointed and corrected with his or her bookkeeping services.

Function An accountant's job is to record, analyse and report a company or individual's financial status. The accountant functions as an advisor. The client reviews the bookkeeping services and what accountant is telling them about their financial state to make adjustments as needed. More specifically, an accountant keeps accurate business transactions in ledgers and then records them on financial statements monthly, quarterly and yearly. The accountant can also interpret the financial statements to the client and show them any problem areas as well as any areas that are successful. Finally, the accountant functions as a tax preparer.

Types Accountants do not legally have to obtain any degree or accounting license to perform their duties. Because of this, there are many different types of accountants and accounting firms. First, there are certified accountants. These accountants usually work for accounting firms. There are also accountants who act more like bookkeepers and just take individual clients or small business clients. Another type of accountant is an auditor. Auditors can get a certified license after passing an exhausting four-part exam. Auditors are responsible for examining the financial records of a business or an individual. The point is to determine whether fraud has been committed. Finally, you have your tax preparers. Tax preparers may or may not have a degree. They work strictly from January to April, or longer if extensions were filed.

Time Frame Accountants are not generally needed during the year for individuals. They keep their records themselves and then just give the records to the accountant at tax time. Small businesses may need an accountant to stop by once per week to update the books. The accountant would then create quarterly financial statements for small business bookkeeping so the business owner can see how the company is doing. When tax time comes, the accountant would be able to prepare the taxes rather quickly because they have kept up with the financial records throughout the year. A big corporation would need to hire accountants to work at their companies on a daily basis to keep up with their transactions. These corporations would most likely have an accounting department with several accountants who are responsible for keeping the records all year long.

Potential Accountants have the potential to work their way up to better paying jobs. They can begin without a degree working for individuals. While they are doing that, they can attend school and get their degree. Once they have their degree, they may move up to taking on to small business bookkeeping. Next, they take their certified public accountant exam and become licensed. They use their experience to apply for a job with a firm. They start out working under another CPA until they get good at what they do. The better they get, the more work is given to them until they are the ones training new accountants.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* Warning Be careful who you allow to do your taxes at the end of the year. Retail tax preparation chains typically hire individuals and teach them how to input tax information in their computers. These individuals do not hold a degree and often don't know why they are inputting certain information into the computer. You are better off finding a certified public accountant. That is an accountant that has earned a degree and passed the CPA exam. Don't assume that, just because a company is a brand name, that they are using professional CPA's. Ask first.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

Know basics of Standard Site Operations to revise one’s technical knowhow

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

Basic Definitions (from IS 1200) B Barge Board -- A purpose-made fitting, normally of angular section, to form the junction between roof covering and either wall or vertical cladding at a gable end. Batten - A piece of sawn timber who’s cross sectional dimensions do not exceed 5 cm in either direction. Berm - A shelf that breaks the continuity of a slope. Boulder - A more or less rounded block or fragment of rock and of average dimension 300 mm or greater. Usually boulders are rounded by being carried or rolled along by water or ice; sometimes also by weathering in place in which case they are known as boulders of weathering, disintegration or exploitation. C Chair - A rigid device used to support and/or hold reinforcing bars in proper position to prevent displacement before or during concreting. Chhajja - The projected reinforced cement concrete member of average thickness not exceeding 100 mm. Cobble - A rock fragment, usually rounded or semi-rollnded, with an average dimension between 80 and 300 mm. Compaction - The tlensification of a soil by means of mechanical manipulation. Corner Piece ( Corner Flashing ) - An accessory to form the junction between vertical corrugated sheeting at internal or external angles. D Demolition - Taking up or down or breaking up. Dismantling - Carefully taking up or down and removing without. damage; the article shall be passed by hand, where necessary, and lowered to the ground and not thrown and where these are fixed by nails, screws, bolts, etc, these shall be taken out with proper tools and not by tearing or ripping. Dubbing Out - The operation of attaching pieces of slate, tile, etc, to a wall with plaster, and then likewise covering them in order to fill out hollows or to form projections. F Finial - A decorative fitting of ridges and hips, and at the middle or dome roofs. used at the junction top of conical, pyramidal or dome roofs. Flashing - A strip of impervious material usually metal, used to exclude water from the junction between a roof covering and another part of the structure. H Hacking - The roughing of solid backgrounds, by hand or mechanical methods, to provide a suitable key. Haunch - The depend portion of a beam that increases in depth toward the support. Hip .- The outer angle ( more than 110” ) formed by the inclined ridge between two intersecting roof slopes. Hook - A bend in the end of a reinforcing bar. L Lap - The length by which one bar or sheet of fabric reinforcement overlaps another.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* P Plank - A piece of sawn timber whose thickness does not exceed 5 cm but the width exceeds 5 cm. R Raking - Removing mortar from masonry joints to provide suitable key for the plastering and pointing. Rock - Natural solid mineral matter connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces, occurring in large masses or fragments. S Sand - Cohesion less aggregates of angular, sub angular, sub-rounded, rounded, flaky or flat fragments of more or less unaltered rocks or mineral of size between 4.75 mm and 75 microns. Scanting - A piece of timber whose cross-sectional dimensions exceed 5 cm but do not exceed 20 cm in both directions. Stopends - The forming of the lower ends of capping above drips, gutters and the like, to form a closure. V Verge - The edge of the roof surface finished at a gable or the edge of the vertical tiling at window reveals and of walls and dormer cheeks. Void - Space in a soil mass not occupied by solid mineral matter. This space may be occupied by air, water or other gaseous or liquid material.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

Commercial Abbreviations S. No.

Abbreviation

Definition

1

@

At or to

2

a.a.r.

Against all risks.

3

A/C

Accounts current.

4

Acc.

Account.

5

a/o

Account of.

6

a/d

After date.

7

A/S

Account sale.

8

B/E

Bill of exchange.

9

B/L

Bill of landing.

10

b/s

Bill of sale

11

c&f

Cost & freight included in price.

12

c.i.f.

Cost, insurance & freight included in price.

13

C.O.D.

Collect (or cash) on delivery.

14

Cr

Creditor.

15

c/o

Care of.

16

c/s

Cases.

17

C.W.O.

Cash with order.

18

d.d.

Days after date.

19

Dr.

Debtor.

20

d.s.

Days after sight.

21

d/y

Delivery.

22

ea.

Each.

23

E.E.

Errors expected.

24

E. & O. E.

Errors & omissions expected.

25

f.a.q.

Fair average quality.

26

f.a.s.

27

f.o.b.

28

f.o.r.

Free alongside ship : buyer puts them on board and pays dues & charges. Free on board : the price quoted to include all the expenses of putting goods on board ship. Free on rail, i.e. loaded into wagons.

29

f.o.v.

Free on van, i.e. loaded into vans.

30

f.o.w.

Free on wharf alongside ship.

31

G.M.B.

Good marketable brands.

32

G.O.B.

Good ordinary brands.

33

I.O.U.

I owe you.

34

Inst.

Instant (present month).

35

Ltd.

Limited.

36

m.d.

Months after date.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* 37

m.s.

Months after sight.

38

M/s

Messers.

39

M.O.

Money order.

40

n.a.

No advice.

41

No.

Numero (Number).

42

o/a

On account.

43

%

Per cent.

44

0/00

Per thousand.

45

p.n.

Promissory note.

46

P.O.

Postal order.

47

P.T.O.

Please turn over.

48

Percent

By the hundred (centum).

49

pro rata

In proportion.

50

pro tem.

Pro tempore (for the time being).

51

Prox.

Proximo (next month)

52

Re

As regards.

53

Shri

Shreeyut.

54

S’Shri

Sarvashreeyut.

55

R.S.V.P.

Please reply.

56

S.O.

Supplied only, i.e. not fixed.

57

SS

Steamship.

58

Ult.

Ultimo (last month).

59

viz.

Videlicet (namely, to wit).

60

Xd

Ex-dividend.

61

Xi

Ex-interest.

62

Ex. div.

Ex-dividend.

63

£.p.

Librae, pence (pounds, pence).

64

-Do- or –do-

Ditto or ditto.

65

cum. div.

With dividend.

66

Anno Domini

In the year of our Lord.

67

Ab initio

From the beginning.

68

Ab origine

From the origin.

69

Addenda

List of additions; things to be added.

70

Ad hominem

Personal.

71

Ad hoc

For this special purpose.

72

Ad infinitum

To infinity.

73

Ad interim

In the meanwhile.

74

Ad nauseum

To the point of disgust or satiety.

75

Ad referendum

For further consideration.

76

Ad rem

To the point; to the purpose.

77

Ad valorem

According to the value.

78

Ad verbum

To a word, or word for word.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* 79

Alter idem

Another exactly similar.

80

Ante meridiem

Before noon.

81

A priori

From cause to effect.

82

A posteriori

From effect to cause.

83

Argumentum ad ignorantiam

Argument founded on ignorance of the person addressed.

84

Bona fide

Good faith (in good faith), genuine.

85

Coeteries paribus

Other things being equal.

86

Caveat emptor

Let the buyer beware (look after his own interests).

87

Corrigenda

Things to be corrected; a list of errors.

88

De facto

In the point of fact; actual or actually.

89

De jure

From the law; by right.

90

De novo

Anew.

91

De rigueur

Indispensable; obligatory.

92

Errata

List of errors.

93

Et cetera

And the rest.

94

Et sequentes; Et sequential

And those that follow.

95

Exempli gratia

By way of example.

96

Ex gratia

As an act of grace.

97

Ex officio

In virtue of his office.

98

Ex parte

From one party or side.

99

Experto crede

Trust one who has had experience.

100

Ex post facto

After the deed is done; retrospective.

101

Expressis verbis

In express terms.

102

Flagrante delicto

In the very act.

103

Frons et origio

The source and origin.

104

Force majeure

Greater force or strength; overwhelming force, act of God.

105

Humanem est errare

To err is human.

106

Ibidem (or ibid)

At the same place, (in the book).

107

Id est (i.e.)

That is, often is.

108

In extenso

At full length.

109

Infra dig

Beneath one’s dignity.

110

In re

In the matter of.

111

In situ

In its original situation.

112

In statu quo

In former state.

113

Inter alia

Among other things.

114

In terrorem

As a warning.

115

Inter se

Among themselves.

116

In toto

Entirely.

117

In transitu

In the course of passage or transit.

118

Ipsissima verba

By the very words.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* 119

Ipso facto

By the very fact.

120

Jure humano

By human law.

121

Juste milieu

The golden mean.

122

Lacuna

A gap, a vacant space.

123

Lapsus calami

A slip of the pen.

124

Lapsus linguoe

Slip of the tongue.

125

Lex loci

Law or custom of the place.

126

Lex non scripta

Unwritten law.

127

Lite pendente

During the trial.

128

Locum tenens

A substitute.

129

Locus standi

130

Mal a propos

A place of standing; A right to appear and be heard before a court in a particular case. Ill timed.

131

Mala fide

In bad faith; treacherously.

132

Mandamus

Writ issued by higher court to lower court.

133

Me judice

I being judge; in my opinion.

134

Modus operandi

Manner of working.

135

Modus vivendi

136

Mutates mutandis

Manner of living; used as a temporary working arrangement. With the necessary changes.

137

Nil admirari

To be astonished at nothing.

138

Nolens volens

Willing or non-willing.

139

Non liquet

The case is not clear.

140

Non sequitur

It does not follow.

141

Nota bene (N.B.)

Mark well, take notice.

142

Nudis verbis

In plain words.

143

Obiter dictum

144

Obscurium per obscurius

A word said by the way; a passing comment made by a judge. An obscurity explained by another obscurity.

145

Onus probandi

The burden of proof.

146

Pari passu

With equal pace; side by side.

147

Per

For, through.

148

Per diem

Per day.

149

Per mensem

Per month.

150

Per se

By itself.

151

Persona grata

An acceptable person.

152

Petito principii

A begging of the question.

153

Post meridiem

After noon.

154

Poste restante

To remain in post office until call for.

155

Prima fascie

At first view or consideration.

156

Pro et contra (Pros & cons)

For & against.

157

Pro forma

For the sake of form.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* 158

Pro rata

According to rate or proportion.

159

Pro tempore

For the time being.

160

Quantum meruit

As much as he deserved.

161

Quantum sufficit

As much as suffices.

162

Quid pro quo

Something in return; as equivalent.

163

Raison d’etre

Justification for existence.

164

Re

In the matter of.

165

Reductio ad absudum

A reducing to the absurd (A method of proof).

166

Res judicata

A case or suit already setteled.

167

Resume

A summary or abstract.

168

Seriatum

In a series, one by one.

169

Sine cura

Without a charge or care.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

All about Concrete

What is a concrete mix Ans. A hard, strong construction material consisting of sand, conglomerate gravel, pebbles, broken stone, or slag in a mortar or cement matrix. Any of several manufactured, stone like materials composed of particles, called aggregates, that are selected and graded into specified sizes for construction purposes and that are bonded together by one or more cementitious materials into a solid mass. The term concrete, when used without a modifying adjective, ordinarily is intended to indicate the product formed from a mix of portland cement, sand, gravel or crushed stone, and water. There are, however, many different types of concrete. The names of some are distinguished by the types, sizes, and densities of aggregates—for example, wood-fiber, lightweight, normal-weight, or heavyweight concrete. The names of others may indicate the type of binder used—for example, blended-hydraulic cement, natural-cement, polymer, or bituminous (asphaltic) concrete.

What is Workability / slump in concrete? How is it being measured / tested Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration), and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures. Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures will increase concrete workability. Excessive water will lead to increased bleeding (surface water) and/or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an aggregate with an undesirable gradation can result in a very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot be readily made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water. Ans.

Workability can be measured by the "slump test," a simplistic measure of the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod in order to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material will slump a certain amount due to gravity. A relatively dry sample will slump very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as six or seven inches (150 to 175 mm). Slump can be increased by adding chemical admixtures such as mid-range or high-range water reducing agents (super-plasticizers) without changing the water/cement ratio. It is bad practice to add extra water at the concrete mixer. High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

What is an aggregate Ans. An inert granular material such as natural sand, manufactured sand, gravel, crushed gravel, crushed stone, vermiculite, perlite, and air-cooled blast-furnace slag, which when bound together into a conglomerate mass by a matrix forms concrete or mortar.

Quality Control Basics of Concrete Ans. Quality Control Concrete manufacturers expect their raw material suppliers to supply a consistent, uniform product. At the cement production factory, the proportions of the various raw materials that go into cement must be checked to achieve a consistent kiln feed, and samples of the mix are frequently examined using X-ray fluorescence analysis. The strength of concrete is probably the most important property that must be tested to comply with specifications. To achieve the desired strength, workers must carefully control the manufacturing process, which they normally do by using statistical process control. The Indian Standard of Testing Materials and other organizations have developed a variety of methods for testing strength. Quality control charts are widely used by the suppliers of ready-mixed concrete and by the engineer on site to continually assess the strength of concrete. Other properties important for compliance include cement content, water/cement ratio, and workability, and standard test methods have been developed for these as well.

What is water cement ratio & how does it affects strength of concrete Ans. Water-cement ratio is the ratio of weight of water to the weight of cement used in a concrete mix. It has an important influence on the quality of concrete produced. A lower water-cement ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the mix more difficult to place. Placement difficulties can be resolved by using plasticizer. The water-cement ratio is independent of the total cement content (and the total water content) of a concrete mix Potable water should be used for manufacturing concrete. The water/cement ratio (mass ratio of water to cement) is the key factor that determines the strength of concrete. A lower w/c ratio will yield a concrete which is stronger and more durable, while a higher w/c ratio yields a concrete with a larger slump, so it may be placed more easily.

What are Chemical admixtures, their type & uses Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. The most common types of admixtures are: Ans.

1) Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Without accelerants, concrete may take centuries to cure. Craig Taylor at Los Alamos says "The cement in the Great Wall of China has not yet reached a chemically neutral state. But the supercritical carbon dioxide treatment achieves the chemically stable condition in minutes or hours." 2) Retarders slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or difficult pours where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* 3) Air-entrainers add and distribute tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which will reduce damage during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the concrete's durability. However, entrained air is a trade-off with strength, as each 1% of air may result in 5% decrease in compressive strength. 4) Plasticizers (water-reducing admixtures) increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. 5) Super plasticizers (high-range water-reducing admixtures) are a class of plasticizers which have fewer deleterious effects when used to significantly increase workability. Alternatively, plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete (and have been called water reducers due to this application) while maintaining workability. This improves its strength and durability characteristics. 6) Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics. 7) Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete. 8) Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete. 9) Pumping aids improve pump ability, thicken the paste, and reduce dewatering of the paste

What is a Reinforced Cement Concrete Ans. Reinforced concrete 1) Concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces. The reinforcing steel — rods, bars, or mesh — absorbs the tensile, shear, and sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete structure. Plain concrete does not easily withstand tensile and shear stresses caused by wind, earthquakes, vibrations, and other forces and is therefore unsuitable in most structural applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the compressive strength of concrete work together to allow the member to sustain these stresses over considerable spans. 2) Portland cement concrete containing higher-strength, solid materials to improve its structural properties. Generally, steel wires or bars are used for such reinforcement, but for some purposes glass fibres or chopped wires have provided desired results. Unreinforced concrete cracks under relatively small loads or temperature changes because of low tensile strength. The cracks are unsightly and can cause structural failures. To prevent cracking or to control the size of crack openings, reinforcement is incorporated in the concrete. Reinforcement may also be used to help resist compressive forces or to improve dynamic properties. Steel usually is used in concrete. It is elastic, yet has considerable reserve strength beyond its elastic limit. Under a specific axial load, it changes in length only about one-tenth as much as concrete. In compression, steel is more than 10 times stronger than concrete, and in tension, more than 100 times stronger. During construction, the bars are placed in a form and then concrete from a mixer is cast to embed them. After the concrete has hardened, deformation is resisted and stresses are transferred from concrete to reinforcement by friction and adhesion along the surface of the reinforcement. Individual wires or bars resist stretching and tensile stress in the concrete only in the direction in which such reinforcement extends. Tensile stresses and deformations, however, may occur simultaneously in other directions. Therefore reinforcement must usually be placed in more than one direction. For this purpose, reinforcement sometimes is assembled as a rectangular grid. Bars, grids, and fabric have the disadvantage that the principal effect of reinforcement occurs primarily in the plane of the layer in which they are placed. Consequently, the reinforcement often must be set in several layers or formed into cages. Under some conditions, fibre-reinforced concrete is an alternative to such arrangements.

Curing of concrete & its importance

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* Adequate curing is essential to bring the concrete to required strength and quality. The aim of curing is to promote the hydration of the cementing material. This is accomplished by preventing moisture loss and, when necessary, by controlling temperature. Moisture is a necessary ingredient in the curing process, since hydration is a chemical reaction between the water and the cementing material. Unformed surfaces are protected against moisture loss immediately after final finishing by means of wet burlap, soaked cotton mats, wet earth or sand, sprayed-on sealing compounds, waterproof paper, or waterproof plastic sheets. Formed surfaces, particularly vertical surfaces, may be protected against moisture loss by leaving the forms on as long as possible, covering with wet canvas or burlap, spraying a small stream of water over the surface, or applying sprayed-on sealing compounds. The length of the curing period depends upon the properties desired and upon atmospheric conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and wind velocity, during this period. Short curing periods are used in fabricating concrete products such as block or precast structural elements. Curing time is shortened by the use of elevated temperatures.

Concrete Strength Test - Concrete testing Engineers usually specify the required compressive strength of concrete, which is normally given as the 28 day compressive strength in N/Sqmm or megapascals (MPa). Twenty eight days is a long wait to determine if desired strengths are going to be obtained, so three-day and seven-day strengths can be useful to predict the ultimate 28-day compressive strength of the concrete. A 25% strength gain between 7 and 28 days is often observed with 100% OPC (ordinary Portland cement) mixtures, and up to 40% strength gain can be realized with the inclusion of pozzolans and supplementary cementitious materials (SCM's) such as fly ash and/or slag cement. As strength gain depends on the type of mixture, its constituents, the use of standard curing, proper testing and care of cylinders in transport, etc. it becomes imperative to proactively rely on testing the fundamental properties of concrete in its fresh, plastic state. Concrete is typically sampled while being placed, with testing protocols requiring that test samples be cured under laboratory conditions (standard cured). Additional samples may be field cured (non-standard) for the purpose of early 'stripping' strengths, that is, form removal, evaluation of curing, etc. but the standard cured cylinders comprise acceptance criteria. Concrete tests can measure the "plastic" (unhydrated) properties of concrete prior to, and during placement. As these properties affect the hardened compressive strength and durability of concrete (resistance to freeze-thaw), the properties of slump (workability), temperature, density and age are monitored to ensure the production and placement of 'quality' concrete. Tests are performed per ASTM International or CSA (Canadian Standards Association) and European methods and practices. Technicians performing concrete tests MUST be certified. Structural design, material design and properties are often specified in accordance with ACI International code (www.concrete.org); with test methods, production and delivery under the "prescription" or "performance" purchasing options per ASTM C94 (www.astm.org). Compressive strength tests are conducted using an instrumented hydraulic ram to compress a cylindrical or cubic sample to failure. Tensile strength tests are conducted either by three-point bending of a prismatic beam specimen or by compression along the sides of a cylindrical specimen.

Concrete Cover Concrete cover is the region between the exposed concrete surface and the nearest surface of the reinforcing bar, in reinforced concrete members.

Purpose of Provision of Concrete Cover to protect the reinforcement bars from environmental effects to prevent corrosion to protect the reinforcement bars from fire to give reinforcing bars sufficient embedment to enable them to be stressed without slipping

Guidelines

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

The amount of cover depth that needs to be provided is usually based on the exposure conditions that the structure is likely to be subjected. The Indian Concrete Code mandates the following:

Nominal Cover Requirements based on Exposure Conditions in Indian Concrete Code IS:456-2000 Exposure Condition

Nominal Cover (mm) 20

Mild Moderate

30

Severe

45

Very Severe

50

Extreme

75

Other national codes also specify minimum cover requirements based on their respective local exposure conditions.

Paradox about Concrete Cover Large cover depths (50-75 mm) are required to protect reinforcement against corrosion in aggressive environments, but thick cover leads to increased crack widths in flexural reinforced concrete members. Large crack-widths (greater than 0.3 mm) permit ingress of moisture and chemical attack to the concrete, resulting in possible corrosion of reinforcement and deterioration of concrete. Therefore, thick covers defeat the very purpose for which it is provided. There is a need for judicious balance of cover depth and crack width requirements.

A brief about Concrete mixer and Ready mix concrete Concrete mixer The portable concrete/mortar mixer has wheels and a towing tongue so that it can be towed by a motor vehicle and moved around the worksite by hand, and its rotation is powered by mains electricity. The lever allows the concrete/mortar to be tipped into a wheelbarrow. A concrete mixer (also commonly called a cement mixer) is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens. An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete or cement by hand. This is usually done in a wheelbarrow; however, several companies have recently begun to sell modified tarps for this purpose.

Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) Ready Mixed Concrete, or RMC as it is popularly called, refers to concrete that is specifically manufactured for delivery to the customer's construction site in a freshly mixed and plastic or unhardened state. Concrete itself is a mixture of Portland cement, water and aggregates comprising sand and gravel or crushed stone. In traditional work sites, each of these materials is procured separately and mixed in specified proportions at site to make concrete. Ready Mixed Concrete is bought and sold by volume usually expressed in cubic meters. RMC can be custom-made to suit different applications. Ready Mixed Concrete is manufactured under computer-controlled operations and transported and placed at site using sophisticated equipment and methods. RMC assures its customers numerous benefits.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* Advantages of Ready mix Concrete over Site mix Concrete Better quality concrete is produced. Elimination of storage space for basic materials at site. Elimination of procurement / hiring of plant and machinery Wastage of basic materials is avoided. Labor associated with production of concrete is eliminated. Time required is greatly reduced. Noise and dust pollution at site is reduced.

Transportation of Ready Mix Concrete Special concrete transport trucks (in–transit mixers) are made to transport and mix concrete from a factory/plant to the construction yard. They are charged with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring during transport. (Although, more modern plants load the truck with 'Ready Mixed' concrete. With this process, the material has already been mixed, and then is loaded into the truck. The ready mix truck maintains the material's liquid state, through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery.) The interior of the drum on a concrete truck is fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the concrete is pushed deeper into the drum. This is the direction the drum is rotated while the concrete is being transported to the building site. This is known as "charging" the mixer. When the drum rotates in the other direction, the Archimedes screw-type arrangement "discharges", or forces the concrete out of the drum. From there it may go onto chutes to guide the viscous concrete directly to the job site. If the truck cannot get close enough to the site to use the chutes, the concrete may be discharged into a concrete pump connected to a flexible hose, or onto with a conveyor belt which can be extended some distance (typically ten meters). A pump provides the means to move the material to precise locations, multi-floor buildings, and other distance prohibitive locations.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

Cement & Aggregates Different type of Cements Strength Alteration of Cement Due to Storage Classification of Lime - Clause 3.1.3.1 of CPWD Specifications Table of Bulking of Fine Aggregate - Clause 3.1.4.5 of CPWD Specifications

Different type of Cements Various types of Cements are being used in India:

S. No. 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Type of Cement Masonry Cement 33 Grade of OPC 43 Grade of OPC 53 Grade of OPC Portland Pozzolana Cement Portland (Blast Furnace) Slag Cement Rapid Hardening Portland Cement Hydrophobic Portland Cement Low Heat Portland Cement Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement High Alumina Cement White Portland Cement Oil Well Cement Super Sulphate Cement Thermal Insulation finishing Cement Thermal Insulating Cements Thermal Insulating Cements (Type 350)

Specific IS Code (Linked to BIS site for catalogue)

IS : 3466-1988 IS : 269-1989 IS : 8112-1989 IS : 12269 - 1987 IS : 1489 - 1991 IS : 455 - 1989 IS : 8041 -1990 IS : 8043 - 1991 IS : 12600 - 1989 IS : 12330 - 1988 IS : 6452 - 1989 IS : 8042 - 1989 IS : 8229 - 1986 IS : 6909 - 1990 IS : 9743 - 1990 IS : 7509 - 1993 IS : 7510 - 1974

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* Strength Alteration of Cement Due to Storage

Cement stored for long periods tend to loose strength if conditions of storage are not perfect:

S. No. 01 02 03 04 05

Storage period of Cement Fresh 3 months old 6 months old 12 months old 24 months old

Strength Reduction NIL 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 %

Classification of Lime Clause 3.1.3.1 of CPWD Specifications

Lime used in building construction shall confirm to IS : 712-1984

S. No.

Class of Lime

01 02

Class A Class B

03

Class C

04

Class D

05

Class E

Description / Details Eminently hydraulic lime used for structural purpose. Semi hydraulic lime used for masonry mortars. Fat lime used for finishing coat in plastering, white washing etc. & addition of pozzolanic material for masonry mortar. Magnesium lime used for finished coat in plastering, white washing etc. Kankar lime used for masonry mortars.

Bulking of Fine Aggregate Cl. 3.1.4.5 of CPWD Specifications

Table gives relation between moisture content & percentage of bulking (for guidance only)

S. No. 01 02 03 04

Moisture content percentage

Bulking Percentage (By Volume)

2% 3% 4% 5%

15 % 20 % 25 % 30 %

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

Frequency of Sampling Concrete cubes (Clause 14.2 IS 456) Sampling Procedure - A random sampling procedure shall be adopted to ensure that each concrete batch shall have a reasonable chance of being tested; that is, the sampling should be spread over the entire period of concrete and cover all mixing units.

Frequency - The minimum frequency of sampling of concrete of each grade shall be in accordance with the following:

Quantity of Concrete in the Work, Cum

►

1 - 5 Cum 6 - 15 Cum 16 - 30 Cum 31 - 50 Cum

►

51 Cum and above

► ► ►

Number of Samples 01 02 03 04 04 plus one additional sample for each additional 50 Cum or part there off

Test Specimen - Three test specimens shall be made from each sample for testing at 28 days. Additional cubes may be required for various purposes such as to determine the strength of concrete at 7 days.

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

Drinking Water Standards Physical & Chemical Standards for Water (Compiled from Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation's Manual on Water supply & Treatment) a) The Physical & Chemical quality of drinking water should not exceed the limits shown in the Table. S. No.

Characteristics

Acceptable*

**Causes for

Remarks

Rejection 1 Turbidity (Units on J.T.U. Scale) 2 Colour (Units on Platinum cobalt scale)

2.5

10

5

25

3 Taste and Odour

Unobjectionable

Unobjectionable

4 pH

7.0 to 8.5

9.2

5 Total dissolved solids (mg/l)

500

1500

6 Total hardness (mg/l) (as CaCO3)

200

600

7 Chlorides (as Cl) (mg/l)

200

1000

8 sulphates (as SO4)

200

400

1

1.5

10 Nitrates (as NO3) (mg/l)

45

45

11 Calcium (as Ca) (mg/l)

75

200

9 Flourides (as F) (mg/l)

12 Magnesium (as Mg) (mg/l) >30

150

If there are 250 mg/l of sulphates, Mg content can be increased to a maximum of 125 mg/l with the reduction of sulphates at the rate of 1 unit per every 2.5 units of sulphates. 13 Iron (as Fe) (mg/l0

0.1

1

14 Manganese (as Mn) (mg / l)

0.05

0.5

15 Copper (as Cu) (mg / l)

0.05

1.5

5

15

0.001

0.002

0.2

1

16 Zinc (as Zn) (mg / l) 17 Phenolic compounds (as Phenol) (mg/l) 18 Anionic detergents (mg / l) (as MBAS)

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Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012* 19 Mineral Oil (mg / l)

0.01

0.3

20 Arsenic (as As) (mg / l)

0.05

0.05

21 Cadmium (as Cd) (mg / l)

0.01

0.01

22 Chromium (as Hexavalent Cr) (mg/l)

0.05

0.05

23 Cyanides (as CN) (mg/l)

0.05

0.05

0.1

0.1

0.01

0.01

0.001

0.001

TOXIC MATERIALS

24 Lead (as Pb) (mg/l) 25 Selenium (as Se) (mg/l) 26 Mercury (total as Hg) (mg/l) 27 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)

.2 micro g / l

.2 micro g / l

28 Gross Alpha Activity

3pCi/l

3pCi/l

29 gross Beta Activity

30pCi/l

30pCi/l

RADIO ACTIVITY

pCi = pico curie Notes: *1

The figures indicated under the column 'Acceptable' are the limits upto which water is generally acceptable to the consumers.

**2

Figures in excess of those mentioned under 'Acceptable render the water not acceptable, but still may be tolerated in the absence of alternative and better source upto the limits indicated under column "Cause for Rejection" above which the supply will have to be rejected.

*3

It is possible that some mine & spring waters may exceed these radio activity limits and in such cases it is necessary to analyse the individual radiconuclides in order to assess the acceptability or otherwise for public consumption.

b) Bacteriological Standards Guideline Values for Bacteriological Quality S. No.

Organism

Unit

Guideline Value

A.

Piped Water Supplies

A.1

Treated Water entering the distribution system Page 33 of 164 Save paper – Please do not print this e-book until very much required.

Remarks

Gopaal’s Notes on Construction Engineering Compiled by Gopaal Dhussa *Revised Edition – May-2012*

A.2

A.3

faecal coliforms

number/100ml

0 turbidity