Dynamic of Chess Psychology

The Dynamics of Chess Psycho1ogy Copyr i ght 1 994 Cary Utterberg

A l l r i gh t s r e s e r v e d u n d e r P a n Am e r i c a n a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l Cop y r i g h t c on v e n t i o n s . I SBN 0 - 8 7 56 8 - 2 56- 1

N o p a r t o f th i s p u b l i c a t i o n m a y b e r e ­ p r o d u c e d , s t o red i n a r e t r i eva l s y s t e m , o r t r a nsm i t te d i n any f o rm , or b y a n y means : electrostatic , e l e c t r on i c , m a g ne t i c , tapes , m e ch a n i c a l p h o t o c o py i n g , r e c o r d i n g or otherwi s e , wi thout pr ior and current p e rm i s s i o n f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e r . A u t ho r : C a r y Ut t e rb e r g Ed i tor : K e n S m i th C omp u t e r T yp e s e t t i n g : C a r y Ut t e rberg Cover : E l a i ne Sm i th Proo f r ea de r : S i d P i ckard F i n a l P r e p a r a t i o n & D i a gr am s : K e n S m i th Publ i she r : C he s s D i g e s t , I n c . 1 6 0 1 T a n t o r ( P . O . Bo x 5 9 0 2 9 ) Da l l a s , Texa s 7 5 2 2 9 S e n d the p u bl i s he r $ 2 . 0 0 f o r the n e w Che s s G u i d e t h a t c a t a l o g s eve r y che s s b o o k for g e ne r a l s a l e in the Un i ted S t a t e s . You are g i ve n publ i she r s , page c ount s , n o t a t i o n a n d c r i t i c a l r ev i e w s . Also in­ c l ud e d i s a f r e e C h e s s I mp r ov e m e n t c o u r s e fo r b e g i n ne r s u p t h r ough Ma s t e r l eve l p l a yers .

Tab1e o f Contents Page Pref ace

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1 . Phi 1osophica1 Founda t i ons

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2 . The Importance of Aesthet i cs

30

I . PRE-HI STORY ( 600 - 1 8 2 1 ) F IRST STEPS 3 . The Embryo Chess A F am i l y Tr ee

39

4 . The Span i sh Schoo1 The Ex i s t e n t i a l C o mb i n a t i ve Unde rstand i ng

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5 . The Ita1 i an Schoo1 T o wa r d a C o n t i n u i t y o f S t y l e

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6.

57

Phi 1 i dor P a wn P l a y a n d O r d e r

I I . THE ROMANTI CS ( 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 59 ) T H E D E VELO P M E N T O F NATURAL TALENT 7 . Bourdonna i s T h e Exi s t en t i a l A t t a c k i n g Un i t

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8 . Staunton E x i s t e n t i a l Vu l ne r a b i l i t y

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9 . Anderssen Antagon i sm

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Tab1e of Contents

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Page 1 0 . Morphy The G l o b a l Ex i s t e n t i a l Und e r s t an d i ng III .

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THE CLASS ICAL ERA ( 1 8 59 - 1 9 2 7 ) C H E S S A S S C I ENC E

1 1 . Pau1sen I n e r t i a l Ma s s

81

1 2 . Ste i n i tz S t r a t e g i c Ma s k i n g

87

1 3 . Tarrasch I d ea l i sm

93

1 4 . Tchigor i n Skep t i c i sm

1 00

1 5 . Lasker Recogn i t i on

105

1 6 . Rub i nste i n I n t e gr a t i on

111

1 17 1 7 . Capab1anca T he F u l l y - I n t e g r a t e d Ex i s t e n t i a l Un d e r s t a n d i n g IV .

THE MODERN GAME ( 1 9 27- 1 9 5 7 ) I ND I V I DUAL I TY AND C HARAC T E R

1 8 . Ni•zov i ch Respons i b i l i ty

1 25

1 9 . A1ekh i ne The I n i t i a t i ve

132

Tab1e of Contents

5 Page

20 . Botvinn i k S ubje c t / O bje c t I n t e g r a t i o n

1 44

2 1 . S•ys1ov T h e Mod e r n G r u n f e l d D e f e n c e

152

2 2 . Bo1es1avsky The Mod e r n S i c i l i a n D e f e n c e

1 56

161 2 3 . Bronstein The Mod e r n K i n g ' s I n d i a n D e f e n c e V . CONTEMPORARY CHESS ( 1 9 5 7 - ) T H E I ND I V I DUAL I N S T RUGGLE 24 . Ta1 The P s y c h o l o g i c a l S a c r i f i c e

1 66

2 5 . Petros i an Adve r s a r i a l R e s pons i b i l i t y

1 70

2 6 . Korchno i D e f en s i ve C h a r a c t e r

1 74

2 7 . Spassky The U n i v e r s a l S t y l e

1 78

2 8 . F i scher I nt e r a c t i ve R e s pons i b i l i t y

1 84

2 9 . Karpov D om i n a t i o n

1 95

30 . Kasparov C o mmu n a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t y

1 99

3 1 . Overview

206

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Tab1e of Contents Page

Append ix 1 O n t h e R a t i n g o f C he s s p l a y e r s

2 14

Append ix 2 O n T r a i n i n g Ex i s t e n t i a l Und e r s t a n d i n g

217

Preface

C he s s I n f o r ma t i on : o p e n i n g s a n d en d i n g s , t o u r n a m e n t a n d m a t ch b o o k s , p e r i o d ­ icals , b i o g r a ph i e s , hi s tor i e s , p r o b l em s , T he r e ' s n o s h o r t a g e o f k n ow l e d g e t o b e a ss i m i l a ted . Bu t who w ou l d c l a i m tha t a n y g i v e n p e r s o n c ou l d f o l l ow t h i s r o a d t o the gr andma s te r t i t l e ? Or who truly be­ l i ev e s t h a t f o r thcom i ng i n f o rma t i on w i l l one d a y topp l e thi s ba rr i e r ? My p r i ma r y the s i s a l r e a d y s u gg e s t s i t s e l f : The h u m a n m i nd po s s e s s e s a c a p a c i t y to un d e r s t an d che s s e x i s t e n t i a l l y - - i n a m a n n e r wh i ch d e ­ f i e s a n y obje c t i ve , we l l - d e f i ne d f o r mu l a ­ t i on . Th i s is f u r t he r c o r r obo r a t e d by the c a s e o f che s s - p l a y i n g c o mp u t e r s . Con tem­ p o r a r y progr ams a cc e s s a v a s t a mo u n t o f i n f o rm a t i on - - a s c l e ve r l y f o r mu l a t e d as pos s i bl e - - yet rema i n gross l y ineff i c ient wh e n c o mpa r e d t o t h e a ve r a g e h u m a n c o mp e t ­ A dm i t t e d l y , p r e s en t - d a y compu t e r s i tor . have exh i b i t e d s t r en g th - ­ g r a n dma s t e r thanks to the i r i ncred ible speed of " th o u g h t " ; o n the o t he r h a n d , n o o n e c a n deny that even the b e s t p r ograms , if f o r c e d t o th i n k a t t h e l e i s u r e l y p a c e o f a hum a n m i n d , w o u l d b e 1 u c k y t o p l a y a l e g a l game , much l e s s a s t r on g one . The f a c t i s t h a t h um a n s a r e a b l e t o s o l ve m a n y p o s i ­ t i o n s " a t a g l a n c e " , wh i l e t h e m e t h o d s o f a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e r e q u i r e i nv e s t i g a ­ t i o n i n t o t h ou s a n d s o r m i 1 1 i o n s o f p o s s i ­ b i l i t i e s f o r the s ame purpo s e . E l e c t r on i c s pe e d ha s o ve r c om e i n e f f i c i e n c y , b u t the i n e f f i c i ency does per s i s t . The p r o b l e m w i th p r e v i ou s a t t e mp t s t o

8

Pref ace

a pp r o a c h t h e i n s p i r a t i on b e h i n d c he s s c r e ­ ativity is a t e n d e n c y t o p i c t u r e huma n t h o u g h t a s a n a l g o r i thm - - o n e a k i n t o the clear and we l l - d e f i n e d products of the c o mp u t e r p r o g r a mm e r . Bu t wha t i f w e w e r e t o a c c ept the ex i s t e n c e o f a n unde r s t a n d ­ i ng beyond s c i enc e ? Wh a t i f w e r e f u s e t o o bje c t i f y tha t wh i ch a pp e a r s hope l e s s l y s u bje c t i v e ? O . K . , s u pp o s e hum a n s d o p o s s e s s a n e x ­ c he s s - - o n e i stent i a l und e r s t a n d i ng of wh i ch cannot be p r ec i s e l y f o rmu l a t e d . Mu s t we t h e n a b a n d o n a l l hop e o f s t u d y i ng th i s p he n om en o n ? D i r e c t l y , y e s ; o bv i o u s l y w e c a n ' t s p e a k o f t h o u gh t s who s e n a t u r e i s i n c omp a t i b l e w i t h l a n g u a g e . N e v e r th e l e s s , we c a n t r a c e t h e e vo l u t i on o f t h e s k i l l s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s p r ov e n i t ­ s e l f c a pa b l e o f . T h u s we ' 1 1 d i s cov e r t h a t e v e n h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s a g o p l a ye r s we r e a b l e t o 11 s n i f f - ou t 11 c om b i n a t i o n s w i th r e ­ ma rkabl e e f f i c i ency ; l a t e r , l ea d i n g ma s ­ ters s u ch a s Bou r d o n n a i s , S t a u n t o n , and Ande r s s en deve l oped the abi l ity to in­ s t i n c t i ve l y s e n s e a n a t t a c k t a k i n g f o rm ; a n d l a t e r y e t , Mo r phy l e d t h e wa y t o t he r e s i l i ency o f pos i t i on a l p l a y b y ma i n t a i n ­ ing a n h a rmon i o u s c o o p e r a t i o n o f fo r c e s a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e che s s b a t t l e f i e l d . It ' s not only o ve r - the - b o a r d t a l en t , b u t a l s o t h e g e ne r a l i z a t i o n s o f s t r a t e gy th a t o r i g i n a t e f r om ex i s t e n t i a l und e r ­ s t a nd i ng . The i mp o r t a n c e o f t h i s f a c t be ­ c om e s clear o n c e we r e c o g n i z e th a t t h e s t r a t e g i c l aw s o f S t e i n i t z a r e 1 i n g u i s t i c f o rmu l a t i o n s o f a m a nn e r o f t h ou g h t w h i ch c a n n o t be f a i th f u l l y f o rmu l a t e d . It fol­ l ow s t h a t s t r a t e g i c i d e a s , e s p e c i a l l y d u r ­ i ng t h e i r i n f a n cy , c o mp r om i s e the eff i -

Preface

9

c i ency o f a pl ayer ' s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g ; the w a y i n wh i ch S t e i n i t z and T a r r a s ch t h o u g h t a b ou t s t r a t e g y , f o r in­ s t a n c e , wa s e s s e n t i a l l y i n c omp a t i b l e w i t h the i r i n s t i n c t i ve s e n s e f o r c o mb i n a t i on , a t t a ck , a n d c ommo n - s e n s e m a n e uve r s . The g r e a t t a s k f o r the a g e o f La s k e r and C a p a ­ blanca wa s t h e r e f o r e t o i n t e g r a t e t he s e t w o l ev e l s o f t h o u g h t - - t o c o m e t o t h i nk t h e m s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a pp e n d i n g a f e e l f o r s t r a tegy t o the i r exi s t en t i a l unde r s t an d ­ i ng . The p r ob l e m s i n vo l v e d i n thi s process a r e t o o c o mp l e x to d i scu s s br i e f l y , s o I ' l l c o n c l u d e m y p r ev i e w a t th i s p o i n t . F o r now , s u f f i ce i t t o s a y tha t the exi s ­ t e nt i a l u n de r s t a nd i ng o f the modern g r a n d ­ m a s t e r i nh a b i t s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m a z e o f the s ubje c t / o bje c t d i ch o t o m y , s t r u gg l i n g t h r ough a f o rm o f i n te l l e c t ua l r e s pons i ­ b i l i t y w h i ch i s s t r a n g e l y p e c u l i a r t o t h e r oy a l g ame .

1 . Phi losoph i c a l Founda t i ons

In an effort t o s a t i s f y tho s e w i th a p e n ch a n t f o r r i g o r , I ' l l b e g i n w i t h a d e f ­ i n i t i on : A p e r s on i s s a i d t o p o s s e s s a n e x i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i ng o f che s s i f t h e m a n n e r i n wh i ch he t h i n k s a b o u t t h e g a m e c a n n o t b e p r e c i s e l y fo r mu l a t e d . N o t e tha t I h a v e ch a r a c t e r i z e d a p a r ­ t i c u l a r t y p e o f p e r s o n ( o n e who s e " ch e s s ­ thought s " e l ud e the cl a r i t y o f l og i c ) r a t h e r t h a n a m en t a l f a c u l t y . The i n d e ­ pend ent phr a s e " ex i s tent i a l under s tand­ i ng " , m e a n wh i l e , ha s r em a i n e d unde f i ne d f o r t h e o bv i o u s r e a s o n tha t i t c a n n o t be def ined . S i mu l t a n e o u s l y , h o w e ve r , a g r e a t p a r t o f m o d e r n ph i l o s o ph y b e a r s a h e a l t h y s ke p t i c i s m t ow a r d s a n y th i n g i n a cc e s s i bl e t o o bje c t i v e d i s c u s s i o n . C a n s u ch a n u n ­ ders t a n d i n g be s a i d t o " prope r l y " exi s t ? For tuna te ly , we needn ' t wre s tl e w i th th i s p r o b l e m a s l on g a s ou r s t u d y p r o b e s n o d e e p e r t h a n t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f che s s p l a y e r s , r e f r a i n i n g f r om a l l i l l - f a t e d a t ­ the t emp t s to c o mp r eh e n s i ve l y expl a i n m i n d s r e s pons i bl e . I t ' s t he r e f o r e o n l y .£y c o nv e n t i o n tha t I ' l l s p e a k o f a n " e x i s t en ­ t i a l unde r s t a n d i ng " , and t h i s ph r a s e i s n e v e r t o b e t a k e n i n a c o n t ex t i n d e p e n d e n t o f a n a ct u a l p l a y e r ' s unexpl a i n a bl e a b i l i ­ t ies . For e x a m p l e , when I a s k wh e t h e r s u ch a t h i n g a s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g e x i s t s , I ' m r e a l l y i n q u i r i n g i n t o the e x ­ i s t e n c e o f p l a y e r s who s e t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s d e f y p r e c i s e f o rmu l a t i o n . It ' s ev i d e n t tha t exi s tent i a l under­ s t a n d i n g i s a f a c e t o f the u n c o n s c i ou s - - o r at least the " p e r i ph e r a l l y c on s c i o u s " - -

Phi losophica l Foundat i ons

11

b e c a u s e f o c u s e d , c o n s c i ou s t h o u g h t i s i n ­ va r i a b l y we l l - d e f i n e d . Th u s , e v e n t h o u g h c o mp r e h e n s i ve s o l u t i o n s a r e l o g i c a l l y i m ­ p o s s i b l e i n t h i s a r e a , w e m i ght a t l e a s t t r y t o p a i n t a po r t r a i t o f t h e g r a n d m a s t e r uncon s c i ou s in a n e f f o r t t o b e t t e r a pp r e ­ c i a t e t h e th i n k i n g b eh i n d g o o d p l a y . phys i o l o g i c a l A portra i t is not a s t udy - - i t harbo r s n o a mb i t i o n s in the Sti ll , f i e l d of s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n . t h i s c a n ha r d l y prevent a t a l e n t e d a r t i s t f r om h i gh l i ght i n g h i s s u bje c t ' s c h a r a c t e r a n d m o o d - - h i s " p r e s en c e " - - t he r e by c r e a t i n g a n a r t i s t i c s t ud y . Who w o u l d d e n y t h a t V a n G o gh ' s s e l f - p o r t r a i t s i nv i t e u s i nto hi s wo r l d , o f f e r i ng occa s i ona l g l i mp s e s i n t o h i s f a c u l t y f o r a r t i s t i c c r e a t i on ? The p r e s e n t b o o k l i e s s om e whe r e b e t we e n art and sc i ence . In form , the pre s ent a ­ t i on i s unden i a bly s c i en t i f i c ; n e v e r th e ­ less , t h e r e a d e r w i 1 1 f a i 1 t o a pp r e h e n d anyth i ng of s u b s t a n c e a s l o n g a s he r e ­ f u s e s t o acknowl e dg e h i s o w n thought s , o b ­ stinately deny ing the rad ically s u bje c ­ t i ve , h e n c e i n c o mm u n i c a b l e , a s p e c t s o f the hum a n mind . My i n t e n t i o n i s to e x p l o r e wha t i t f e e l s l i k e t o f i n d g o o d m o v e s , s o I i mp l o r e t h e r e a d e r t o r em a i n o p e n t o t h e i r r a t i on a l s i d e of h i s thought s . The r e ' s no doubt that p a r t o f every che s s p l a y e r th i n k s i n a c l e a r a n d we l l ­ d e f i n e d m a n n e r ; we a l l s i l e n t l y " t a l k " t o play . S u ch a m o d e o f o u r s e l ve s d u r i n g thought wi 1 1 b e r e f e r r e d t o a s t e chn i c a l , a n d f o r m s t h e f ou n d a t i on f o r the va s t m a ­ j o r i t y o f c he s s b o o k s . Bu t d o p r e c i s e l y f o r mu l a t e d i d e a s e n c o m p a s s t h e e n t i r e t y o f h um a n t h o u g h t ? Does a n exi s t ent i a l under­ s t a n d i n g a c t u a l l y ex i s t ?

12

Phi losophical Foundat i ons

As o u r f i r s t p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e , er the Elo r a t i ng d i s t r i bu t i o n U . S . C he s s F e d e r a t i on .

cons i d ­ of the

USCF Over-the-Board Ra t i ngs ( January , 1 994 ) Rat i ng Range

Un d e r 6 0 0 600-699 700-799 800-899 900-999 1 000- 1 0 99 1 1 00- 1 1 99 1 200- 1 299 1 300- 1 399 1 4 00 - 1 499 1500- 1 599 1 600- 1 6 99 1 700- 1 799 1 800- 1 899 1 9 00- 1 999 2000-2099 2 1 00- 2 1 99 2200- 2 299 2 3 00 - 2 3 9 9 2400-2499 2500- 2599 2600-2699 Ove r 2 7 0 0

Popul a t i on of Range

1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1

, 663 , 436 , 043 , 436 , 53 3 , 66 5 , 572 , 543 , 42 3 , 614 , 605 , 5 10 , 272 I 1 2 1 , 763 , 360 ,011 613 269 137 54 34 4

Over-a l l Percent i le

4 8 14 20 27 34 41 47 54 61 68 74 80 86 91 94 97 99 99 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00

I n f o rm a l l y s u rv e y i n g my a cqua i nt ances i n t h e che s s wo r l d , I n o t i c e t h a t - - by a n d l a rg e - - p l a y e r s under 1 8 0 0 po ssess 1 i t t l e o r n o t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e b e y on d a s m a l l " c a t a l ogue " o f open i ng va r i a t i on s , p l a y e r s

Phi 1osophica1 Foundat i ons

13

f r om 1 8 0 0 t o 2 2 0 0 have m o r e fami l i a r i ty w i t h t h e b a s i c s o f t he o ry , a n d a l m o s t ev­ e r y o n e ove r 2 2 0 0 h a s s p e n t t i m e w i t h the m a jo r i t y of i mp o r t a n t s t r a t e g i c and t a c t i ­ cal i deas . Bu t i f t h e be s t p i e c e s o f a d ­ v i c e o n how t o p l a y we l l h a v e b e e n a b s o r b ­ e d b y t h o s e r a t e d 2 2 0 0 , wh y d o e s t h e d i s ­ t r i bu t i o n c on t i n u e t o t a i l - o f f f o r a n a d ­ d i t i on a l 5 0 0 + p o i n t s ? Why i s the r e s t i l l s u ch a w i d e g u l f s e p a r a t i n g t h e 2 2 0 0 p l a y ­ er and the grandma s t e r ? S i n c e g r a n dm a s t e r s h a v e s p en t c o u n t l e s s h ou r s t r y i ng to f o r mu l a t e the i r own thought s ( i . e . " t h e o r i z i ng " ) , and s i nc e nume r o u s 2 2 0 0 p l a y e r s h a v e f a i l e d t o b e ­ c om e g r a n dm a s t e r s a f t e r a pp r o p r i a t i n g t h i s k n o w l e d g e , i t s e e m s r e a s on a b l e t o c o n c l ud e th a t t h e s up e r i o r i t y o f g r a n dm a s t e r s is g r ou n d e d i n a n e s s e n t i a l l y s u bj e c t i v e - - a n e x i s t e n t i a l - - un d e r s t a n d i n g . O u r s e c on d p i e c e o f e v i d en c e ha s a l ­ r e a d y been a l l ud e d t o i n the p r e f a ce : If t h e c o mp l e t e t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e s o f t h e hu ­ m a n m i n d c a n b e p r e c i s e l y f o rm u l a t e d , why h a v e n ' t c ompu t e r s - -w i th th e i r v a s t l y s u p e ­ r i o r s p e e d - - s u r p a s s e d t he s t r on g e s t h um a n s l ong a g o ? The f a c t i s th a t t h e t e chn i c a l " u n d e r ­ s t and i ng " of c ompu t e r s h a s r e q u i r e d the a i d of a c a l c u l a t i ve f a c u l t y m i l l i o n s o f t i m e s f a s t e r tha n t h e huma n m i n d s i mp l y t o mea s u r e up to the average g r a n dm a s t e r . Once a g a i n , s i n c e t e c hn i c a l f o rmu l a t i o n s h a ve f a i l e d t o c ommu n i c a t e t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f hum a n t h o u g h t , o n e i s t e mp t e d t o l e a n t owa r d s o u r e x i s t e n t i a l hyp o t h e s i s . F i n a l l y , c o n s i d e r t h e a pp r o a c h o f a t o ­ t a l n o v i c e t o che s s . We can i n s t ruct h i m on t h e r u l e s , o f f e r s om e t e c h n i c a l p o i n t -

14

Phi losophica l Found a t i ons

e r s , t h e n p l a c e h i m be f o r e a b o a r d f o r a c omp e t i t i ve t r i a l . A l l too o f ten , he ' l l s i t t h e r e d u m b f ou n d e d - - bew i l d e r e d by the a s t ronom i c a l n u mb e r of poss i b i l i t i e s in e v e n t h e s i mp l e s t p a s i t i ons . M e a n wh i l e , t h e c omp e t e n t t o u r n a m e n t p l a y e r f e e l s p e r ­ f e c t l y a t h o m e i n t h e s a m e s i t ua t i o n b e ­ c a u s e he ' s a b l e t o u n c o n s c i o u s l y " d i s c a r d " mo s t poss ibi l i t ies ; countl e s s l i ne s are t e chn i c a l l y p o s s i b l e , b u t o n l y a f ew a r e ex i s t e n t i a l l y r e a s o n a b l e . Th i s is why e v e r y o n e m u s t f i r s t d e ve l o p a f e e l f o r t h e g a m e b e f o r e t h e o r y c a n be o f u s e ; o r - - t o p u t i t a n o t h e r wa y - - a n ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g c a n o n l y c o m e i n t o b e i n g t h r ough s t r ug g l e s w i t h a c t u a l p o s i t i o n s b e c a u s e i t c a n ' t b e c o mmu n i c a t e d d i r e c t l y . Thu s f a r , we ' ve e x a m i n e d t h r e e g e n e r a l , though compe l l i ng , r e a s ons to po s t u l a te the ex i s t en c e o f ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t a n d ­ i ng . Next , w e ' 1 1 c o n s i d e r s om e s p e c i f i c e x a mp l e s i n o r d e r t o d i s c ov e r f i r s thand h o w t h e hum a n m i n d c o n c e p t u a l i z e s che s s .

Phi 1osophica1 Foundat i ons St . C1oud ,

15

1821

Deschape1 1es Cochrane B l ack Out o f countl e s s poss i b i l i t i es , s p i e s a w i nn i n g c o u p f ou r move s d e e p . 22 . . . . Oh4 ! Of2+ 2 3 . Rd7 ? Rh3+ ! 24 . Bg2 2 5 . Kh3 Oh4:fl:

The c on c l ud i ng c omb i n a t i o n ( a f te r 2 3 . Rd 7 ? ) i s p r e t t y , b u t h a r d l y ve r y c om­ p l i c a t e d ; as a ma t t e r of f a c t , any c o mp e ­ t e n t t o u r n a m e n t p l a y e r wo u l d s t a n d a f a i r cha n c e o f f i n d i ng t h e ma t e . The p r o b l em th a t i n t e r e s t s u s , h o w e ve r , i s h o w t h e hu ­ m a n m i n d t y p i c a l l y s o l ve s s u c h p r o b l e m s . I n t h e p r e s e n t i n s t a n c e , o n e m i g h t s ug ­ ge s t tha t B l a c k wa s th i n k i ng i n t e r m s o f t a c t i c a l m o t i f s o r gen e r a l p r i n c i p l e s whe n he f o u n d 2 2 . . . . , Qh 4 ; a f te r a l l , Wh i t e ' s k i ng is r a th e r expo sed , a n d the d a r k s q u a r e s i n i t s i mm e d i a t e v i c i n i t y a r e o n l y m i l d l y gu a r d e d . Th i s i s a l l w e l l a n d g o o d , b u t d o e s i t f u l l y ch a r a c t e r i z e t he i n s p i r a t i o n b eh i n d B l ack ' s pl ay? F o r e x a mp l e , s i n c e h e wa s s e e i n g thr e e and a h a l f move s d e e p wh e n he pl ayed 2 2 . . . . , Qh4 , can we a s s um e t h a t exp o s i ng t h e Wh i t e eve r y p o s s i b i l i t y o f k i ng h a d b e e n ex p l o r e d t o t h e s am e d e p th ? Exh a u s t i ve a n a l y s e s of th i s s o r t i n va r i a b l y c a l l f o r a t r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t o f c a l c u l a t i on : Even o n the f i r s t ha l f -move , at least two a l t e r n a t i ve s to the move p l a y e d i mm e d i a t e l y s p r i n g to m i n d ( 2 2 . . . . , N f 4 and 2 2 . . . . , Q f 7 ) ; n o w , i f e a ch h a l f ­ move f o l l ow s s u i t - - p r o d u c i n g thr e e r e a s o n ­ a b l e c a n d i d a t e s - - th e t o t a l n u mb e r o f 1 i n e s

16

Phi losophi c a l Foundat i ons

t o be v i s u a l i z e d wou l d be 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 2 , 187 . We ' r e d r i ven to the con c l u s i on that B l a c k s e n s e d " s ome th i ng " i n t h e a i r a f t e r 2 2 . . . , Qh4 , s o h e f o c u s e d on tha t 1 i n e pr imar i ly . A n d i f t h e r e a d e r i s h o ne s t w i t h h i m s e l f , I th i n k he ' 1 1 a g r e e th a t t he r e ' s a p o i n t i n c o mb i n a t i v e d i s c ove r y whe r e t h e s o l u t i o n c o m e s " a l l a t o n c e " - ­ f u l l y f o r me d , instantly r e a ch i n g two o r m o r e m o v e s d e ep . Wh a t i s i t th a t a p l a y e r ' s e x i s t e n t i a l under s t a nd i ng s e n s e s when h e d i s c ov e r s a c omb i n a t i o n in th i s wa y ? S ince we ' r e d e a l i n g he r e w i t h a p r o p e r t y t h a t ' s e s s en ­ tially rel ated to a manne r of t h o u g ht wh i ch d e f i e s p r e c i s e f o rm u l a t i on , c o n s i s ­ t e n c y d i c t a t e s ou r r e f u s a l t o d e f i n e i t . A l l we c a n s a y i s tha t t h e p i e c e s s e e m t o b e w o rk i n g t o g e th e r t o b r i n g a b o u t a c om ­ b i na t i on ; in the a bove e x a mp l e , Bl ack ' s r oo k ( on a 3 ) , k n i g h t , a n d q u e e n a r e s u p ­ ported by the c l um s i n e s s of t h e Wh i t e k i ng , b i s h o p , a n d r o o k ( on h l ) - - a s we l l a s Wh i t e ' s ove r - e x t en d e d p awn c ov e r . The t e rm we s h a l l u s e t o d e n o t e s u ch a " c om­ m u n i t y e f f o r t " - - i n s o f a r as i t ' s s e n s e d e x ­ i s t e n t i a l l y - - i s c oope r a t i on . Now l e t ' s exam i ne a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of coope r a t i on , th i s t i me in a s i t ua t i on wh i c h i s n ' t p u r e l y c o mb i n a t i ve . .

London , Tchigor i n 1 . e4 2. Nf 3 3 . Bb5 4 . 0-0

1 883 Zukertort e5 Nc6 Nf6 Ne4

Phi 1osophica1 Foundat i ons

17

5 . d4 Be7 Nd6 6 . d5 7 . Bc6 ? o r e v e n the Be t t e r i s 7 . d c , Nb5 ; 8 . c 4 , s i mp l e 7 . N c 3 . 7. . de f6 ! 8 . de Wh i t e h a d ev i d e n t l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d t h i s move . Now the a pp a r e n t l y uncomf o r t a b l e 9 . Q d 5 c a n b e m e t b y 9 . . . . , bc ; 1 0 . Q c 6 + , B d 7 ; l l . Q d 5 , Rb 8 ; 1 2 . N c 3 , c 6 ( Zuker t o r t ) , l e a v i ng B l a c k m u ch b e t t e r d eve l o p e d . 9 . ch Bb7 0-0 1 0 . Be3 1 1 . Nbd 2

Nf7 11. . . . B l a c k h a s e m e rge d f r om the o p e n i ng w i th a n a d v a n t ag e , a n d n o w p r e p a r e s t o s e t h i s c e n t r a l p a wn m a s s i n m o t i o n by ove r p r o ­ t e c t i ng h i s e - p a w n . The s t r e ngth o f th i s p l a n i s ve r i f i e d b y t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the g a m e . Bu t d i d of 1 1 . . . . , Nf7 the p r e c i s e c on s e q u e n c e s have t o b e c a l c u l a t e d i n o r d e r t o sense th a t B l a c k h a s the bet t e r pos i t i on ? As

18

Phi1osophica1 Foundat i ons

the game p r o g r e s s e s , l e t the r e a d e r a n swer for h i mse l f whe t h e r he s e n s e s a gr ow i ng f e e l i ng tha t B l a ck ' s p i eces a r e coope r a t ­ i n g t o g e t h e r i n a t t a c k ; a n d b y wa y o f i 1 1 u s t r a t i on , l e t h i m p l a y th r o ugh the r e ­ m a i n d e r o f the g a m e w i t h o u t e x a m i n i n g a n y u n p l a y e d v a r i a t i o n s - - t h e r e by a l l ow i ng h i s c o n s c i o u s , t e c h n i ca l t h o ugh t t o r e c e d e i n ­ t o t h e b a ckgr o u n d . f5 1 2 . Qe2 f4 1 3 . Nb3 e4 1 4 . Bc5 f3 1 5 . Nfd4 Qc8 ! 16 . Qb5 ? ! Ba6 1 7 . Rfdl i Ng5 1 8 . Qa4 - ef 1 9 . Nf3 fg ! 20 . Rd7 2 1 . Re7 Nh 3 + N f4 + 2 2 . Kg2 Qh3 + 23 . Kf3 Bb7 + 24 . Ke4 Ne6+ 2 5 . Kd4 Rf4+ 26 . Kc4 Nc5 2 7 . Nd4 Qh5+ 2 8 . Kc5 29 . Kc4 Rd4+ 30 . Res igns Of c ou r s e , f e e l i ng s a r e o f ten misg u i d e d , a n d i t w ou l d b e a gr a v e e r r o r t o c o n du c t a game o n the s o l e b a s i s o f u n c o n ­ s c i ou s i ns p i ra t i on ; on the o ther h a nd , e mo t i o n s a r e s y m p t o m a t i c o f a m i n d w o rk i ng i n a n i r r a t i o n a l , h e n c e i mp r e c i s e a n d ex­ i s tent i a l , manne r . G e ne r a l p r i n c i p l e s c ou l d h a v e b e e n e m ­ pl oyed to eva l ua t e the s i t ua t i on a f te r Wh i t e ' s e l e v e n t h m o v e : B l a ck h a s the p a i r

Phi 1 osoph i c a 1 Foundat i ons

19

o f b i sho p s , mob i l e p awns be a r i ng o n the B u t whe n w e t r y Wh i t e k i n g , a n d so f o r t h . t o a pp l y s u c h p r i n c i p l e s - - wo r k i n g o u t a l l the s p e c i f i c l i n e s - - th e numb e r o f poss i ­ b i 1 i t i e s q u i c k l y s o a r s o u t o f s i g ht . Gen­ e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y i f che s s i s t o be s t u d i e d a s a s c i e n c e , bu t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e o r i e s g ove r n i ng a v a r i e t y o f p o s i t i o n s p r e c l u d e s them f r o m exh a u s t i ve l y r e s o l v i ng pa r t i cu l a r any s i tu a t i on . Thi s f a c t i s m a d e c l e a r w h e n e v e r o n e h a s t o b a l a n c e the p r o s a n d c o n s of a p o s i t i o n s t r a t e g i c a l l y , a s i n o u r n e x t e x a mp l e . Cambr i dge Spr i ngs ,

1 904

P i 1 1 sbury Lasker d5 1. d4 2 . c4 e6 3 . Nc3 Nf6 4 . Nf 3 c5 cd 5 . Bg5 6. Qd4 Nc6 A s a f er r oa d to equa l i t y i s o f f e r ed 6 . . . . , Be 7 .

by

20

Phi losophi cal Foundat i ons

. . . 7 . Bf6 ! Th i s i s P i l l s b u r y ' s p r e p a r e d i mp r ov e ­ men t ove r hi s game wi th La s k e r at S t . P e t e r s b u rg , 18 9 6 , wh i c h ran 7 . Qh 4 ? , Be 7 ; 8 . 0 - 0 - 0 , Qa 5 ; 9 . e 3 , Bd 7 ; 1 0 . Kb l , h6 , and B l a c k won b y a d i r e c t a s s a u l t o n t h e k i ng . Wh e n c o n s i d e r i ng 7 . B f 6 , Wh i t e had to c a r e f u l l y we i gh a n u mb e r o f s t r a t eg i c p r o s and cons : T he B l a c k p a wn s tructure i s c omp r om i s e d f o r the e n dg a m e , i n c i d e n t a l l y s t r a n d i ng h i s k i ng w i t h o u t a n e n t i r e l y s e ­ c u r e r e t r e a t ; a t t h e s am e t i m e , h o w e ve r , Wh i t e i s g i v i ng u p t h e p a i r o f b i sho p s , a s we l l a s h i s c h a n c e t o o c c u p y e 5 f o r a l ong t i me t o c o m e . Mo r e ov e r , t h e s ou n d ne s s o f t h e m o v e h a d t o b e v e r i f i e d f r om a t a c t i ­ cal p e r s p e c t i ve : 7 . . . . , Nd 4 ? ; 8 . Bd 8 , Nc 2 + ; 9 . K d 2 , N a l ; l 0 . B h 4 , a n d the k n i gh t o n a l i s doome d . A l l th i s p o i n t s t o t h e f a c t th a t Wh i t e had t o b a l a n c e t h e s t r a t eg i c pr i nc i p l e s p e r t i n e n t t o t h e g a m e , wo r k i ng t h r o ugh i t s p e c u l i a r i t i e s w i th t h e a ss i s tance o f hi s In u n d e r s t a n d i ng . o t he r ex i s t e n t i a l wo r d s , g e n e r a l i d e a s can n e v e r h ope t o p r ov i d e a c omp l e t e , d e t a i l e d s o l u t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n b e c a u s e the p r o ­ any c e s s o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n h a s a l r e a d y " we e d e d out " the i nconven i en t p a r t i cu l a r s . 7. . . . gf 8 . Oh4 de Bd7 9 . Rdl Ne5 ? 1 0 . e3 B l a ck also b r i ng s a b ou t a s t r a tegi c d i scu s s i on : He offers an e x c h a nge of p i e c e s i n o r d e r t o e a s e t h e d e f en c e , a n d h o p e s t o s u b s e q u e n tly g a i n t i m e b y t h e e n ­ Neve r ­ s u i ng " th r e a t " t o e x c h a n g e q u e e n s . t he l e s s , h i s p a wn s t r u c t u r e i s d e s t i n e d t o

Phi 1osophica1 Foundat i ons

21

l o s e i t s p e c u l i a r r e s i l i en c y a s a r e s u l t , i nv i t i ng Wh i t e t o p e n e t r a t e o n t he vu l n e r ­ able f - f i le . Th e r e f o r e a l e s s c o mm i t t i ng move , s u ch a s 1 0 . . . . , B e 7 ( E u w e } , wa s p r e f ­ e r a b l e , r e s u l t i ng i n a n a pp r ox i m a t e l y e v e n game . N o o b j e c t i o n c a n b e m a d e t o t h e ge n e r a l i d e a s tha t gu i d e d L a s k e r t o p l a y 1 0 . . . , Ne5 . O n the who l e , exch a nge s a r e d e s i r ­ a b l e f o r the d e f en d e r , a n d a g a i n o f t i me i s a l wa y s a pp r e c i a t e d . B u t i n th i s � ­ t i cu l a r c a s e , o t he r - - mo r e i mp o r t a n t - - c o n ­ s e q u e n c e s l oo m o n t h e ho r i z on . A c l ea r ly f o rmu l a t e d t he o r y c a n ' t f u l l y e x p l a i n how i t shou l d b e a p p l i e d i n pr a c t i c e . 1 1 . Ne5 fe 1 2 . Qc4 Ob6 1 3 . Be2 ! Ob2 ? ! Rc8 1 4 . 0-0 1 5 . Od3 Rc7 1 6 . Ne4 Be7 Kf8 1 7 . Nd6+ 1 7 . . . . , B d 6 ; 1 8 . Q d 6 wou l d l e a ve t h e B l a ck m o n a r ch h o p e l e s s l y i mm o b i l i z e d . 1 8 . Nc4 Ob5 ef 1 9 . f4 2 0 . Qd4 ! f6 . . . 2 1 . Qf4 W i t h the B l ack k i ng s u f f i c i e n t l y ex­ p o s e d , the Wh i t e p i e c e s m a y b eg i n to c o ­ he r e f o r t h e f i n a l a s s a u l t . Oc5 21 . . . Be8 2 2 . Ne5 f5 2 3 . Ng4 Kf7 24 . Oh6 + Rc6 2 5 . Bc4 ! Obv i o u s l y no t 2 5 . . . . , Q c 4 ? ; 2 6 . Ne 5 + . Nor i s h o p e o f f e r e d by 2 5 . . . . , B d 7 ; 2 6 . R d 7 , R d 7 ; 2 7 . Qe 6 + , Ke 8 ; 2 8 . Nf 6 + etc . •

22

Phi 1osopbica1 Foundat i ons

Of5 26 . Rf5+ Of l + 2 7 . Rf l Bd7 2 8 . Kf l loses 2 8 . . . . , R c 4 ; 2 9 . Ne 5 + Once �i;; a i n , ma ter i a l . 2 9 . Qb5+ Kg8 Or 2 9 . . , Kg 7 ; 3 0 . Q e 5 + , Kg 8 ; 3 1 . Nh 6 + . 30 . Ne5 Res igns .

.

As ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i ng h a s cha ng­ ed ove r the t we n t i e t h c e n t u r y , s t r a t eg i c pr i nc i pl e s h a v e e v o l v e d b e y o n d t e c hn i c a l f o rmu l a t i o n s t o mo r e i n t u i t i ve ma n i f e s t a ­ t i o n s s u ch a s t h e i n i t i a t i v e a n d d om i n a ­ t i on . Th i s i s why t h e che s s wo r l d h a s w i t n e s s e d a n i n c r e a s i ng n u mb e r of game s th a t res i st ev a l u a t i o n a l ong gene ra l l i n e s , a n d why m o d e r n gr a n dm a s t e r s p l a c e s u c h e m p h a s i s o n t h e e x am i n a t i o n o f c o n ­ crete var i a t i ons . Thu s m o d e r n c he s s i s n o l e s s s t r a t eg i c t h a n t h e c l a s s i c a l v a r i e t y ; r a t he r , s t r a t egy h a s b e e n a p p r o p r i a t e d u n ­ c o n s c i o u s l y , a n d i s c on s t a n t l y a pp l i e d i n ­ t u i t i ve l y . ( We ' l l e l a b o r a t e o n t h i s l a t e r i n the b o o k . )

Phi 1osophica1 Foundat i ons

23

XIX USSR Champ i onsh i p Moscov , 1 9 5 1 Smys1ov Ke res 2 2 . Qh5 Ne5 2 3 . Rad l Bg6 24 . Qh4 Rd l 2 5 . Rd l Nd 3 M a t e r i a l i s even , the pawn s t r u c t u r e i s s ymm e t r i c a l , a n d n e i the r s i d e i s h a n d i c a p ­ ped by a n o bv i o u s l y a s s a i l a bl e we a k n e s s . Neve rth e l e s s , B l a ck i s " f o r cho i c e " , a n d Wh i t e wou l d be we l l - a d v i s e d to pr oceed w i th c a u t i on . In wh a t does B l ack ' s a d v a n t age cons i s t ? Mo s t p r om i n e n t l y , h i s k n i ght ou t p o s t on d3 . But i s t h i s s q u a r e a n y we a k e r f o r Wh i t e t h a n d6 i s for Bl ack? gene r a l Not c l a s s i c a l l y - - a cc o r d i ng to s t r a t eg i c p r i n c i p l e s ; the c r u c i a l f e a t u r e o f d 3 a s a we a k n e s s l i e s r a t he r i n the f a c t t h a t i t ' s exp l o i t a b l e - - t h a t B l a c k c a n m a i n t a i n a p i e c e there . A n d s i n c e th i s c o n d i t i o n i s h o p e l e s s l y d ep e n d e n t o n �­ t i cu l a r s , it c an neve r be d e r i ve d b y t h i n k i ng a l o ng p u r e l y g e n e r a l 1 i ne s . We m a y sa f e l y c on c l ud e th a t t h e e s s e n c e o f K e r e s ' k n i gh t o u t p o s t a s a s t r a t e g i c r e a l ­ � de f i e s gene r a l i z a t i on . One m i ght f u r the r i n q u i r e a s t o why Wh i t e ' s p a i r o f b i s h o p s - - i n an o p e n p o s i ­ t i on - - a r e n ' t a more s i gn i f i c a n t f a c tor . Once aga i n , the a n s we r i s n ' t f o r th c o m i ng i n a g e n e r a l f o rm u l a , s o we mu s t c o n t e n t ou r s e l ve s w i t h t h e vague a n d i l l - d e f i n e d - ­ t h o ugh pe r f e c t l y v a l i d - - o b s e r va t i o n tha t the y ' re " i n e f f e c t i ve " . 26 . Bd4 ? . . . Wh i t e s h o u l d h a v e o p t e d f o r t h e a t t e mp t

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Phi 1osophica1 Founda t i ons

a t s i mp l i f i c a t i o n by 2 6 . Q d 4 ( K e r e s ) . Qa5 ! 26 . . . . . 2 7 . h3 I n f e r i o r wou l d b e 2 7 . Bf 6 ? , Re 1 + ; 2 8 . Bf l , Kh 7 ! ; 2 9 . R e l , N e l ( K e r e s ) . Kh7 27 . . . . B l a c k p r e f e r s t o m a i n t a i n the p r e s s u r e r a th e r th a n r i s k c om i n g u n d e r a c o u n t e r ­ , Q a 2 ; 2 8 . Qg4 , Q b 3 ; 2 9 . Q g 6 ! a t t a ck a f te r 2 7 ( Keres ) . 2 8 . Bf3 Ne l ! offers Wh i t e 2 8 . . . . , Qa 2 Here too , 2 9 . Bh 5 ! en e rg e t i c the wi th ch a n c e s ( Keres ) . Nc2 29 . Bb l Re l + 30 . Bf3 Qe l + 3 1 . Re l b6 3 2 . Kh2 3 2 . . . . , c 5 ! ; 3 3 . Bc 5 , b 6 ; 34 . Bd4 , Q d 2 ( Keres ) wou l d have b e e n mo r e f o r c e f u l . 3 3 . Qf4 c5 Ne3 34 . Be3 3 5 . Qe3 Qe3 Bb l 36 . fe 37 . a3 a5 ! B l a ck h a s f i n a l l y ob t a i n e d c l a s s i c a l , tangible super i o r pawn a a d vant ages : s t r u c t u r e a n d a b e t t e r b i sho p . K e r e s w ent on to w i n a wel l -pl a yed end i n g . •

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S i nce gene r a l pr i nc i pl e s a r e una b l e to a c t a s i n d e p e n d e n t , c ompr eh e n s i ve g u i d e s , a nd s i n c e t h e n u mb e r o f p a r t i c u l a r l i n e s q u i ck l y m o u n t s i n t o t h e m i l l i o n s , the h u ­ m a n m i n d h a s h a d t o d ev e l o p t h e a b i 1 i t y t o th i n k abou t che s s in a n o n - r i g o r ou s , " r o u gh - a n d - r e a d y " f a s h i o n . We i n t u i t i ve l y feel ou r wa y t h r o u g h the s t r ugg l e , p r o ­ ceed i ng w i t h o u t exh a u s t i ve analyses or

Phi 1osophica1 Foundat i ons

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a b s o l u t e l y c o nv i n c i n g a r g u m e n t s ; we j u mp to c on e ! us i o n s a n d r e j e c t c o u n t l e s s p o s s i ­ bi l i t ies of fhand be c a u s e t he r e ' s s i mp l y no t e n o u gh t i m e t o e x a m i n e e ve r y t h i ng . In s h o r t , t h e hum a n m i n d h a s t h e c a p a c i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d che s s e x i s t e n t i a l l y . Tha t i rr a t i on a l i t y c a n be more e f f i ­ c i e n t t h a n p r e c i s e , r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t i s by no m e a n s a new i d e a . For exampl e , i t ' s w i d e l y a cc e p t e d th a t the hum a n r a c e h a s deve l o p e d a f e a r o f l a r ge , cha rg i n g a n i ­ p r ov i d e s a more ma l s b e c a u s e a f e e l i n g c o m p e l ! i n g u r g e t o f l e e tha n d i s i n t e r e s t ­ Wh a t wou l d h a v e ed , s c i e n t i f i c i nqu i r y . b e c o m e o f o u r a n c e s t o r s i f t he y h a d c a l m l y s u rve y e d e ve r y p o t e n t i a l d a n g e r u n t i l a r ­ r i v i n g a t a l o g i ca l c o n c l u s i o n ? N i e t z s c h e w e n t even f u r t he r a l on g t h e s e l i ne s b y s u gg e s t i n g tha t fundament a l er­ r o r s p r ov i d e the f o u n d a t i o n o f a l l hum a n thought . Thu s we wo u l d ha ve n e v e r i nhe r ­ i te d the g i f t o f l anguage i f o u r ances­ t o r s h a d n ' t m i s t a k e n l y pe r c e i ve d i d e n t i t y whe r e m e r e s i m i l a r i t y e x i s t s . How e l s e - ­ i f n o t b y e r r o r - - c ou l d the hum a n r a c e h a v e a s s i g n e d a s i n g l e wo rd s u ch a s " t r e e " t o a n e n t i r e g r o u p o f th i n g s wh i c h d i f f e r i n a n y n u mb e r o f p a r t i c u l a r s ? Th i s l i n e o f thought e v e n r e c e i ve d a n ( u n i n t e n t i o n a l ) en d o r s e m e n t f r om W i t t g e n s t e i n , who a r g u e d t h a t a l a n g u a g e i s on l y me a n i n g f u l i n s o f a r as i t ' s useful . I ho p e t o a vo i d s e r i o u s ph i l o s o ph i c a l m u d d l e s i n t h i s b o o k ; s t i l l , we ' 1 1 f o l l ow th i s p a th a b i t f u r the r i n s e a r ch of a t h o u ght c l a r i f i c a t i on as to why hum a n a bou t c he s s d e f i e s p r e c i s e f o rmu l a t i o n . I t ' s a n e mp i r i c a l f a c t tha t p e o p l e p e r ­ c e i ve a t t a c k s i n a va r i e t y o f p o s i t i o n s

26

Phi 1osophi c a 1 Foundat i ons

tha t a r e o n l y v a g u e l y s i m i l a r . B u t when we t r y to de f i n e " a t t a ck " p r ec i s e l y - - i n a wa y t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e s a l l t he s e c a s e s - - i t s e e m s a p o s i t i o n c a n a l wa y s b e c on c o c t e d wh i c h i s e i t h e r a t tack i n g a n d " ou t s i d e " the d e f i n i t i o n , o r non - a t t a ck i n g a n d " i n ­ s i d e " the d e f i n i t i on . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s r e s i s t a n c e t o f o r ­ mu l a t i o n i s t h e n a t u r e o f s i m i l a r i t y . As l on g a s w e f e e l c omp e l l e d t o e mp l o y t h i s term , we ' r e i mp l i c i t l y conf e s s i ng our i nabi l i ty to p r e c i s e l y d e f i n e the m a t t e r a t ha n d ; f o r i f w e c o u l d p i n d o w n wha t gr oun d s the s i m i l a r i t y i n que s t i on , the t e rm c o u l d b e d i s p e n s e d w i th i n f a vo r o f i d e n t i t y ( th e we l l - d e f i n e d c o u n t e r p a r t o f s im i l a r i ty ) . I ns o f a r as the m ind is th i n k i n g e x i s t e n t i a l ly , s i m i l a r i t y i s b e ­ i ng r ecogn i z e d ; i d ent i ty , m e a nwh i l e , is t h e c o r ne r s t o n e o f l o g i c a l thought . The c o n c l u s i o n i s tha t the va l i d i t y o f o u r ex­ i s t e n t i a l hyp o t h e s i s i s d i rectly rel a te d t o the a u thent i c i t y o f s i m i l a r i t y . De s p i t e a l l the e v i dence p r e s e n t e d thus f a r , we mu s t n o w t a c k l e t h e p r o b l em o f whe t h e r t h e n o t i o n o f ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g i s a t o d d s w i th m o d e r n s c i e n c e . O n c e a g a i n , we ' 1 1 a vo i d the s e r i o u s p h i l o ­ s o ph i c a l q u e s t i o n s - - t h i s t i m e i n f a vo r o f a f ew c o mm e n t s on h o w s u ch a c on f l i c t c ou l d b e m a i n t a i n e d . Ma n y phy s i c i s t s claim t h a t the h um a n m i nd can be c omp r e h e n s i ve l y descr i be d - ­ f o r mu l a t e d - - by s oph i s t i c a t e d prec i sely ma thema t i c a l m e a n s . And if thi s is so , a g r a n d m a s t e r ' s b r a i n i n p a r t i c u l a r c ou l d b e descr i bed . C o u l d s u c h a m a s s i v e e q u a t i on b e m e m o r i z e d a n d u t i l i z e d by s o m e o n e w i t h h i gh a mb i t i o n s i n che s s ?

Phi 1osophica1 Founda t i ons

27

I n pr i n c i p l e , th i s c ou r s e c o u l d b e f o l ­ l ow e d . The c a t c h i s t h a t , a p a r t f r om t h e f a c t t h a t a c o mp l e t e f o rmu l a f o r t h e h u m a n b r a i n wou l d b e f a r t o o c om p l i c a t e d t o ma ­ n i pu l a t e consc i ou s l y , it 's o bv i ou s tha t g r a n dm a s t e r s s i mp l y don ' t th i nk l i ke th i s . The p r e s e n t b o o k i s a s t u d y o f che s s t h o u g h t f r om t he s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e p a r t i c ­ i p a n t ; o u t s i d e o f t h i s c o n t e x t , any p h i l o ­ s o ph i c a l t r u ths are i rr e l evant . Th u s we ' r e n o t s o much c on c e r ne d w i th ph i l o ­ s o ph i c a l t r u th we l l . as wi th p l a y i ng Che s s i s , i n p r i n c i p l e , r e d u c i b l e t o p u r e c a l c u l a t i on ; t h e h um a n m i n d ma y b e , in t r u th , a c o mp l ex c o l l e c t i o n o f m a t h e m a t ­ i c a l e v e n t s i n the a t o m i c wo r l d o f phy s ­ i cs . But i f s t rong p l a y e r s d on ' t f o c u s on the s e i d e a s dur ing p l a y - - a n d a r e c on s e ­ q u e n t l y w o r k i n g u n d e r f u n d a m e nt a l e r r o r s - ­ " The T r u th " i s i r r e l e v a n t . A f t e r t h e f o l l o w i n g cha p t e r o n a e s t h e t ­ i c s , we ' 1 1 s e t u p o n o u r p r i ma r y t a s k o f t r a c i n g the e vo l u t i o n o f e x i s t e n t i a l un­ derstan d i ng t h r ou g h che s s h i s tory . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s a pp r o a c h i s t h a t n o g r a n d ­ ma s t e r c an d i rect l y g i ve a p r e c i s e d e ­ sc r i p t i on o f h i s exi s tent i a l und e r s t a n d ­ i n g ; a n d s i n c e i t ' s r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s ume t h a t the th i nk i n g of l e a d i n g p l a y e r s h u n ­ d r e d s o f y e a r s a g o wa s s i mp l e r t h a n t h a t o f t o d a y , we ' l l be g i n b y l o c a t i n g e x i s t e n ­ t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n i t s r e l a t i ve l y m a n ­ ageabl e " i n f a n cy " , then carefu l ly trace i t s g r ow th o v e r t h e y e a r s . B e c a u s e p u r e , we l l - d e f i ne d i d e a s a r e by n a t u r e i n c omp a t i bl e w i t h ex i s t e n t i a l un­ d e r s t a n d i n g , o u r m e t h o d mu s t b e e mp i r i c a l ; it ' s no s e c r e t who t h e l e a d i n g ma s t e r s h a v e b e e n , s o t h e i r g a m e s a n d i d e a s wi 1 1

28

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p r ov i d e o u r data . The t a s k i n e a ch a g e w i l l b e t o d i s c ove r a ch a r a c t e r i s t i c of the l e a d i ng p l aye r s - - a n exi s t ent i a l t r a i t th a t d i s t i n gu i s h e s the " ch a mp i o n s " f r om the " a l s o - r a n s " . Th i s cha r a c t e r i s t i c m u s t no t b e f o rmu l a t e d , b u t w i l l be d e s c r i b e d as a capabi l i ty w i th an u n f a tho m a b l e s ou r c e ; on l y i n th i s wa y c a n we h o p e t o " k e e p h o l d " o f the e s s en c e of exi s ten­ t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , p a v i n g t h e wa y f o r a n a u thent i c r e c o gn i t i on o f the next g e ne r a ­ t i on 1 s thought . A s a f i n a l p o i n t o f o r d e r , we ' 1 1 b r i e f ­ l y c o n s i d e r how exi s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i ng h a s b e e n a b l e t o e vo l ve . How c a n a s ub­ j e c t i ve f r a m e o f m i n d b e t r a n s m i t t e d f r om one gene r a t i o n to the next - - o r , f o r t h a t ma t t e r , f rom one pe r s on t o t h e next ? The e vo l u t i o n I i n t e n d t o t r a c e i n t h i s book i s i n t e l l i g i b l e a n d p r o g r e s s i ve , s o i t ' s e v i d e n t that ex i s t e nt i a l unde r s t a n d ­ i ng does e v o l ve , a n d mu s t t he r e f o r e b e " c omm u n i c a b l e " in s om e s e n s e . B u t wha t a r e t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f c o mmu n i c a t i o n i f t he m a t t e r c a n ' t b e d i s c u s s e d o b j e c t i ve l y ? F i r s t o f f , t h e hum a n m i n d h a s a c a p a c ­ ..!..1.Y t o o p e r a t e e xi s t e n t i a l l y ; o f th i s , I t r u s t the r e a d e r i s b y n o w c o nv i n c e d . It f o l l ow s t h a t a n y t h i n k i ng expo s u r e t o t h e p l a y o f o th e r s c a r r i e s a p o t e n t i a l t o e n ­ hanc e the unde r s t an d i n g in q u e s t i on . Thi s exp o s u r e o c c u r s i n t h r e e o bv i o u s wa y s : 1 ) Di rect P l a y . " F l o w i n g " f r om p e r s on t o p e r s o n , f r om c i t y t o c i t y , m e t h o d s o f p l a y a r e e xch a n g e d u n c on s c i o u s l y . I n s om e s o c i e t i e s , s u ch a s m e d i e va l E u r o p e , th i s t y p e o f a c t i v i t y p r ov i d e d t h e s o l e m e a n s o f gene r a l a dvance . 2 ) Popu l a r O p en i n g s . The g a m e s o f t h e

Phi losophical Foundat i ons

29

l e a d i ng ma s t e r s are bound to be the mo s t c l o s e l y f o l l ow e d , s o t h e i r f a vo r i t e o p e n ­ i n g s w i 1 1 t e n d t o wa r d p o p u l a r i t y , p r o v i d ­ ing p a r t i cul arly " a r t i culate " instances of the i r ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g a t wo r k . 3 ) Lit e r a t u r e . Any r em n a n t s o f a g r e a t p l a y e r ' s t h i n k i n g a b o u t che s s a r e b o u n d t o carry s ymp t o m a t i c " g e r m s " f r om h i s ex i s ­ tent i a l unde r s t and i ng . The r e a r e a n i n f i n i t e n u mb e r o f e x i s ­ tent i a l unde r s t an d i ng s , a n d - - a s I ' ve a l ­ r e a d y a rg u e d - - n o n e a r e m o r e " i n t h e t r u t h " t h a n the o t h e r s . ( C he s s i s , o bje c t i ve l y , s ubje c t t o p u r e c a l c u l a t i o n - - a t e chn i c a l qua l i ty . ) How , then , d o e s e x i s t e n t i a l un­ d e r s t a n d i n g i m pr ove f r om one g en e r a t i o n to the next ? I n wh a t i s the p r o gr e s s i ve n a ­ ture of our e vo l u t i o n g r ounded if not t r u th ? Tho u g h n o ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s o b j e c t i ve l y m o r e v a l i d t h a n t h e n e x t , s ome a r e o bv i o u s l y m o r e e f f e c t i ve - - p o s s e s s e d by s t r onge r p l a y e r s . An d s i n c e the g a m e s o f the s t r on g e s t m a s t e r s w i l l b e m o s t k e e n l y a t t ended t o , t h e y ' l l exe r t t h e grea test i n f l ue n c e on the s ucceed i ng g en e r a t i o n , who s e l e a d e r s w i l l m a k e th e i r own c o n t r i b ­ u t i o n s t o wh a t t h e y ' ve i nhe r i te d . Thu s we a k players a re fa ted to die w i thou t " p r o g en y " - - the i r g a m e s w i l l b e f o rg o t t e n ; a t the s ame t i me , the i d e a s o f the s t r ong­ e s t p l a y e r s c a r r y the " gene s " for the f u ­ ture . T h e q u a l i t y o f che s s i mp r o ve s f r om gene r a t i on to gene r a t i on , not bec ause o f s ome i n e xo r a b l e m a r ch t o wa r d t r u t h , bu t due to a pecul i a r f o rm of na tura l select i on .

2 . The Importance of Aes thetics

We a r e emba rk i ng on a s t ud y of t h e hi story of che s s f r om a n o n - t e chn i c a l perspec t i ve . A s a c o n s equenc e , our f e e l ­ the game mu s t be hee d e d , and i ng s a b ou t expl a n a t i o n s s h ou l d b e r e s i s ted . Th i s m e t h o d i s cha r a c t e r i s t i c o f a e s t h e t i c s , a d i s c i p l i n e wh i c h e n d e a vo r s t o a pp r o p r i a t e " da t a " ex i s t e n t i a l l y .

Par i s , Lega 1 1 5 . Ne5 ! 6 . Bf7+ 7 . Nd5#

1 7 50 St . Br i e Bd l Ke7

The r e ' s no d o u b t t h a t Wh i t e ' s pi eces c oope r a t e t o g e the r i n thi s ma te . B u t why d o w e f i n d th i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e o f c o o p e r a t i o n a e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i ng ? The mo s t r e a s on a bl e a n s we r t o th i s query is tha t the c o o p e r a t i on among

The Importance of Aesthe t i cs

31

Wh i t e ' s f o r c e s i s s u r pr i s i nq- - tha t o u r e x ­ i s t e n t i a l un d e r s t a n d i n g ha s b e e n s u d d e n l y a w a k e n e d t o a n un u s u a l a s p e c t o f t h e g am e wh i ch h a d b e e n p a r t i a l l y " c l o a k e d " . Who - ­ u p o n a m om e n t a r y g l a n c e a t t h e p o s i t i o n - ­ wou l d h a ve g u e s s e d t h a t t h e p i n n e d k n i ght o n f 3 wa s d e s t i ne d to m o v e i n t o i mm e d i a t e , e f f e c t i ve c o o p e r a t i o n w i th t wo o t he r m i n o r p i eces ? S u ch e x a mp l e s s ug g e s t t h a t the o ve r - a l l a e s th e t i c s of a player ' s games ( hi s " s t y l e " ) wi l l tend to o u t l i ne h i s ex i s t en ­ t i a l under s t an d i ng b y br i ng i ng t o l i g ht exc e p t i o n a l c a s e s of c o o p e r a ti o n . On the who l e , t h i s i s a c o mm on - s e n s e a p p r o a ch : I f we ' r e t o c om e t o g r i p s w i t h t he i n t u ­ i t i ve f e e l l e a d i n g ma s t e r s h a v e h a d f o r c h e s s , t h e n w e s h o u l d be r e c e p t i ve t o the f ee l i n g t h e i r g a m e s e x ud e . J u s t a s the art hi st or i a n mu s t occa s i ona l l y " step back " f r om a techn i c a l a n a l ys i s o f a its pa i nt i ng in order to expe r i e n c e b e a u t y , s o s h ou l d t h e che s s s t ud e n t a l l o w the g r e a t g a m e s t o c om e t o l i f e a e s t h e t ­ T o c l a r i f y , a n o t he r e x a m p l e : ically .

32

The Importance of Aesthe t i cs Par i s ,

1 867

Neuaann Ko1 i sch 30 . . . Qe4 Th r e a t e n i n g 3 1 . . . . , d 3 . 3 1 . Qd6 Bh4 3 2 . Qb8 + Kh7 3 3 . Qe5 Ohl + Be4 ! 34 . Ke2 be O bv i ou s l y , to not 3 5 . Qf 5 + is a l l ow e d . B l a ck ' s b i s h ops are f o r eve r cha n g i n g r o l e s , c oo p e r a t i n g o n a s u r p r i s i n g v a r i e t y of d i agona l s t. o pr oduce the l i ve l y a e s the t i c o f a n a tt a c k . 3 5 . Qd4 f5 ! of the poss i b i l i ty B l a ck m i n i m i ze s c o u n t e r - a c t i o n a l on g t h e b l - h 7 d i a g o n a l . 3 6 . gf ? . . . 36 . Qe3 ( T a r t akowe r ) wou l d have left B l a c k h a r d - p r e s s e d t o p r ove h i s c a s e . Af­ t e r the move a c t u a l l y p l a yed , o n the o th e r hand , the a tt a ck breaks through by f o rc e . B u t a r e t e c hn i c a l po i nt s s u ch a s t h e s e e s s en t i a l t o o u r s t ud y ? Whe t h e r o r n o t B l a c k ' s a t t a ck i s p e r ­ f e c t l y s ou n d , t he a e s t h e t i c s o f h i s p l a y have a l r e a d y t e s t i f i e d a s t o h i s p r o f ou n d a pp r e c i a t i on o f t h e wa y a q u e e n a n d two b i sho ps can s e i z e c on t r o l of an open boa rd . J u s t a s no exi s tent i a l unde r s t and­ i n g i s i n f a l l i b l e , s o a move n e e d n o t b e s ou n d i n o r d e r t o b e a e s t he t i c a l l y p lea s ­ ing . F e e l i n g s a r e t o p r ov i d e a n e s s e n t i a l c o mp o n e n t o f o u r d a t a ; o u r b u s i n e s s i s n o t t o e x p l a i n t h e m a wa y , b u t t o p on d e r wha t t h e i r e x i s t e n c e s u gg e s t s . 36 . . . . Qh2 + 37 . Kd l •

The Importance of Aes the t i cs

3 7 . K f l , Be l ; 3 8 . Ke l , Qh l + t r a nsposes i n to the game . Be l 37 . . 3 8 . Ke l Ohl + 3 9 . Ke2 Of3+ 40 . Ke l Bd3 4 1 . Res i gns . i n v i ew o f 4 1 . Q f 2 , Qh l + . .

33

back

•

As I ' ve al ready i nd i cated , a t t a ck i ng i d e a s n e e d n o t b e f oo l p r o o f i n o r d e r t o be C omb i n a t i o n s , a e s t he t i c a l l y plea s i ng . m e a n wh i l e , are more 11 f r a g i l e 11 - - i f t he y d o n ' t wo r k p e r f e c t l y , t he y r a r e l y l e a v e a n i mp r e s s i on . In the Lega l l g ame quo ted a bove , 5 . N e 5 wou l d n ' t b e wo r t h m e n t i o n i n g i f B l a ck ' s k i ng had h a d a n e sc a p e s q ua r e on f 8 ; the Ka l i sch g a m e , o n the o t he r h a n d , i s m o r e l i k e l y t o r e m a i n i mp r e s s i ve a f ter s l i ght a l t e r a t i ons - - i t s d r i v i ng i dea s are l a rg e r , m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l . The f o rm e r a e s t h e t i c w i l l the r e f o r e b e t e r m e d f u n c t i o n a l - - t he ch a r a c t e r i s t i c of a ma ­ ch i n e who s e e v e r y c o g i s i n d i s pens a bl e - ­ whe r e a s t h e a e s t he t i c e m a n a t i n g f r om at­ t a c k s w i 1 1 b e a r t h e s ug g e s t i ve l y a n i m a t e d t i tle 1 i fe . Th i s b i o l og i c a l a na l o g y c a n even b e c a rr i ed a s t e p f u r the r b y a pp e n d ­ i ng the a e s the t i c s o f po s i t i ona l pl a y , as c a n b e s e e n i n o u r n e x t e x a mp l e .

34

The Importance of Aesthe t i cs

Stockho lm ,

1 937

Stahlberg F i ne Be6 16 . Rd l Rac8 1 7 . 0-0 1 8 . Qb2 Nd4 ? Th i s e x ch a n g e of m i no r p i ces only s e rves to clar i fy t he infer ior i ty of B l a ck ' s b i s ho p . As the game proceed s , note how the p i e c e c oo p e r a t i on w i t h t he i s o l a t e d q u e en p a w n a s a s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y c a n be f e l t - ­ how t h e Wh i t e f o r c e s s e em i n vu l ne r a b l e on t h e b l o c k a d i n g s q u a r e d 4 , h o w B l a c k ' s a rmy i s i mp o t e n t l y t i e d to the d e f e n c e o f i t s d - pawn , a n d s o f o r th . Rc5 1 9 . Rd4 Rfc8 2 0 . Rfd l h6 2 1 . R4d 2 2 2 . Bf3 Qc6 2 3 . h3 Rc7 . . . 24 . Qe5 ! Wh i t e i n i t i a t e s t h e f i n a l a s s a u l t , a p ­ p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h , i n t h e n e i g h b o rho o d o f

The Importance of Aesthetics

35

the q u e en p awn . For the next few moves , e a ch m a n e uve r w i l l m o r e i n t e n s e l y i l l um i ­ n a t e the l a c k o f c o u n t e r p l a y at Bl ack ' s d i s p o s a l - - a " d i s e a s e " wh i ch e m a n a t e s f r om hi s s t a t i c a l l y weak p awn center . 24 . . . . f6 24 . . . . , R d 7 ; 2 5 . Q b 8 + ( F i ne ) is even wo r s e . 2 5 . Of4 Rc8 2 6 . e4 ! The d e c i s i ve thrus t occurs at the a e s t he t i c c e n te r of the p o s i t i on . If 26 , Rd 8 , Wh i t e wins i mm e d i a t e l y w i th 2 7 . e d , Bd 5 ; 2 8 . Q f 5 ( F i ne ) . 26 . . . de 2 7 . Rd6 ef ( F i ne ) 2 7 . . . . , Qc7 ; 2 8 . Qe4 only wou l d aggrava t e ma t te r s . 2 8 . Rc6 R5c6 29 . Of3 Re l !'\ \ 30. Re l Re l + H J.. 3 1 . Kh2 . a n d Wh i t e w e n t on t o exp l o i t h i s s l i g ht m a t e r i a l e dg e i n a s ub t l y - p l a y e d endgame . •

•

.

.

.

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th i s g a m e i s t h a t we c a n s e n s e a e s th e t i c a l l y how the p i e c e s c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e i s o l a t e d q u e e n p aw n a s a s t r a teg i c re a l i t y . A l though i t ma y not r e p r e s e n t a t e chn i c a l a d va n c e ove r t u r n ­ o f - t he - c e n t u r y p l a y , the p r o n o u nc e d a e s ­ the t i c o f o u r examp l e b e a r s w i t n e s s t h a t stra teg i c i d ea s h a ve b e e n a pp r o p r i a t e d i n t o t h e m o d e r n g r a n dm a s t e r ' s ex i s t e n t i a l under s t and i ng . Whe n t h e F i n e - S t a h l b e r g game i s c om ­ p a r e d w i th the P i l l s b u r y - L a s k e r e n c o u n t e r d i s c u s s e d in the l a s t chapte r , one no t i ces

36

The l•portance of Aes the t i cs

t h a t P i l l s b u r y ' s c on c l ud i n g a t t a c k i s a e s ­ the t i c a l l y r om a n t i c - - th a t a f t e r the p r e p a ­ r a t o r y s t r a t e g i c g r o u n dwo r k , the g a m e d e ­ g e n e r a t e s i n t o a s i mp l e , d i r e c t a s s a u l t o n each m o ve o f t he B l a c k k i n g ; m e a n w h i l e , F i ne ' s a t t a c k h i gh l i gh t s t h e c r u c i a l s t r a ­ teg i c e l em e n t of the p o s i t i on - - t he i solani . Al t h o u g h s u ch p l a y wa s n ' t a b s o 1 u t e l y u nh e a r d o f i n the e a r l i e r e r a , the f a c t t h a t i t p l ay e d s u ch a p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n the s t y l e o f gr a n dm a s t e r s l i k e R u b i n ­ stein and C a p a b l a n c a e n d o r s e s the no t i o n t h a t che s s h a s a d v a n c e d a l on g the l i ne s s ug g e s t e d a b ove . ( Th i s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a t g r e a t e r l ength l a t e r on . ) J u s t a s a s o u n d s t r a t e g y p r ov i d e s t h e p r o p e r g r ou n d f o r a n a t t a c k , s o t h e 1 i v e 1 i n e s s o f a t t a c k s a r e mo s t f i rm l y r o o t e d in t he a e s the t i c of hea l th . Th i s , in t u r n , s e t s the s t a g e f o r o u r f i n a l e x a m ­ p l e - - b e y on d b i o l o g y , t o an a e s th e t i c o f the s p i r i t .

The Iaportance of Aesthetics

37

Hungarian Chaapionship Budapest, 1961 Pogats 17 . . . . 18 . Rfdl 19 . Rd8+ 20 . Rd8+ 21 . Qd2?

Portisch Nb8! Nc6 Rd8 Qd8

Wh i t e u n d e r e s t i ma t e s t h e vu l ne r a b i l i t y o f h i s k i ngs i d e , whe r e t he q u e e n i s p r e s ent ly requ i re d f o r d e f ence . 21 . 22 . 23 .

. . . Ne4 Nfd2

Far b e t t e r than f 5 ? ; 24 . Nc 5 , e t c . 24 .

Ng4! Qd2 Kc 7!

t he

24

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f 3 , wh i ch w ou l d a nn o y i ng 2 4 , .

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25 . 26 . 27 .

f3 b3 h5

28 . 29 . 30 .

Ne 3 Nf5 Ng 3

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25 , f5 is now f o r c i n g Wh i t e ' s h a n d : .

23

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i mp e t u o u s

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s e r i ou s

thr ea t ,

Ne5 Ng6! Nf4 Nf5! ef g6

a n d B l a ck w o n e a s i l y .

A e s t he t i c a l l y , t h e o u t s t a n d i ng f e a t ure of thi s game is not so m u ch the way B l a ck ' s coope r a t e w i th Wh i t e ' s p i eces we a k e n e d k i n g s i d e , b u t h o w t h e y he l p t o create i t as a weakne s s . The e mph a s i s h a s s h i f t e d : I n the F i n e ­ S t a h l b e rg g a m e , the p i e c e s c o o p e r a t e d w i t h

38

The Importance of Aesthet i cs

cl a s s ical s t r a teg i c r ea l i t y; i n the a P o g a t s - P o r t i s ch g a m e , t h e p i e c e p l a y p r o ­ weakne ss ' s f ound a t i on the the vi ded of ve r y exi s tence . A l though th i s m a y be m e a n i n g l e s s f r om a t e chn i c a l p e r s p e c t i ve , pa r t i c u l a r s o f t h e p i e c e the i nd i v i du a l p l a y a r e o f m o r e a e s t he t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e l a t t e r e x a mp l e . Thi s f i na l s t a ge i n ou r h i e r a r ch y wi ll t he r e f o r e be t e rm e d cha r a c t e r . Ex i s t e n t i a l l y s e n s e d T o r eca p i t u l a t e : c o mb i n a t i o n s a pp e a r funct i on a l , r om a n t i c a ttacks exud e 1 i fe , class i cal s t ra tegy bea r s t h e a e s th e t i c o f he a l t h , a n d the i n d i v i d u a l i t y of c h a r a c t e r e m a n a t e s f r om m od e r n che s s .

I.

PRE-HISTORY

( 600- 1 8 2 1) F IRST STEPS 3 . The Eabryo Chess A F a m i l y Tr ee

Ga m e s s i m i l a r to c h e s s c a n b e d a t e d a s f a r b a c k a s 6 0 0 AD , i f we a r e t o h e e d a f ew obscure l i terary references to the I n d i a n g a m e cha t u r a n g a . I n h i s m o n um e n t a l A History of Chess, H . J . R . Mu r r a y s p e c u ­ l a t e s t h a t cha t u r a n g a h a d r e p l a c e d a r a c e g a m e o n t h e a s h t a p a d a - - th e 8 x 8 b o a r d o n wh i ch mo s t f o rm s of che s s are now con t e s t e d . Whe r e a s t h e a c t u a l i nve n t i o n o f che s s wa s a t e ch n i c a l m a t t e r ( o f w h i ch w e k now n o t h i n g ) , the c on t i n u i n g e x i s t e n c e o f the g a m e d e p en d e d on ex i s t e n t i a 1 f a c t o r s . For i f a p as t i me i s t o b e c om e p o pu l a r e n o u gh t o s u r v i ve f r om g e n e r a t i o n t o g e ne r a t i on , i t mu s t b e a e s t he t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g - - i n the w i d e s t s e n s e o f tha t t e r m . A n d s i nc e , i n che s s , a e s t he t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n i s g r o u n d e d i n ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , it f o l l ows tha t the e s t a b l i s hm e n t of our game p r o ­ vi des t h e e a r 1 i e s t c on c r e t e ev i d ence f o r t h e ex i s t e n c e o f t h i s m o d e o f thought . The p o p u l a r r e p l a c e m e n t o f the a s ht a ­ pa d a race game b y the undoubt e d l y more c omp l ex cha t u r a n g a s u gg e s t s th a t ex i s t e n ­ t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g wa s evo l v i n g e ve n in t he e a r 1 i e s t d a y s o f che s s . I n th a t e r a , t he r u l e s .o f c h a t u r a n g a w e r e n o t y e t s t a n ­ d a r d i z e d , a s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e w i d e va r i e t y o f m o v e s a t t r i bu t e d t o t h e e l e ph a n t ( t he

40

Pre-Hi story

av a i l able our of b i sh o p ) in ance s tor Mu r r a y t h r e e e x a mp l e s : g ives s ou r c e s . squares p iece t wo the m ov e s whe r e one d i a g o n a l l y i n a n y d i r e c t i o n , o n e whe r e i t and a l on g ranks t he s q ua r e s t wo move s i t m ov e s o n e whe r e thi rd f i les , and a s q ua r e d i a g o n a l l y o r o n e s t e p f o r wa r d . I t ' s i mp o s s i b l e t o s a y how prec i sely l o n g s u ch va r i a n t s p e r s i s t e d , bu t we c a n sti 1 1 unde rstand thi s pe r i od i n gene r a l t e rm s a s a n e vo l u t i o n a r y c o mp e t i t i o n a m o n g r i v a l g a m e s , e a ch d i f f e r i n g s l i gh t l y f r om the n e x t . S i n c e p o p u l a r i t y d e t e rm i n e s the p r ev a l e n c e o f a n y g i ve n r u l e , t h i s e vo l u ­ t i on t en d e d t o wa r d s a s t a n da r d i z e d game wh i ch wa s a s c a p a b l e a s p o s s i b l e o f p r o ­ vid ing a e s the t i c p l ea s u re - - a game w h i ch p r e s s e d i t s p l a y e r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g s to t h e p o i n t whe r e m a n e u ve r s c ou l d b e a s s u r p r i s ­ as pos s i bl e . Th i s i s i ng l y c o o p e r a t i ve why t h e m o v e o f t h e b i sho p e v e n t ua l l y s e t ­ t l ed on the d i a g o n a l - - a " b e h a v i o r " wh i ch c o mp l em e n t e d o t he r p i e c e s l i k e the r o o k i n an a e s thet i c sense . H i s t o r i c a l f a c t s o f a more s p ec i f i c n a ­ t u r e o n l y b e c om e a v a i l a b l e a f t e r cha t u r ­ anga had evo l ve d t h r ough the Pers ian cha t r a n g to the I slami c sha t r a n j . The rules of sha t r anj d i ffered f r om m o d e r n che s s i n s i x i mp o r t a n t r e s p e c t s : 1 ) The move o f t h e f i r z a n ( o u r q u e e n ) one squa re wa s d i agona l ly in any d i rect i on . 2 ) T h e move o f t h e f i l ( o u r b i s h o p ) wa s t wo s q ua r e s d i agona l ly i n a n y d i r e c t i on ( w i th the abi l i ty to l e a p ove r o t h e r p i ec e s) . 3) Pawn s we r e o n l y p e rm i t t e d t o move o ne s quar e a t a t i m e on the i r init ial

The Embryo Chess

41

turn . 4 ) C a s t l i ng w a s n o t y e t i n u s e . 5 ) O ne c ou l d w i n by s t a l em a t i ng h i s opponent . 6) One c ou l d win by " b a r i ng " his opponen t ' s k i ng - - by c a p t u r i ng all his p i e c e s e x c e p t t h e k i ng . A p a r t fr om t he s e points , the I s l am i c shah ( k i ng ) , r u khkh ( r ook ) , fa r a s ( k n i gh t ) , a n d b a i d a q ( p awn ) move d l i k e ou r mod e r n p i e c e s . One m i gh t i nq u i r e why , i f che s s wa s evo l v i ng i n a d i r e c t i o n t o cha l l enge ex i s ­ t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i ng a s gr e a t l y a s p o s s i ­ b l e , i t d i d n ' t i mm e d i a t e l y be c om e t h e m o r e d i ff i c u l t mod e r n game we k n ow . Once aga i n , t he a e s t h e t i c a pp r o a c h p r ov i d e s a n a n s we r : S i n c e a g a m e beyo n d a p l a y e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i ng c a n 1 t r e l a t e t o tha t f a c u l ­ ty , i t won ' t b e a e s t he t i c a l l y p l e a s i ng . Thu s che s s evo l v e s t o a p o i n t whe r e i t ex i s t e n t i a l its p r a c t i t i on e r s ' presses u n d e r s t a n d i ng , b u t i t r e s i s t s b e c om i ng s o c omp l i c a t e d t h a t t he u n d e r s t a n d i ng i s l e f t b eh i n d . The ext a n t wr i t i ng s of the early I slami c ma s te r s a r e a l mo s t e x c l u s i ve l y d om i n a t e d by p r ob l e m s , m a n y o f wh i ch a r e qui te pretty . The f a m o u s " D i l a r am ' s M a t e " i s a t o n c e exemp l a r y a n d t y p i c a l ( r e c a l l t h a t t he sha t r a n j b i sho p m o v e s a s g i v e n i n # 2 a bove ) :

42

Pre-Hi story

Composed by as-Su1 i ( Before 946 AD} Wh i t e 1 . Rh8 + ! 2 . Bf5+ 3 . Rh8 + ! 4 . g7+ 5 . Nh6#

B1ack Kh8 Kg8 Kh8 Kg8

The e l e g a n c e o f s u ch e x a m p l e s i mp l i e s t h a t the I s l a m i c m a s t e r s p o s s e s s e d a n u n ­ d e r s t a n d i n g i n i mp r e s s i ve c omm a n d o f the art of c o mb i n a t i on . We ' 1 1 h e n c e f o r th r e f e r t o the s ou r c e o f t h i s a b i l i t y a s the ex i s t e n t i a l c omb i n a t i ve u n d e r s t a n d i ng . Desp i te the i r c o mb i n a t i v e ta lent , we h a v e l i t t l e o r n o r e a s on t o b e l i ev e tha t t h e m a s t e r s o f s h a t r a n j we r e a b l e t o c o n ­ d u c t a c o mp e t e n t g a m e f r om a n o n - c omb i ­ n a t i ve p e r s p e c t i ve - - wh e n e v e r no f o r c i ng c o n t i n u a t i o n wa s a t h a n d . A d m i t t e d l y , the l i tera ture doesn ' t offer full games on

The Embryo Chess

43

wh i ch to b a s e a ne g a t i ve j udgment , but t h i s ve r y l a c k c a n b e t a k e n a s a va l u a b l e p i e c e o f e v i d en c e; f o r i f a che s s c o mm u n ­ i t y doesn ' t s u f f i c i e n t l y apprec i a te non­ c o mb i n a t i ve p l a y t o p r e s e rv e f u l l games ( r a t he r t h a n c omb i n a t i ve e xc e r p t s ) , t h e n the g r o u n d o f i t s a e s t h e t i c a pp r e c i a t i o n - ­ i t s ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t a n d i n g - - i s n o t yet i n c o mm a n d o f t h i s a l l - i mp o r t a n t f a c e t o f the game . The f ew n o n - c o mb i n a t i ve i d e a s t h a t d o s u rv i ve f r om t h e e a r l y d a y s o f sha tr anj are a hope l e s s l y i n a dequ a t e gu i d e for s t r u gg 1 i n g t h r ough a c o mple t e g a me . Ta ' b i ' a , for instance , we r e r e c omm e n d e d f o r m a t i o n s o n e p l a y e r wou l d a i m f o r i n the o p p on e n t ' s o p en i n g - - i r r e g a r d l e s s of hi s play . A cha r a c t e r i s t i c e x a mp l e is the " mu j a n n a h " , a k i n d of f l a n k o p e n i n g who s e e a r l i e s t r e f e r en c e c a n b e f ou n d i n a s u r ­ v i v i n g f r a g m e n t f r om t h e wo r k o f a l - A d l i ( d a t i n g f r o m a b ou t 8 4 0 AD ) :

I t ' s c l e a r t h a t s u ch m i l d o p e n i n g h i n t s a r e i n c a p a b l e o f g u i d i n g a p l a y e r t h r o ugh an ent i re game . L a t e r o n , i n the w o r k o f

44

Pre-H i story

o p e n i ng a l -Lajl a j ( m i d - tenth c e nt u r y ) , r e s e a r c h a s s um e d a m o r e a d va n c e d c h a r a c t e r b y p r o c e e d i n g w i t h a move - by - m o v e a n a l y s i s o f b o t h s i d e s i n c on f l i c t . O n the who l e , howeve r , e v e n t h i s a pp r o a ch l e d t o un­ s o ph i s t i c a t e d o p e n i n g s , i n d i c a t i n g l i ttle c o mm a n d o f n o n - c o mb i n a t i ve p l a y . N o th i n g i n a l - L a j l aj r e s e m b l e s a g e n u i n e t h e o ry o f the game wh i c h c ou l d assi st a s t ud e n t who ' s n o l on g e r " i n b o o k " . Wha t c o n s t i ­ t u t e s a weakn e s s ? Wh e n a n d whe r e s h ou l d one a t t a c k ? H ow i s a p l a n t o b e f o rm e d ? I n r e p l y t o t he s e q u e s t i o n s , the I s l a m i c m a s t e r s o f f e r n o th i n g . Che s s , unde r the rules of sha t r anj , move d i n t o E u r o p e a b o u t 1 0 0 0 AD , a n d w i th­ in a c ou p l e hun d r e d y e a r s , a new p r o b l e m l i t e r a t u r e b e g a n t o d e ve l o p . The m e d i e va l European problem wa s aes thet i ca l l y dis­ t i n c t f r om i t s I s l a m i c c ou s i n i na s m u ch a s it wa s r a th e r c o n t r i ve d and u nn a t u r a l , s u gg e s t i n g l e s s k i n sh i p w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l game .

45

The Embryo Chess

From the Bonus Socius manuscripts ( Coaposed Before 1 300 ) White

Black

It's White to play and mate in exactly two moves, a bizarre condition (White has three different mates in one, but is re­ quired to mate in two) which is not atypi­ cal of the medieval problem. In the present case (rules per pages 40 and 41) , the solution is a "quiet move": 1 . Rdl . . . and mates next, the three main possibilities being 1 .... ,Re6+;2.Nf6#; 1 ,Ra5;2.Ng5#; and 1 ....,Bf4;2.Rd8#. .

•

•

.

Such an artificial problem offers lit­ tle chance to test a player's existential understanding because the condition for­ bids certain pieces to exploit their full potential. understanding, Existential like an emotion, can't be turned on and off as one would an electric light. Rules may be a technical matter, but they also provide the "playing field" on which an effective understanding will feel at home; thus a tendency to change rules from prob­ lem to problem is indicative of a poorly­ rooted existential understanding. The best fit to the data, therefore, is that medieval players possessed a clever and active--though not completely refined-­ existential combinative understanding. Seen in this light, medieval chess ap­ pears to have been less advanced than shatranj. a Nevertheless, progressive evolution can be discerned here by noting a number o�rule changes: The Islamic

46

Pre-Hi story

w i n s by b a r e k i n g a n d s t a l em a t e we r e g r a d ­ u a l l y a b a n d o n e d ; p a w n s a cq u i r e d t h e a b i l ­ i t y t o m o v e t w o s t e p s o n th e i r f i r s t t u r n ; the k i n g a n d q u e e n w e r e o c c a s i o n a l l y g i ve n the p r i v i l e g e o f a n i n i t i a l " l e a p " o f t wo squa r e s i n to p l a y ; and f i n a l l y , the mod ern move s o f t h e q u e en a n d b i sho p we r e i n t r o ­ d u c e d s ho r t l y b e f o r e 1 5 0 0 . All t he s e i nn o v a t i o n s i n c r ea s e d the numb e r of p o s s i bi 1 i t i es i n c h e s s , t r ans ­ f o rm i n g i t i n t o the compl i c a ted game o f toda y . A pp l y i n g t h e s a m e l i n e o f r e a s o n i ng we e mp l o y e d when d i s c u s s i ng c h a t u r a n g a , w e c o n e ! u d e t h a t t h e ex i s t e n ­ t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the m e d i e va l p l a y e r g r ew p r o gr e s s i ve l y s t r on g e r - - m o r e a b l e t o a pp r e c i a t e i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i cu l t i d ea s - ­ u n t i l t h e b i r th o f t h e m o d e r n g a m e . B u t why d i d n ' t t h e mo r e c a p a b l e m a s t e r s o f sha t r an j make the s e a dvanc e s ? Ev i de n t ­ ly , because tha t g a m e h a d d eve l o p e d a n wa s l i terature au then t i c t r a d i t i on - - i t s named and revered pe r s o n a l , f i ! l e d w i t h m e d i e va l che s s C on ve r s e l y , ch a r a c t e r s . l i t e r a t u r e wa s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y a n on y m o u s - ­ a state of affai rs less res i stant to cha n g e . S e r i ou s l i te r a ture t en d s to cement a game ' s r u l e s i n p l a ce - - a s i s a l s o ev i d e n t f r om the l a ck of maj or rule ch a n g e s s i n c e 1 5 0 0 . T o s umm a r i z e , t h e e vo l u t i o n o f che s s ru l e s h a s b e e n f u e l e d by the fac t tha t ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g g r o u n d s a e s t he t ­ i c a pp r e c i a t i o n , wh i ch i n t u r n regul a tes I n d e e d , t h e n a t u re o f th i s p o pu l a r i ty . e vo l u t i o n i s t h e v e r y r e a s o n why ex i s t en­ t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s b e c om e a n i s s u e i n che s s , a n d wh y o t he r g a m e s a r e r a r e l y a s i n t ox i c a t i n g a s o u r s .

The Embryo Chess

47

O t he r c o mp e t i t o r s i n the " e c o s y s t e m " o f h a ve gene r a l l y pl ayed d i ff e rent games t h a n c h e s s , wh i ch i s why t h e y ' ve roles able t o f i n d p l a c e s o f th e i r own . been The a n c i e n t g a m e m e r e l s ( o f w h i ch t i c - t a c ­ toe is the s i mp l e s t e xa m p l e ) , d r a u g ht s ( che c k e r s ) , b a c k g a mm o n , a n d c a r d g a m e s a r e a l l abl e to be pl ayed wi th a rea sonable d e g r e e o f c o mp e t en c e a t a f i r s t s i t t i n g ; t o a l a rg e e x t e n t , t he i r p o pu l a r i t y h a s f e d o f f the s o c i a l - - r a the r th a n cha l l e n g ­ i n g - - a s p e c t s o f c omp e t i t i o n . C he s s i s d e p e n d e n t on the s e r i ou s p r a c ­ t i t i o n e r - - i t s a e s t h e t i c va l u e is o n the a ve r a g e h i ghe r , a l th ough it ch a l l e n g e s one ' s ex i s t e n t i a l und e r s t a n d i n g mo r e i n ­ tense ly . C he s s i s n ' t d e s i g ne d f o r ma s s p o pu l a r i t y ; it ' s the un i qu e l y s e r i ous Europea n b oa r d game . In sho r t , a p e r s on wi 1 1 o n l y b e c om e s e r i ou s a b o u t che s s i f h e a pp r e c i a t e s i t - ­ i f he p o s s e s s e s a n a b l e ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r ­ s t and i ng . M e a n w h i l e , tho s e wh o c o m p l a i n th a t a " m e r e g a m e " i s n ' t wo r t h y o f s e r i o u s s t ud y a r e o n l y c o n f e s s i n g t h e i r own l a c k of ta lent .

4.

The Spanish Scboo 1

The Ex i stenti al C omb i nati ve U nder standing The moder n moves of the queen and bi shop wer e i ntr oduced in the latter fi fteenth centur y, and wi thi n 50 -10 0 years the medieval game was all but extinct. D ur i ng thi s per i od of tr ansi tion, substan­ ti al li ter atur e on the " new chess " appear­ ed pr i mar i ly i n Spai n--the countr y which was also reputed to possess the str ongest player s of the day. Whether or not thi s r eputati on was deser ved i s open to debate, but the wor k s of th e Spanish masters--in any event--provi de as fir m a point as any fr om which to begi n our study. The fi r st wor k wor thy of consider ation was compi led by L uis Rami r ez L ucena, and publi shed i n 149 7 . L ucena 1 s book i s com­ posed almost enti rely of pr oblems--b oth medi eval and moder n--wi th only a few open­ i ng hi nts thr own in. The compositi ons ar e, on the whole, of a high cali br e when compar ed to the mass of medieval chess li ter atur e pr oper . F or example, the famous " P hi li dor 's L egacy " can fi r st be found her e:

The Spani sh Schoo1

49

Pub1 i shed by Lucena , 1 4 9 7 Whi te 1 . Oe6+ 2 . Nf7+ 3 . Nh6+ 4 . Og 8 + ! 5 . Nf7•

B1ack Kh8 Kg8 Kh8 Rg8

F ollowi ng our di scussi on of Islam i c an d m edi eval chess, we m ay n ow con clude th at the composi tion an d appr eci ati on of such aesth eti cally pleas i n g pr oblem s i s sy mp­ tomati c of an acti ve exi sten ti al comb i na­ ti ve A lth ough Lucen a was un der stan di ng . li ttle m or e than a compi ler , h i s collec­ ti on at the ve r y least pr ov i des evi den ce f or the existen ce of th i s un d er stan d i n g i n the ear 1 i est y ear s of th e m oder n g am e . F ur ther m or e, gi ven the close pr oxi m i ty of m edi eval pr oblem s i n L ucen a, i t ' s saf e to speculate th at th e gr eater par t of th i s abi li ty was i n her i ted f r om th e older g am e .

50

Pre-H i s tory

Lucena ' s t r e a tment of the open i ngs , l ikewi se , wa s " i nh e r i t e d " f r om m e d i e v a l c he s s - - i n a s m u c h a s i t shows l i t t l e a p p r e ­ c i a t i on of n o n - c omb i n a t i ve play . He c o ve r s on l y e l e v e n d e bu t s - - cho s en r a the r a l mo s t r a n d o m m a n n e r . h a ph a z a r d l y - - i n a n I n the G i uo c o P i a no , f o r i n s t ance , a f t e r he l . e4 , e 5; 2 . N f 3 , Nc 6; 3 . Bc4 , Bc 5 ; 4 . d 3 , N f 6 , c o n s i d e r s the purpo s e l e ss wa s t e of t i me 5 . h 3 ? , d 6 , f o l l o w e d b y the e v e n m o r e a b s u r d 6 . Bb 5 ? . J u s t a s i n t h e o l d e r va r i a n t s o f ch e s s , n o e v i d e n c e e x i s t s he r e o f a n a b i l ­ i ty to c o mp e t e n t l y c on d u c t a game n o n - c omb i n a t i v e l y . H i s t o r i c a l l y , the f i r s t f i g u r e o f the m o d e r n g a me who a c h i e v e d a c e r t a i n d e g r ee of p r om i n e n c e wa s Ruy Lopez de S egura ( c . 1 5 3 0-c . 1 58 0 ) . In 1 5 6 1 , he publ i shed a cons i d e rabl y more advanced t r ea t i s e on the o p e n i n g s f r om the s t a n d p o i n t o f t h o r ough­ n e s s; the gua l i ty of the ana lys i s , h o w e ve r , s u g g e s t s tha t R u y L o p e z ' s e x i s ­ tent i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g wa s s t i l l c on f i n e d t o p u r e l y c o mb i n a t i v e t h o u g h t . A dm i t t e d l y , a k i n d o f " i d e a l " p l a n i s ev i d e n t i n R u y L o p e z : O n e s h o u l d s t r i ve t o o b t a i n t wo u n o pp o s e d p a w n s a b r e a s t i n t h e c e n t e r ( o n d 4 a n d e 4 ) ; thu s o n e o f h i s f avo r i t e s wa s the s l ow , a n d r a t h e r f a n c i ­ f u l , 1 . e4 , e 5; 2 . c 3 . A s i s c o mm o n l y k n own , s uch a d i r e c t a t t e mp t t o e mp l o y th i s p l a n i s hope l e s s l y unrea l i s t i c ( a mod e r n ma s te r w o u l d n e ve r p l a y s o p a s s i ve l y t o a l l o w i t s r ea l i z a t i on ) . And s i nce Ruy Lopez o f f e r s n o a l t e r na t i ve pl ans , we ' r e f o rced to c o n ­ c l ude tha t h e wa s , m o r e o f t en th a n n o t , l o s t i n the m i d s t o f p l a y . Th i s i s , a s u s ua l , c o r r obo r a ted b y the f a c t th a t he d i d n ' t s e e f i t t o p r e s e rve a n y n u mb e r o f

The Span i sh Schoo1

51

c om p l e t e g a m e s ( wh i ch h e d i d n ' t a e s t h e t i c ­ a l l y a pp r e c i a t e ) . A p a r t f r om t h o s e c a s e s whe r e o n e s i d e plays ent i rely f eebl e che s s , Ruy Lopez g i ve s l i t t l e he l p t o t h e p l a y e r s t r ug g l i n g th r o ugh a n o n - c o mb i n a t i ve j u ng l e . We the r e f o r e c on c l ud e th a t the S p a n i s h S ch o o l is c o m p r e h e n s i ve l y cha r a c t e r i z e d by the ex i s t e n t i a l c omb i n a t i ve u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d t h a t i t wa s e s s e n t i a l l y n o m o r e a d v a n c e d than the I s l am i c S choo l o f 7 00 y e a r s earl ier .

5 . The I t a 1 i an Schoo1 To war d a C o n ti n ui ty of S ty le

In 15 7 4 , the two Itali an master s G i o van n i L eo n ar do d i B o na da C utr i ( 15 4215 8 7 ) an d G i uli o C esar e P oleri o (15 4816 12 ) tr aveled to M adr i d , where they each defeated R u y L o pez i n match play . Thi s co nven i ent date may ther efo r e be used as the bi r th o f the I tali an S chool- - a sty le of play that was to dom i n ate Eur opean chess fo r n ear ly 20 0 y ear s. The ear li est member s o f thi s schoo l pub ! i shed n o thi n g , cho osi n g r ather to sell pr i vate man uscr i pts to i n di vi dual pa­ tr ons- - gi vi n g thei r cli en ts mo r e- o r - less exclusi ve access to the best open i n g anal­ ysi s o f the day . The bulk o f thi s wor k that has sur vi ved emanates fr om P o ler i o , an d can be dated appr o x i mately 15 9 0 . A n o table featur e o f P o leri o ' s wo rk i s the r elati ve ease wi th whi ch i t leads to co mbi n ati vely r i ch play . The mo st pr om­ i n en t example , per haps , i s the Itali an ( 1.e4 , e5 ; 2.Nf3 , Nc6 ; 3 .B c4) , a G ame debut whi ch str i k es i mmedi ately a t the weak est 1 i nk i n Black ' s 11 fr onti er 11 (f7 ) , r ead i ly b r i n gi n g abo ut an y n umb er o f di rectly com­ bi n ati ve 1 i n es , such as the F ega tello A ttack (3 .... , Nf6 ; 4.Ng5 , d5 ; 5 .ed , Nd5 ? ; M ean whi le , the 6 .Nf7 ! ? , K f7 ; 7 .Q f3 + etc.) . subtleti es that mak e the S pan i sh G ame such a feared ( 1.e4 , e5 ; 2.Nf3 , Nc6 ; 3 .B b5 ) weapon i n the han ds o f a mo der n master co uld have n ever been appr ec i ated by R uy L o pez ; h i s ado pti o n o f th i s o pen i n g was 1 i ttle mo r e than i n c i den tal- - a s suggested b y the lack o f di r ecti on i n hi s an aly s i s.

The

I ta 1 i an Schoo1

53

A n even more pronounced example of the Itali an st yle i s t he K i ng ' s G amb i t (1 . e4 , e5;2.f4) , whi ch--although it h ad b een noted by Ruy L opez--was fi rst an alyzed i n ­ by the Itali ans . Th us i t ' s i n depth P oleri o t h at we fi rst fi nd th e not ori ous " Muzi o " G ambi t (2 . . . . ,ef; 3 . Nf3 , g5; 4 . Bc4, g4; 5 . 0 -0 ! ? ) , as well as t he Salvi o G ambi t (2 . . . . ,ef; 3 . Nf3 , g5; 4 . Bc4 , g4; 5 . Ne5? ! ) . O nce agai n , t hese li nes bear a di st i nct t en­ dency to bri ng comb i nat i ons to li fe- ­ esp eci ally i n t he nei ghborhood of th e sen­ si ti ve f7 . Th e upsh ot of all th i s i s t h at t h e Itali ans had developed a more recogni zable st yle--t hei r ga mes exh i bi ted great er con­ t i nui ty and di rect i on th an had ever b een seen . Rather than bli ndly wan deri ng in the vai n hop e that a comb i nati on wi ll come along, P oleri o ' s analysi s di sp lays a gen­ ui ne abi li ty to bri ng about tact i ca l com­ pli cati ons . O r--echoi ng our di scuss i on of evolut i on earli er--t he lead i ng mast ers b e­ came stronger because th ey h ad developed t he abi li ty to sense combi nat i ons b efore th ey w ere act ually on th e b oard . U nconsci ously , th e It ali an mas t ers h ad begun t o appreci ate th ei r i nab i li t y to understand chess non-comb i na t i vely , so t hey nat urally gravi tat ed t oward tacti c ­ ally sharp games . A l th ough th i s led to play wh i ch i s cert ai nly unsoph i st i c a t ed b y modern st andards , i t at least i n di c a t es t hat t h e leadi ng exi st ent i al un ders tan di n g o f t he day was t ry i ng to mak e i ts elf feel at home-- i f only b ecause i t felt lo s t---ril non-combi nat i ve si t uat i ons . Th i s parti c ­ ular attri b ute of ex i sten t i al un d er s ta n d ­ i ng-- a " comi ng t o term s " wi th on es elf- -

54

Pre-H i s tory

and i s des­ w i l l be t e rmed r e c ogn i t i on , t i ne d t o p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n ou r d i s ­ cuss i on o f L a s ke r . T h e n e w s t y l e o f p l a y wa s p e rh a p s b e s t exemp l i f i e d by the games of G i o a c ch i no Greco ( 1 600-c . 1 634 ) , who p l a y e d h i s wa y t h r ough F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d i n the first qua r t e r of the seventeenth c e n t u r y . By a n d l a r g e , G r e c o ' s g a m e s we r e u n d ou b t e d l y c omp o s e d ; hi s ma n u s c r i p t s n e v e r the l e s s , we r e f i l l e d w i t h i d e a s t h a t w ou l d i n t r o ­ d u c e the s ou l o f t h e I t a l i a n Schoo l to n o r the r n E u r o p e . c . 1 620 ? Greco e5 1 . e4 ef 2 . f4 3 . Bc4 Oh4+ Bc5 ? 4 . Kfl Obv i o u s l y i n f e r i o r , a s Wh i t e c a n now g a i n a t e m p o w i th t h e useful move d4 . N e v e r t he l e s s , the move wa s n ' t e n t i r e l y i mp l a u s i b l e t o the s ev e n t e e n th century m i n d s i n c e i t e n t a i l s a t h r e a t o f ma t e . 5 . d4 Bb6 6 . Nf3 Qe7 Two o t he r Greco games proceeded as f o l l ow s : 1) 6 . . . . , Qg4 ?; 7 . B f 7 + , K f 7 ( or 7 . . . . , K f 8; 8 . h 3 , Qg 3; 9 . Nc 3 , K f 7; 1 0 . Ne 2 , Qg6; 1 1 . Ne 5 + and w i n s ) ; 8 . Ne 5 + e t c . 2) 6 . . . . , Qh 6 ; 7 . g 3 , Q h 3 +; 8 . K f 2 , f g + ? ; 9 . hg , Q g 4; 1 0 . B f 7 + , K f 8 ( o r 1 0 . . . . , K f 7; 1 1 . N e 5 + ) ; 1 1 . Rh4 , a n d B l a c k ' s u n f o r t un a t e l a d y f i n d s he r s e l f i n e n e m y h a n d s o n c e a g a i n . 7 . Bf4 . . .

The I ta 1 i an Scboo1

55

7. . . . Qe4 Kf8 8 . Bf7+ 9 . Bg3 Nb6 1 0 . Nc3 Qe7 1 1 . Bb3 c6 1 2 . Qd3 d5 1 3 . Re l Qf6 The c omp a n i o n game to thi s one s aw 13 , Q f 7 ; 1 4 . Bd 6 + , Kg8 ; 1 5 . Re 7 , Q f 6 ; 1 6 . Nd S , Qd6 ( or 16 , cd ; l 7 . Bd 5 + , K f 8 ; 1 8 . Rf 7 + , Ke 8 ; f o l l ow e d by Qe7# ) ; 1 9 . R f 6 , gf ; 2 0 . Q e 3 + , 1 7 . Nf 6 + , K f 8 ; 1 8 . Re 8 # . Qg6 1 4 . Bb4 Kg8 1 5 . Be7 + bg 1 6 . Qg6 cd 1 7 . Nd5 ! Kb7 1 8 . Bd5 + J u s t a s d e c i s i ve i s 1 8 . . . . , N f 7 ; 1 9 . Ng 5 , Rh 5 ; 2 0 . B f 7 + , K h 8 ; 2 1 . B g 6 , Rh4 ; 2 2 . N f 7 + . 1 9 . Ng5:1= •

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The I t a l i a n S ch o o l p r ov i d e d no g r o u n d s on wh i ch t o c o n du c t a n y g i v e n game n o n ­ c omb i n a t i v e l y , b u t at l e a s t i t mad e c e r -

56

Pre-Hi story

t ai n advan ces i n t hi s di r ect i on by un con ­ s ci ous ly r ecogn i zi n g--an d hon or i n g-- i t s own li mi t at i on s . T he t i me had ar r i ved for t he fi r s t es s en t i al advan ce in chess t hought s i n ce t he ear li es t days of Islami c ches s .

6 . Phi 1 i dor P awn Play an d O r der

As ches s hi s tor y en ter s the ei ghteen th centur y , mor e i n f or mati on b ecomes avai ! ­ able r egar di n g the r elat i ve s tr en g th o f the leadi ng mas ter s ; an d b y m i d- cen tur y , a s i n g le n ame s tan ds out f r o m the r es t : F r an 9 oi s Andr e D an i can , al i as P hi 1 i dor ( 1 726 - 1 7 9 5 ) . N ow, i f our i n ves ti g ati on i s to pr ob e the depths o f ex i s tenti al un der ­ s tan di n g , w e mus t f i n d an ex plan at i on - - at leas t a par ti al on e- - f or the s uper i or i ty o f each of th e domi n an t play er s thr oug h hi s tor y . It's w i th thi s ob jecti ve i n m i n d that w e appr oach the pr oblem o f P hi li dor ' s g en i us . The mas ter s of the I tal i an S chool m us t h a ve per cei ved ch es s to b e i n cr edi bly chaoti c . Tr ue, w hen a co mb i n at i o n was " ex i s ten ti ally clos e " a cer tai n deg r ee o f con tr ol could b e ex er ted over th e pos i ­ ti on . B ut w hat ab out the f a r mor e common c as e w hen a g en er al, n on - f or ci n g plan i s c alled f or ? S i n ce the un der s tan d i n g o f the day was con f i n ed to the wor ld of com­ b i n ati on s , f ew i deas ex i s ted w hi ch could g ui de a play er thr ough any g i ven game . It wa s i n to thi s s t ate of an ar ch y that P hi 1 i dor s ought to br ing or der . His g r eates t ob s tacle to th i s amb i ti ou s un der ­ ta k i n g was that he ha d n o di r ect s en s e o f h ow pi eces ar e capable of cooper ati n g tog ether n on - comb i n ati vely . Thus hi s m i n d was dr i ven to pon der the on e r elati vely s table elemen t w hi ch could b e co un ted on to con s i s ten tly g ui de hi m thr ough the tur ­ mo i 1 of a comp le te g am e : the p awn s tr u c-

58

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tur e . By f o cus i ng on th i s elem ent, Ph i 1 i do r co uld allo w hi s pr ev i ous ly di s ­ co r dan t pi eces to " f all- i n " wi th th e plan s ugges ted by th e pawns - - s ugges ti o ns as to wher e to mas s h i s f o r ces f o r an attack , wher e to bewar e o f h i s o ppo nent's ag gr es ­ s i o n, and wh er e combi nati o ns ar e m o s t li k ely to o ccur . C o ns i der ho w a f ew ad­ va nced pawns def i ne Ph i li do r ' s attack i n th e f o llo wi ng gam e . London ,

1 789

Phi 1 i dor (R emo ve Wh i te's queen B lack 's k i ng bi sh o p p awn . ) 1 . e4 2 . e5 3 . g4 4 . h4 5 . h5 6 . c3 7 . f4 8 . d4 9 . cd 1 0 . Kf2 1 1 . Nf3 1 2 . a3 1 3 . b4 1 4 . Be3

Bruh1 k ni ght d5 Bf5 Bg6

t:5

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Nc6 cd Bb4+ Nge7 a6 Ba5 Bb6 0-0?

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Phi l i dor

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B lack ' s play h as been les s th an ex em­ plar y th us f a r , b ut n o w Wh i te h as g en ui n e chan ces f o r a di r ect attac k o n the k i n g- ­ i n th e ver y n ei ghbo r h o o d wh er e h i s paw n s a r e mo s t aggr es s i vely placed . And s o the pawn s tr uct ur e h as g u i ded P h i li do r to a n on - comb i n ati ve w i n n i n g plan . 1 5 . Bd3 Kh8 1 6 . Kg3 Od7 1 7 . Ra 2 Bg8 1 8 . Bb l Nd8 19 - � Nf7 Black h as m eth o di cally wo r k ed h i s k i n g into a co r n er . M ean wh i le , Wh i te has c o m pleted th e mas s i n g o f h i s pi eces in that s ecto r , s o h i s attack i s r eady t o b eg i n i n ear n es t . 2 0 . Ng6 + ! Ng6 A ls o po s s i ble was 2 0 . . . . , hg ; 2 1 . hg + , Nh 6 ; an d Wh i te 2 2 . g5 , N f 5 + ; 2 3 . B f 5 , R f 5 ; 2 4 . gh , r et ai n s a s tr o n g attack . 2 1 . hg Nh6 21 , N d8 ; 2 2 . Rh 7 + ! , Bh 7 ; 2 3 . Q h l o n ly c ap i tulates m o r e eas i ly . .

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hg 2 2 . Rah2 �, Bh7 2 3 . Bg6 24 . Obl Rae8 What else? 24. . . . ,Bg6;25.Qg6 leaves the B lack m onarch in a hopeless dilemma, while 24.... , Bg8;25. g5 allows White to regain hi s material and proceed with his attack sim ultaneously. Re7 2 5 . Bh7 Kg8 26 . Bg6 Nf 5+ 2 7 . g5 B1ack Res i gns . forbidding White the cute finale 28.Qf5 ! .

A lthough it seem s plausible, at first sight, that P hilidor's theory of pawn play was respons i ble for his com petitive suc­ cess, we m ust inquire why others didn't reach his level of m astery once the tech­ nical ideas had been m ade public. The answer is that techni cal ideas are understanding. in existential grounded R ecalling our discussion in C hapter 1, we note that P hilidor's theorizing was a by noticing g eneralization; process of similarities in several particul ar gam es, he was able to draw conclusions about chess in g eneral. Typically, therefore, the process of theoriz ing is the inverse of play ing--em ploying theory; anyone who wanted to play as well as P hilidor had to be as adept at applying his theory in specific gam es . S een in this li ght, it com es as no surpri se that the m an who had pr oven his ability to travel a road in one di r ection (theor iz ing from the particular to t he gener al ) should be m os t able to t r a v e l th e o t h er way (apply ing the general

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to the parti cular i n actual play ) . An i n teresti n g footn ote m i ght be appen ded at thi s poi n t as to why Islam i c an d medi eval chess were un able to mak e fundamental advan ces i n to the realm of n on - combi n ati ve play . The plai n fact i s that the modern game i s faster- - i ts agi le pi eces are able to con form more qui c k ly to a gi ven plan , mak i ng i ts reali z ati on easi er to vi suali z e . Th i s leads to the " paradox " that , even though modern chess i s more compli cated tacti cally , i t len ds i tself more readi ly to the developmen t of " hi gher" , of i deas; n on - combi n ati ve course , the art of combi n at i on has to be reason ably m astered before th i s latter advan ce i s possi ble . A si mi lar li n e of thought mi ght be employ ed to hi ghli ght the di sti n cti on between the older gam es an d the sty le of the Itali an S chool .

I I . THE ROMANTICS ( 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 59 ) TH E D EV EL O PMENT O F NATURAL TAL ENT 7 . Bourdonna i s The Exi s tenti al A ttack i ng U ni t

When P hi li dor s tr uggled wi th the pos s i ­ bi li ti es of a gi ven pos i ti on , he was for ced to r efer to the pawn s tr uctur e i n or der to for mulate a plan. A mor e evolved under s tan di ng was at wor k i n the games of the legendar y L oui s de la Bour donnai s (1 7 9 5 -1840 ) , whos e thi nk i ng was able to di r ectly s ens e the non- combi nati ve cooper ­ ati on among a gr oup of attack i ng p i eces -­ a phenomenon that we s hall enti tle the exi s tenti al attack i ng uni t. London ,

1 8 34

Macdonne1 1 Bourdonna i s 1 . e4 c5 2 . f4 Nc6 3 . Nf3 e6 d5 4 . c3 5 . e5 � -( '/ Nh6 6 . Na 3 Qb6 7 . Nc 2 Bd7 8 . d4 9 . Ne3 ? ! 9 .Bd3 s eems mor e ver s ati le. cd 9. . . Bb4 + 1 0 . cd 0 -0 1 1 . Kf2 . 1 2 . Kg3 ? ! A r i s ky i dea , tr i ed s eve r a l ti mes .

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M acdonnell in this m atch--and presumably one of the reasons for the knight ' s presence on e3 (where it discourages , Nf5 + ) . Still, White ' s key pawn on d4 rem ains only marginally protected, he is underdeveloped, and his king is exposed. Race 12. . fe 1 3 . h4 1 4 . fe Rf3+ ! A combination, true--thoug h one whose end is �l gain, but the exis­ 1: ence of an existenti al attacking unit with which to harass the White king. ___ 1 5 . gf ___ . M orphy notes that 15 .Q f3 ? ,Q d4 is even worse. 15 . . . . Nd4 1 6 . Bd3 Rf8 1 7 . f4 Bc5 1 8 . Rf l Bb5 ! Black is struggling for control of the crucial squares e2 and f5 . Now, after the exit of the light-squared bishops, the entire Black arm y wi 1 1 join in effective cooperation. 1 9 . Bb5 Ob5 Ne2 2 0 . Kh3 2 1 . Ng2 M orphy suggested that White first play 2 1.a4, Q a6--and only then 22.Ng2--in order to nudge Black ' s queen away from the primary scene of battle. Nf5 21 . . . . Neg3 2 2 . Kh2 Ne4 2 3 . Rf3 Qe8 24 . Of l Bd4 2 5 . b4 Oh5 2 6 . Rb l •

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Rc 8 2 7 . Rbb3 Now Black ' s r ook deci s i vely enter s the attack vi a the cr i ti cal c2 s quar e- - ther eby cr eati ng an annoy ance fr om the flank as well as th e fr ont.

Whi te has an extr a exchange , but his k ing i s i n j eopar dy becaus e th e B lack pi eces cooper ate together to for m an effecti ve ex i s tenti al attack i ng uni t. Rc2 2 8 . Be3 Ne3 29 . Kg l 3 0 . Rfe3 Equally bad would be 3 0 .Ne3 , Q g4+ ! (B our donnai s ) . Nd2 30 3 1 . Od3 3 1 .Q f2 can be handled wi th the s i mp le by ... , Nb3 31 , R cl + followed and ... , B e 3 . Re l + 31 3 2 . Kh2 3 2 .K f2 , Ne4+ amounts to e s s enti ally the s ame thi n g. Nf l + 32 . Ne 3 3 3 . Kh3 .

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Bourdonna i s 34 . Ne 3 3 5 . Res i gns

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When o n e co n s i der s th e aes th et i cs o f the attack i n th e abo ve g am e vs . tho s e made m an i f es t in Ph i li do r ' s m eth o d i cal play , what appear s m o s t s tr i k i n g i s the li f e of B o ur do n n ai s ' f o r ces . F o r - - as o ppo s ed to m er ely f ulf i lli n g a pr o g r am wh i ch h as b een def i n ed b y th e pawn s tr uc­ B o ur do n n ai s ' tur e , pi eces co o per ate to g ether o n th ei r o wn , £._er p�'l;:_ll_?_!)-Y . c...h9 n g­ Jng r o les as r equi r ed ( th e queen ' s man euver b 5 -e8- h 5 , th e rook ' s f lan k i n g di ver s i o n to c2 , an d b o th k n i gh t s ' us e o f all the k e y s quar es d4 , e3 , e4 , f 2 , f 5 , g3 , an d h 4-- e i ther actually o r i n pr om­ i n en t var i ati o n s ) . Th i s aes th eti c of li veli n es s is t h e n atur al r es ult o f a m o vemen t f r om th e pr edo m i n an tly techn i cal plan s of P h i li do r to th e ex i s ten ti al un der s tan di n g o f B o ur do n n ai s .

8 . Staunton Exi stenti al V ulnerabi li ty

D esp i te h i s bri lli ance i n the art of conducti ng attack s agai nst obvi ously weak ­ ened posi ti ons, Bourdonnai s occas i onally fai led i n h i s efforts to topple a rela­ ti vely sound enemy fortress, and often left hi s own p osi ti on compromised i n the process. Th ese two char acteri stics sug­ gest that he had an i nadeq uate grasp of existenti al vulnerabi li ty--th e phenomenon due to a lack of cooperati on among a gi ven group of defensive p i eces. We may ther e­ fore expect th e next stage i n the evolu­ tion of exi stenti al understanding to pro­ duce a play er wh ose games are less swash­ buck l i ng-- one wh o doesn ' t expose his posi ti on as readi ly as Bour donnai s, and is si multaneously m ore adep t at discerning h i s opponent ' s vulnerable poi nts . A nd i ndeed, such an advance i s to b e percei ved in the games of the Engli sh " world champ­ i on " H oward Staunton (1810-187 4) . Par i s , S a i nt-Amant 1 . d4 2 . c4 3 . e3 4 . Nc3 5 . Nf3 6 . Bd3 7 . 0-0 8 . b3 9 . cd 1 0 . Oc 2

1 84 3 Staunton d5 e6 cs Nf6 Be7 b6 0 -0 Bb7 ed Nc6

Staunton

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1 1 . a3 a6 1 2 . Rd l cd h6 1 3 . ed Th ank s to th e passivity of th e B lack b ish op on b 7 , White h as em erged fr om the opening with a slight pull. Bd6 1 4 . b4 b5 1 5 . Re l Rc8 1 6 . h3 Qc7 1 7 . Qb3 1 8 . Bd 2 Qb6 1 9 . Be3 Ne7 2 0 . Rae l Nh5 ? Nf6 2 1 . Qd l 2 2 . Nh4 Rc7 Nh7 2 3 . Qd2 Nf6 24 . Qc2 2 5 . Kh l Ne8 B lack has slipped into a r ath er uncom ­ for table position due to h is m istak en k night m aneuver on m ove 20 . S till, his r efusal to cr eate obvious weak nesses h as k ept h im in th e gam e, and now Wh ite in tur n m ak es a cr ucial err or--allowing h is attack to fiz z le out b efor e it gets s tar ted. 2 6 . Nf 5 ? Nf5 2 7 . Bf5 a5 ! 2 8 . Qb3 ab 2 9 . ab Rc4 ! ? B lack h as sk illfully cr eated a weak ness a t b 4, and now pr oceeds to em ploy pr essur e o n th is seem ingly insi gnifi cant pawn in o r der to confuse Wh ite ' s pieces- - al l th e while coor dinating th r eats on th e opposite f lank . In sh or t, th e White positi on as a wh ole i s m or e vulner able th an th e sum of i ts flaws would indicate. 3 0 . Na 2 Nf6

The Romant ics

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3 1 . Bd3 Qc6 ! ? co ur s e, 3 2 . B c4 ? , de lo s es i mm edi ate­ ly . N ever th eles s , des p i te th i s i n i t i al tacti c, B lack f ully i n ten ds to s acr i f i ce th e ex chan ge o n c4 ; af ter th e eventual B c4 ,dc, th e ab s en ce o f Wh i te ' s li ght­ s quar ed b i s h o p- - co up led wi th the o pen i n g o f th e lon g di agon al- - wi ll p r ove i n di s ­ pen s ab le to th e i n cr eas i n g p r es s ur e o n the k i n gs i de . I 3 2 . Ob2 \ Od7 Nh5 3 3 . •«Qi f5 34 . Od2 Ng3 35 . f4 de 3 6 . Bc4 F o r th e ex chan ge, B lack en jo y s co n tr o l o f th e k e y s quar es d 5 an d e4 , wh i le Wh ite h as b een s addled wi th weak p awn s on b 4, d4, an d f 4 . F ur th e r , th e Wh i te bi s h o p i s tr apped b y h i s o wn p awn s , an d i s co n s e­ quen tly n o th i n g mo r e th an a " b i g p awn " h i m s elf . F i n ally , th e p o s i ti o n i s n o t o n e i n wh i ch a r o o k i s li k ely to b e gr eatly s up er i o r to a m i no r p i ece . Admi ttedly , i f th e s quar es b 4 , e4 , g2 , an d g3 co uld b e mo re co n ven i en tly co n tes ted b y Wh i te, he wo uld r etai n f ai r ch an ces f o r th e upcom i n g s tr uggle; as th i n gs ar e, h o w ever , hi s p i eces s i m ply do n ' t co o p er ate to geth er i n that m an n er . 3 7 . Ob2 Rf6 3 8 . Nc 3 Ne4 Rg6 3 9 . Re2

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T he defens i ve co o per ati o n of Wh i te ' s pi eces i s aesth eti cal l y cl um sy , hence they fo rm what m i ght be cal l ed an " exi stenti al ­ l y vul ner abl e uni t " . 40 . Rd l ? B l ack alr eady had a pr om i s i ng gam e , but th i s m ak es th e w i n r ath er s i mpl e. 40 . . . . Nc 3 ; 4 1 . Qc3 Bf3 j . . . 4 2 . Rde l No better was 4 2 .R ee l , B dl ; 4 3 .R d l , Q e7 ; 4 4 .R b l , R g2 + ! ; 4 5 .K g2 , Q e4 + ( S taunto n ) . 42 . . . . Be2 43 . Re 2 Qe7 Re6 44 . Qb2 45 . K f 2 Re4 Kf7 46 . Qa 2 Qb7 4 7 . g3 Re8 48 . Qa3 Oh l 49 . Qc3 g5 50 . h4 Qh2+ 5 1 . Qe l Qh3 + 5 2 . Kf l Qg4 5 3 . Kg l

The Romant ics

70 54 . hg

Black Won

Bf4 !

A by no m eans flawles s gam e , but o ne wh i ch well- i llus tr ates S taunto n ' s abi li ty to explo i t the s ubtler flaws of hi s A ppr o pr i ately , th e o ppo nent ' s po s iti o n. ch ar acter i s ti c o f h i s bes t gam es i s no t the li veli nes s o f B o ur do nnai s , but th e co ns tr i cti o n and co ntr ar y aes th eti c: s tr angulati o �. O nce agai n , th e i mpo r tance of aes thet­ i cs s h o uld be s tr es s ed. B ecaus e B o ur do nnai s ' gr eat attack s wer e i nvar i ably s ever ely di r ected to wa r ds com pr om i s ed defens i ve po s i ti o ns , we ' r e no t all that s ur pr i s ed to s ee th es e defi c i enci es com i ng to th e fo r e; h i s attack s , r ather , i m pr es s fo r th e acr o bati c feats o f th e agg r es s ive pieces . B ut a full appr eci ati o n of attack r equi r es a gr as p o f defens i ve i deas . Th us i t was left fo r S taunto n to pr o v i de a r efi nem ent to the F r enchman ' s co ncepti o n o f attack - - na m ely , th e complementar y i dea o f d efence. - · --- ··- · · · -

9 . Anderssen A ntagonism

Although Staunton was able to apprehend existential vulnerability alongside of the existential attack ing unit, there's still an element of struggle absent from his style; in the majority of his games, either the attack succeeds or the defence holds out--the confrontation to b e decided by the " playing out " of these roles. In the games of the attack ing artist Adolf A nderssen ( 1818- 187 9 ) , on the other hand, it's not always immediately clear who's attack ing and who's defending; one of his greatest assets was the ability to sense that exists the existential antagonism between opposing armies--the antagonistic that underlies " cooperation " every encounter between White and Black forces . It's clear that White pieces cooperate together with White, and Black with Black . But the ground of attack as such is only revealed when two armies antagonistically clash in a struggle to seize the role of attack er. This can best be clarified by an example . London , Staunton 1 . e4 2 . Nf3 3 . Bc4 4 . d3 S . c3 6 . BgS 7 . Nbd 2

1 8S l Anders sen es Nc6 Bes d6 Nf6 0-0 a6

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Ba7 8 . a4 Ne7 ? 9 . b4 gf 1 0 . Bf6 c6 1 1 . Nb4 d5 1 2 . Of 3 Od6 1 3 . Bb3 Kg7 1 4 . 0-0 Be6 1 5 . Rad l Ng6 1 6 . Bc2 Bf5 1 7 . Nf 5 + Ne7 1 8 . ef Kh8 1 9 . Oh5 Rae8 2 0 . Kh l Ng8 2 1 . f4 2 2 . fe? B lack i s cr am ped o n the k i ngs i de, and Wh i t e wo uld have a pr om i s i ng gam e aft er 2 2 . R f3 : 1 ) 22 , e4 ? ; 2 3 . Rh 3 ,h 6 ; 2 4 . Q g4 (th r eat ­ eni ng R g3 ) , B f2; 2 5 . de,de; 2 6 . N e4 and Wh i t e wi ns (S t aun t o n) . 2) 2 2 . . . . , ef; 2 3 . R dfl , B e3 ; 2 4 . Rh 3 ,h 6 ; 2 5 . Nf3 (S t aunt o n) . A ft er t h e m o ve act ually play e d, Wh i t e i s s ur pr i s i n gly fo r ced t o co mpr om i s e h i s at t ack k i ngs i de, and a s t r uggle fo r t h e fo llo ws sh o r t ly . 22 fe 2 3 . g4 f6 24 . Rf3 Re7 2 5 . h4 Bb8 2 6 . Rh3 Rd8 2 7 . g5 Rdd7 2 8 . Rg l Rg7 2 9 . Oe2 Rde7 30 . g6 Ba7 3 1 . Rg2 Od7 3 2 . Oh5 Re8 3 3 . Rf3 Ne7 •

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34 . Nf l Nc8 3 5 . Nh2 e4 ! Black h as s ei z ed th e attack , an d ca n n o w as s ault th e Wh i te po s i ti o n di r ectly . 3 6 . de de 37 . Rf l e3 3 8 . Bb3 ? Th i s i n vi tes an i mm edi ate cr i s i s . S taun to n later s ugges ted th e ca uti o us 3 8 . Q e2 . 38 . Od3 •

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Black ' s pi eces ar e in th e m i ds t o f tr an s f o rm i n g f r om def en der s to attack er s , h en ce exh i b i t a dual n atur e- - o n e who s e un i ty can be appr eci a ted aes th eti cally th r o ugh th e con cep t o f an tago n i s m . 39 . gh? Wh i te ' s po s i ti o n wa s getti n g un co m f o r t­ able , b ut th i s r eleas e o f t en s i o n allo ws th e B lack r o o k on g7 to i n s tantly ch an ge i ts r o le f r om a s om ewha t cl urn s y def en der to a co o per at i ve attack er . 39 Oe4 ! 40 . Nf3 e2 4 1 . Re l Rg2 -

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Re7 42 . Kg2 43 . Be6 4 3 .Bf 7 ? ,Rf7 ; 44 .Q f7 , Q g4+ wins imm ediately fo r B lack (S taun to n ) . Nd6 43 Rg7 44 . Kh3 4 5 . Ng5 H o w else to m eet the devastatin g thr eat o f ...,Qf4? fg 45 . . . . 46 . Qe2 Qh4+ Ne4 ! 47 . Kg2 If 48.Q e4, th en 48 . . . . , Q f 2 + fo llo w ed by ...,Rh7 leads to m ate. Ther efo r e . . . 48 . Res i gns •

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As can be seen in the abo ve game, Ander ssen was less r estr icted to m etho d than was S taun to n , an d ther efo r e disco ver ­ ed mo r e cr eative an d dynamic po ssi b i 1 i ties when the situatio n called fo r a sudden chan ge o f dir ecti o n . This fact--as well as the excitin g aesthetics o f his play--is m o st r eadily explain ed by o ur hypo thesis that A n der ssen was the fir st master to appr ehen d th e essen tial an tago n ism that exists between attack in g an d defen din g fo r ces. Ther e 1 s o ften a gr eat discr epan cy between a play er 1 s co mbatan t per sonality an d his lack o f fi ghtin g spir it o ver the bo ar d (e.g. S taun to n ) ; cer tain tam e per son alities, m ean while, pr o ve to be in cr ed ibly tenacio us in battle (e.g. An d er ssen ) . This state o f affair s wo uld be in expli cable i f we co uldn 1 t po in t to the po ssibility that the play er s in questi o n have di ffer en t con ceptio ns of antago n i sm o n th e existen tial level. As

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lo n g a s s uch pr o blem s ar e addr es s ed o n a t echn i cal level , h o wever , they m us t r emai n en ti r ely m y s t er i o us b ecaus e tech n i cal r equi r e o b jecti vi t y - - th e i n ves ti gat i o n s ps y ch o lo gi cal den i al o f tak i n g s i des .

1 0 . Morphy T he G l ob a l E x i s ten ti a l Un der s ta n d i n g

T he tr a d i ti o n a l ex pla n a ti o n fo r the i n vi n ci b i li ty of P a u l Mo r phy ( 1 8 3 7 - 1 8 8 4 ) i s tha t he wa s a n i n s ti n cti ve po s i ti o n a l pla y er . T h i s theo r y s tem s fr o m two pr i n ­ ci pa l a s pects o f hi s pla y : ( l ) he r a r ely i n du l ged i n u n ju s ti f i ed a tta ck s , a n d (2) he wa s o ften co n ten t to s i mply develo p a pi ece- - o r o th er wi s e s tr en gthen hi s po s i ­ ti o n - - when ever t her e wa s no ju s ti fi ed a tta ck to en ga ge i n . T hes e fa cets o f Mo r phy ' s pl a y ca n b e expla i n ed by fi tti n g m o r e m ea n i ng fu lly them i n to the evo l u ti o n a r y l i n e we ' ve b een di s cu s s i n g (r a ther th a n m er ely a llu d i n g to the va gu e ter m " i n s ti n ct " ) ; fo r b o th a r e s ym ptom a ti c o f a n u n der s ta n d i n g th a t ca n s en s e coo per a ti o n tha t ' s b o th n o n -comb i n a ­ ti ve a n d n o n - a tta ck i n g i n n a tu r e. A r m ed w i th s u ch a g l o b a l ex i s ten ti a l u n der s ta n d­ i ng , Mo r phy wa s pa r ti cu la r ly s en s i ti ve to t h e pr o b l em s i n vo lved wh en ever a n u n ju s t­ i f i ed a tta ck s ever ed the co o per a ti o n o f i ts a rm y a s a who l e ; he wa s co n s equ en tly m o r e 1 i k el y to i n cr ea s e the co o per a ti o n i n hi s o wn camp when ever the s i tu a ti o n ca lled fo r l es s a ggr es s i ve m a n eu ver i n g. A n der s s en po s s es s ed a fu l l ex i s ten t i a l u n der s ta n di n g of a tta ck , but Mo r phy ' s u n der s t a n di n g comm a n ded the en ti r e b a ttle­ fi el d. In thi s wa y , M o r phy co u ld s en s e the di s ti n cti o n -- a s wel l a s the coo per a ­ ti o n - - b etween a p o ten ti a l a n d a n ex i s ten t a tta ck . O r , to pu t i t di ffer en tl y , h e wa s ex i s ten ti a l l y a wa r e of th e l o n g- term s tr u ggl e b etween Whi te and B l a ck - - r a ther

Morphy

than the m er e encounter s b etween and defendi ng uni ts. Par i s ,

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attack i ng

1 858

Morphy Anders sen e5 1 . e4 2 . Nf3 Nc6 3 . Bb5 a6 4 . Ba4 Nf6 5 . d3 Bc5 6 . c3 b5 7 . Bc2 d5 . . . 8 . ed? Y i eldi ng the center to B lack . C ons i d­ er ably b etter would h ave been 8.Q e2 or 8.Nb d2 . 8. . Nd5 9 . h3 ? ! 0-0 h6 1 0 . 0-0 ed 1 1 . d4 Bb6 1 2 . cd Black alr eady enjoys a com for table gam e thank s to hi s centr ali zed pi eces and Wh i te ' s i solated queen pawn . Next, whi le Mor phy conti nues to i m pr ove the gener al cooper ati on among h i s pi eces, note how A nder s sen wi 1 1 pr eci pi t ate h i s own dem i se b y envi sioni ng a far - fetched attack on the B lack m onar ch . Ndb4 1 3 . Nc3 Be6 ! 1 4 . Bb l M or ph y r etai ns h i s advan tage th r o ugh Alter nati vel y , comm on- sense developm ent. the captur e o f th e Wh i te queen pawn w ould l ead to di saster : 1) 1 4 , B d4 ? ; 15 .N e2 ,Bb 6 ; 1 6 . a 3 ,Nd5 ; 1 7 .Q c2 etc. ( or 2) 14 , Nd4 ? ; 15 .Nd4 ,B d4 1 5 ...., .

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The Romant i cs

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16 .Q f 3 , Q d4 ; 1 6 .Q f 3 ,B e6 ; 1 7 .a3 ,Nd5 ;18 .R d l ) ; B e6 ;17 .B e4 ,R b8 ;18 .a3 etc. 1 5 . a3 Nd5 ') , . 1 6 . )Je_l Nf6 1 7 . Qd 2 Re8 Bd5 1 8 . Rd l Qd6 ! 1 9 . Ne5 O n ce agai n , Mo r ph y k eeps h i s h ead when f aced wi th a tr ap: 19 ,N e5 ? ;20 .de,R e5 ; an d 21.B b6 ,cb;22.B a2,Q e8 ;23 .N d5 ,Nd5 ;24 .f 4 Wh i te wi n s. •

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S ever al o f Wh i te ' s p i eces seem to be i deally po sted f o r a k i n gsi de attack, but th ey ' r e actually m i splaced i n asmuch as B lack ' s po si ti o n suf f er s f r om n o weak n ess i n th at secto r . It f o llo ws t h at th e B lack glo bally arm y co o per ates to geth er in a mo r e pur po sef ul mann er than do es i ts Wh i te co un ter par t. 20 . Qc2 An der ssen bur n s h i s br i dges s i n ce the B lack super i o r i ty i s n o w clearly evi den t. Nd4 ! 20 . 2 1 . Bd4 Bd4 2 2 . Nd5 Oe5 ! •

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Morphy

79

The alternative actually loses: 22...., Q d5? ;23 .Nc6,Re4;24.Rd4,Rd4;25.Ne7 + . 2 3 . Nf6 + Of 6 24 . Oh7 + Kf 8 2 5 . Be4 Rad8 26 . Kb l Bb2 2 7 . Rab l Rd l + 2 8 . Rd l Of2 2 9 . Qb8 + Ke7 3 0 . Oh7 Be5 3 1 . Bf3 Qg3 3 2 . Kg l Qg6 B1ack Won M orphy ' s games may not always be as lively as those of Bourdonnai s and A nders­ sen, but his characteristic aesthetic also indicates the fundamental strength of his existential understanding: he mai ntained healthy positions. We conclude that M orphy possessed the deepest and most profound understandin g of all the romantics--a conclusion that ' s perfectly corroborated b y his over-the­ board results. Indeed, our whole theory of the romantics is well-supported by the evident strength of the player s concerned: S taunton was more practi cal than Bourdonnais, A nderssen more cornbative and i maginative than S taunton, and Mor phy more than Whereas A nderssen . well-rounded these facts have not gone totally unrecogniz ed in pr evious studies, th e exi stential approach i s the first to offer a reasonable explanati on for the phenomena. The romantics have b een tr adi ti onally i gnored b y theor i sts b ecause they stated f ew or no verbal rules fo r how to conduct

80

The Romant ics

ga m e ; on th e o th e r hand, th i s ver y a tr a d em a r k h a s m a d e them th e per f ect to pi c w i th whi ch to b e gi n o ur s tud y of n o n - ver b a l- - ex i s ten ti a l- - un d er s ta n d i n g .

I I I . THE CLASS I CAL ERA ( 1 8 59- 1 9 2 7 ) C H ES S A S S C I ENC E 1 1 . Pau1sen In er t i al Mas s

I n clas s i cal ph y s i cs , f o r ce i s pr o po r ­ t i onal t o acceler at i o n ; f ur t h errno r e- - f o r an y gi ven o b j ect - - th e con s t an t o f pr o po r ­ t i o n ali t y h as a f i x ed value called Th us ar e we led away " i n er t i al mas s " . from a mo del o f un r elat ed , gr o un dles s even t s t o a un i ver s e po pulat ed wi t h s ub ­ s t an t i al t h i n gs , each wi t h i ts o wn i nh er en t r es i s t an ce t o ex t er n al f o r ce . In a s i mi lar way , the ex i s t en t i al wo r lds of B o ur do n n a i s , S t aun t o n , an d An der s s en wer e co mpo s ed o f i s o lat ed co m­ b i n at i o n s an d at t ack s - - en t i t i es wh i ch b o r e no r ela t i on t o t h e po s i t i o n as a wh o le . Wher eas man y o f t h es e i deas wer e un do ub t ­ edly s o un d (j us t as man y wer e n o t ) , the y wer e all ex i s t en t i ally gr o un dles s b ecaus e t h ey ar o s e o ut o f pr e- at t ack i n g po s i t i o n s t h at t h e mas t er s i n ques t i o n di dn ' t com ­ man d; t o t h e ex i s t en t i al un der s t an d i n g o f t h e ear ly r o man t i cs , at t ack s gr at ui t o us ly appear ed o ut o f " th i n ai r " b ecaus e glo bal co o per at i o n was n o t y et appr eci at ed . Th en Mo r ph y appear ed o n t h e s cen e . He was the f i r s t to clear ly per cei ve t h e an y gi ven po s i ­ coo per at i o n i nh er en t i n t i o n - - wh et h er at t ack i n g o r n o t ; i t was h i s ex i s t en t i al global un der s t an d i n g that paved t h e way to r e c o gn i z i n g an ever ­ p r es en t " mas s " i n all s i t uat i o n s b y c orn i n g

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The Clas s i ca l Era

to t e rm s w i th a pe r m an en t , fluctuati ng Wh i le th i s pr ovi ded Mo r ph y c o o pe r at i o n . wi th a s en s e for wh eth e r an attack i s j u s t i f i e d , i t s ugge s ted to Lo uis P aulsen ( 1 8 3 3 - 1 89 1 ) th at m an y po s iti on s ar e m or e been p r evi o us ly h ad than res i l i ent thought . Th i s ch ar acter i sti c o f r esi st an c e t o attack (a " f o r ce " i n ch ess) is the r e as o n wh y we ' 1 1 ch o o se to call the pe rman e n ce o f glo bal cooper ation --espe­ c i ally i n th e r o le o f defen der --i n er tial m as s . B u t h ad n o t S taun to n alr eady developed an ex i s te n ti al un de r stan d i n g o f defen ce? W i th i n the con text of hi s tim e , ye s; how­ e ve r , S tau n ton ' s appr eci atio n of existen ­ t i al vu ln e r abi l i ty was essen ti ally li m i ted i n s co pe : If ther e was n o vuln er able un it in s i ght , h e pe r ceived n o attack , an d th er e fo r e n o defen ce- -in deed , n othi n g on the ex i s te n ti al level . F or S taun ton , n o th i n g po s i ti ve cou ld com e o ut o f playing t h e def en de r ; to h i m , ei ther a po sition was attack i ng (po si tive) , defen di ng (neg­ ati ve ) , o r e n tir ely o utside h i s existen ­ ti al un der stan di n g . P auls e n m o ve d be yon d thi s n ar r o w con cepti on by r ecogn i z i ng the po s i tive s ubs tan ce o f i n er tial m ass . A s a con se­ qu en ce , he o ften di s cover ed s ur pr is i n g , ae s th eti cally pleasi n g r es i 1 i en ce i n seem­ i n gly u n f avo r able po s i t i o n s . Thus h e pr o ­ duce d a n um be r o f defe n s i ve m as te r pi eces in wh i ch h i s po s i ti on as a whole pr oved r emar k ab l y r e s i s tan t to attack - - j us t as a he alth y b o dy i s r esi stan t to di s ease .

Pau1sen Br i sto1 ,

83

1861

Ko1 i sch Pau1sen 1 . e4 e5 2 . Nf3 Nc6 3 . Bc4 Bc5 4 . b4 Bb4 5 . c3 Ba 5 6 . d4 ed 7 . 0-0 d6 8 . cd Bb6 9 . d5? F ar s uper i or is the r ati onal 9 .N c3 , leadi ng to appr oxi mately even chances . 9. . . . Na5 1 0 . Bb2 Ne7 ! Thi s i s P auls en ' s i mpr ovement over th e clums y 10 ,Nf6? , the poi nt b e i ng t hat an i mmedi ate as s ault los es by for ce: 13 .Q a4+ , Q d7 ; 12.B f6,N c4; 11.Bg7 ? ,Rg8; 14.Q c4,Rg2+ ! . Wher eas the k ni ght i s not as di r ectly acti ve on e7 , it' s far mor e effecti ve ther e due to i ts defens i ve p otenti al after the pr os pecti ve Whi te advance on th e k i ng ­ s i de. 1 1 . Bd3 0-0 Ng6 1 2 . Nc3 c5 1 3 . Ne2 f6 1 4 . Od2 Bd7 ! ? 1 5 . Kh l A mor e natur al plan i s 15 ,Bc? , to b e followed b y an advance of the b - pawn . B ut P auls en envi s i ons an i mmedi ate con­ fr ontati on in whi ch the potenti ally aggr es s i ve Whi te fo r ces wi ll b e thr o wn i nto confus i on. a6 1 6 . Rae l Bb5 1 7 . Ne l •

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1 8 . f4

Black 's k i ngsi de possesses a latent defensi ve str ength i nasm uch as i t's poi sed for m axi mum r esi stance i n the event of a W h i te aggr ess i on in that sector ; m ean­ whi le, B lack 's oth er flank h ouses a latent attack i ng uni t wh i ch i s ab out to com e to li fe vi a a fr eei ng counter-sacr i fi ce. In shor t, the Black arm y i s healthy and r eady for acti on. 18 . c4 ! 1 9 . Bb l c3 ! R ather than allow h i s m i nor pi eces to wi ther away on the queens i de, P aulsen offer s b ack the sacr i fi ced mater i al--and i n stantly clar i fi es who's attack i s m or e substanti ally gr ounded. 2 0 . Rc3 Nc4 2 1 . Qc l Ree 2 2 . Bd3 Wh i te tr i es to contest h i s adver sar y's dom i nance of c4 , b ut thi s only allows the i nvasi on to penetr ate fur th er yet. 22 . Be3 2 3 . Qc2 Nd 2 •

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Pau1sen 24 . 25 . 26 . 27 . 28 . 29 .

Rg l Oc3 Be l Ng l Nd3 Res i gns

85 Rc3 Ob6 Bg l Bd3 Ne4

Note how the Whi te attack di dn ' t mer ely fai l i n the above game-- i t never tr uly c ame i nto exi stence because B lack ' s p i eces enjoyed gr eater than global cooper ati on thei r adver sar i es; the local Whi te aggr es­ si on just di dn ' t possess enough for ce to move the enti r e, well-coor di nated B la ck ar my . A estheti cally, P aulsen seem s to have gone fur ther than Mor phy i n the di r ecti on of appr ehendi ng i ner ti al mass because hi s defensi ve sty le m ade hi s for ces seem " heavi er " --mor e r esi stant to movem ent; i n P aulsen ' s games, the emphasi s i s on the (or mass) behi nd hi s acti vi ty r esi li ence r ather than the well-gr ounded acti vi ty i tself. P r i or to the pr esent ch apt er, w e ' ve been able to tr ace a r eas onably clear , well-defi ned pr ogr ess i on of s tr ength : B our donnai s, S taunton, Ander ssen, Mo r p hy . Now, how ever , i f we ' r e to p lace P auls en o n a n evoluti onar y level wi th Mo r p hy , we gener ate th e sti ck y pr oblem o f how to justi fy M or ph y ' s--as w ell as A nder s s en ' s -­ super i or i ty over P aulsen. U nfor tunately , our study i s n ' t goi n g t o be able to r eso lve ever y p r o blem o f th i s sor t. In th e pr esent i nstance, a ll w e c a n do is allude to th e p os s i b i li ty t ha t h a lf - wa y P aulsen ' s under s tan d i n g wa s b etween M o r phy a nd S t ei n i tz ; thus he

86

Th e C1ass i ca1 Era

enjo y ed s om e o f the advantages an d dis ­ advan tages o f both , givin g birth to a unique an d co mplex s tyle. (We' 1 1 dis cus s th e pro s an d con s o f Stein itz 's advan ce o ver Mo rph y in o ur n ext ch apter.) To clear th in gs up a bit, let's briefly exam in e wh at I m ean by " half- way between Recalling o n e o f M o rph y an d Stein itz " . o ur philo s o ph ical as ides from Ch apter 1, we n o te that lan guage develo ps m o s t readi­ ly o n ce the m in d h as con ceptualiz ed the wo rld as being po pulated with th in g s --th e o bjects o f noun s , o r s ubjects in gen eral. It fo llo ws th at, if exis ten tial ph en o m en a are to com e to lan guage, it's crucial to perceive th em as enduring, s ubs tan tial things . H en ce it's by no m eans un reas on ­ able to s ugges t th at P auls en's co ncept of the exis ten tially perman ent in ertial mas s was th e firs t s tep toward develo p in g ches s as a clear, objective s cien ce. (O nce again , th is is to be compared with th e earlier s tages o f o ur s tudy, in wh ich attack s pas s ed in an d o ut o f exis ten ce s po radically--exhibiting 1 ittle or no perman en ce.) Whereas M o rph y un earth ed th e pro per gro un d fo r attack, P auls en " dug h im s elf in " an d realiz ed it was als o th e pro per gro un d fo r defen ce. G o od ch es s is go o d ch es s -- wheth er yo u'r e attack in g or defen din g; th is i s wh at mak es s trategic ideas un ivers ally applicable , an d wh y P auls en 's realiz ation o f this fact may be ch aracteriz ed as a s ignifican t an ticipa­ tio n o f Stein itz 's th eo ries .

1 2 . Ste i n i t z Strategi c Mas k i ng

Working out of a mode of thought s i rn ­ i lar to M orphy 1 s and P auls en 1 s , the fi rs t official world champi on Wi lhelm Stei n i tz (183 6-19 0 0 ) v erbali z ed a numb er of as pects of the global exi s tenti al unders tandi ng; for many of hi s theori es can , i n fact , be appreciated as i ns tances o f co operat i on : A n unj usti fi ed attack s ev ers the co o p era­ tion among one's own p i eces , and i s there­ fore undes i rable; the s uperi ori ty of a pai r of bi s hops over two k ni ghts b ecomes evident once their cooperati o n has b een made mani fes t i n s ev eral concrete po s i ­ tions ; the importance of a foo thold i n the center for a s ucces s ful defence i s a noti on that s tern s from a des i re to k eep the opponent 1 s pi ece cooperat i on i n check , and s o on. The co llecti on of thes e tech­ ni cal rules led , i n turn , to Stei ni tz ' s theory of " the accumulati on o f s m al l advantages " --a po li cy that's w ell - i l lus ­ trated by the followi ng game. Wor1 d Champ i onship Match Nev Or1eans , 1 8 8 6 Ste i n i tz 1 . e4 2 . Nf 3 3 . Bb5 4 . d3 5 . CJ 6 . d4 7 . Nbd2 8 . de

Zukertort e5 Nc6 Nf6 d6 g6 Bd7 Bg7 Ne5

The Class i ca l Era

88

9 . Ne5 de 9 .... , B b5 ? ; 1 0 .Nf7 ! , K f7 ; 1 1 .Q b3 + si mp ly lo ses a p awn . Th i s po ss i bi li ty fo r ces Black t o r ecap tur e as i n th e gam e , an d th er efo r e causes h i s k i n g bi sh o p t o beco me r ath er passi ve. 0-0 1 0 . Qe2 a5? ! 1 1 . f3 Th i s acco mp li sh es li ttle but th e cr e­ ati o n o f a p o ten ti al weak n ess o n th e B lack queen s i de. Qe7 1 2 . Bd3 1 3 . Nf l Be6 Wh i te has th e advan tage , th er efo r e h e m ust a t tack - - acco r di n g to S tei n i tz ' s th eo r y- - o th e r wi se h i s advan tage wi ll di s­ app ear . Th i s i mp er ati ve can be seen to be gr o un ded i n P aulsen ' s co ncept of i ner ti al mass i f we b ear i n m i n d that the essen ce o f attack i s t o sever the o p pon en t ' s p i ece co o p er ati o n i n so me way; th us fai lur e to attack is equi valen t to allo w i n g th e o p po n en t to " r ecup er ate " b y r e- establi sh ­ ing th e r esi li en t , glo bal coo per ati o n ch ar acter i sti c o f h ealthy , i n er ti al mass. 1 4 . g4 ! Rfd8 . . . 1 5 . h4 Wh i te plays wi th th e i n ten ti o n of cr ampi n g th e B lack k i ng ' s p o s i ti on in gen er al- - as well as di vo r ci n g th e k i n g pawn f r om i ts n atur al f- p awn supp o r t- ­ r ath er than en gagi n g i n a di r ect attack . 15. Qd7? ! S i n ce he can ' t gai n en tr y o n th i s fi le an yho w , th e si mple 1 5 . . . . , h 5 ; 1 6 . g5 , N d7 wo ul d have been super i o r ( th e k n i gh t en jo y i n g mo r e act i vi ty o n d 7 than o n e8 ) . 1 6 . Bc2 h5 1 7 . g5 Ne8 •

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1 8 . Ne3 Oc6 1 9 . c4 ! Wh i te ' s acti ve k n i ght an d contr ol of d5 s er ve to mak e h i s edge mor e con cr ete . Nd6 19 . . . . 2 0 . Bd3 Rab8 2 1 . Nd5 Bd5 ? Od7 2 2 . cd The ex ch an ge on d5 h as eas ed th e i mm e­ di ate pr es s ur e , but has als o ceded th e pai r of bi s h ops - - t h er eby clar i fy i n g Wh i te ' s advan tage on ce agai n . Ra8 2 3 . Bd 2 24 . Re l c6 2 5 . Rc5 ! . . . Th an k s to h i s acti ve bi s h op s , con tr ol of k ey s quar es s uch as b5 an d d5 i s of mor e i mpor tan ce to Wh i te than th e r ela­ ti vely mi n or pawn w eak n es s th at w ould r es ult fr om 2 5 . dc , bc . 25 . . . . cd 2 6 . Rd5 Oa4 b6 2 7 . a3

90

The C1ass i ca 1 Era

Wh i t e ' s pi eces co o per at e b et t er than t hei r o ppo nent s due t o t hei r p r es s ur e on b 6 an d e5 , as well as t h ei r cont r o l o f b5 and d5 ; what i s i ni ti ally app r eci at ed as an exi s t enti al r eali ty (glob al pi ece coo per at i o n) can, t her ef o r e, b e ver b ali z ed i nt o t echni cal r ules i nvo lvi ng weak pawns and weak s quar es - - b r i ngi ng ches s i nt o the r ealm o f s ci ence . Qe8 2 8 . Bc3 Nc8 29 . Qf2 Qe7 30 . Bb5 3 1 . Rd8 + Qd8 Na7 3 2 . 0-0 3 3 . Bc4 Nc6 34 . Bd5 Rc8 3 5 . f4 Qd7 36 . f5 Ne7 3 7 . Ba 2 gf 3 8 . ef Bf 8 39 . Qf3 e4 40 . Qh5 Res igns C er t ai n ly , t her e ar e m any advant ages to ver b ali z i n g s tr ategi c laws - - i f no thi ng els e, b ecaus e th en they can b e mani pulat ed i n t he " li g ht o f day " . O n the o t her h and, mani p ulat i o n o f t hi s k i nd t ak es place o n a pur ely t echni cal level, and i s t her efo r e o nly lo o s ely co nne ct ed wi t h t he eff i ci ency t ho ugh t . char act er i s t i c of exi s t enti al S t ei n i t z ' s i nno vat i o ns cr eat ed a di s ti n ct wo rld whi ch i s n eces s ar i ly di vo r ced fr om t he un der s t andi ng of th e r om ant i cs . W her eas h e als o en jo y ed th i s lat t er gi ft, he was pr o ne to b ecom e i mm er s ed in th e wo r ld of o b ject i ve s t r at egi c laws - - a pr o ces s whi ch allo wed hi s exi s t e n t i al un der s t an di ng t o r ecede i nto t he b ack-

Ste i n i tz

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g r o un d . Adm i ttedly , an y on e can th i n k b o th s tr ateg i cally an d tacti cally i n a tech ­ n i cal mann er , b ut th e es s en ti al di f fer en ce b etween calculati o n (o r tech n i cal m an i pu­ lati o n ) an d th e un def i n able natur e o f e x i sten ti al un der s tan d i n g m ean s th at b o th can ' t b e fully en g ag ed at th e s am e ti m e; an d s i nce we h ave r epeatedly s een wh at a tr emen do us advan tag e th e i n tui ti ve feel o f ex i sten ti al un der stan d i n g can pr o v i de , i t (lo si n g fo llo ws th at s tr ateg i c mask i ng o n eself in techn i cal th o ug h t) ten ds to bli n d a play er to po ss i b i li ti es wh i ch ar e m o st r eadi ly di s co ver ed by the un co n ­ s c i o us .

London ,

1 86 6

Anderssen Ste i n i tz to g e n er al S tr ateg i cally - - acco rdi n g i z ati o n s ab o ut th i s � o f po s i t i o n - - a g en er al Wh i te advan ce i s called f o r o n th e k i n gs i de , wh i le Black s h o uld plan a cam ­ pai g n o n th e o pp o s i te f l a n k (to b e i n i ti ­ ated b y . . . , b 5 , fo r i n s tan ce) . Th i nk i ng

The Class ical Era

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a long th es e tec hn i c a l li n es , S t ei n i tz m i s s es a tr a p wh i ch w o uld h a ve b een c a ught b y a m o r e a ler t ex i s ten ti a l un de r s ta n d i ng. 15. Bc7 ? . . . 1 6 . Bg7 ! White Won 1 7 . Nh 5 + , K h 8; . s ince 1 6 .... , K g 7 ; i mm edi a te 1 8.Q h 6 , R g 8; 1 9 .N g 5 lea ds to an lo s s . •

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D ue to th e pr o a n d c o n n a tur e of s tr a teg i c . Ill. a s k i n g , it' s i mpo s s i ble to � d�t erm.i n e a p r i o r i w h i ch i s s uper i o r : pur e ex i s ten ti a l un der s tan d i n g or the A un der s ta n di n g . s tr a tegi c a lly m a s k ed r evi ew o f o ver - t h e- b o a r d r es ults , h owever , i n di c a tes a s li ght , b ut w ell- defi n ed edge fo r S tei n i tz o ver h i s mo r e r om a n t i c c on ­ tem po r a r i es ( A n der s s en a n d Z uk er tor t , i n pa r ti c ula r ) . I f k n o w ledg e o f s tr a teg i c law s wa s the c a us e o f S tei n i t z ' s s tr en g th , o n e m us t c on c lude th a t th e publi c a ti o n o f these la w s s h o uld h a ve led t o th e a ppea r a n c e o f s ever a l m a s ter s a s s tr on g a s th e c h a mpi o n h i m s elf . B ut on c e a g a i n , b o r r ow i n g a n a rg um en t f r om o ur di s c us s i o n o f P h i li do r , th i s pr o blem c a n b e s o lved b y n o ti n g th a t S tei n i tz wa s mo r e a dept at a p ply i n g s tr a teg i c la w s i n p r a c t i c e b ec a us e h e wa s th e o r i g i n a to r o f th es e i dea s ; th e s a m e ta len t th a t r a i s ed th e pa r ti c ula r to t h e wa s n a tur a lly b es t a t gen er a l i n th eo r y emplo y i n g th es e g en er a li t i es i n p a r ti c ula r c a s es . Thus th e po pula r c h a r a c ter i z a ti o n o f S tei n i tz a s m o r e pr o f o un d ( s tr a t eg i c ­ a lly ) , b ut les s ta len t ed ( ta cti c a lly ) th a n h i s m a i n r i va ls i s s a ti s fa c to r i ly expla i n ­ ed b y th e c o n c ept o f s tr a teg i c m a s k i n g .

1 3 . Tarrasch Ideali s m

Among S teinitz ' s di s ci ples , the r i ft un der s tan di ng an d b etween exi s tenti al technical knowledge was nowher e m or e pr o ­ n ounced than in the gam es and i deas of S i egber t Tar r as ch (186 2 -19 3 4) , whos e con­ ception of s tr ategi c laws was even m or e pur e than that of S tei ni tz b ecaus e Tar r a s ch had i nher ited the fun dam entals o f Thus pos i tional play "r eady-m ade" . Tarr as ch ten ded to theor i ze ab out i deas i n ches s which could be gr as ped indepen dently o f the exi s tential under s tandi ng r equi r ed to appr eci ate actual pos i tions ; thi s affini ty with i deali s m explai ns why he b ecam e s o concer ned wi th ab s tr acti on s s uch as ti m e and s pace--elem ents that can be handled wi thout alludi ng to a numb er of s peci fi c gam es (as oppos ed to S tei nitz ' s theor i es r egarding the pr oper gr ound o f attack, which often _r eq ui r e 'Qj._tter E:!_�_Q�r i ­ ence as an i ni ti ati on) . Tan.=-a sch.-1 s b es t g-ame s ar e often · bui 1 t on thes e them es , an d ther efor e b ear the pr os ai c aes theti c o f � cal_ _ o educ:;: ti 9n_-- -as oppo s ed to the mo r e vi b r ant color s o f cr eati ve, r omanti c pi ece coo per ati on __

Hamburg , Tarrasch 1 . e4 2 . d4 3 . Nc3 4 . e5 5 . Nce2

1 885 Noa e6 d5 Nf6 Nf d7 c5

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Nc6 6 . c3 cd? ! 7 . f4 Th i s i s p r e ma t u r e . The o r e t i c a l l y b e s t is 7 , f 6 ; 8 . N f 3 , Q b 6 w i th a l eve l g a m e . The e x ch a n g e s wh i ch n o w e n s u e l e a v e Wh i t e w i t h a we l l - d e f i ne d e dg e . Bb4+ e . cd Ob6 9 . Bd 2 0-0 I O . Nf3 Ob4+ 1 1 . Bb4 1 2 . Od2 Nb6 Rde 1 3 . Nc 3 Bd7 1 4 . Nb5 Rabe 1 5 . Nd6 1 6 . Re l Od 2 + Nee ? 1 7 . Kd2 Wh i t e e n j o y s m o r e s p a c e a n d t h e b e t t e r b i s h o p , h e n c e B l a c k s h ou l d a t l e a s t t r y t o n e u t r a l i z e h i s o p p o n e n t ' s t h i r d " t r u mp " - ­ t h e i mp o s i n g k n i gh t o n d 6 ; t o t h i s e n d , he c ou l d h a v e t r i e d 1 7 , a6--and only l ater , Nc 8 - - f o r c i ng t he e x ch a n g e of t he k n i ght i n que s t i on . I e . Nb5 a6 1 9 . Nc3 Nee7 2 0 . Bd 3 Rhee 2 1 . b3 Thr e a t e n i n g 2 2 . N a 4 . 21 Nb4 22 . a3 Nc6 2 3 . b4 But now if 2 3 . Na4 , B l a ck s i mp l y r e s p on d s w i t h 2 3 . . . . , N a 5 ; 2 4 . N c 5 ? , R c 5 ! . 23 . . . . h6 Nbe 24 . h4 Rc7 2 5 . Ke3 Rdce 2 6 . Rc2 Kfe 2 7 . Rhc l Bee 2 e . g4 •

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Tarra sch 2 9 . Nd2 30 .

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Wh i t e e n j o y s m o r e s p a c e , a c l a s s i c a l l y b e t t e r b i sho p , a n ou t p o s t f o r h i s k n i g h t s a t c 5 , a n d a l a ck o f a n y t h i n g e v e n r e s em ­ bl i ng a weak ne s s - - a p e r f e c t p o s i t i on f o r the i d e a l i s t T a r r a s c h . 31 . . . Nc4+? ! de 3 2 . Bc4 N o w tha t B l a c k h a s a b a n d o n e d c o n t r o l o f e 4 , t h e c on c l u s i o n i s r e l a t i ve l y s i mp l e . b5 3 3 . N5e4 Rb8 34 . Nd6 Bd7 35 . f5 Nd5 + 36 . Rf2 ed 3 7 . Nd5 h5 3 8 . g5 Kg8 39 . Rcf l f6 40 . g6 Bc6 4 1 . Re2 Rd8 4 2 . Rfe l fe+ 43 . Kf4 Kf8 44 . Re5 Re8 45 . Nf7 •

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46 . Ng5 Rce 7 ? Th i s l o s e s i mm e d i a t e l y . T a r r a s c h g i ve s the f o l l ow i ng a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e f inale : 46 , Re 5 ; 4 7 .Jie--1 R e 7 ; 4 8 . f 6 ! , gf ; 49 . ef , 5 1 . f 7 + , Kd 7 ; Re l ; 5 0 . Nh 7 + , K e 8 ; 52 . f 8=Q , R f l + ; 5 3 . Kg 5 , R f 8 ; 5 4 . Nf 8 + , Ke 7 ; 5 5 . g7 , Kf 7 ; 5 6 . Kh6 , Kg8 ; 5 7 . N g 6 , w i th N e 7 c o m i n g n e x t move . Res i gns 47 . Nh7 + .

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D e s p i t e the p e r f e c t i on o f s u ch g a m e s , the h a r s h r e a l i t y o f T a r r a s c h ' s ove r - a l l career reve a l s th a t he wa s n ' t a wor l d ch amp i o n s h i p l e ve l hi s t a c t i c i a n - - th a t exi s tent i a l under stand ing wa s s t r a te g i c ­ a l l y m a s ke d ; t h i s i s f u r th e r c o r r o bo r a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t h e wa s f u l l y c a p a b l e o f br i l l i a nt t a ct i cs whe n e v e r the pos i t i on called f o r a d i r e c t a t t a c k - - wh e n e v e r he c on s c i o u s l y i gno red t h e wo r l d of i d e a l ­ i s t i c stra tegy . A cha r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f T a r r a sch ' s s t r a t e g i c ma s k i n g i s h i s ove r - r a t i o n a l i z a ­ t i on of t i me - - a n e n t i t y wh i ch can be t h e o r i z e d a b o u t i n a b s t r a c t i on . C on s i d e r th i s s t an d a r d l ine in the Sicil ian D e f en c e : Whi te B1 ack 1 . e4 c5 2 . Nf3 Nc6 3 . Nc3 e6 4 . d4 cd 5 . Nd4 Nf6 6 . Ndb5 Bb4 1 . a3 T a r r a s c h r e a s on s a s f o l l ow s i n c on d e m n ­ ing Wh i t e ' s l a s t move : " O n c e Wh i t e h a s move d h i s k n i ght t o b 5 h e o u g h t t o g o o n

Tarrascb

97

to d6 a n d g i ve che c k . B y a 3 Wh i t e l o s e s n o l e s s t h a n t h r e e t e mp i . Because o f i ts ve r y i n s i gn i f i c a n c e t h e move a 3 i s e q u i va ­ l e n t t o o n e t e mp o . T h e n t h e e x ch a n g e o f the k n i ght o n b 5 ( a n d no t t h e k n i g h t on c 3 ) wh i ch h a s m a d e t h r ee m o v e s , f o r the b i s h o p , i s e q u i va l e n t to t wo t e mp i . Hence Wh i t e h a s l o s t t h r e e t e mp i . " T a r r a sch 1 s r e a s on i n g may be i d e a l l y c o r r e c t , b u t i t 1 s o n l y s o m u ch s o ph i s t r y i f Wh i t e t u r n s o u t t o h a v e a g o o d g a m e ( a s po i nted ou t l a te r by T ch i g o r i n ) . And indeed , m od e r n t he o r y con s i d e r s Wh i t e ' s p o s i t i o n t o h a v e p r om i s e . 7 Bc3+ 8 . Nc3 d5 9 . ed ed 1 0 . Bd 3 0-0 1 1 . 0-0 . w i t h a s l i gh t pu l l f o r Wh i t e . .

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It s ho u l d come as no surpr i s e that T a r r a s ch 1 s brand of abs t r a c t r ea s on i n g about t i me has g o n e en t i r e l y ou t of f a sh i on . One m i ght say tha t t i m e i n che s s , a s i n r e l a t i v i t y phy s i c s , i s m e a n ­ i n g l e s s a p a r t f r om wh a t a c t ua l l y h a pp e n s t o the " ma t t e r " at hand . T a r r a s ch 1 s t h e o r y o f s p a c e wa s a k i n t o h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t i me , a n d t h e r e f o r e a l s o p r ov e d to be less elastic t h a n mo r e " relat i v i st i c " c o n c e p t i o n s wh i ch r e t a i n e d a n a wa r e n e s s o f h o w p i e c e s c o o p e r a t e w i th the s p a c e i n q u e s t i o n .

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Wor1d Champ i onship Match Dus se1dorf , 1 90 8 Tarra sch Lasker Wh i t e p o s s e s s e s a n i d e a l s p a t i a l a d va n ­ t a g e , wh i l e t h e B l a c k r oo k s e e m s t o h a v e gone a s t r a y on i t s r a i d t o t h e c-fi le . Neve r t he l e s s , c e r t a i n t a c t i c a l po ss i b i l i ­ ties offer B l ack ch a n c e s , and T a r r a s ch t e n d s to b e c om e o b s e s s e d w i th the n o t i on o f s t rateg i c a l l y corr ect play . . . 21 . . . . a4 ! Rc4 2 2 . b4 Rd8 ! 2 3 . g3 . . . 24 . Re3 ? ! Wh i t e w ou l d h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e a d v a n t a g e after 24 . Qe 3 , s inc e 2 4 . . . . , c 5 ! ? ; 2 5 . Nb5 l e a v e s the B l a c k c - p awn p i n n e d . c5 24 . . . . 2 5 . Nb5 ? T e mp t i n g , but incorrect ; hi s l a st cha n c e f o r a n e v e n g a m e wa s t h e s t r a t e g i c ­ a l l y c omp r om i s i n g 2 5 . b c . 25 . Cb .

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Rd6 2 6 . Rd6 2 7 . e5 Rf4 ! 2 8 . gf L a s k e r wo u l d have had n o t r o u b l e s c o r ­ i n g t h e p o i n t a f t e r t h e s i mp l i f y i n g 2 8 . e f , R f 3 ; 2 9 . Rf 3 , Rd 5 . 28 . . . . Qg6 + 2 9 . Kh l ? Th i s s i mp l i f i e s m a t t e r s , b u t t h e a l t e r ­ n a t i ve w ou l d have m a d e n o d i f f e r ence i n 2 9 . K f l , Qb l + ; 3 0 . Re l , Qd 3 + ; the l on g run : 3 1 . Q d 3 , R d 3 , a n d B l a c k ' s a c t i ve r o o k wi 11 carry the d a y . Qb l + 29 . . . . 3 0 . Kg2 Rd 2 + Qa 2 3 1 . Re2 Bl ack Won •

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1 4 . Tcb i gor in S k e p t i c i sm

O n c e th e o r y h a d e s t a b l i sh e d a " l i f e o f i ts own " a s ----a c o l l e c t i on of t e ch n i c a l-� ru l e s , p l a y e r s l i k e S t e i n 1 t z a n d T a r r a s c h t e n d e d t ow a r d d ogm a t i s m i n a s m u c h a s t he s e rules we r e c on s c i o u s l y f o l l ow e d w i t h ou t keep i ng i n t ou ch w i t h the u n d e r s t a n d i ng o u t o f wh i ch th e y o r i g i n a t e d ( th e e s s en c e o f s t r a teg i c m a s k i ng ) . Thu s the a b i l i t y to f i n d s t r a te g i c a l l y v i a bl e i dea s tha t b r e a k t h e r u l e s wou l d b e i n d i c a t i v e o f a m i n d wh i ch h a s r em a i n e d i n c on t a c t w i th ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t and i ng - - a the g l ob a l ch a r a c t e r i s t i c mo s t a p t to c om e a b ou t t h r o u g h a _h e a l_�_b.y s k e p t i c i s m t owa r d s t r a ­ t e g i c l aw s . Th i s t r a i t i s b e s t - e x e mp l i ­ f i e d b y the e a r l i e s t a n t i c i p a t o r o f modern che s s , M i kha i 1 T ch i g o r i n ( 1 850- 1 908 ) , wh o s e g a m e s a r e a t o n c e s t r i k i n g l y o r i g i ­ n a l a n d _E e c u_!_ i aE_!X r e s i s t a n t t o g e n e r a l i ­ _ _ z a t i on . London ,

1 8 99

Tcb i gorin P i 1 1 sbury 1 . d4 d5 Nc6 ! ? 2 . c4 Tch i g o r i n a l r e a d y b r e a k s t h e r u l e s by bl ock i ng hi s c - p awn , the agent who s e t yp i c a l l y p r ov i d e s B l a c k w i t h h i s act i on f a i r s h a r e o f the c e n t e r i n the Q u e e n ' s G a mb i t ( t o n a m e t h r e e p r om i n e n t e x a mp l e s : the c ou n t e r - a t t a ck i ng T a r r a sch D e f en c e , 2 . . . . , e 6 ; 3 . Nc 3 , c 5 ! ? ; the s i mp l i f y i n g G a m ­ bit Accepted , 2 . . . . , dc ; 3 . Nf 3 , Nf 6 ; 4 . e 3 , e6 ; 5 . B c 4 , c 5 ; a n d the s o l i d O r th o d o x D e f en c e ,

Tchigor in

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2 , e6 ; 3 . N c 3 , N f 6 ; 4 . Bg 5 , B e 7 ; 5 . e 3 , 0 - 0 ; 6 . N f 3 , Nb d 7 ; 7 . R c l , c 6 ) . The i mp o r t a n c e o f t h e c e n t e r a s a b a s e o f o p e r a t i ons i s a ha l l m a r k o f c l a s s i c a l strategy . S t i l l - - by l im i t ing hi s " p awn presence " i n the c e n t e r - - T ch i g o r i n i s n ' t v i o l a t i n g th i s p r i n c i p l e , b u t i s a pp r o a ch ­ i n g i t f r om a n o r i g i n a l d i r e c t i o n . 3 . Nf 3 Bg4 ! Th i s i s by n o m e a n s a r a n d o m d e v e l o p ­ m e n t , b u t a s ou n d m e t h o d t o i n c r e a s e the p r e s s u r e on d 4 . 4 . e3 e6 Bb4 ! 5 . Nc3 T ch i g o r i n w a s n e ve r a ve r s e t o g i v i n g u p a b i s h o p f o r a k n i gh t w h e n e v e r s om e a d v a n ­ t a g e m i gh t b e g a i n e d t h e r eby . 6 . Ob3 Bf3 7 . gf B l a ck ha s c on c e d e d the m i no r e x ch a n g e on f 3 , a n d w i l l s o o n c on c e d e ano the r on c3 . A l though t h i s i s a t o d d s w i th the " off icial " th e o r y of the day , it ' s in perfect a cc o r d w i th T ch i g o r i n ' s o r i g i n a l plan . 7. Nge7 8 . Bd2 0-0 . . 9 . Bd 3 ? In the S t . P e t e r s b u rg t ou r n a m e n t of 1 895/96 , P i l l sbury pl ayed m o r e d i rec t l y : 1 2 . Bd 3 9 . f 4 , Rb 8 ; 1 0 . 0 - 0 -0 , dc ; 1 1 . Bc4 , b5 ! ; ( c a p t u r i n g o n b 5 l o s e s a p i e c e a f t e r B l a ck excha n g e s h i s k i n g b i s h o p a n d p l a y s . . . , 1 5 . Rhg l a 6 ) , Bc 3 ; 1 3 . Q c 3 , Rb 6 ; 1 4 . Kb l , a 5 ; w i t h a d ou b l e - e dg e d g a m e . A f t e r t h e move p l a y e d i n t h e p r e s en t e n c ou n t e r , Wh i t e ' s in dange r of l o s ing t i me i n c omp a r i s on w i t h t h e S t . P e t e r s b u r g g ame ( h i s b i s h o p w i l l h a v e move d t w i c e t o •

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c a p t u r e o n c4 a f t e r t h e i mp e n d i ng 1 0 . . . . , de ; 1 1 . Bc4 , b 5 ! } , s o he ch oo s e s t o c omp r o ­ m i s e b y c a p t u r i ng o n d 5 - - a l l ow i n g B l a c k ' s p i e c e s a n i mp o r t a n t b a s e i n t h e c en t e r . Rb8 ! 9. Nd5 1 0 . cd Bc3 1 1 . 0-0-0 b5 ! 1 2 . Bc3 1 3 . Bd2 . . . 1 3 . e4 wou l d have left too l i ttle b r e a th i ng r oom o n the q u e e n s i d e : 13 . . . . , 1 5 . Q c 4 , Nb 6 ; 1 4 . Bd 2 , Nd 4 ; b4 ! ; 1 6 . Q b4 , c 5 ! ( Le v en f i s h } . 13 . . . . Rb6 1 4 . Rdg l a5 1 5 . f4 f5 ! B l a c k a cc e p t s a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t w e a k n e s s o n e 6 i n o r d e r t o b l u n t Wh i t e ' s ch a n c e s i n t h e c e n t e r a n d o n t h e k i ng s i d e . •

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Wh i t e h a s a p r e p on d e r a n c e o f p aw n s i n the center --a t e ch n i c a l fact of l i ttle c on s e q u e n c e becau se B l ack ' s we l l - c o o r d i ­ n a t e d a rmy i s more able t o � cruc i a l p o i n t s s u ch a s d 5 . a4 1 6 . Rg3

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1 7 . Qd l Ndb4 ! Nb4 1 8 . Bb4 . . . 1 9 . Rhg l Wh i t e h a s a p a i r o f r oo k s bea r i ng on the e nemy k i ng . H oweve r , t h i s t h r e a t i s s i ng l e r oo k wh i ch ea s i ly p a rr i e d by a r e m a i n s i n e f f e c t i ve c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h the c om i n g s t o rm o n t h e o pp o s i t e f l a n k . 19 . . . . Rf7 a3 ! 2 0 . Bb l 2 1 . ba ? 21 .b3 ( Ho f f e r ) kept the wou l d have p o s i t i o n r e l a t i ve l y c l o s e d . 21 . . . . Nd5 b4 2 2 . Ob3 2 3 . ab Wh i t e k i ng w ou l d h a v e a l s o The b e en exp o s e d a f t e r 2 3 . a 4 , c 5 ; 2 4 . d c , R c 6 . 23 . . . . Rb4 24 . Qd3 c5 ! Qa5 ! 2 5 . de Oa 2 2 6 . Bc2 Rc4 27 . f3 Rd7 2 8 . R l g2 . . . 2 9 . c6 Wh i t e ' s o n l y h o p e o f c ou n t e r p l a y . Rc6 29. . . . Qa 3 + ! 30 . Od4 Rc2 + ! 3 1 . Kd 2 Ne3+ 3 2 . Kc 2 Rd4 3 3 . Kb l Kf8 34 . Rg7 + 3 5 . Rg8 + Ke7 3 6 . Res igns

We k n o w th a t T ch i g o r i n wa s i n c o mm a n d the g l oba l exi s tent i a l under s t a n d i ng b e c a u s e he wa s a g r e a t s t r a t e g i s t . A t the s ame t i me , howeve r , he res i s ted the of

1 04

The C1ass i ca 1 Era

p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d to s t r a t e g i c m a s k i n g by ma i n t a i n i n g a he a l t h y skept i c i sm t ow a r d t h e w o r l d o f i d e a l s t r a t e g i c l aw s . Thu s it a pp e a r s that T ch i g o r i n had not yet s u rm o u n t e d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f s t r a teg i c m a s k i n g ( he a vo i d e d t h e m ) , b u t he h a d a t l e a s t begun t o s e n s e the phenomenon .

1 5 . Lasker R e c o g n i t i on

Since T ch i g o r i n wa s l e d , v i a s k e p t i ­ c i s m , t o r e s i s t e n t r y i n t o the wor l d o f s t r a te g i c l aw s , h e c ou l d o n l y b e p r i v a ­ t i ve l y a wa r e o f the d u a l i s m wh i ch u n d e r ­ ! ies s t r a te g i c ma s k i n g . I ndeed , hi s b a t t l e a g a i n s t th i s p h e n om e n o n wa s c h a r a c ­ ter i st i ca l l y s h a l l ow becau se it a s s um e d the p r e d om i n a n t l y t e chn i c a l f o rm of a c on s c i o u s res i st ance to gene r a l i z a t i on - ­ and wa s t he r e f o r e i n d i c a t i ve o f a m i n d wh i ch had yet to c on f r on t the p r obl em Th i s l e d t o t w o d i f f i c u l ­ ex i s t e n t i a l l y . ties : (1) an e s t r a n g em e n t f r om the b e ne f i t s o f c h e s s a s a s c i e n c e wh i ch h a s a b s o r b e d t h e l e s s on s o f i nn um e r a b l e g a m e s , a n d ( 2 ) t h e d e v e l o pm e n t of an a f f ected s t y l e - - on e wh i ch d i d n ' t a r i s e ou t of a n a t u r a l , unt a i n t e d und e r s t a n d i ng . abou t T ch i g o r i n o b s e rva t i o n s The s e s u g g e s t tha t a m o r e e v o l v e d c on f r o nt a t i on w i th s t r a te g i c ma s k i n g w i l l r e s u l t i n a m o r e b a l a n c e d p l a y e r - - o ne who ' s a t on c e a cl ea r , e f f e c t i ve e mp l o y e r of strateg i c l aw s and an alert tact i c ian . T he s e s p ea k i ng , ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b r oa d l y d e s c r i be the l on g - t i me wor l d ch a mp i o n Emanue l Lasker ( 1 8 6 8 - 1 9 4 1 ) , who s e v e r s a ­ t i l e s t y l e d om i n a t e d w o r l d c he s s f o r ove r t w en t y y ea r s . The a e s t he t i c s o f L a s k e r ' s g a m e s s ug ­ g e s t t h a t h i s wa s n o t a n i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r ­ standing (a t e rm t o b e i n t r o d u c e d n e x t cha p t e r ) - - th a t he a l s o s u f f e r e d f r o m t h e d u a l i s m he h a d i nh e r i t e d f r om S t e i n i t z a n d T a r r a s ch . T h e ch a r a c t e r i s t i c o f L a s k e r ,

1 06

The C1as s i ca1 Era

adept a t m e a n wh i l e , i s t h a t h e wa s m o r e empl o y i n g th i s m o d e o f t h o u g h t ; L a s k e r w a s e f f e c t i ve l y - ­ move f r e e l y - - a n d to able t e chn i c a l and ex i s t e n t i a l the b e t we e n l e ve l s o f unde r st a n d i ng , a n d wa s c o n s e ­ in lost b e c om e to l i ke ly less quen t l y g e n e r a l , a b s t r a c t i d e a s ( a s wa s T a r r a s ch ) , o r b e c om e i mm e r s e d i n the ne a r - i n f i n i t e d i f f icul t i es of par t i cu l a r s ( as wa s T ch i g o r i n ) . A l l th i s m a y b e s umm e d u p b y t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t L a s k e r h a d a ch i ev e d a n e x i s t e n t i a l r e c ogn i t i o n o f s t r a t e g i c m a s k ­ i n g - - tha t he u n c o n s c i ou s l y s ensed the i n a d e q u a cy of ma i n t a i n i ng the inelast ic o u t l o o k s cha r a c t e r i s t i c o f b o t h i d e a l i sm and skepti c i sm . ( O u r t e rm " r e c o g n i t i o n " i s not to be c on f u s e d w i th cons c i ou s r e c o g n i t i o n , bu t i s m e a n t t o d e s c r i be the s t a t e whe r e by L a s k e r wa s a b l e t o u s e the du a l i s t i c unde r s t a n d i n g of h i s d a y in a manne r a pp r o p r i a t e to i ts pecul i a r na ture . ) B e c a u s e f u l l r e c o g n i t i o n c ou l d n o t be ma i n t a i ned from any o f h i s predecessors ' o n e - s i d e d p e r s p e c t i ve s , L a s k e r ' s ex i s t e n ­ t i a l unde r s t a nd i ng wa s e s s en t i a l l y i l l - a t ­ state of e a s e - - i t s en s e d th a t n o s i ng l e m i nd c a n eve r a pp r e h e n d t r u th i n c he s s ; i n d ee d , to La sker che s s t r u t h wa s a d ynam i c r ea l i t y - - one wh i ch had to be per pet ua l l y r e - d i s c ove r e d thr ough the r e s t l e s s s t a t e o f s t r ugg l e . London , Ste i n i tz 1 . e4 2 . Nc3 3 . f4

1 8 99 Lasker e5 Nf6 d5

Lasker 4. 5. 6. 7.

d3 fe d4 ed

1 07 Nc6 Ne5 Ng6 Nd5

a . tiCi-5? ! u n c om f o r t a b l e r a t he r b e c om e s Wh i t e after t h i s p r em a t u r e excha n g e . A s i mp l e d e ve l o p i n g move s u ch a s 8 . N f 3 wou l d h a v e been b e t t e r . 8. . . . Qd5 9 . Nf 3 Bg4 1 0 . Be 2 0-0-0 1 1 . c3 Bd6 1 2 . 0-0 Rhe8

B l a ck ' s edge doesn ' t s t e m f r om any stat i c c on s i d e r a t i o n s , but f r om the i n t u i t i ve f a c t tha t h i s p i e c e s a r e more a c t i ve . A f u l l a pp r e c i a t i o n o f t h i s f e a ­ ture requ i res a n exi s tent i a l unde r s t an d ­ ing , wh i ch can ea s i ly b e c om e do rmant d u r i n g a c r u c i a l m om e n t thr ough s t r a t e g i c ma s k i n g . S t e i n i t z wa s no d o u b t a w a r e o f B l a c k ' s s u p e r i o r a c t i v i t y o n c e t h i s p o s i t i on wa s c on f r on t i n g h i m on t h e bo a r d , but th i s

The C1ass i ca1 Era

1 08

a spect of hi s opponent ' s p ieces had ev i d e n t l y escaped hi s a t t ent i on as the game d eve l o p e d ; c onver s e l y , L a s k e r wa s l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o s u ch p r o b l e m s b e c a u s e h e h a d e x i s t e n t i a l l y r e c o gn i z e d the n a t u r e o f s t r a te g i c m a s k i n g . Bd7 1 3 . h3 . 1 4 . Ng5 ? Th i s i s a p l a u s i b l e a t t e m p t t o f r e e h i s pos i t i on ( 1 4 . . . . , f 6 ? ; 1 5 . B f 3 , Qg8 ; 1 6 . Ne4 ) , b u t i s t a c t i c a l l y f l a w e d - - a f a c t wh i c h wa s m a s k e d f r om S t e i n i t z ' s t h o u g h t . 14 . . . . Nh4 ! 1 5 . Nf3 . . . Wh i t e r e m a i n s p a i n f u l l y c r amped a f te r A f t e r the 1 5 . B f 3 , N f 3 + ; 1 6 . N f 3 , B g 3 ( Ma r c o ) . m o v e p l a y e d , o n t h e o t he r h a n d , i t a p pe a r s th a t B l a c k mu s t e i t h e r r e t i r e h i s k n i ght or s w a p i t . But L a s k e r h a s a n a s t y s h o t u p h i s s l ee v e . 15 . . . . Ng2 ! 1 6 . Kg2 Bh3 + ! 1 7 . Kf2 E v e n wo r s e w o u l d h a v e b e e n 1 7 . K h 3 , Q f 5 + ; 2 0 . Kg l , Qg 3 + ; 1 9 . Kh l , Qh 3 + ; 1 8 . Kg 2 , Qg4+ ; 2 1 . Kh 1 , R e 4 , w i th t h e m u r d e r ou s thr e a t of 2 2 . . . . , Rh4 + ; 2 3 . Nh4 , Q h 2 # . 17 f6 ! The b i s h o p o n h 3 i s i n s t r um en t a l to so attack , B l a ck ' s he r e f r a i ns f r om i mm e d i a t e l y r e c ove r i n g h i s ma te r i a l w i th t h e o bv i ou s 1 7 . . . . , B f l . 1 8 . Rg l g5 1 9 . Bg5 How e l s e i s Wh i t e t o d e a l w i th the i mp e n d i n g a d v a n c e o f t h e g - p a wn ? 19 . . . . fg 2 0 . Rg5 Oe6 .

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. s i nce of 22 . . . . , Bf S .

1 09

Bf4 B1ack Won 2 2 . Rg 7 i s f u t i l e o n a c c ou n t

I s che s s a s c i e n c e , a n a r t , o r a g a m e Thi s que s t i on has pu z z l ed ( a s t r ugg l e ) ? pl ayers f or yea rs , but i s i n fact ea s i ly r e s o l v e d o n c e w e c o n s i d e r t h e r e l a t i o n the m i n d h a s to the g am e a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . Wh e n p r e p a r i n g for a game , no one expe c t s to p r od u c e , move - f o r -move , the s t r u gg l e wh i ch i s to come . R a t he r , we ana lyze old g a m e s , w o r k i n g t h r ough th e i r pa r t i c u l a r i d e a s , a n d t r y t o f o rm u s e f u l gene r a l con c l u s i on s for the f o r th c om i n g encoun t e r . Thu s a p l ayer i n prepa r a t i on i s p e r c e i v i n g che s s a s a s c i e n c e . After an event , i f we ' r e unus ua l ly p l e a s e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r g a m e , we p l a y i t thr ough for the sheer p l ea sure of a e s t h e t i c a pp r e c i a t i o n . Thu s a p l a y e r i n r e f l e c t i o n i s p e r c e i v i n g che s s a s a n a r t . F i n a l l y , a p l a y e r who ' s i mm e r s e d i n a pr e s e n t e n c o u n t e r i s p e r c e i v i n g che s s a s a g a me - - a s a s t r u gg l e i n wh i ch t h e g e n e r a l is f o r eve r be i ng a pp l i e d to the pa r t i c u l a r . S e e n i n th i s l i ght , i t ' s c l e a r t h a t w e need not f e e l obl i ga t e d t o pr onounce one o f t h e th r e e p e r s p e c t i ve s " mo r e t r u e " t h a n t h e o t he r s . O n the o ther hand , a ma s te r ' s a t t i t ud e i n th i s s phe r e m a y b e t a ken a s va l u a b l e ev i d e n c e o f h i s r e l a t i o n t o the Th i n k i n g " gene r a l - p a r t i cu l a r " que s t i on . a l ong t he s e 1 i ne s , we f i nd t h a t the r om a n t i c s , on the who l e , p e r c e i ve d che s s a s a n a r t - - ev i d en c e o f th e i r i mm e r s i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r s ; l a t e r , S t e i n i t z a n d T a r r a s ch

1 10

The Class i ca l Era

t r e a t e d che s s a s a s c i enc e - - ev i d en c e of the i r p r e d i l e c t i on f o r g e n e r a l i t i e s ; a n d L a s k e r , f i n a l l y , ph i l o s o ph i z e d a b o u t c h e s s a s s t r ugg l e - - e v i d en c e tha t h e wa s k e e n l y awa r e of th a t u n i q u e l y i mp o r t a n t m o m e n t wh en t h e g e n e r a l i s b r o u g h t d own t o t h e l eve l of the parti cular . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h i s i s a l s o t h e m o m e n t when strate g i c m a s k i n g b e c om e s a n i s s u e - - wh e n i t ' s h a rm f u l f o r i d e a l i s t s t o l o s e t h e i r bea r i ngs by v i s ua l i z i n g a s trateg ically pe r f e c t game on the hor i z on .

1 6 . Rub i nste i n Integr ati on

The gam es of S te i ni tz , Tar r a s ch, Tchi gor i n, and Las k er all bear a cer tai n aes theti c r es emblance to th os e of the r omanti cs --at leas t f r om th e s tandpoi nt of di r ect attack s and global pi ece cooper a­ ti on; m eanwhi le, the s tr ategi c s i de of thei r play has the aes theti c of logi c--of pur ely calculati ve and tech ni cal i deas . A genui ne s tr ateg i c aes th eti c, on the oth er hand, i s to be di s cer ned i n the m as ter ­ pi eces of Ak i ba R ubi ns tei n ( 1 882-1 96 1 ) , whos e concepti ons can be m os t f ully appr e­ ci ated by cons ulti ng our f eel f or out­ pos ts , weak pawns , open f i les , and all the s ubtle nuances th at com e i nto bei ng along wi th the developm ent of ches s as a s c i ence . Th i s f eatur e of R ubi ns tei n ' s play s ugges ts that he had s om ehow m e r ged the techni cal i deas of S te i ni tz and Tar r as ch wi th hi s own ex i s tenti al under ­ s tandi ng--a m er ger wh i ch wi 1 1 hencef or th be r ef er r ed to as an i nteg r ati on between the two levels of under s tandi ng w e ' ve been di s cus s i ng . R ubi ns tei n ' s i ntegr ati on was a m ove f or war d m ade pos s i ble by the f act that the vali di ty of a law of s tr ategy depends . c;·n: tli e� way_ n el. ghboi :i_n g pTec e �:- _-co o pe rat i -- w lth. the s tr ategfc r eali t y { wea·k - - pawn , open · f ile-;- · etc: )- iii- que s t-i on . The poi n t is that when R ubi n sTefn 1 s m1 nd f ocus ed on a s tr ategi c r eali ty dur i ng a gam e, h e s ens ed mor e th an a m er ely tech n i cal en t i ty ; r ather , h e ex i s tenti a ll y under s tood i t to b e t he i ntegr ated cooper ati on between th e _

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1 12

The C1ass i ca1 Era

o n c e o b j e c t i ve l y - d e f i n e d s t r a t e g i c e l e m e n t and the n e i ghbo r i n g p iece act i vi t y . In t h i s w a y , h e c ou l d f e e l i mp o r t a n t e l e m e n t s o f s t r a t e g y wh i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e t a i n i n g an alert exi s tent i a l und e r s t a n d i ng w i th respect to " s i mp l e " p i e c e coopera t i on . ( C o n s i d e r how a b l o c k a d e d i s o l a n i c a n b e f e l t i n i t s i mm o b i l i t y , o r h o w the c on t r o l of an open file can a e s th e t i c a l l y " ecl i pse " less i mp o r t a n t e ve n t s on the f ield . T he r e ' s n o d ou b t tha t s t r a te g i c r e a l i t i e s c a n b e f e l t , s o i t s h o u l d c om e a s n o s u r p r i s e tha t c e r t a i n g r e a t p l a y e r s e xc e l in th i s abi l i ty . ) In sho r t , i n t e g r a t i o n r e n d e r e d R u b i n s t e i n ' s e x i s t en ­ tial unde r s t an d i n g less s e ve r e l y m a s ke d than the early c l a s s i ca l ma s te r s bec ause h e h a d t r a n s f o rm e d a n e s s ent i a l ly dua l ­ i stic mode of thought i n to a s i ng l e ­ minded , e f f i c i ent unde rstand i n g . Kar1sbad , Janowski 1 . e4 2 . Nf 3 3 . Nc3 4 . Bb5 5 . 0-0 6 . d3 7 . be 8 . Bg5 9 . Od2 1 0 . Bc4 1 1 . Bb3 1 2 . ab 1 3 . Bh4 1 4 . Rf e l 1 5 . Bg3 ?

1 90 7 Rubi nste in e5 Nc6 Nf 6 Bb4 0-0 Bc3 d6 Oe7 Nd8 Be6 Bb3 Ne6 h6 a6 . . .

Rubinstein

1 13

h a v e r e t a i n e d a p r om i s i n g Wh i t e wou l d game a f te r the d i rect 1 5 . d 4 . C on ve r s e l y , t h e m o v e p l a y e d a l l ow s B l a c k t o s e i z e t he l i on ' s share o f k i n g s i d e s pace . 15. . . . Nb5 1 6 . d4 Nef 4 1 7 . Bf4 Nf4 1 8 . g3 Ng6 1 9 . Od3 Oe6 2 0 . Nd2 f5 2 1 . d5 Od7 2 2 . ef Rf5 2 3 . Ne4 Raf 8 24 . Re3 . . . B l a ck ' s cont r o l o f the f - f i l e c au s e s Wh i t e s om e d i s c om f o r t t h a n k s t o t h e i mp e r ­ f ec t i on c r e a t e d by 1 8 . g3 . The s t r o ng k n i ght o n e 4 s e e m s , at f i r s t s i gh t , to c o m p e n s a t e f o r mu ch o f t h i s a n n o y a n c e ; on c l o s e r i n s pect i on , howeve r , i t t u r n s ou t tha t B l a c k i s a b l e t o c ou n t e r t h e p r e s en c e of thi s k n i ght , rende r ing i ts bene f i t s i l l u s o r y - - a n d m a g n i f y i n g t he s i gni f i cance o f the f - f i l e . 24 . . Ne7 ! 2 5 . Rd l R u b i n s t e i n wou l d h a v e h a d a n o v e rwhe l m ­ i n g g a m e a f t e r t h e a l t e r n a t i v e 2 5 . c 4 , Rh 5 ; 26 . Qf l ( or 2 6 . f 3 , Nf 5 a n d . . . , Nd4 ) , N f 5 ; 2 9 . Nd 2 , N f 3 + ; 28 . f3 , R5f5 ; 2 7 . Rc 3 , Nd4 ; 3 0 . Rf 3 , Rf 3 ; 3 1 . Nf 3 , e4 etc . Kh8 25 . 2 6 . c4 Now 2 6 . . . . , Rh 5 i s u s e l e s s : 2 7 . Qf l , Nf 5 ; 2 8 . R f 3 , and t h e d i ve r s i o n i s s t o pp e d i n i ts t ra cks . F o r t u n a t e l y , t he k n i g h t h a d a n a l t e r n a t i ve m i s s i o n o n e 7 . Ng8 ! 26 Nf6 27 . f3 •

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The C1as s i ca1 Era

1 14

Ne4

2 8 . Rf l 2 9 . Qe4

are da rk s q ua r e s Wh i t e ' s queens i de m a r g i n a l l y we a k - - a s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y tha t the t h r ou g h can be made more tangible l i ve l y c oope r a t i on o f B l ack ' s queen . 29 Qd8 ! 30 . Qg4 ? ! Wh i t e d e f e n d s a g a i n s t t h e m o r e o bv i o u s o f B l a c k ' s t w o p o s s i b l e q u e e n m a neuv e r s . Qb8 ! 30 . . . . 3 1 . Kg2 Qa7 3 2 . Rfe l Qc5 33 . Qe4 Qb4 R5f6 34 . R l e 2 Kg8 3 5 . Qd3 a5 36 . Qc3 ab 3 7 . Qb4 be 3 8 . c3 39 . Rc3 amou n t s 3 9 . R a 2 , c 2 ; 4 0 . Rc 2 , R a 8 to the s ame th i n g . Ra8 39 . . . . 40 . Kh3 ? R ub i n s t e i n h a s g o t t e n a l l h e c ou l d h o p e •

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1 15

Rubinste i n

f o r out o f such a d r aw i sh open i ng . Neve r Wh i t e shou l d s t i 1 1 b e abl e to th e l e s s , 42 . f4 , ef ; 4 1 . cd , cd ; 40 . c 5 ! , Ra 3 ; ho l d : 4 5 . Kg 3 , R4 f 2 ; 44 . Re 7 , R a 2 + ; 43 . gf , Rf 4 ; 47 . K f 3 , Ra f 2 + ; 4 8 . Ke 3 , Re 2 + ; 4 6 . R c c 7 , Rg 2 + ; 4 9 . K d 3 , R e 7 ; 5 0 . R e 7 , Rh 2 ; 5 1 . R b 7 f o l l o w e d by Rd 7 ( Krn a ch ) . 40 . b6 4 1 . Kg4 Ra l Kh7 4 2 . Rb2 Kg6 43 . b4 44 . R2b3 N o w 4 4 . c 5 , R d l ; 4 5 . c b , cb ; 4 6 . R c 6 , b 5 a n d 47 , R d 5 on l y l o s e s m o r e r a p i d l y . Rf5 44 . . . . Rh l 45 . Rc2 46 . f4 The th r e a t wa s 46 , Rg 5 + ; 4 7 . Kh 3 , Rh 5 + . O the r d e f e n c e s a r e n o b e t t a r : 1 ) 4 6 . h4 , h 5 # . 2 ) 4 6 . h 3 , R g 5 + ; 4 7 . Kh 4 , R h 5 + ; 4 8 . K g 4 , R 5 h 3 , thr e a t en i ng , h5# aga in . 3 ) 4 6 . R bb 2 , h 5 + a n d . . . , R f 3 . ef 46 h5+ 4 7 . gf 48 . Kg3 Rg l + 49 . K f 2 Rg4 B1ack Won A c on s i s t e n t g a m e i n wh i c h a s e r i e s o f s e em i n g l y unr e l a ted s t r a teg i c rea l i t i es f l o w on e i n t o a n o t h e r , c r e a t i n g a p l e a s i n g l a n d s c a p e o f p o s i t i o n a l i d e a s w i th o u t a n y o bv i o u s t e chn i c a l c on n e c t i o n . -

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I n Rub i n s t e i n ' s game s , s t r a teg i c r ea l ­ ities c om e a l i ve a e s t he t i c a l l y - - j u s t as a ttacks come a l i ve in t he games of Bou rdon n a i s , S t a u n t on , and An d e r s s e n . S t i l l , t he P o l i s h m a s t e r ' s p l a y h a s a n a i r

1 16

The C1ass i ca1 Era

of f r a g i l i t y a b o u t i t - - a f e e l i ng t h a t a s i n g l e f ou n d a t i o n b l o c k o u t o f p l a c e c ou l d b r i n g the wh o l e s t r u c t u r e t u mbl i n g d own . lends th i s ch a r a c t e r i s t i c Whe r e a s Rub i n s t e i n ' s g a m e s a p e c u l i a r cha r m , it a l s o s ug g e s t s th a t h e wa s on l y a b l e t o exi s tent i a l i n tegr a te hi s succe s s fu l ly c on c e p t i o n o f a t t a ck ( wh i ch i n c o r p o r a t e s c o mb i n a t i o n s ) w i th o b j e c t i ve s t r a teg i c rea l i t i e s ; the probl em of br i n g i n g the gl oba 1 exi s t ent i a l under stand i ng i nt o thi s p i c t u r e wa s n e v e r c om p l e t e l y r e s o l ve d by R u b i n s t e i n - - wh i ch exp l a i ns hi s p e r i od i c t r ou b l e i n d e a l i n g w i t h p o s i t i o n s i n w h i ch no " s t r a t e g i c a t t a c k " c a n be c a r r i e d ou t .

1 7 . Capab1anca The F u l l y - I n t e g r a t e d Ex i s t e n t i a l U n d e r s t a n d i n g

d i splay s t r a te g i c rea l i t i e s Whe r e a s l i fe in Rub i n s t e i n ' s g a m e s , t h e y r a d i a t e he a l t h i n t h e p l a y o f L a s k e r ' s i nv i n c i b l e succe s s or , Jose Raoul Capabl anca ( 1 8881 94 2 ) . Th i s is be s t e xp l a i n e d by the hyp o t he s i s tha t Capablanca po s s e s s e d a f u l l y - i n t e gr a t e d exi s tent i a l unde r s t and­ i ng . I n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y the n a t u r e o f the great Cuban ' s s t y l e , we ' l l c o n s i d e r h i s apprec i a t i on of the v i a b i l i t y - - the h e a l th - - o f t h e c e n t r a l p a wn f o rm a t i o n s i n the f o l l ow i n g p a i r o f g a m e s . Moscow ,

1914

Capab1anca Bernste in d5 1 . d4 e6 2 . c4 Nf6 3 . Nc3 Be7 4 . Nf 3 5 . Bg5 0-0 Nbd7 6 . e3 b6 7 . Re l ed 8 . cd · I 9 . Oa4 1 1 Bb7 Ba6 1 0 . Ba6 ( \. 1 1 . Oa6 c5? ! . . . 1 2 . Bf6? ! 1 2 . 0-0 leads to a f a vo r a b l e g a m e f o r Wh i t e : 1 2 . . . . ' h6 ; 1 3 . Bh 4 , Q c 8 ; 1 4 . Q c 8 , Rac8 ; Mo s c ow , 1 5 . Ne 5 ! , G o g l i d z e - M e n ch i k , 1 93 5 . 12 . . . . Nf 6

1 18

The C1a s s i ea1 Era

be 1 3 . de Qb6 1 4 . 0-0 1 5 . Qe2 Wh i t e h a s cho s e n t o c l a r i f y t h e s i t u a ­ t i o n i n t h e c e n t e r , a n d h o p e s t o e xp l o i t t h e p o t e n t i a l l y we a k h a n g i n g p a w n s o n c 5 and d5 . Capabl anca ' s " po s i t i ona l s a cr i ­ f i ce " o n the n e x t move , howeve r , ca l ls th i s s t r a t e g y i n t o q u e s t i o n . e4 ! 15 . . . . A l t h ou gh th i s w e a k e n s B l a c k ' s c e n t e r a s a s t a t i c r e a l i t y , i t s t r e n g t h e n s i t f r om the ex i s t e n t i a l po i nt of view s i nce Bl ack ' s p ieces now c oope r a te pe r f ec t ly w i th the pawn f o rm a t i o n , wh i l e Wh i t e ' s f o r c e s a r e s u d d e n l y c r a mp e d a n d c on f u s e d . 1 6 . Rfd l ? ! . . . B e s t wa s t h e s i mp l i f y i n g 1 6 . e 4 , l e a d i n g t o a r e l a t i ve l y e v e n g a m e . 16 . . . . Rfd8 1 7 . Nd4 ? Whi t e mi s s es h i s 1 a st ch a n c e f o r the f r e e i n g p a w n m ove e 4 . •

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B l a c k ' s p a w n s on c 4 a n d d 5 a r e n ' t w e a k bec ause the Wh i t e p i e c e s d o n ' t c o o p e r a t e

Capab1 anea

1 19

" w i th " t h e m i n a n e f f e c t i ve ( a n t a g o n i s t i c ) m a n n e r ; a d m i t t e d l y , t h e k n i gh t s o n c 3 a n d d4 are in i d e a l b l o ck a d i ng p o s i t i on , but B l a c k ' s p r e s s u r e p r ev en t s t h e m f r om d o i ng a n y th i n g c o n s t r u c t i ve ( i . e . coope ra t i ng ) . C a p a b l a n c a w a s m o r e s e n s i t i ve t o t h i s t y p e o f t h i n g b e c a u s e h e ex i s t e n t i a l l y s e n s e d a p a w n · c o n f i gu r a t i o n to be a n o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y i n c o o pe r a t i o n w i t h the p i e c e s i n i t s n e i ghb o rho o d . 17 . . . Bb4 ! 1 8 . b3 ? ! Wh i t e ' s p o s i t i o n wa s g r ow i n g i n c r e a s ­ i n g l y u n c om f o r t a b l e ; s t i l l , h e s h o u l d h a ve cho s e n a m o r e p a s s i v e c o n t i n u a t i o n s u ch a s 1 8 . Qc 2 . 18 . . Rae8 1 9 . be de 2 0 . Re2 Be3 2 1 . Re3 Nd5 ! I . f o r 2 2 . Rc4 f a i l s aga i n st 2 2 Nc 3 . e3 2 2 . Re2 Re5 2 3 . Rde l Re6 24 . Nb3 Re7 2 5 . Nd4 Re5 2 6 . Nb5 . . . 2 7 . Ne3 ? H e s h o u l d h a ve r e t u r ne d t o d 4 , f o r c i n g B l a c k t o p r ov e t h e w i n . Ne 3 27 . . . . Re3 2 8 . Re3 Ob2 ! 2 9 . Re3 30 . Res igns •

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play a l m o s t a l wa y s ch o s e t o T a rr a sch w i t h a n i s o l a t e d q u e e n p a wn , c ou n t i n g on t h e s p a t i a l a d v a n t a g e i t p r ov i d e d f o r the m i d d l e g a m e s t r u gg l e ; c o nve r s e l y , S t e i n i tz

The C1as s i ca1 Era

1 20

p r e f e r r e d to p l a y a g a i n s t s t a t i c we a k n e s s ­ e s , a d d i n g t h e m u p l i k e mon e y i n a b a nk ; i n t e gr a te d under­ f i na l l y , Capablanca ' s s t a n d i n g move d beyond hi s p r edece s s o r s ' i n f l ex i b i l i t y by a pp r e c i a t i n g the p i ece coope r a t i on that makes a s t r a t e g i c r ea l i t y e i the r s t r ong o r we a k - - a n d wa s c o n s e q u e n t ­ l y a b l e t o wo r k b o t h s i d e s o f t h i s c on t r o ­ ve r s y e f f e c t i ve l y . In th i s regard , c omp a r e t h e C u b a n ' s p l a y i n t h e l a s t g a m e ( wi th an i s o l a n i in effect ) w i th his c l a s s i c e x p l o i t a t i o n o f p awn w e a k ne s s e s i n t h e f o l l ow i n g h i s t o r i c e n c o u n t e r . r

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Wor1d Champ i onsh i p Match Havana , 1 9 2 1

Lasker Capab1anca 1 . d4 d5 2 . c4 e6 3 . Nc3 Nf6 4 . Bg5 Be7 5 . e3 0-0 6 . Nf 3 Nbd7 7 . Qc2 cs 8 . Rd l Qa5 9 . Bd 3 h6 1 0 . Bh4 cd 1 1 . ed de 1 2 . Bc4 Nb6 1 3 . Bb3 Bd7 1 4 . 0-0 Race 1 5 . Ne5 Bb5 1 6 . Rf e l Nbd5 1 7 . Bd5 ? . . . Th i s i n i t i a t e s a c omb i n a t i o n d e s i g n e d t o s a d d l e B l a c k w i th a p a wn we a k n e s s o f h i s own . A l t h o u g h t h i s p l a n i s , t e ch n i ca l ly , Lasker ha s feas i ble , mi ssed the

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Capab1anca

121

as be f a c t t h a t B l a c k ' s w e a k ne s s won ' t p awn - - a n q u e en exp l o i t a b l e as Wh i t e ' s by gr a s ped an i n s i gh t mo s t ea s i ly i n t e gr a t e d und e r s t a n d i n g . L a t e r a n a l y s i s r ev e a l e d t h e b e s t c on ­ t i n u a t i o n t o b e 1 7 . B f 6 ! , B f 6 ( B l a c k a c t ua l l y loses a f te r 17 , Nf 6 ? ; 1 8 . Ng 6 ! , f g ; 1 9 . Re 6 , or 18 , RfeB ; 1 9 . Re 6 ! , f e ; 2 2 . Qh 7 + , Nh 7 ; 2 1 . N f 8 + , Kh 8 ; 2 0 . B e 6 + , Kh 7 ; 1 9 . Qf5 1 8 . Bd 5 , ed ; ( Breye r ) . ) ; 2 3 . Ng 6 # ( B r e y e r ) , Bc 6 w i th even chanc e s . 17. . Nd5 Ne7 1 8 . Be7 1 9 . Ob3 Bc6 The a l t e r n a t i ve a l l ow s Wh i t e t o s t e e r the g a m e s a f e l y t o wa r d s a d r a w : 19 . . . . , 2 2 . Na 6 , Q a 6 ; 2 0 . Nd 7 , R f d 8 ; 2 1 . Nc 5 , b6 ; Ba6 ; 2 3 . d5 etc . be 2 0 . Nc6 Qb6 2 1 . Re5 Rfd8 2 2 . Qc2 Rd5 2 3 . Ne2 It ' s a l r ea d y ev i d e n t tha t B l a ck ' s p o s i t i on i s h e a l th i e r , a s Wh i t e ' s p ieces are s i n gu l a r l y i n e f f e c t i ve aga i ns t the exi s tent i a l ly r em o t e p awn at c6 . Now , a f t e r a n u p h i l l s t r u gg l e , L a s k e r i s e v e n f o r c e d t o r i d B l a c k o f t h i s m i no r w e a k n e s s s i nce h i s own q u e e n p aw n wou l d b e lost a f ter 2 4 . R e 3 , N f 5 ; 2 5 . R b 3 , Q d 8 ; 2 6 . Rb 4 , Q d 7 ; 2 7 . Rc 4 , e 5 ( 2 8 . Q c 3 , ed ; 2 9 . Nd4 ? , Rd 8 ) . 24 . Rd5 cd Nf5 2 5 . Od2 h5 ? 2 6 . b3 Th i s g i v e s Wh i t e a ch a n c e t o ho l d the end ing a f te r 2 7 . Ng 3 ! , N g 3 ; 2 8 . hg ( Bogo lyu­ b ov ) . Once Lasker mi sses th i s f inal o pp o r t u n i t y , t he a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e f r om a s e c u r e k n i ght on f 5 g o e s on t o m a k e a l l .

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122

The C1ass i ca 1 Era

the d i f f e r en c e . 2 7 . h3 ? 2 8 . Qd3 2 9 . Kf l 30 . Oh l 3 1 . Kg l 3 2 . Ob2 3 3 . Od 2 34 . Rd2 3 5 . ab 36 . Rd3

h4 ! Rc6 g6 Ob4 a5 ! a4 Od 2 ab Rb6 Ra6

Capabl anca ' s grea t endgame p r ow e s s s t e mm e d l a rg e l y f r o m h i s p r o f ou n d a p p r e c i ­ a t i o n o f p o s i t i o n s l i k e th i s , wh i ch c a l l f o r e f f e c t i ve p i e c e p l a y a g a i n s t o pp o s i n g w e a k n e s s e s - - th e k i n d o f m a n e uve r i n g th a t ut i l i z e s k e y p o i n t s a s " s t r a teg i c s p r i ng­ b o a r d s I I f a n d i s t he r e f o r e m o s t e f f e c t i V e l y a pp r e h e n d e d b y a f u l l y - i n t e g r a t e d e x i s t e n ­ t i a l understan d i ng . 3 7 . g4 hg 3 8 . fg Ra2 3 9 . Nc3 Rc 2 40 . Nd l Ne7 4 1 . Ne3 Re l +

1 23

Capab1 anca

42 . Kf2 Nc6 Rb l 43 . Nd l 44 . Ke2 O f no a va i l w a s 4 4 . K e l , N a 5 . 44 . . Rb3 45 . Ke3 Rb4 46 . Nc3 Ne7 47 . Ne 2 Nf 5+ 48 . K f 2 g5 49 . g4 Nd6 50 . Ng l Ne4+ 5 1 . Kf l Rb l + 5 2 . Kg2 Rb2 + 5 3 . Kf l Rf 2 + 54 . Ke l Ra 2 5 5 . Kf l Kg7 56 . Re3 Kg6 5 7 . Rd3 f6 5 8 . Re3 Kf7 5 9 . Rd3 Ke7 6 0 . Re3 Kd6 6 1 . Rd3 Rf2+ ' 6 2 . Ke l Rg2 6 3 . Kf l Ra2 64 . Re3 e5 6 5 . Rd3 ed 66 . Rd4 Kc5 6 7 . Rd l d4 6 8 . Re l + Kd5 6 9 . Res i gns . i n v i ew o f the thr ea t ened 6 9 , Ng 3 + ; 7 0 . K e l , R g 2 . A r em a r k a b l y c o n s i s t e n t g a m e , e a ch move of wh i ch h i g h l i gh t s t h e p l i g h t of Wh i t e ' s p a w n w e a k ne s s e s a e s t h e t i c a l l y . •

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W i t h C a p a b l a n c a , we m u s t b e a r i n m i n d - ­ mo r e t h a n eve r b e f o r e - - th a t wha t h a p p e n e d o n t h e b o a r d i n h i s cha r a c t e r i s t i c g a m e s

1 24

The C1ass i ca1 Era

shou l d b e r e g a r d e d a s a m e r e s ymp t om o f the m o d e l we ' ve b u i l t f o r h i s ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t a nd i ng ; indeed , the grea test ev i d e n c e th a t the C ub a n had ove r c om e s t r a t e g i c m a s k i n g i s the s o l i d i t y o f h i s play f r om an o ve r - a l l , c a r ee r perspec­ t i ve - - a f e a t u r e a cc e ntua ted b y the f a c t th a t t a c t i c s a r e m o s t l i k e l y t o o c c u r i n t h e n e i gh b o r h o o d o f s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a t e g i c rea l i t i e s ( p r e c i s e l y whe r e a n i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r s t a nd i ng i s mo s t k e e n l y f oc u s e d ) . T o s umm a r i z e t h e l a s t t wo ch a p t e r s , we m a y c h a r a c t e r i z e an i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r s t a n d ­ ing as o n e wh i ch h a s c omb i n e d r om a n t i c exi s t ent i a l under s t and i ng the w i th e l e m e n t s o f che s s s c i e n c e b y c o n c e p t u a l i z ­ i ng the board as a " te r r a i n " o f p i ece coope r a t i on wi th " h i l l s " and " va l l eys " a t strateg i c rea l i t i es . Th i s produced a s i n g l e , un i f i e d v i e w of t h e g a m e wh i ch boasted a p r o f ound f ee l for s t r a t e gy w i thou t the p r obl ems o f s t r a t e g i c ma s k i n g .

IV . THE MODERN GAME ( 1927-1957 ) I ND I V I DUAL I T Y AND C H ARAC T E R 1 8 . Nimzovich Respons i b i l i ty

Let ' s b e g i n ou r d i s c u s s i o n o f m od e r n che s s w i t h a b r i e f ph i l o s o ph i c a l a s i d e . Whe n ou r a n c e s t o r s - - i n the ea r l iest s t ages of c i v i l i z a t i o n - - we r e pres ented w i t h a n e t h i c a l p r o b l e m , th e y s e a r ch e d f o r a s o l u t i on i n the preva i l i n g mor a l c o d e o f the d a y . Thu s whe n a n i n d i v i d u a l w a s c on ­ fronted w i th a n o pp o r t u n i t y to s a fe ly b r e a k a l aw , he d i d n ' t p r i m a r i l y c on s i d e r the a d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a dv a n t a g e s i nv o l ve d i n s u ch a n a c t ; r a th e r , he cons u l t e d a s a c r e d " b ook o f l aw s " ( though n o t a l wa y s l iterally ) , and p r omp t l y i nv i t e d it to make t h e d e c i s i on f o r h i m . It ' s c l ear th a t s u ch a p e r s on - - o n e who l i ve s w i t h i n an es tabl i shed mo r a l t r ad i t i on - -ha s st rayed f r om the bu r d e n s t h a t c om e w i t h a dm i t t e d l y , person a l respons ibi l i ty ; he h a s t e chn i c a l l y m a d e a d e c i s i o n t o a l l ow a mo r a l code to g u i d e h i s wa y , b u t th i s yields a me r e a c a d em i c a c c ou n t a b i l i t y - ­ n o t h i n g th r o ugh wh i ch h e c o u l d exp e r i en c e f u l l , ex i s t e n t i a l res pons i b i l i t y for h i s l i fe . i n hi s t o ry , once our ancestors Late r began to r e a l i z e tha t m o r a l l aw s a r e n ' t ( s i n c e t h e y h a ve t h e m s e l ve s binding in all , created by hum a n i t y ) , a f te r been , the y e n t e r e d a n e r a i n whi ch r e s p o n s i b i 1 i ­ t y c o u l d b e exp e r i e n c e d mo r e int ima tely ,

1 26

The Modern Game

pr a c t i c a l mo r e b e c a me and c o n s e qu e n t l y ( S u ch a m e t a m o r ph o s i s d e c i s i o n -m a k e r s . l aw s mo r a l bec ause p o s s i bl e only wa s a r en ' t g r o u n d e d i n t r u th , b u t a r e r a th e r mo l d e d w i th wh i ch evo l u t i o n h a s " t oo l s " of a s p ec t s s ub j e c t i ve hope l es s l y the o b j e c t i ve s o m e th i n g i nt o d ec i s i on -mak i n g tha t can t i e a s o c i e t y a n d c omm u n i c a b l e together . ) Th i s en c ou n t e r w i t h r e s p o n s i ­ as i n t h e f o rm k n o w n b i l i t y - - e s p ec i a l l y a nx i e t y - - c a n b e p a r t i c u l a r l y t r ou b l i n g f o r m o d e r n m a n b e c au s e we ' ve b e e n b r e d i n a wo r l d tha t t r a d i t i on a l l y a d he r e s to an o b j e c t i ve m o r a l c od e . Wh a t d o e s a n y o f t h i s h a v e t o d o w i t h che s s ? D i r e c t l y , n o th i ng ; b u t i n d i r e c t l y , i t i n d i c a t e s a w a y i n wh i ch we m a y p r o c e e d a f te r ou r d i s c u s s i on o f t h e ful ly- i nte­ gr a t e d ex i s t en t i a l unde r s t a n d i n g . C he s s i s , u l t i ma t e l y , s ub j e c t t o pu r e c a l c u l a t i o n ; o b j e c t i ve l y , i t ha s n o th i ng t o d o w i th t h e evo l u t i on we ' ve b e e n f o l ­ l ow i n g . Thu s e x i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s n o th i n g mor e th a n a " t oo l " tha t h um a n b e i n g s u s e t o th i n k a b ou t c h e s s m o r e e f f i ­ c i en t l y . ( A l l ud i n g t o o u r p h i l o s o ph i c a l aside , o n e m i ght s a y t h a t t h e wo r l d of e x i s t e n t i a l che s s i s a s s ub j e c t i ve a s t h e m o r a l wo r l d . ) And s i n c e C a p a b l a n c a ' s wa s the f i r s t unde r s t an d ing to make s t r a teg i c r e a l i t i e s c omp l e t e l y a c c e s s i b l e t o exi s ­ tent i a l t h o u g h t , t h e t i me o f h i s p r om i ­ n e n c e wa s r i p e f o r pl ayers o f gen i u s to expr e s s the i r r e s p o ns i b i l i t y f o r che s s t h r o u g h c r e a t i ve p o s i t i o n a l p l a y . I t s h ou l d b e n o t e d tha t we ' r e i n d a n g e r o f f a l l i n g i n t o a t r i v i a l i t y by r e d u c i n g a n e x i s t e n t i a l c on c e p t - - r e s p o n s i b i l i t y - - t o m e r e t e chn i c a l d a t a ; for wha t c o u l d b e

1 27

Nimzovi ch

c ou l d b e) m o r e o bv i ou s t h a n t h e f a c t th a t B u t i n the eve r y o n e m a k e s h i s own m ove s ? s ense , r espons i b i l i ty is a exi s te n t i a l t r a i t whe r e by a p l a y e r e mp l o y s h i s r o l e a s the " c u r a t o r " o f s t r a t e g i c r ea l i t i e s to the f u l l e s t p o s s i b l e e x t e n t . How , spec i f i ca l ly , wi l l r espons i b i l i ty be man i f e s t e d i n a p l ayer ' s s t y l e ? As the f l ex i b i l i t y t o e mp l o y s t r i k i n g l y o r i g i n a l s t r a t e g i c c o n c e p t i o n s ove r - th e - b oa r d - - a s a t en d e n c y t o p l a y l e s s a cc o r d i n g t o u s e d , p r e - c on c e i ve d pl ans . The s e cha r a c t e r i s ­ t i c s a r e p r om i n e n t i n t h e g a m e s a n d o p e n ­ i n g s y s t e m s o f A r on N i mz o v i ch ( 1 8 8 6 - 1 9 3 S ) , the m o s t o bv i ou s case b e i n g the N i mz o ­ I n d i a n D e f en c e ( 1 . d 4 , N f 6 ; 2 . c 4 , e 6 ; 3 . N c 3 , Bb4 ) , whe r e B l a c k r e s e rv e s h i s o p t i o n s a s t o how h e w i l l f i n a l l y post hi s center p aw n s u n t i l Wh i t e h a s m a d e s om e s o r t of c omm i t me n t ( p o s s i bl e f o rma t i o n s b e i n g a s , d 6 and e s , c s and b6 , Ne4 a n d f S , c s and d6 and e s , etc . ) . Th i s s h o u l d b e c omp a r e d w i t h T ch i g o r i n ' s o r i g i n a l o p e n i n g s chem e s , whe r e the fate of the c en t r a l p awn structure i s c o mm i t t e d f r om the f i rst move s ; for i n stance , in the Old I n d i a n De f ence - - a f te r the p r e pa r a to r y l . d4 , Nf6 ; 2 . c4 , d6 --Bl ack wi ll a lmo s t i n va r i a b l y f o l l o w - u p w i t h a t i me l y . . . , e s . C on s i d e r f u r th e r N i m z ov i ch ' s i n vo l ve d and or i g ina l p l an of r e st r a i nt in the f o l l ow i n g f a m o u s g a m e . Dresden , Johner 1 . d4 2 . c4

1 926 Nimzovich Nf6 e6

The Modern Game

1 28 3. 4. 5. 6.

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8 . be d6 Now t h a t B l a c k h a s exch a n g e d h i s d a r k ­ s q ua r e d b i shop and d ou b l e d Wh i t e ' s c - p a w n s , he f e e l s j u s t i f i e d i n p l a c i n g h i s own p aw n s on d a r k s q ua r e s - - s i mu l t a n e ou s l y bl ocka d i ng h i s opponent ' s weakne s s . 9 . Nd 2 b6 1 0 . Nb3 ? 1 0 . f4 , e5 ; N i m z o v i ch l a te r s u gg e s t e d 1 1 . f e , de ; 1 2 . d 5 , Na 5 ; 1 3 . Nb 3 , Nb 7 ; 1 4 . e4 , Ne 8 w i th a b a l a n c e d g a m e . As wi 11 s o on be ev i d e n t , t h e m o v e p l a y e d l e a v e s e 4 u n d e r ­ p r o t e c t e d a t a n i n o pp o r t u n e m o m e n t . 10 . e5 1 1 . f4 Now 1 1 . d 5 , e4 ! ; 1 2 . Be 2 , Ne 5 p r om i s e s B l a c k a n exc e l l e n t g a m e . 11 e4 1 2 . Be2 •

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Ni•zovich

1 29

S ince N i m z ov i ch wa s e x i s t e n t i a l l y i n ­ t o u ch w i t h h i s respons i b i l i ty , .hi s m i n d wa s m o r e o p e n- t o . t oe!_ c r e a t i on o f u n i que r e_a 1_i._� i E:!_s . c strate i n --- ms·----posTETon� - fo -- g1 r e x a m p l e ; a k i n g s i d e r e s t r a i n i n g a c t i on w i l l b e i mp l e m e n t e d th r ou g h a n a e s t he t i c ­ ally pleas ing r e g r o u p i ng of B l a ck ' s p i eces . Or , to speak in t e rm s we ' ve a l r e a d y u s e d i n ou r d i s c u s s i o n o f c l a s s i c ­ a l che s s , N i m z ov i ch ' s p i e c e s a r e a b o u t t o e n t e r i n t o c o o p e r a t i on w i t h a n o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y - - on e , howe v e r , wh i ch h a s y e t t o be " bo rn " . T h i s t yp e o f i n t e gr a ­ t i on pl aces a g r e a t e r empha s i s o n p i e c e c oo p e r a t i o n a s the g r o u n d o f t h e a pp r oa ch ­ ing s t rateg i c r ea l i ty ; and , s i nce coopera­ t i on i s a n exi s t ent i a l , e s s e nt i a l l y s ub­ j e c t i ve phe n o m e n o n , s u ch a p l a n i s mos t e a s i l y d i s c ove r e d by a m i n d tha t h a s c ome to g r i p s w i t h i t s r e s p on s i b i l i t y f o r the e x i s t en c e of s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s on the e x i s t e n t i a l l e ve l . 12 . . . Od7 ! 1 3 . h3 Ne7 1 4 . Qe l ? ! . . . Mo r e r e s i l i e n t wa s 1 4 . B d 2 , N f 5 ; 1 5 . Q e l , g6 ; 1 6 . g 4 , Ng 7 ; 1 7 . Qh 4 , N f e 8 ; 1 8 . a4 , f5 ; 1 9 . g5 , Nc7 ( N i mz ov i ch ) , whe n B l a c k e n j o y s an e dge , th ough the p o s i t i on rema i ns r a th e r l o c k e d - u p . The move a c t u a l l y p l a y e d a l l o w s B l ack t o p e r m a n e n t l y p r e v e n t Wh i t e ' s g 4 , t he r e by r e t a i n i n g t h e a d va n t a g e o n b o t h f l a n k s . h5 ! 14 . . . 1 5 . Bd 2 1 7 . Q h 5 , Ng 3 1 6 . Q g 5 ? , Nh 7 ; 1 5 . Qh4 ? , N f 5 ; on l y g e t s Wh i t e i n t o d e e p e r t r o u b l e . Of5 ! 15 . . . Qh7 ! 1 6 . Kh2 __

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The Modern Game

1 30

Nf 5 1 7 . a4 1 9 . h g , hg + ; 1 8 . . . . , Ng4+ ; Th r e a t e n i n g 2 0 . Kg l , g 3 . -! 1 8 . g3 \ �5 th i s in move t yp i c a l a Nowa d a ys va r i a t i on . Nb6 1 9 . Rg l Bd7 2 0 . Bf l 2 1 . Be l -��� 2 2 . d5 Kh8 Now th a t t h e c e n t e r ha s b e e n s e c u r e d , t h e d e c i s i ve N i m z ov i ch p r o c ee d s t owa r d brea k on the k i n g s i d e . 2 3 . Nd 2 Rg8 24 . Bg2 g5 2 5 . Nf l Rg7 2 6 . Ra 2 Nf5 2 7 . Bb l Rcg8 2 8 . Qd l gf 2 9 . ef Bc8 3 0 . Qb3 Ba6 3 1 . Re2 The p a s s i ve de f ence is no bet te r : 3 1 . Bd 2 , Rg6 ; 3 2 . Be l , Ng4+ ! ; 3 3 . hg , hg + ; 3 4 . K g 2 , B_s: .t(I ; 3 5 . Q c 4 , e 3 ! a n d . . . , Q h 3 # . J\ 31 . . Nh4 . . . 3 2 . Re3 The pr imary a l t e r n a t i ve l e ads to a pret ty queen s a cr i f i ce : 3 2 . Nd 2 , Bc 8 ; 3 3 . N e 4 , Q f 5 ; 3 4 . N f 2 , Q h 3 + ! ; 3 5 . Nh 3 , Ng 4 # . 32 . Bc8 3 3 . Qc 2 Bb3 ! 34 . Be4 3 4 . Kh 3 , Q f 5 + ; 3 5 . K h 2 , Ng 4 + is o bv i o u s l y futi le . 34 . Bf5 3 5 . Bf5 Nf5 36 . Re2 h4 3 7 . Rgg2 hg+

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Whe n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s f i r s t e n c ou n t e r ­ ed ex i s t e nt i a l ly , the resu l t ing a nx i e t y can be parti cularly t r ou b l i n g ( a d i l e mm a th a t , ak i n to Ivan K a r a!!! �-�_QV ' !f3 ],_�m e IJ,_t � r y t h i f1_g_ !_� J�_� r m i!_t e_5L " - - a r e c o g n i t i o n tha t t he r e ' s no o b j e c t i ve gr o u n d of m o r a l i t y , b u t o n e a c c omp a n i e d b y a n a gg i n g f ee l i n g tha t t he r e ' s sti ll a u n i ve -r- s-- a l r i-�­ l e g i s l a t o r , o n l y he ' s n o t o n the j ob : s u ch c a s es ' a nx i et y t en d s to man i f e st i t s e l f a s lack of d i rect i on , i nd e c i s i on , and uncert a i nty . As a c o n s e q u en c e , N i m z o v i ch - - o n e of the f i rst masters to r e s p o n s i b i l i t y - - o sc i l l a t e d exp e r i en c e between the phe n om e n o n and emp l o y i ng ge n e r a l i z i ng i t s i n s i gh t s i nt o s t r a teg i c l aw s - - e n t i t i e s tha t c a n a t b e s t r e f l ect the r ad i ca l ly s u b j e c t i ve nature of Th i s i s why N i m z ov i ch w a s respons i bi l i ty . t h e l a s t g r e a t l a w - g i ve r o f c he s s - - b e c a u s e l e a d i n g ma s t e r s s i n c e h i s d a y h a ve m o v e d b e y o n d a nx i e t y t o a d ee p e r , m o r e a u t h e n t i c r e l a t i on wi th r e s pons i b i l i t y . __

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1 9 . A1ekhine The I n i t i a t i ve

gen i u s L i k e N i m z o v i ch , the c r e a t i ve a lso A l ex a n d e r ( 1 8 92 - 1 946 ) A l e kh i n e t h r o u gh hi s res pons i b i l i t y exp r e s s e d s t r a t e g i c f l ex i b i l i t y - - th o u g h a t t i m e s i n a n e s s en t i a l l y d i f f e rent manne r , a s i n the f o l l ow i n g g a m e . The Hague ,

1921

A1ekhine Rub i nstein d5 1 . d4 e6 2 . Nf3 a6? 3 . c4 Nc6 4 . c5 ! The b a t t l e n o w c i r c l e s a r ou n d B l a c k ' s des i re to play . . . , es . A s w e sha l l s e e , s u ch a p l a n i s no t f e a s i b l e , a n d t h e r e f o r e Wh i t e ' s f o u r th move m a y b e cons i dered a r e f u t a t i o n o f B l a ck ' s t h i r d . 5 . Bf4 Nge7 6 . Nc3 Ng6

1 33

A1ekh i ne

7 . Be3 ! Wh i t e vo l u n t a r i l y r e l i nq u i s h e s h i s i r on bl ockad e on e 5 , suddenly ch a n g i n g the exi s tent i a l f ea tures o f t h e c e n t r a l p a wn ma s s - - f o r now the a g e n t o f r e s t r a i n t i s pressure on d 4 and d 5 . R a the r th a n b r i n g ­ i n g a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s e l i ght t o b e a r on the p a wn structure ( as Capabl anca ' s p l a y wa s a p t t o d o ) , A l e kh i n e ' s o r i g i n a l p l a n i n th i s g a me s u c c e s s i v e l y h i g h l i g h t s ent i r e l y new f a ce t s o f the pos i t i on . It f o l l ow s tha t Wh i t e ' s p i e c e c o o p e r a t i on i s n ' t m e r e l y c r e a t i ng a n o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e ­ gic r e a l i t y ( a s N i m z ov i ch ' s d i d i n the l a s t ch a p te r ) , but i s crea t i ng and re­ u n ch a n g i n g p awn f o rm a t i on o n c r e a t i ng an the e x i s t e n t i a l l ev e l . 7. . . b6 8 . cb cb 9 . h4 ! Th i s e n e r g e t i c t h r u s t on a n e w f r on t once aga in t r a n s f o rm s the nature of Wh i t e ' s c a mp a i g n b y a pp en d i n g a vu l n e r a b l e d a r k s q u a r e c o mp l ex t o B l a c k. ' s wo r r i e s i n the c en t e r . 9. Bd6 P e r h a p s b e t t e r wa s 9 . . . . , h 5 , a l th ough Wh i t e wou l d st i 1 1. r e t a i n t h e u pp e r h a n d a f t e r 1 0 . Bg 5 , f 6 ; 1 1 . Q c 2 , wi th Bd 2 , e 3 , a 3 , a n d B d 3 t o f o l l ow ( A l e kh i n e ) . Nge7 1 0 . h5 g6 1 1 . h6 ! 0-0 1 2 . Bg5 1 3 . Bf6 ! B y n o t d e a l i n g w i th the c e n t r a l p a wn ma s s a s a f i xe d , t e ch n i c a l r e a l i t y , b u t a s one tha t c a n b e u s e f u l l y r e - c r e a te d ex i s ­ tent i a l l y , A l e kh i n e h a s a l r e a d y o b t a i n e d a n ove r whe l m i n g a d va n t a g e . .

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The Modern Game

1 34

b5 13 . . . . Bd7 1 4 . e3 Rc8 1 5 . Bd3 b4 1 6 . a4 Ob6 1 7 . Ne2 . . . 1 8 . Nc l ! Wh i t e d o e s n ' t play for the o bv i ou s k i n g s i d e a t t a c k , b u t c on s i s t e n t l y c a r r i e s o u t h i s g e ne r a l p l a n o f r e s t r a i n t . Rc7 18 . Na5 1 9 . Nb3 Nc4 2 0 . Nc5 ! Of no ava i l are the a l t e r n a t i ve s 20 , B c S ; 2 1 . d c , Q c 5 ; 2 2 . B d 4 , Q c 6 ; 2 3 . Ne 5 , Qb7 ; 2 4 . Ng 4 and 20 , Bc S ; 2 1 . N e 5 , Bc 5 ; 2 2 . d e , Q c 5 ; 2 3 . N g 4 ( th r e a t e n i n g B d 4 ) . Note espec i a l ly the m e t a m o r ph o s e s of Bl ack ' s w e a k d a r k s qu a r e c omp l e x i n t h e s e l i n e s . - 2 i . :Bc4 de 2 2 . Ne5 Mo r e e f f i c i e n t w ou l d h a v e b e en 2 2 . N e 4 , w i t h t h e i d e a o f 2 3 . Nd 6 , Q d 6 ; 2 4 . B e S , n o t t o m e n t i on B g 7 a n d N f 6 # ( A l e k h i ne ) . 22 Be5 2 3 . Be7 ! Winn i ng the exch a n g e - - a n d e ve n t u a l l y t h e g a m e - - s i n c e the m e c h a n i c a l 2 3 , Re8 ; 2 4 . d e , Re 7 ; 2 5 . Ne 4 ! l o s e s qu i ck l y : 1 ) 25 , fS ; 2 6 . Q d 6 , Bc 6 ; 2 7 . Nf 6 + , K f 7 ; 2 8 . Q d S ! , B e 8 ; 2 9 . Nh 7 ( A l e kh i n e ) , o r 2 ) 25 , Be S ; 2 6 . N f 6 + , Kh 8 ; 2 7 . Q d 8 , Rb 7 ; 2 8 . R d l , Q c 6 ; 2 9 . 0 - 0 ( A l e kh i n e ) . Whi te Won •

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� Whe n , i n t h e m o r a l s phe r e , a m a n h a s encountered h i s respons i b i l i t y but s t i l l l on g s f o r o b j e c t i ve l aw s t o g u i d e h i s w a y , he ' s c a ug h t i n a nx i e t y ; i f , howeve r , he ha s moved b e y on d th i s s t a t e to e mb r a c e t h e

A1ekhine

1 35

o p t i o n t o c r e a t e h i s own va l ue s , h e m a y b e s a i d t o be t r u l y f r e e . In a n anal ogous m a nn e r , A l e kh i n e o v e r c am e the s t a te of a nx i e t y b y e n t e r i n g a r e a l m o f e x i s t e n t i a l t h o u g h t wh i ch h a d b r o k e n f r e e o f a l l t e ch ­ ---- --- · ----·--···--- - · ·-·------�·- - ·---- ·-·· n i c a l restra i nt . . Whe n a p fii-ye_r l oo k s a he a d i n a g a m e , he p o n d e r s a n u mb e r of s u b s e q u e n t , d i st inct p o s i t i o n s , he n c e e mp l o y s h i s ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t a nd i ng in s e ve r a l d i f f erent con­ texts . Class i cally , the on l y un i t y b e t w e e n the s e " ex i s t e n t i a l s n a p sh o t s " i s the wh a t ' s o b j e c t i ve l y - - t e chn i c a l l y - - on b o a r d ; o n l y i n t h e g a m e s of A l e kh i n e do we exi s tent i a l ly f ind a ma s t e r ca pabl e of s e n s i n g the f l ow t h r o u g h the s e i n d e p e n d e n t pos i t i ons . H e t he r e f o r e h a d a b e t t e r f ee l for how the cont i nuous coope r a t i on of pieces s uppo r t strate g i c rea l i t i e s f r om move t o move , how t h e s e i n t e g r a t e d r e a l ­ ities change s ub t l y as the s i t ua t i on p r o g r e s s e s , a n d e v e n how t h e y d e p e n d f o r the i r e x i s t e n t i a l e x i s t e n c e o n the p l a y o f n e i ghb o r i n g p i e c e s . C a pabl anc a ' s c on c e p t i o n of a g i ve n s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y wa s who l l y e x i s t e n t i a l , he n c e he wa s c omp l e t e l y r e s p on s i b l e f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f wha t h e s e n s e d . A l e kh i ne moved a step f u r the r by u n c on s c i o u s l y r e c o g n i z i n g t h i s p h e n o m e n o n , a n d wa s e v e n a b l e t o e n t e r t a i n s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s th a t " a l ter-egos " in c l e a r l y - de f i ned no have the wo r l d o f t e chn i c a l l aw s ( a s o pp o s e d t o wh i ch c on c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s , Capabl a nca ' s o bj e c t i ve , to tied- in i n va r i a bl y we r e as s u ch e l em e n t s strategi c we l l - d e f i ned i s o l a t e d p a w n s , o p en f i l e s , a n d s o f o r th ) . o f t en f i nd t r a n s i ent Th i s i s why we c a n strateg i c rea l i t i es ( cl a ss i c a l l y ins i gni f -

1 36

The Modern Game

i c a n t f ea t u r e s t h a t b e c om e a e s t he t i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o i n t e g r a t e d e l e m e n t s f o r a f ew move s ) p l a y i n g a n i mp o r t a n t r o l e i n th a t s t r a n g e l y e l u s i ve ch a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m o d e r n che s s - - th e i n i t i a t i v e . Mannhe im ,

1 9 14

Fahrn i A1ekhine e6 1 . e4 d5 2 . d4 Nf6 3 . Nc3 Be7 4 . Bg5 Nf d7 5 . e5 Bg5 6 . h4 ! ? 7 . hg Qg5 Qe7 8 . Nh3 9 . Nf4 Nf8? Mod e r n the o r y r e c omm e n d s 9 . . . . , a6 ; 1 0 . Qg4 , g 6 ; 1 1 . 0 - 0 -0 , a l l ow i n g Wh i t e no m o r e t h a n a d e q u a t e c omp en s a t i o n for the s a c r i f i c e d p a wn . 1 0 . Qg4 ! A s t r a i gh t - f o r wa r d move wh i c h t h r e a t e n s N d 5 , a s we l l a s t h e m o r e o bv i o u s Q g 7 . Note how Wh i t e ' s i n i t i a t i ve doesn ' t stem f r om how h i s p i e c e s c oo p e r a t e w i t h the cent r a l p a wn c h a i n ; c o n ve r s e l y , h i s p i e c e s c oo p e r a t e t o g e t h e r f r e e l y - - i n s p i te of the p a wn c h a i n - - a n d i mp o s e t r a n s i e n t s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s on the boa rd . Thu s i ns i gn i f i c a n t c 8 -h3 the class i c a l ly d i a g on a l w i l l p r ov i d e a n i mp o r t a n t s p r i n g ­ b o a r d f o r A l e k h i n e ' s i n i t i a t i ve ; a n d e v e n mo r e i n s t r u c t i ve l y , B l a c k ' s p a w n a t d 5 - ­ the f a r the s t t h i n g f r om a c l a s s i c a l we a k ­ ne s s - - i s d e s t i n e d t o b e a v i c t i m f o r t h e bu l k of the ba t t l e . 10 . . . . f5 •

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A1ekh i ne

1 1 . ef gf c6 1 2 . 0-0-0 Wh i t e w a s t h r e a t e n i n g N d 5 a g a i n . 1 3 . Re l Kd8 A f t e r 1 3 . . . . , Bd ? , the s t o ck s a c r i f i c e 1 4 . N f d 5 ! , c d ; 1 5 . Nd 5 wou l d b e d e v a s t a t i n g . es 1 4 . Rh6 ! 1 5 . Oh4 Nbd7 e4 1 6 . Bd3 1 7 . Og3 ! P r e p a r i n g o u r o l d f r i e n d Nd 5 , a m ove wh i ch h a s d e v e l o p e d new r a m i f i c a t i o n s due t o t h e s p e c i f i c s of t h e p o s i t i on - -_(:i k i n d o f - - mu t a t i o n th a t ' s f a m i l i a r t o t h e wo r l d - -· - ·o f th e· Tn1 t r a t 1 V e . O n 6� - a g a l n , Bl ack ' s p aw n at d5 ha s p r ov e n vu l ne r a b l e - - s u gg e s t i n g tha t A l e kh i n e wa s able to c o n c e p t ua l i z e a stra teg i c rea l i ty on a p l a ne who l l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f wha t ' s o b j e c t i ve l y o n the boa rd . 17 . Of 7 1 8 . Be 4 ! , d e ; 1 9 . R e4 , Or : 17 , Qd 6 ? ; wi th Qg7 next . 1 8 . Be4 ! o f the c l a s s i c a l Once more , i n s p i t e s t r a t e g i c e l e m en t s , e 4 ha s c h a n g e d f r om a n i nc i d e n t a l c e nt r a l s q u a r e o u t o f Wh i t e ' s c o n t r o l t o a s p r i n gb o a r d f o r h i s m o u n t i n g i n i t i a t i ve . de 18. . Rg8 1 9 . Ne4 No s a l v a t i o n w a s t o b e h a d f r om 1 9 . . . . , Q a 2 ; 2 0 . Nf 6 ! , Nf6 ; 2 1 . Qg7 . 2 0 . Oa3 ! A l e k h i ne c o n t i nu e s to i l l um i n a t e new w e a k n e s s e s i n the e n e my c a mp . Of p a r t i c ­ u l a r n o t e i s t h e w i d e f r o n-t ove r wh i ch the i n i t i a t i ve i s s p r e a d i n th i s g a me :..-.:-y 1 e ia-=-

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i n g a g l o b a l p he n om e n o n wh i ch t i e s t o g e t h ­ e r n u m e r ou s t r a n s i e n t s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s i n t o a n e f f e c t i ve , u n i f i e d who l e . 20 . . Og7 No b e t t e r wa s 2 0 . . . . , Q e 7 ; 2 1 . Q a 5 + , b 6 ; 22 . Qc3 . Nb6 2 1 . Nd6 ! 2 2 . Ne8 ! White Won . t h e th r e e m a i n l i n e s b e i n g : 1 ) 2 2 . . . . , Qd7 ; 2 3 . Nf6 . 2 ) 2 2 . . . . , Nc4 ; 2 3 . Qc 5 , Q f 7 ; 2 4 . R f 6 . 3 ) 2 2 . . . . , Qf7 ; 2 3 . Qd6+ etc . I f t h e s t r a t e g y o f R u b i n s t e i n exh i b i t s l i f e , whi l e C a p a b l a n c a ' s r a d i a t e s h e a l t h , then A l ekh i ne ' s i n i t i a t i ve c a n j o i n our a e s t he t i c h i e r a r ch y unde r the rubr i c ch a r a c t e r - - t h a t e l em e n t o f t h e hum a n p e r ­ s on a t h a t a c c o u n t s f o r i nd i v i dua l i t y as oppo sed t o m e r e ex i s t e n c e a s a p h y s i c a l spec i men . Thu s C a p a b l a n c a p r o d u c e d g a m e s wh i c h we r e m o d e l s o f h o w t o p l a y f o r t h a t � o f p o s i t i o n , wh i l e A l e k h i n e o f t e n w o n i n wa y s t h a t we r e o f 1 i t t l e o r n o t e c hn i ­ use for future encount e r s . Thi s cal feature i s p r o n ou n c e d i n A l e kh i ne ' s p l a y becau s e t r ans i e n t s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s - - by the i r ve r y n a t u r e - - a r e r e s i s t a n t t o g e n ­ c on ve r ­ eral i za ti on ; i n d ee d , A l e kh i n e ' s s a nt r e l a t i on shi p w i th the s e " gho s t l y " e n t i t i e s wa s t h e o n e s ub s t a n t i a l e d g e he enj oyed in hi s r i va l ry w i th the great Cuban .

A1ekhine

1 39

Wor1d Champ i onship Match Buenos Ai res , 1 9 2 7 Capab1anca A1ekhine 1 . d4 d5 e6 2 . c4 3 . Nc3 Nf6 4 . Bg5 Nbd7 c6 5 . e3 ?f 6 . a3 , . Be7 0-0 7 . Nf 3 8 . Bd3 de Nd5 9 . Bc4 1 0 . Be7 Qe7 N5f6 1 1 . Ne4 1 2 . Ng3 c5 Nb6 1 3 . 0-0 1 4 . -� cd g6 1 5 . Nd4 1 6 . Re l Bd7 1 7 . Oe2 Race 1 8 . e4 e5 -� 1 9 . Nf 3 �g 7 �J B l a c k ' s p o s i t i on i s a l l r i g ht f r om a n ana l y s i s of t y p e s , but the s p ec i f i c s of his k i ng ' s post o n g 7 w i 1 1 s o on o f f e r Wh i t e i mp o r t a n t t a c t i c a l ch a n c e s ( s e e the note to B l ack ' s twenty - f i r s t move ) . A l e kh i n e s ugg e s t s t h e a l t e r n a t i ve 1 9 . . . . , R e l ; 2 0 . R c l , R c S ; 2 1 . R c 8 + , Nc 8 ; 2 2 . Ng 5 , B e 8 , giving Bl ack a s u f f i c i en t l y res i l i ent p o s i t i on . 2 0 . h3 h6 ? T he r e wa s s t i l l t i m e f o r the s i mp l i f y ing 2 0 . . . . , Rc l ; 2 1 . Rc l , Rc S . A f t e r the we a k e r . . . , h 6 , o n t h e o the r h a n d , B l a c k ' s kings i de wi ll p r ov e to be an adequa te s pr i ngboa rd for Wh i t e to s e i ze the i n i t i a t i ve .

1 40

The Modern Game

The p o s i t i o n i s a l l but s ymm e t r i c a l , and o f f e r s the cl a s s i c a l theo r i s t 1 ittle t o th i nk about . N e ve r t he l e s s , by one s ub t l e m o v e Wh i t e i s a b l e t o sei ze the to s i mu l t a n e ou s l y br ing ing i n i t i a t i ve , l i gh t t r a n s i e n t w e a k n e s s e s o n b o th f l a n k s . 2 1 . Od2 ! Be6 ? Wh i t e ' s more s ub t l e threa t b e c om e s ev i d e n t a f ter 2 1 . . . . , Bc 6 ? ; 2 2 . Nh4 ! , Ne 4 ( 2 2 . . . . , Be 4 ; 2 3 . Qe 3 ! is similar to the ma i n l i ne , wh i l e 2 2 . . . . , Bd7 ; 23 . QaS a ch i e v e s noth i ng ) ; 2 3 . Nh f S + , g f ; 24 . Nf S + , Kf6 ; 2 5 . Qh 6 + , K f 5 ; 2 6 . g4# . Note how B l a c k ' s h 6 , though n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y weak f r om a c l a s s i c a l v i e wp o i n t , i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a vu l n e r a b l e s p o t by t h e w a y n e i gh ­ bo r i n g p i e c e s c o o p e r a t e w i t h i t . C omp a r a t i v e l y best wa s L a s ke r ' s s u g g e s t i o n o f 2 1 . . . . , N a 4 , a l t h o ugh Wh i t e ' s f o r c e s wou l d h a v e s t i l l b e e n m o r e a c t i v e . It ' s i r o n i c tha t A l ekh i ne ' s s t r e n g t h s showed b e s t a g a i n s t C a p abl anc a in c l a s s i c ­ a l ly s i mp l e - - e v e n s ymm e t r i c a l - - p o s i t i o n s ; but the f a ct i s t h a t i t ' s p r e c i s e l y when

141

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c l a s s i c a l s t r a t e g y h a s b e e n n u l l i f i e d tha t a trans i en t st rateg i c rea l i t i e s c a n have f ield day . Qe6 2 2 . Be6 Nc4 2 3 . Qa5 Wh i t e wou l d a l s o r e t a i n the a d v a n t a g e a f t e r t h e a l t e r n a t i ve 2 3 . . . . , Q b 3 ; 2 4 . Q e 5 , Nc4 ; 2 5 . Qd4 . 24 . Qa7 Nb2 Rc8 2 5 . Rc8 2 6 . Qb7 Nc4 Ra8 2 7 . Qb4 2 8 . Ra l Qc6 ! B l a c k i n t en d s t o e n a c t a bl o c k a d e w i th . . . , R a 4 , a f t e r wh i ch he wou l d h a v e fai r cha n c e s o f ho l d i n g ou t . H o w e ve r : Ne4 2 9 . a4 ! Qd6 30 . Ne5 3 1 . Qc4 Qe5 Nd6 3 2 . Re l 3 3 . Qc l Qf6 Ne4 34 . Ne4 3 5 . Re4 Whi te Won The c omp l i c a t i o n s h a v e f i n a l l y s e t t l e d d own i n Wh i t e ' s f a vo r . A l e k h i n e w e n t on t o w i n t h e e n d i n g a n d t h e m a t ch .

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pe r f e c ted Capabl anca and Rub i n s t e i n class i ca l s t r a t e gy by integrat i ng the c o o p e r a t i on o f t h e i r p i e c e s w i th obj e c t i ve s t r a te g i c r ea l i t i e s ; s e e n a l on g s i d e the s e ma s t e r p i e c e s of s t r a tegy , A l e k h i ne ' s an aes thet i c a l l y i n i t i a t i ve presen t s i nve r t e d p i c t u r e : t r a ns i ent s t r a teg i c r ea l i t i e s emerge ou t of f r ee p i e ce c o o p e r ­ a t i on . Whe r e a s th i s m o d e l o f t h e i n i t i a ­ t i ve doesn ' t offer anyth i n g t e chn i c a l l y d i s t i nct f r om class ical play ( t r a ns i ent

142

The Modern Game

s t r a t eg i c r ea l i t i e s r e s i s t genera l , p r e ­ c i se de f in i t i on ) , it does fit the data bec ause cl a ss i c a l ly i ns i gn i f i ca n t f ea t u r e s o f t e n d o c om e t o t h e f o r e i n t h e p l a y o f a modern ma s te r w i th the i n i t i a t i ve ; f u r th e rmo r e , the i n i t i a t i ve is a n o t o r i ou s l y d i f f i c u l t c on c e p t t o p i n d own , m a k i n g a p u r e l y n o n - t e chn i c a l m od e l more a t t r a c t i ve ; and f ina l ly , the i d ea s set f o r th i n t h i s ch a p t e r p r ov i d e a n a pp r o p r i ­ a t e t r a n s i t i o n f r om t h e c r y s t a l - c l e a r p l a y of the class i cal era to the s t rategic c o mp l ex i t i e s th a t ch a r a c t e r i z e the e a r l y S ov i e t S ch o o l . The r e a d e r m i ght won d e r why I ' ve c h o s e n t o gr ound my mode l of the mod e r n ma s te r ' s unde r s t and i ng in r e s p on s i b i 1 i t y ; a f te r a l l , I c ou l d h a ve s i mp l y t r e a t e d A l e k h i ne and N i m z o v i ch as m a s t e r s who we r e s e n s i ­ t i ve t o mo r e evo l ve d , subtl e r f o rm s o f i nt e gr a t i on ( w i th " unbo r n " a n d t r a n s i en t s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s , r e s p e c t i ve l y ) . I h a ve to a dm i t tha t th i s a pp r o a ch wou l d p r e s e n t a s i mp l e r m o d e l w h i l e s t i l l cha r a c t e r i z i n g t h e s t y l e s o f t h e pl ayers i nvo l ve d , h en c e p r o p e r sc i e n t i f i c me thod wou l d s e e m t o e n d o r s e i t s a d o p t i o n . The probl em w i th th i s r e a s o n i n g , a p a r t f r om t h e f a c t t h a t the c on c e p t of respons i ­ b i 1 i t y " d r e s s e s -up " our mod e l n i c e l y , is th a t t h e c e n t r a l t r e n d i n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n o f t h e b o o k ( c o n t e mp o r a r y c h e s s ) wou l d b e i n e x p l i c a b l e w i t h o u t the u s e o f a r a d i c a l ­ l y s u b j e c t i ve c on c e p t a s the gr ound o f m od e r n che s s t h o u g h t . T o th i s end , the cruc i a l d i s t i n c t i on between cl a s s i c a l l y i ntegr ated p i ece coopera t i on and the i n i t i a t i ve i s t h e f a c t tha t o n e i s g r o un d ­ e d i n a s ub j e c t i ve m o d e o f t h o u g h t , wh i l e

A1ekh i ne

1 43

the o t h e r i s g r ou n d e d i n t h e r e c o gn i t i o n tha t s u ch thought is s ub j e c t i ve . Th i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s wha t m a k e s i t r e a s o n a b l e t o h yp o t he s i z e tha t the m od e r n ma s t e r ha s p l a c e d a p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r b e t we e n h i s o wn u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d h i s o p p o n e n t ' s ; thu s w i l l we b e a b l e t o expl a i n a l a t t e r - d a y t r end of i n c r e a s e d s ens i t i v i ty of the a dve r s a r y ' s ch a n c e s . Anyone who d i s l i k e s t h e m o r e s p e c u l a ­ t i v e p s y cho l o g i c a l c on c e p t o f r e s p o n s i b i l ­ i ty is we l c om e t o " e d i t " i t o u t o f my t r e a t m e n t of m o d e r n che s s , a n d v i e w t h i s s e c t i o n a s a s t r a i g h t - f o rwa r d p r o g r e s s i o n o f i n t e gr a t i on . A t t h e s a m e t i me , h o w ­ eve r , they wi ll be left to t he i r own d ev i c e s t o exp l a i n t h e h i g h l y - p r o n ou n c e d s t y l e s of the ma s t e r s I wi l l d i s c u s s u n d e r c o n t e mp o r a r y c h e s s .

2 0 . Botvinnik S u b j e c t / O b j e c t I n t e gr a t i on

A l e kh i n e ' s p l a y w a s t h e f i r s t t o c l e a r ­ ly e xh i b i t the d e f i n i ng a e s th e t i c of S t i 1 1 , whe n we m o d e r n che s s - - ch a r a c t e r . f i n d h i m s t r u gg l i n g w i th p o s i t i o n s in a mo r e c l a s s i c a l ve i n , t h e o l d e r a e s the t i c o f he a l t h g e n e r a l l y c om e s t o the f o r e ; i n a style remin i scent of Capablanca , A l e kh i n e prevai l ed in s u ch games by method s , and only e mp l o y e d the t yp i c a l s pe c i f i c s o f t h e s i t u a t i on t o the e x t e n t th a t a class i cal master wo u l d . ( The s p l en d i d en c ou n t e r w i th Rub i n s t e i n f r om o u r l a s t cha p t e r i s a n o t a b l e exce p t i on . ) The net result of all thi s is th a t A l e kh i n e a pp e a r s t o h a v e h a d a p s y c ho l o g i ­ c a l r e s i s t a n c e t o i n t e gr a t i n g the i n i t i a ­ t i ve w i th obj e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r ea l i t i e s ; whe r e a s h e wa s a s u p r em e a r t i s t w h e n i t c am e to t i e i ng t o g e th e r trans i ent s t r a teg i c r e a l i t i e s w i th t h e i n i t i a t i ve , A l e kh i n e s e ems to have pe rce ived p i ece c o o pe r a t i o n w i t h cha r a c t e r to be " t oo f r ee " to i n t e gr a t e wi th class i cal e l em e n t s . The f i rst widespread occ u r r en c e of f r om ema na t i ng a e s th e t i c ch a r a c t e r o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s wa s i n t h e g a m e s o f the i n a u gu r a l S ov i e t wo r l d ch a m ­ p i o n M i kh a i l B o t v i n n i k ( 1 9 1 0 - ) Here , a t l a s t , we f i n d n u me r ou s e x a mp l e s o f p i e c e s c o o p e r a t i n g w i t h o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r e a l ­ i t i e s i n a s t y l e d e s c en d e d f r om A l e kh i ne ' s i n i t i a t i ve . But f i r st , before cons i de r ing the p s y cho l o g y b eh i n d s u ch an advance , l e t ' s e x a m i n e o n e o f t he s e m a s t e r p i e c e s . •

Botvinn i k

1 45

USSR Champ i onship Sem i - F i na l Len i ngrad , 1 9 3 8 Botvinnik Chekhover 1 . d4 Nf6 2 . e4 e6 3 . Ne3 Bb4 4 . Nf3 0-0 5 . Bg5 d6? ! c o u n t e r - th r u s t The 5 wa s I C5 indi cated . 6 . e3 Oe7 e5 7 . Be2 Re8 8 . Oe2 9 . 0-0 Be3 h6 1 0 . be e5 1 1 . Bh4 Bg4 1 2 . Rae l 1 3 . Bf6 ! Of6 1 4 . Oe4 Bf 3 ? ! No b e t t e r wa s 1 4 , Bc S ; 1 5 . N d 2 , Nc 6 ; 1 6 . f4 , Bf 5 ? ; 1 7 . fe . On the other hand , Botvi nn i k ' s s u gg e s t i o n of 1 4 . . . . , Bf S ! ; 1 5 . Qb7 , Nd 7 wou l d have left B l ack wi th be t t e r practical cha n c e s th a n the move a c t ua l l y p l ayed . 1 5 . Bf3 { Ne6 1 6 . de de 1 7 . Rd l Rad8 1 8 . Rd.5_ b6 1 9 . Rfd l Na5 20 . h3 I Rd5 2 1 . Rd5 , The less ene rget i c 2 1 . cd may have s e e m e d b e t t e r to a c l a s s i c a l th e o r i s t , but it a l l ow s t h e s e c on d p l a y e r t o e q ua l i z e w i th the bl ockad ing 2 1 . . . . , Q d 6 . 21 . . Oe7 21 , R d 8 b r i n g s to l i ght the l a c k o f o

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The Modern Game

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vu l n e r a b i 1 i t y o n Wh i t e ' s q u e e n ­ concre t e 2 2 . Re 5 ! , Nc4 ? ; 2 3 . Re 8 + , R e 8 ; 2 4 . Qe B + , s i de : Kh7 ; 2 5 . Q e 4 + .

I

Wh i t e ' s a d va n t a g e r eve l ve s a r ou n d h i s c o nt r o l o f the c l a s s i c a l l y s t r on g s q ua r e d 5 ; a t t h e s a m e t i me - - b e a r i n g i n m i n d the n e i ghb o r i n g p a wn we a k ne s s e s - - th i s e d g e i s p r e c a r i o u s , a n d c a n o n l y b e m a i n t a i n e d by a e s th e t i c a l l y ma neuve r s r em i n i ­ a t yp i c a l scent o f A l e kh i n e ' s i n i t i a t i ve . I t fol­ l o ws t h a t t h e p o s i t i on i s l e s s r e d u c i b l e to g en e r a l pr inc i pl e s than are its class i c a l cous ins . 2 2 . Bg4 ! Ob7 2 3 . Bf5 ! Th i s f o r c e s the pene t ra t i on of the Wh i t e r ook t o the s e v e n th r a n k b e c a u s e 2 3 . . . . , g 6 ? l o s e s i mm e d i a t e l y : 24 . Bg6 , fg ; 2 5 . Qg 6 + , K f B ; 2 6 . Rd6 . N o t e h o w the d i a g o ­ na l b l -h7 , though no t p a r t i c u l a r l y weak class i cally , ha s b e c om e a trans i ent strategic r ea l i t y , l e n d i n g the expl o i t a ­ t i o n o f Wh i t e ' s cent r a l s u p e r i o r i t y the a e s t he t i c o f c h a r a c t e r . 23 Ob8 .

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1 47 Rd8 2 5 . Bh 7 + , K f 8 ;

2 5 . Qe5 Nc4 2 6 . Qb8 Rb8 2 7 . Be4 Na 3 2 8 . Bd5 Rf 8 2 9 . e4 a5 The pr i ma ry a l t e r n a t i ve - - 2 9 . . . . , c 4 ; 3 0 . R a 7 , Nb 5 ; 3 1 . Rb 7 , N c 3 ; 3 2 . Bc 4 , Ne4 ; 3 3 . R b 6 - - l e a d s t o a n e a s y w i n f o r Wh i t e . 3 0 . c4 b5 Nb5 3 1 . cb a4 3 2 . e5 3 3 . f4 Nd4 34 . K f 2 g5 3 5 . g3 gf Ne6 3 6 . gf 3 7 . Ke3 --� 38 . f5 Nc5 3 9 . Rc7 Nd3 fe 40 . e6 Res i gns 4 1 . fe Even i n the f i n a l p o s i t i on , the i n i t i a ­ t i ve i n t e r t w i n e d w i th the f o c a l p o i n t d 5 makes a 1 1 the d i f f e r ence . T he exp l o i t a ­ t i on o f Wh i t e ' s a d v a n t a g e h a s b e e n s t r i k ­ i n g l y d e pendent on p a r t i c u l a r s , p r od u c i ng t h e m o d e r n a e s th e t i c o f ch a r a c t e r .

A s we n o t e d i n t h e p o s t s c r i p t t o ou r d i s c u s s i on o f A l e kh i n e , the i n i t i a t i v e i s s u bj ect i ve conc e p t - - i . e . i t ' s a rad ically g r ou n d e d i n r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y , the r e c o gn i ­ t i o n t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l l y s ub j ec t i ve . Now , whe the r o r n o t t he r e ' s a d i s t i nc t i on b e t we e n genu i ne , sc ient i f i c t h e s u b j e c t i ve a n d o b j e c t i ve wo r l d s , it ' s o bv i o u s tha t people b e l i ev e th e r e ' s an

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u n b r i d g e a b l e g a p b e t w e e n s u b j e c t i v e th i n g s l i k e l ove , d u t y , a n d i n t u i t i o n , a n d e v e r y ­ d a y o b j e c t s l i k e t a b l e s a n d ch a i r s . Thu s it shou l d c om e as no surpr i s e tha t A l e kh i n e h a d a p s y cho l o g i c a l r e s i s t a n c e t o i n t e g r a t i n g a r a d i c a l l y s u b j e c t i ve c on c e p t s u ch as t h e i n i t i a t i ve w i th o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c e l e men t s . Th i s o u t l i n e s why c h a r a c t e r e n t e r e d t h e wo r l d of cl a ss i c a l s t r a tegy l a te r th a n tha t of the i n i t i a t i ve . And the n a t u r e of th i s a dvance - - i n the play of Botv i nn i k-­ sub j ect/ can only be ch a r a c t e r i z e d as o b j e c t i n t eg r a t i o n ; only s u ch a mod e l expl a i n s how the great S ov i e t c h a mp i o n b e c a m e s o s e n s i t i ve t o t h e s p e c i f i c s th a t c a n m a k e o r b r e a k - - th a t g r o u n d - - th e h e a l t h of obj e c t ive s t r a teg i c r ea l i t i e s . The a b i l i t y t o i n t e g r a t e t h e i n i t i a t i v e w i th c l a s s i c a l s t r a t e g i c e l em e n t s w i d e n e d the mod e rn m a s t e r ' s open i ng r e p e r t o i r e to i n c l u d e mo r e p r e c a r i ou s l y - b a l a n c e d s y s t e m s s u ch a s t h e S a e m i s c h N i mz o - I n d i a n ( 1 . d 4 , 3 . N c 3 , B b4 ; Nf6 ; 2 . c4 , e6 ; 4 . a 3 ! ? , Bc 3 + ; 5 . b c ) , t h e W i n a we r F r e n c h ( 1 . e 4 , e 6 ; 2 . d 4 , d 5 ; 3 . N c 3 , B b4 ; 4 . e 5 , c 5 ; 5 . a 3 , B c 3 + ; 6 . bc ) , and the B o t v i nn i k S y s t em o f the Q u e e n ' s G a mb i t ( 1 . d4 , d5 ; 2 . c4 , c6 ; 3 . Nf 3 , Nf 6 ; 4 . Nc 3 , e 6 ; 5 . Bg 5 , d c ; 6 . e4 , b 5 ; 7 . e 5 , h6 ; 8 . Bh4 , g 5 ) . A l l t he s e o p e n i n g s d i s p l a y a n a l mo s t i r r a t i o n a 1 i mb a l a n c e o f c l a s s i c a l p r i n c i p l e s tha t c a n n e v e r b e r e s o l ve d by gen e r a l , abst ract rea son i ng , but a l wa y s d em a n d s a n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c a r e f u l e v a l u a ­ t i on o f the pa r t i cu l a r p i ece c on f i gu r a t i on i n que s t i on . I n t h e T a r r a s ch D e f e n c e t o t h e Q u e e n ' s G a mb i t ( 1 . d 4 , d 5 ; 2 . c 4 , e 6 ; 3 . N c 3 , c 5 ; 4 . c d , ed ) , B l ack accepts the l i a b i l i t y o f a n

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i s o l a t e d q u e en p a wn i n e x ch a n g e f o r f r e e piece-pl ay . How e a ch s i d e s h o u l d t h e r e ­ a f t e r p r o c e e d c a n b e f o rm u l a t e d i n g e n e r a l t e rm s : Wh i t e p l a y s f o r a n a d va n t a g e o u s endgame by excha ng i ng p ieces , and Bl ack e va d e s th i s s t r a t e g y , t r y i n g t o ma i n t a i n the p r e s s u r e i n the m i d d l e g a me . A l th ough th i s is clearly ov e r - s i mp l i f i e d ( ev e n cl a s s i c a l che s s had to deal w i th s p e c i f i c s ) , i t d o e s s ugg e s t t h a t a g e n e r a l cha r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the stra teg ies i nv o l v e d d o e s e x i s t . Botvinni k S y s t em In c on t r a s t , the def ies s u ch easy g e ne r a l i z a t i o n s . In b e c om i n g the v i rtuo s o of thi s open i ng , B o tv i n n i k d i s p l a y e d a r em a r k a b l e a b i 1 i ty d e ve l o p pl ans ov e r - th e - b o a r d - - p l a n s to tha t h a d t o s u i t t h e eve r - f r e s h p a r t i c ­ u l a r s o f the i n t e gr a t e d p i e c e cooper a t i on . Rad i o Match , USSR-USA Moscow-Nev York , 1 945 Botvinn i k Denker d5 1 . d4 e6 2 . c4 c6 3 . Nc3 Nf6 4 . Nf 3 de 5 . Bg5 b5 6 . e4 h6 7 . e5 g5 8 . Bh4 hg 9 . Ng5 Nbd7 1 0 . Bg5 Bb7 1 1 . ef . . 1 2 . Be 2 ? ! The m a i n l i n e t o d a y i s 1 2 . g 3 , s o t h a t have Wh i t e ' s f i a n ch e t t oe d b i shop can a neu t r a l i z i ng e f f ec t in the cente r . .

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Ob6 12 . 0-0-0 1 3 . 0-0 b4 1 4 . a4 c5 1 5 . Ne4 1 6 . Ob l ? B o t v i n n i k n o t e s tha t 1 6 . Q c 2 ? i s i n s u f ­ f i cient : 16 , c 3 ! ; 1 7 . b e ( o r 1 7 . d c , Nc 5 ; 1 8 . Nc 5 , B c 5 a n d 1 9 , Q c 7 ) , Q c 7 ; 1 8 . Ng 3 , c d ; 1 9 . c 4 , N c 5 , a n d B l a ck i s w i n n i n g . O f par­ t i c u l a r i mp o r t a n c e f o r u s i s how a s ub t l e shi f t o f p i eces c a l l s for an ent i rely new p l a n of a c t i o n - - s u gg e s t i n g tha t a b r o a d , gene r a l s t r a t e gy doesn ' t rule o ve r the p o s i t i on . P e rhaps bes t wou l d have been ECO ' s r e c o mm e n d a t i o n of 1 6 . Nd 2 , Qc7 ; 1 7 . h 4 , Bh 6 ; 1 8 . f 4 , Nb 6 , w i t h u n c l e a r p l a y . 16 Oc7 1 7 . Ng3 cd 1 8 . Bc4 Oc6 19 . f3 •

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B l a ck ' s activity in ev i d e n t l y exp o s e d h i s own a f ew s pe c i f i c s c o m e t o t h e c l e a r t h a t Wh i t e ' s m o n a rch

the c e n t e r ha s k i ng , b u t a f te r f o r e , i t ' 1 1 be ha s bec ome the

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19. . . . d3 ! C l e a r i ng t h e road for 20 , Bc 5 + , a s we l l a s t h e m o r e o bv i o u s 2 0 , Q c 5 + and 21 , QgS . 2 0 . Oc l B o t v i nn i k i nve s t i g a t e s t wo wa y s f o r Wh i t e t o c on t e s t c 5 - - b o t h f u t i l e : 1 ) 2 0 . Be 3 , Bc 5 ; ( 2 1 . Qc l , d2 ; 2 1 . Bc 5 2 2 . Q d 2 , Ne 5 ) , Q c 5 + ; 2 2 . K h l , Rh 2 + , and B l ack wi ns . 2 2 . f e , Q c4 ; 2 ) 2 0 . Ne4 , Qc 7 ; 2 1 . g 3 , Be4 ; 2 3 . Rc l , Bc 5 + e t c . 2o � . . . Bc5 + 2 1 . Khl O n c e a g a i n , 2 1 . B e 3 wou l d h a v e b e e n me t by 2 1 , d 2 ; 2 2 . Qd 2 , Ne 5 . 21 . . . . Od6 2 2 . Of4 An a l t e r n a t i ve wa y t o l o s e i s g i ve n b y 2 2 . B f 4 , Rh 2 + ; 2 3 . Kh 2 , R h 8 + ; Botv i nn i k : 2 5 . Kg 3 , e 5 ; 2 4 . Nh 5 , Rh 5 + ; 2 6 . Be 3 ( 2 6 . Bg 5 , e4+ ; 2 7 . Kg4 , d 2 ; 2 8 . Qd 2 , Nf6+ ; 29 . Bf 6 , Qd2 ; 3 0 . Kh5 , Qg 2 ) , e 4 + ; 2 7 . f 4 ( 2 7 . K f 2 , d 2 ; 2 8 . Qc 2 , ef ) , Qf6 ; 28 . Kf 2 , Qf4+ etc . 22 Rh2 + 2 3 . Kh2 Rh8 + Rh4+ 24 . Oh4 2 5 . Bh4 Of4 2 6 . Res i gns Thu s did Botvi nn i k ' s a pp r ec i a t i o n of t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f t e n t i p t he s c a l e s i n h i s dur ing s t rateg ically f avor i n t r i c ate g a me s . •

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2 1 . Smys1ov The M o d e r n G r u n f e l d D e f e n c e

Wi th Botvi nn i k lead i ng the way , a r em a r k a b l e n u mb e r o f S ov i e t p l a y e r s r o s e t o the r a n k o f g r a n dma s t e r i n the yea r s du r i n g and i mm e d i a t e l y a f t e r the s e c on d wo r l d w a r . Am o n g t h i s p l e th o r a o f t a l e n t , a s p e c i a l p l a c e s h ou l d b e r e s e rve d f o r the wo r l d c h a mp i o n Va s i l y S my s l ov ( 1 9 2 1 - ) , who s e f r e sh c on c e p t i o n s a n d i mp e c c a b l e t e chn i q u e s e t t h e s t a n d a r d t h r ougho u t t h e mid- 1 950 ' s . The new , " obj e c t i ve " f o rm of the i n i t i a t i ve m a d e i t s e l f k nown i n S m y s l ov ' s dynam i c sys t em of r e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the Grun f e l d De f ence ( 1 . d4 , Nf 6 ; 2 . c4 , g6 ; 3 . Nc 3 , d 5 ) A s o pp o s e d t o t h e Botvi nni k S y s t e m o f t h e Q u e en ' s G a mb i t , the main l i n e s o f t h e G r u n f e l d f a vo r Wh i t e f r om the c l a s s i c a l p e r s p e c t i ve b e c au s e the " i d e a l " d 4 - e 4 p aw n c o u p l e c a n ' t b e d i s t u r b e d by a n y " s t o c k " p a w n move s . Th i s , o f c ou r s e , d o e s n ' t p r ove t h a t t h e G r u n f e l d i s u n p l a y ­ able ; i t m e r e l y a cc e n t u a t e s t h e f a c t tha t the B l a c k f o rces mu s t integrate the i r potent i a l c ou n t e r - ch a n c e s for crea t ing p r o n o un c e d class i cal w i th the less f eature s present . •

Wor1d Championship Tournament The Hague , 1 948 Euve 1 . d4 2 . c4 3 . Nc3 4 . Nf3

Smys1ov Nf6 g6 d5 Bg7

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5 . Ob3 de 0-0 6 . Oc4 Bg4 7 . e4 Nfd7 ! 8 . Be 3 S rny s l ov ' s V a r i a t i on o f the G r u n f e l d i s a p o t e n t we a p on i n t h e h a n d s o f a m a s t e r who ' s s e n s i t i ve to the w a y r e l a t i ve l y minor strateg ic r e a l i t i e s c a n b e c om e the f o c a l p o i n t of a po s i t i o n i f c o u p l e d w i th t h e i n i t i a t i ve . Nb6 9 . Ob3 1 0 . a4 as 1 1 . d5 Bf 3 1 2 . gf

B l a c k i s b e g i n n i n g t o s e t h i s s i g ht s o n b4 , t h e " s ee d " ou t o f wh i ch w i l l eme r g e a f l owe r i n g i n i t i a t i ve o n t h e q u e e n s i d e . 12 . Od6 ! Ob4+ ! 1 3 . Nb5 ab 1 4 . Ob4 . . . 1 5 . Nc7 1 7 . f 4 , Bd6 ; 1 6 . Ra 2 , Be 5 ; 1 5 . a 5 ? , Bb 2 ! ; 1 8 . e 5 , b 3 ! wou l d h a v e a c c omp l i s h e d n o t h i n g . B l a c k ' s u n i q u e l y e n e r g e t i c d i ve r s i o n on t h e q u e e n s i d e h a s nu l l i f i e d any a d v a n t a g e •

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Wh i t e m a y h a v e d r e a m e d o f w i th h i s c l a s ­ s i c a l l y i mp r e s s i ve c e n t e r . I t ' s interest­ i ng how the r e l a t i ve l y m i nor " s t r o ng p o i n t " at b4 h a s b l o s s om e d i n t o a f u l l ­ g r own i n i t i a t i ve . Whe r e a s Steinitz a c c u mu l a t e d s m a l l a d va n t a g e s , Smys l ov wa s even a sma l l able to i n tegr a t e s i ng l e advan t a g e wi th a b r o a d moveme n t o f p i e c e s b e a r i n g t h e m o d e r n a e s th e t i c o f ch a r a c t e r . Ra4 15 . 1 6 . Rb l Wh i t e w a s f o r c e d t o c o n c e d e the a - f i l e s i nce 1 6 . R a 4 ? , Na 4 ; 1 7 . b 3 , Nc 3 ; 1 8 . Bh 3 , B e 5 ; 1 9 . Bb 6 , N a 6 ; 2 0 . N a 6 , R a 8 ! ( S m y s l ov ) wou l d h a v e o n l y f u e l e d the B l a c k a c t i v i t y . 16 . N6d7 Rc8 1 7 . Nb5 . . . 1 8 . Be 2 ? Correct wa s 1 8 . Nd4 , b3 ; 1 9 . Nb 3 , Rb 4 ; in result i ng a rea s on a b l y 2 0 . Nd 2 , R b 2 , ba l a n c e d game . 18 b3 1 9 . Na 3 Bb2 20 . Rb2 Ra3 2 1 . Kd 2 N o b e t t e r wa s 2 1 . B d l , Nc S ; 2 2 . Bc 5 , Rc 5 ; 2 4 . Bb 3 , R c l + ; 2 3 . R b 3 , Rb 3 ; 2 5 . Bd l , Nd 7 ( S my s l ov ) , wi th a p r om i s i n g endgame in store for Bl ack . 21 . . . . Na6 2 2 . Rhb l Naes 2 3 . Bd4 D i r e c t a t t e mp t s t o w i n b a c k the p a wn a l s o l a n d Wh i t e i n t r o u b l e : 1 ) 2 3 . Bb 5 , N e 5 ; 2 4 . Bc 5 , Rc5 ; 2 5 . Rb3 , Nf 3 + ; 2 7 . R a 3 , Rb l ; 2 6 . K e 3 , Rb 5 ! ; 28 . Kf3 , f6 ; 2 9 . R c 3 , h 5 ; 3 0 . R c 7 , K f 8 ( Smy s l o v ) . 2 5 . Ra l , Ra B ; 24 . Ra 2 , ba ; 2 ) 2 3 . Bd l , Ra 2 ; when 2 8 . Bc 2 , b6 , 2 7 . de , fe ; 2 6 . Kc 3 , e6 ; .

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2 9 . Kb2 c ou l d be met 2 9 . . . . , Ne 5 by ( S m y s l ov ) . 23 . . . . e5 ! Th i s o pp o r t u n e s t r o k e f o r c e s a c o n s o l i ­ d a t i o n o f t h e B l a ck a d va n t a g e . 24 . de The a l t e r n a t i ve w a s t o p a s s i ve l y a c c e p t the e s t a b l i s hm e n t of a B l a ck center : 2 4 . B c 3 , f 5 ; 2 5 . e f , g f ; 2 6 . Bb 5 , b 6 ( Sm y s l o v ) . Ne6 24 . . Ndc5 2 5 . Be3 2 6 . Bc5 Nc5 / 2 7 . Kc3 �-a4_ . 2 8 . -Kdi Kg7 Rd8 2 9 . Ke3 30 . Re l b6 Rda 8 3 1 . Bc4 . . . 3 2 . Bd5 Fut i l e wou l d h a ve been 3 2 . B b 3 , R b4 ; · , 1 -· 3 3 . Rc 3 , Ra 3 . f Smy s o v wa s an unpa r a l l e l e d endg ame tact i c i an , p r o d u c i n g c ou n t l e s s " a t y p i c a l " ma s t e r p i e c e s w i t h t h e a e s t he t i c o f c h a r a c ­ t e r i n th i s pha s e o f t h e g a m e . Ra 2 32 . . R8a4 3 3 . Rcb l 34 . Kd2 Rd4+ Na4 ! 3 5 . Ke2 ba 3 6 . Ra2 3 7 . Ra l 3 8 . Ke 3 , Ra4 ; 3 9 . Bb 3 , R a 3 3 7 . B a 2 , Nc 3 + ; t o the s a me e s s ent ial led have wou l d result . Nc3+ 37 Rd l 3 8 . Ke3 3 9 . Res i gns •

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2 2 . Bo1es1avsky The M o der n S i ci li an D efen ce

Amo n g t h e S o vi et m as t er s to ach i eve pr om i n en ce i n t h e 1 9 4 0 ' s , perh aps t h e mo s t i n n o vat i ve was Is aac B o les lavs k y ( 19191977 ) , a pr o gr es s i vely-m i n ded compet i t o r who gave b i r th t o s ever al o f t h e m o s t dur able i deas i n t h e n o w-po pular S i ci 1 i an an d K i n g ' s In di an D efen ces . A clas s i cally weak s t r at egi c r eali t y can b e a s o un d i n ves t m en t fo r a play er wh o s e pi ece co o per at i o n is s uffi ci en t ly i n t egr at ed wi t h t h e " weak n es s " t o pr even t i t s explo i t at i o n ; i n o ther wo r ds , an un ex ­ pJ., gJ t able weg__Jg1 �_i;; s i s n o weak n es s ataIT:' Th i s - cfra-ract er i s-ti_c.a i i y - - - --- m ocfei·n i dea ach i eves i t s m o s t plas t i c fo rm i n var i a­ t i o n s o f t h e S i ci li an D efen ce wher e B lack play s . . . , e5 --a t h r us t wh i ch con cedes a clas s i cal h o le o n d5 ; n ever t h eles s --as was by dem o n s t r at ed fi r s t con vi n ci n gly B o les lavs k y -- t h e Black ar m y can o ft en pr even t an effect i ve i n vas i o n o f t h i s s quar e, all t h e t i m e gen er at i n g t r o uble­ s om e co un t er play i n t h e " ex t en ded " n e i ghborhood . _ _ _ __

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Groni ngen , Sto1tz 1 . e4 2 . Nf3 3 . d4 4 . Nd4 5 . Nc3 6 . Be2 7 . Nf3

1 946 Bo1es1avsky c5 Nc6 cd Nf6 d6 e5

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Mo r e ve r s a t i l e i s 7 . Nb 3 , r e s e rv i n g the opt i on of i n i t i a t i ng act ivi ty wi th the f - p awn . h6 7. . . . B l a c k preve n t s 8 . BgS , i n d i r e c t l y f o r t i ­ f y i n g the cruc i a l d S squa re . 8 . Bc4? Wh i t e i nve s t s a t e mp o t o i n t e n s i f y the pressure on as , bu t s ince thi s s q ua r e i sn ' t expl o i t a ble as a we a k ne s s , the b i s h o p i s d e s t i ne d t o p l a y a p a s s i ve r o l e he r e i n c omp a r i s o n t o B l a c k ' s i mp e n d i n g i n i t i a t i v e o n the q u e e n s i d e . Be7 8 9 . Qe2 0-0 Be6 1 0 . h3 1 1 . 0-0 The b a y on e t thru s t 1 1 . g4 wou l d have been met by 11 . , Nd4 ! ; 1 2 . Nd 4 , e d ; 1 4 . ed , Bd S ; l S . Bd S , Qa S + 1 3 . Nd S , N d S ; and 16 , Qd S ( Bo l e s l avsky ) . Rc8 11 1 2 . Bb3 Na 5 1 3 . Rd l Oc7 ! •

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The B l a c k f o r c e s f o c u s i n g on the c - f i l e are more p u r p o s e f u l l y p o s t e d t h a n t he i r Wh i t e c ou n t e r p a r t s o r b i t i n g the c l a s s i c ­ ally weak , b u t u n e xp l o i t a b l e , d 5 . The f a c t i s th a t t h e B l a c k p i e c e s n e i ghb o r i ng d 5 c o o p e r a t e w i t h i t i n s u ch a wa y t h a t i t ' s r a i s e d f r om t h e l eve l o f " o b j e c t i ve " we a k n e s s t o a c r u c i a l e l e me n t o f a h e a l t hy center . In th i s f o rm o f i n t e gr a t i on , the o v e rwhe l m i n g a e s t he t i c empha s i s is on p iece c oo p e r a t i on ( vs . the o b j e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t y a s g i ve n ) , c a u s i n g u s t o i n c o r po r a t e the cha r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y m o d e r n c o n c e p t o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n o u r mod e l o f B o l e s l a v s k y ' s p s yche . . 1 4 . g4? S ince Wh i t e ' s c o n f u s e d p i eces c an ' t rea s on a b l y expect t o a t t a ck s ucce s s fu l l y o n the k i ngs i d e , thi s c r ea t e s a weakne s s f o r n o r e a s on . A t t h e s a m e t i me , h o w e ve r , the a l t e r n a t i ve g i v e n by B o l e s l a v s k y a l s o 1 4 . Nb 5 , B c 4 ! ; l e a d s t o t r o u b l e f o r Wh i t e : 1 5 . Bc 4 , Qc4 ; 1 6 . Qc4 , Rc4 ; 1 7 . Nd 6 , Bd 6 ; 1 8 . Rd 6 , Rc 2 ; 1 9 . Ne 5 , Re 8 ; 2 0 . N d 3 , Ne 4 ; 2 1 . R d 5 , Nc 4 . 14 . Nb3 1 5 . ab a6 1 6 . Kbl b5 ! 1 7 . b4 A f t e r 1 7 . R a 6 , b4 , t h e Wh i t e p i e c e s wou l d f a l l i n t o e v e n g r e a t e r c on f u s i on ( 1 8 . N a 2 , Qb7 ! ) 17 . . . . Oc4? ! Mo r e i n c i s i ve , w ou l d h a ve b e en 1 7 Qb7 refus ing to ease ( Bo l e s l avsky ) , Wh i t e ' s d i s c om f o r t t h r o u g h e x ch a n g e s . 1 8 . Oc4 Rc4 1 9 . Re l ? ! Now i t ' s Wh i t e ' s turn to miss an •

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o pp o r t u n i t y . Bo l e s l avsky is of the op i n i on tha t a fter 1 9 . Nd 2 , Rb 4 ; 2 0 . R a 6 , Wh i t e w o u l d h a ve ch a n c e s f o r a s u cc e s s f u l res i st ance . 19. Bc8 ! A f t e r th i s , Wh i t e h a s n o p l a y a t a l l , and B l a ck i s f r e e t o b e a r d own o n the i n c r e a s i n g l y s e n s i t i v e e - p awn . It ' s i n s t r u c t i ve h o w Wh i t e ' s p i eces , o n c e s o i n t e n t o n d 5 , h a v e s l ow l y d r i f t e d awa y f r om the i r h o p e l e s s i d e a l ; m e a n wh i l e , the B l a c k a c t i v i t y h a s c o n t i n u e d t o o r b i t it , t h a t p o i n t - - n e ve r a c t u a l l y o c c u py i n g but ma i n ta i n i n g i t s s t a t u s a s a h e a l thy c o o p e r a t i ve s t r a teg i c r ea l i t y thr ough c o mm u n i c a t i on . 2 0 . g5 bg 2 1 . Bg5 Bb7 Rb4 22 . � 2 3 . b3 Rc8 \ . 24 . Re3 , '1 1 ·. ,; : Rd4 ! 2 5 . Rg l Kf8 Bf6 2 6 . Bf6 2 7 . Rg4 b4 2 8 . Na4 Wh i t e ' s d em o n s t r a t i o n on the k i n g s i d e h a s o n l y c omp r om i s e d h i s p o s i t i o n i n th a t sector , i n c i d e nt a l l y scatter ing hi s men purpo s e l e s s l y a c r o s s the boa rd . T h e t i me is t he r e f o r e r i pe for a c t i on , and Bo l e s l avsky un l e a she s the fu l l p o t e n t i a l o f h i s b i sh o p s w i th a s t r i k i n g s a c r i f i c e o f t h e e xch a n g e . Rc2 ! 28 . . ed 2 9 . Nd4 30 . Re l 3 0 . R f 3 , B e 5 + ; 3 1 . K g l , R e 2 wou l d h a v e o n l y l e f t Wh i t e m o r e g r e a t l y e mb a r r a s s e d . Rf2+ 3 0. . •

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Rf3 3 1 . Rg2 d3 3 2 . Rc2 Be5+ 3 3 . Rc7 34 . Kg l d2 Bd4+ 3 5 . Rd l 3 6 . Kh2 Rf2+ Be4 3 7 . Kg3 3 8 . Rc4 Rf3+ 3 9 . Kh2 Be5+ 40 . Kg l d5 ! Bl ack f i na l ly o ccup i e s the e l u s i ve a e s t he t i c a l l y punc t ua t i n g his squa r e , c o mp l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e c e n t e r . 4 1 . Rc8 + Ke7 4 2 . Rd2 Bf4 4 3 . Rb2 Be3 + Rf l 44 . Kh2 45 . Kg3 Rg l + Rg6 46 . Kh2 47 . Res i gns

2 3 . Bronste i n T h e Mod e r n K i n g ' s I n d i a n D e f e n c e

I n 1 9 5 0 , B o l e s l a v s ky c am e w i th i n one g a m e o f q ua l i f y i n g f o r a wo r l d ch a mp i on ­ sh i p m a tch with Botvi nn i k . It ' s an i ntere s t ing s i d e l i g ht on t h i s f a c t th a t the vi ctor in th i s f i rst cand i dates f i n a l - - D a v i d B r o n s t e i n ( 1 9 2 4 - ) - - wa s a l s o in the p r o c e s s o f s u c c e e d i n g B o l e s l a v s ky as the m o s t i nn o v a t i ve o f the S ov i e t ma s t e r s . B r o n s t e i n d r ew h i s m a t ch w i t h B o t v i n n i k i n 1 9 5 1 , m i s s i n g t h e h i g he s t t i t l e b y the n a r r ow e s t p o s s i b l e m a r g i n . As 1 uck wou l d have i t , B r o n s t e i n neve r a g a i n q ua l i f i e d f o r a t i t l e m a t ch ; t h i s d i d n ' t s t o p h i m , h o w e ve r , f r om c o n t r i b u t i n g a s m a n y - - i f n o t mo r e - - o r i g i n a l t he o r e t i c a l i dea s as any champ i o n o f h i s t i me . I n thi s rega rd , a spec i a l pl ace is he l d by t h e d yn a m i c m e t h o d s o f c o u n t e r p l a y he g e n e r a t e d i n the K i ng ' s I n d i a n De f en c e - - a debut i n w h i ch the m o d e r n m a s t e r o f t en a cc e p t s an u ne x -p l o i t a p_l_� _ w e a k ne s s on d_§ i n exch a n g e :for actTvT t y tha f c an . r an g e a n ywhe r e f r o m the vJg__i_], (i n t t o t h e v i o l e n t . ___

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Re8 8 . b3 . . . 9 . e4 ? Mo r e c i r c um s p e c t wa s 9 . Q c 2 , s i n c e the tempo s p en t o n b3 h a s l e f t Wh i t e i n s u f ­ f i c i e n t ly prepa r e d t o occupy the c e n t e r a t th i s t i me . A s th i n g s a r e , B l a c k c a n n o w beg i n t o s e t the p a c e f o r the rema i n d e r o f the s t r ugg l e . ed 9. . Nc5 1 0 . Nd4 a5 1 1 . Re l . . . 1 2 . Bb2 I f Wh i t e h a d tr ied 1 2 . a 3 , a 4 ! ; 1 3 . b4 , Nc d 7 , the vu l ne r a b i l i t y of hi s c - p awn , coup l e d wi th va r i ou s t a ct i c a l nuances a l on g the a l -h8 d i agona l , wou l d have p r om i s e d B l a c k a g o o d g a m e . 12 . . . . a4 ! B l a c k ha s a c l a s s i c a l l y w e a k c e n t e r , s o he . beg i ns a d e mo n s t r a t i on on the f l ank ! ? Of c o u r s e : S i nce Bl ack ' s cen t e r i s n o t exp l o i t a b l e , i t ' s n o t we a k - - a n d i s t h e r e f o r e a b l e t o g r o u n d _a__£ .La n k d i ve r s i o n " i n f u l l ac c 6 r cfa n c e w i th S t e i n i t z I s theory " m od e r n i z e d " . \. 1 3 . Re l 1 3 . b 4 , a 3 ! wou l d h a ve on l y l oo s e n e d Wh i t e ' s q u e e n s i d e m o r e d r a s t i c a l l y . 13 . . . . c6 ! 1 4 . Ba l ab Qb6 1 5 . ab _

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The pr e s s u r e on the queens i de-b 3 - - p r ev e n t s espec i a l l y Wh i t e f r om ex p l o i t i n g the class ical weakne s s Bl ack ha s c o n c e d e d a t d 6 . Thu s B l a ck ' s p i e c e s are in " p e r i ph e r a l " , bu t e f f e c t i ve , coope r a t i on w i th the c e n t e r . 1 6 . h3 Nfd7 ! Bl ack thr e a t e n s to intens i fy the p r e s s u r e on b3 b y t r a n s f e r r i n g h i s k n i ght to e 6 . Nf8 1 7 . Rb l h5 ! 1 8 . Kh2 the Wh i t e f r om Th i s d i s c ou r a g e s o n wh i ch wou l d f o l l ow a g g r e s s i ve 1 9 . f4 , 1 9 . . . . , h4 ! ; 2 0 . g 4 , N f e 6 . h4 ! 1 9 . Re2 2 0 . Rd2 d4 , Wh i t e h a s s e c u r e d h i s k n i g h t on b u t - - a s w e a r e a b o u t t o s e e - - t h e s e n s i t i v­ i ty o f h i s d a r k s q ua r e s s p a n s the e n t i r e f i e l d f r om e a s t t o we s t . Ra l ! 20 Bd4 2 1 . Ra l Nb3 2 2 . Rd4 •

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2 3 . Rd6 Now if B l a ck h a d p l a y e d the o bv i o u s 2 3 . . . . , Na l ? , the c ou n t e r 2 4 . N d 5 ! f o l l ow e d by 25 . Nf 6 + wou l d h a v e s o l ve d all of Wh i t e ' s probl ems . Sti ll , Bronst e i n ha s i n s u r e d t h e c on t i n u a n c e o f h i s a t t a c k w i t h t h e a d v a n c e o f h i s h - p awn . t "· Of2 ! 23 . 24 . Ra2 \. · · 1 Og3 + Oc3 2 5 . Kh l 2 6 . Ra3 Not 2 6 . Rd3 ? , Qc l ! , wh i ch l oses in an u g l i e r f a sh i on . Bh3 26 . . . . Bg2 + 2 7 . Rb3 Oc4 2 8 . Kg2 Oe6 2 9 . Rd4 Ra8 ! 30 . Rb7 h3+ ! 3 1 . Oc2 3 2 . Res i gns Wh i t e ' s poo r k i n g i s too expo s e d t o 3 2 . Kg l , Qe S ! ; the s t r u gg l e : cont i nu e 3 3 . Rd l , Ra 3 ! , w i th the i mp e n d i n g . . . , Ne 6 a n d . . . , N f 4 h a n g i n g o v e r Wh i t e ' s h e a d . •

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We h a ve t r ave l e d f r om the wo r l d of Rub i n s t e i n and C a p a b l a n c a ( whe r e p iece coope r a t i on wa s i n t e g r a t e d w i t h c l a s s i c ­ a l l y he a l t h y s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s ) , t h r ough t h e i n i t i a t i v e of A l e k h i n e ( who s e p i eces i ns i gn i f i ­ c oope r a ted w i th cl a ss i c a l ly c a n t - - wha t we have called tran s i ent-­ s t r a te g i c r ea 1 i t i e s ) , to the f u r t he s t ext remes of Bol e s l avsky a n d Brons t e i n , m od e r n who s e a pp r o a ch i m a g i n a t i ve wi th p i eces integra ted c o o p e r a t i ve c l a s s i c a l l y we a k - - b u t d y n a m i c a l l y v i a b l e - ­ s t r51- t e g i c '' .�I e f i c i_enc_i_� s " . --- - A s h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d i n t h e ch a p t e r o n

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A l e kh i n e , the who l e o f m od e r n che s s c a n be v i ewed as a r e a s onably s t r a i gh t - f o rw a r d proce s s i on o f i n c r ea s i n g l y s ub t l e f o rm s of i n t e gr a t i on . S u ch a m od e l h a s t h e m e r i t of s i mp l i c i t y , a n d i s p l e a s a n t l y c o n s i s ­ t e n t w i t h o u r th e o r y o f c l a s s i c a l che s s thought . A t the s a m e t i me , h ow e ve r , the " opt i on a l " concept of r e s p on s i b i l i t y ha s b e en e mp l o y e d t o g r o u n d t h i s m o d e l , not out of any nece s s i ty , but due to a p r e s s ­ i n g n e e d f o r a r a d i c a l l y s u b j e c t i ve f ou n ­ d a t i o n o n wh i ch t o b u i l d a m o d e l o f t h e c o n t e mp o r a r y m a s t e r ' s m i n d .

V . CONTEMPORARY CHESS ( 1957- ) T H E I ND I V I DUAL I N S T R U G G L E 24 . Ta 1 The P s y c h o l o g i c a l S a c r i f i c e

The y e a r 1 9 5 7 i s c o n s p i c u o u s th a n k s t o t h e a r r iva l o f a br i l l i a n t new s t a r i n the c he s s wo r l d . Th a t y e a r , t h e y ou n g M i kh a i l T a l ( 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 9 2 ) won t h e S ov i e t c h a m p i o n ­ sh i p , i n a u g u r a t i n g t h e m o s t s u d d en , s p e c ­ t a c u l a r che s s c a r e e r s i n c e t h e d a y s o f t h e l egenda ry P a u l Mo r ph y . F o r the ens u i ng t h r e e y e a r s , the " Ma g i c i a n o f R i g a " d o m i ­ n a t e d wo r l d che s s b y e scor t i ng o pp o n e n t a fte r o p p on e n t into d i f f i cu l t - - even and u n f a t h o m a b l e - - c o mpl i c a t i o n s ; t h o u gh h i s p r e c a r i o u s s a c r i f i c e s we r e n ' t a l wa y s o b j e c t i ve l y s ou n d , T a l ' s o pp o n e n t s o f t en s t umb l e d i n exp l i c a b l y - - a s i f t h e y h a d b e e n d i s o r i e n t e d b y t h e s u d d e n ch a n g e o f c ou r s e the g a m e h a d t a ken . B y 1 9 6 0 , the g r e a t L a t v i a n wa s wo r l d ch a mp i on . USSR Cbaapi onsbip Riga , 1 95 8 Ta1 Averbakb Nf6 1 . d4 e6 2 . c4 c5 3 . Nc3 4 . d5 ed 5 . cd d6 6 . e4 g6 The Mod e rn Benon i wa s the perfect and open i ng f o r T a l - - h i gh l y i mb a l a n c e d

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tact i c a l nuances . Bg7 Be2 Nf 3 0-0 Re8 0-0 Na6 Oc 2 Bf4 Nb4 . . . Ob l

B l a c k ' s n e x t move i s u l t i m a t e l y i n c o r ­ r e c t , b u t i t ' s i n t e r e s t i n g f r om a p r a c t i ­ c a l po i n t o f vi ew because i t s e i zes s o l e e x i s t e n t i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the n a t u r e o f t h e s t rugg l e ; whe r e a s Wh i t e h a s b e e n i mp l em e n t i n g i d e a s o f h i s o w n thu s far , now they ' re i r r e l evant s i nce Ta! ha s e s s e n t i a l l y r e - d e f i n e d the g a m e a l o n g h i s own l i n e s . 12. . . Ne4 ? ! O b j e c t i ve l y better wa s 1 2 . . . . , Qe7 , lead i ng to a pos i t i on wi th d ynam i c a l l y equa l ch a n c e s . N e ve r t he l e s s , w i th a p sycho l og i c a l s a c r i f i ce , Ta l h a s d i s o r i ­ e n t e d h i s o p p o n e n t b y �s e i z i n g r e s p o n s i b i l ­ i j:._y f o r t h e g a m e ; s i n c e Wh i t e i s a m o d e r n ma s t e r who ' s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s he ' s gr oun d e d in the r e c o g n i t i o n that •

168

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r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the g a me , T a l ' s s a c r i f i c e an e s s en t i a l ha s t e mp o r a r i l y s e ve r e d c o mp o n e n t f r o m h i s o pp o n e n t ' s p s yche . Bf5 1 3 . Ne4 Nd5 1 4 . Nfd2 1 5 . Bd6 ? As wa s d i s c ove r e d l a te r , 1 5 . Bg 3 ! , Q e 7 ; 1 7 . R e l ! ( Kho l m ov ) 1 6 . Bf 3 , Rad8 ; a l l ow s Wh i t e to c o n s o l i d a t e h i s p o s i t i o n wh i l e ret a i n ing s i mu l t a n e o u s l y a mate r i a l a d va n t a g e . It ' s e a s y t o l a m e n t a b o u t how p o o r l y Ta l ' s oppon e n t s played in compl i c a te d s i t u a t i o n s , b u t t he b o t t om l i n e i s t h a t he d om i n a t e d wo r l d che s s f o r a f e w y e a r s by defea t i ng the c omp e t i t i o n in prec i s e ly t h i s k i n d o f g am e . Thu s a n e x p l a n a t i o n i s called for . T o th i s e n d , I s ugg e s t t h a t T a l 1 s p s ycho l o g i c a l s a c r i f i c e s t en d e d to e s t r a n g e h i s o pp o n e n t s f r om t h e i r s e n s e o f respons i b i l i t y , l eaving them i n a t e m p o ­ r a ry s t a te of d i s o r i en t a t i on s i m i l a r to t h a t wh i c h we a k e r p l a y e r s e n c ou n t e r eve r y day . 15 . . . . Nf6 ! 1 6 . Bf3 1 6 . Bc 5 ? , Ne4 ; 1 7 . Ne 4 , Be 4 ; 1 8 . Qd l , Qg5 ( T a l ) w ou l d h a v e l o s t i mm e d i a t e l y . 16 . Ne4 1 7 . Ne4 Be4 1 8 . Be4 Od6 1 9 . Qc2 Re7 B1ack Won •

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I t s h ou l d o n c e a g a i n b e e mpha s i z e d th a t i f w e hadn ' t i n c o r po r a t e d the conc e p t o f res pons i b i l i t y i n o u r trea tment o f modern che s s , the r e a s on why Ta l ' s sacr i f i ce s were p s y cho l o g i c a l l y d i sor i ent ing w ou l d

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n o t b e f o r thc om i n g . F o r why s h o u l d a n y o ne b e t r o u b l e d by the f a c t t h a t h i s o pp o n e n t h a s s e i z e d t h e i n i t i a t i ve ( a s s um i n g h e h a s enough m a t e r i a l " i n the bank " t o b a l ance t h e ch a n c e s ) ? Un d e r t h e m o d e l pr e s en t l y u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , o n the o t h e r h a n d , a n opponent ' s i n i t i a t i ve is less f i rrn l y grounded than o n e ' s own , c a u s i n g i t t o s eem mo r e ch a o t i c and unma nage a b l e ( !!!Y r e s pons i b i l i t y i s c l o s e r a s a s ub j e c t than o t he r peo p l e ' s r e s po ns i b i l i t y , who s e " i n n e r " s e l ve s a r e i n va r i a b l y c on c e a l e d ) . T a l wa s o n l y wo r l d ch a mp i o n f o r a y e a r , s o the span o f h i s d o m i n a n c e wa s - - r e l a ­ t i ve l y speak ing--only a " mom e n t " . Yet th i s ve r y " m o m e n t a r i n e s s " wa s e s s e n t i a l l y re l a ted to a pr inc i pa l r e a s on for hi s s u c c e s s - - the n a t u r e o f t h e p s y c ho l o g i c a l s a c r i f i ce ; f o r by r e p e a t e d l y c on f r o n t i n g h i s o pp on e n t s w i t h a n e x i s t e n t i a l phe n o m ­ e n o n tha t h a d p r ev i ou s l y b e e n c o n f i n e d t o t h e t w i l i ght o f the i r a pp r ehe n s i o n , T a l p r ovo k e d a e r i s i s th a t u she r e d i n a new era .

2 5 . Petros i an Adve r s a r i a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t y

to are we S ov i e t s next three The d i s c u s s a l r e a d y he l d t h e gr a n d m a s t e r t i t l e a r r ived o n the s c ene ; Tal t i me a t the f l ou r i shed them of e a ch n e ve r t he l e s s , d u r i n g the 1 9 6 0 ' s - - a f t e r T a l h a d d r a wn t h e wo r l d ' s a t t e n t i o n t o h i s r a d i c a l wa y s o f s e i z i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e s t r u gg l e . Th i s i s o f i n t e r e s t i n a smu ch a s ou r cha r a c t e r i z a ­ t i o n o f t h e s e m a s t e r s w i l l e mp l o y a d ve r ­ s a r i a l r e s po n s i b i l i t y - - the ve r y p h e n om e n o n Tal had thr u s t b e f o r e the publ i c ' s eye . O f th i s t r i o , p e r h a p s the ea s i e s t t o f i t i n t o o u r m o u l d i s t h e t wo - t e rm wo r l d ( 1 9 29 - 1 9 84 ) . ch a mp i o n T i gran Petros i an Petros i an pos sessed a r enowned sense of dange r th a t perpet ua l ly kept hi s o pp o ­ n e n t ' s a c t i v i t y i n che c k - - s u f f o c a t i n g a n y p e r i l ou s i n i t i a t i ve i n i t s i n f ancy . It shou l d once m o r e b e empha s i z e d why t h i s s e n s e f o r the i n i t i a t i ve " o n c e r e move d " r e p r e s e n t s a n a d v a n c e i n the e vo l u t i o n o f ex i s t e n t i a l un d e r s t a n d i n g : A n o pp o n e n t ' s i n i t i a t i v e i s e s s e n t i a l l y m o r e r em o t e t h a n o ne ' s o w n be c au s e t h e i n d e p en d e n t c on c e p t " i n i t i a t i ve " i s g r o u n d e d by r e s po n s i b i l ­ p h e n om e n o n fu- - a r ad i c a l l y s ubj e c t i ve wh i ch i sn ' t a va i l a b l e for o b j e c t i ve , sc i e n t i f i c s t ud y . USSR Champ i onsh i p T i f 1 i s , 1 9 59 Petros i an 1 . d4 2 . c4

Yukhtman Nf6 g6

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Bg7 3 . Nc3 4 . e4 d6 0-0 5 . Be2 6 . Nf3 e5 Na6 7 . d5 8 . Bg5 ! . . . Wh i t e a l ready beg i ns to restrict Bl ack ' s act ivity by p inn i ng the k n i ght tha t s t a n d s i n t h e p a t h o f t h e a g g r e s s i ve ­ l y -m i n d e d f - p a w n ; a n d i f the s e c on d p l a y e r s h ou l d pu t t h e q u e s t i o n t o t h e b i sho p by d r i v i n g i t b a c k w i t h h i s g - a n d h - p a wn s , o t he r w e a k n e s s e s w i 1 1 b e c r e a t e d th a t w i 1 1 a l l ow Petros ian to keep h i s opponent ' s a c t i v i t y i n che c k . 8. . . . h6 9 . Bh4 g5 1 0 . Bg3 Nb5 1 1 . Nd 2 Nf4 1 2 . 0-0 Nc5 . . . 1 3 . Bg4 ! By oppos i n g b i sho ps , Pe t r os i a n initi­ ates a s t r u gg l e f o r the 1 i g ht s q u a r e s - ­ espec i a l l y f 5 - - on wh i ch his r e s t r i c t i ve a c t i on i s t o t a k e p l a c e . H e n c e f o r th , t h i s t h e m e w i 1 1 d e ve l o p a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e n s e l i ght . 13. a5 A m o r e a c t i ve d e f e n c e is o f f e r e d by 1 3 . . . . , Ne 4 ! ? ; 1 4 . Nde4 , f 5 ; 1 5 . f 3 , h5 ; 1 8 . fe , Qe7 1 6 . Bf4 , ef ; 1 7 . BhS , f e ; ( E uwe ) . A f t e r t h e II s t o c k " . . . ' a s ' h o w e ve r ' Wh i t e I s k i ngs i d e r e s t r a i n t c a n enter h i gh gea r . 14 . f3 ! . . . Wh i t e i n t en d s t o e v e n t u a l l y d r i ve the k n i g h t f r om f4 w i t h B f 2 and g 3 . Ncd 3 ? 14 . . . . -> A s l o n g a s B l a c k ' s p o s i t i o n i s p u r e l y p a s s i v e , a n ou t p o s t o n the s i x th r a n k i s

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wo r t h l e s s . And s ince the k ings i de is u n d e r a c l amp , i mm e d i a t e a c t i v i t y o n t h e q u e en 1 s f l a n k wa s c a l l e d f o r : 14 , c6 ; 1 5 . Qc2 , cd ; 1 6 . c d , b 5 ! w i th unc l e a r play ( G l i g o r i c - S t e i n , MoSCO-w , 1 9 6 7 ) . c6 1 5 . Qc2 1 6 . Khl h5 Rc8 1 7 . Bc8 cd 1 8 . a3 Nc5 1 9 . cd g4 20 . Bf2 Ng6 2 1 . g3 hg 2 2 . fg . . . 2 3 . Be3 •

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A l t h o u g h i t ma y n o t b e o bv i ou s a t f i r s t s i gh t , an i n ve s t i g a t i o n into conc rete p l a n s r e v e a l s tha t t h e B l a c k f o r c e s are e n t i r e l y p a s s i ve ; i n d e e d , m o r e t h a n o n e o f B l a c k 1 s 1 1 a gg r e s s i ve l y 1 1 p o s t e d p a w n s a r e i n f a c t ex p o s e d , a n d Wh i t e e n j o y s a p e rm a n e n t a d v a n t a g e o n t he h a l f - o p en f - f i l e . Faced w i t h a l i f e d e vo i d o f c ou n t e r p l a y o n th i s ba t t l e f i e l d , Black dee i des to make a despera te b i d f o r a ct i vi ty . 23 . . . . fb!){

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24 . Nb5 Ob6 2 5 . a4 Oa6 2 6 . Nc4 . . I r on i c a l l y , d i ve r s i o n Bl ack ' s on the queens i de ha s on l y a cc e n t u a t e d Wh i t e ' s o f t h e l i g ht c on t r o l squa res in tha t sector . 26 . . . . f5 27 . Rf5 Rf5 28 . ef � 2 9 . , Og2.J Nb3 30 . Ncd6 Od7 3 1 . Rf l Res i gns .

P e t r o s i a n wa s c e r t a i n l y n o t the f i rst gr e a t player to k ee p hi s opponents ' a c t i v i t y i n c h e c k ; n e v e r the l e s s , a h i gh l y evo l v e d s e n s e o f d a n g e r c om e s t o t h e f o r e s o p r om i n e n t l y i n hi s games tha t the a e s the t i c da t a en d o r s e s the i n c l u s i on o f a d ve r s a r i a l r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y i n o u r m o d e l o f hi s exi s tent i a l under st and ing . The r e a d e r ha s n o d o u b t n o t i c e d tha t the f i rst t wo ma s t e r s we ' ve d e a l t w i th c o n t em po r a r y che s s have a l ready under p a s s e d a wa y . A l though t h i s i s cert a inly unu s u a l , the p e r t i ne n t f a c t i s tha t both T a ! a n d P e t r o s i a n o c c u p i e d s u ch i mp o r t a n t roles i n t h e c om i n g t o l i g ht o f a d ve r ­ s a r i a 1 r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y th a t t h e i r i n c l u s i on i n thi s sect i on i s manda tory .

2 6 . Korchno i D e f e n s i v e Cha r a c t e r

A l t h o u g h P e t r o s i a n ' s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g wa s i n k e en t ou ch w i t h h i s o pp o ­ nent s ' potent i a l for i n i t i a t i ve , the a e s the t i c of h i s a c t i o n a g a i n s t i t wa s class i ca l in n a t u r e - - he a l t h y m a n e u ve r s cl a s s of tha t a r e t yp i c a l f o r a who l e po s i t i on s . In the games of Vi ktor K o r c hn o i ( 1 9 3 1 - ) , o n the o t he r h a n d , we f i n d t h e m o d e r n a e s t he t i c of ch a r a c t e r o n s i d e - - i 1 1 um i n a t i n g s p e c i f ­ the d e f en d e r ' s i e s t h a t d a m p e n t h e a d ve r s a r y ' s i n i t i a t i v e by m e a n s str ik ingly pa r t i c u l a r to the pos i t i on . USSR Champ i onsh i p Semi - F i na 1 Tashkent , 1 95 8 Korchno i Gips 1 i s 1 . e4 c5 2 . Nf3 d6 3 . d4 cd Nf6 4 . Nd4 a6 5 . Nc3 e6 6 . Bg5 7 . f4 h6 8 . Bh4 Ob6 9 . Od 2 Ob2 1 0 . Nb3 Qa3 The P o i s o ne d P awn Va r i a t i on l e ad s s t r a i gh t o f f t o t h e k i n d o f i n s t a b i l i t y i n wh i ch a p l a y e r w i t h a s u b t l e f e e l f o r h i s o p p on e n t ' s cha n c e s w i l l o f t e n f i n d h i s o wn a c t i v i t y s u r v i v i n g a n he r o i c d e f e n c e . 1 1 . Bd3 Be7 Ne4 ! ? 1 2 . 0-0

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1 3 . Be4 ? Th i s a l l ow s B l a ck to br ing about a s i t u a t i o n i n wh i ch t h e pa r t i cu l a r s wi l l f ina l l y set t l e in hi s favor . A better a t t e mp t to r et a i n the i n i t i a t i ve w ou l d h a ve been 1 3 . N e 4 , Bh 4 ; 1 4 . Bb 5 + ! , K e 7 ( 14 , ab ? ; 1 5 . Nd 6 + , K e 7 ; 1 6 . Nb 5 i s d e va ­ stat i ng ) ; 1 5 . Qc 3 ! wi th a d i f f icult s t r u gg l e a he a d f o r b o t h s i d e s . 13 . . . . Bh4 . . . 14 . f5 .

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Bl ack ' s next move s eems an a b s ur d i n ve s t m e n t f o r a n u n d e r d e ve l o p e d a r my , b u t t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f t h e p o s i t i o n a r e s u ch th a t Wh i t e c a n no l on g e r ret a i n the i n i t i a t i ve . 14 . . Ob4 ! Be6 1 5 . fe Bg5 1 6 . Nd4 Bc4 ! 1 7 . Od 3 Ko rchno i i nv i t e s the Wh i t e queen to i nv a d e o n t h e c 8 - h 3 d i a g o n a l . As danger­ ou s a s t h i s s e e m s , i t a l l ow s B l a c k t o wa l k a t i g ht r o p e t o a w i n n i n g a d v a n t a g e . 1 8 . Oh3 Bf l

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Bd8 1 9 . Oc8 + Ob6 + 2 0 . Ne6 Nc6 ! 2 1 . Kf l Wh i t e ' s a c t i v i t y i s b r e a t h i n g i t s l a s t , l e a v i n g t h e B l a c k s u r v i vo r s t o i nhe r i t t h e i n i t i a t i ve . Kf8 2 2 . Ng7+ Kg7 2 3 . Oa 8 Od4 24 . Rb l Na 5 2 5 . Ob7 The d a r k s q u a r e s i n t he n e i ghb o r h o o d o f t h e Wh i t e k i n g a r e p a i n f u l l y w e a k , p r ov i d ­ i ng a perfect f o c u s f o r the d e c i s i ve a s s au l t . Nc4 26 . Ob4 Bb6 2 7 . Bd3 Og l + 2 8 . Ne4 2 9 . Ke2 Og2+ 3 0 . Kd l Of3+ 3 1 . Be 2 Oh l + Oe4 3 2 . Oe l Kf8 3 3 . Og3 + 34 . Bc4 Od4+ 3 5 . Od3 wou l d 3 5 . B d 3 , Rg 8 more have lost q u i ck l y . 35 . . Og l + 36 . Of l Rg8 ! 3 8 . Kc l , B l a ck threa tens 37 , Qd4+ ; R g l , w i n n i n g t h e Wh i t e q u e en . d5 3 7 . c3 3 8 . Ba6 Oh2 3 9 . Of6 Rg l + 40 . Bf l Be3 4 1 . Res i gns A tho roughl y mod e r n game w i th the a e s t h e t i c o f cha r a c t e r . Even i n the f i na l p o s i t i o n , B l a c k ' s k i n g l o o k s a s vu l n e r a b l e a s Wh i t e ' s , b u t the p a r t i c u l a r s of the •

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K o r ch n o i i s a d i f f i c u l t f i g u r e t o p i n d own , b o th c o mp e t i t i ve l y a n d s t y l i s t i c a l ­ ly . Wh i l e many o f h i s m o s t c on v i n c i n g r e s u l t s d a te f r o m t h e p e r i o d a r ou n d 1 9 6 5 , one c a n h a r d l y i gn o r e h i s l on g s e r i e s o f i mp r e s s i ve a pp ea r a n c e s in c and i da tes m a t ch e s f r om t h e l a t e s i x t i e s t h r o u g h the A t t he s a m e t i m e - - l i k e ea r l y e i gh t i e s . o t h e r g r e a t m a s t e r s who e n j o y e d l on g a n d dur a b l e c a r ee r s ( La sker and Botv i nn i k spr ing to m i n d ) - - K o r chn o i ' s style is e l u s i ve l y mu ! t i - f a c e t e d . Thu s the t r a d i ­ t i on a l portra i t of him as the " he r o i c d e f e n d e r " w i t h a s u b t l e f ee l f o r the w e a k l i nk s in hi s opponen t ' s i n i t i a t i ve is sti ll , n a r r ow ; uns a t i s f actor i ly thi s cha r a c t e r i z a t i on h a s i t s m e r i t s i n a s m u ch a s i t h i ghl i ghts a p r om i n e n t f e a t u r e o f K o r chn o i ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a l l ow i n g u s to a t l e a s t p l a c e th i s a s p e c t o f h i s style f i rm l y w i th i n o u r e vo l u t i o n a r y s t u d y .

2 7 . Spassky The U n i ve r s a l S t y l e

P e t r o s i a n a n d K o r chn o i p o s s e s s e d e x i s ­ tent i a l und e r s t and i ng s tha t we r e hi ghly s e n s i t i ve t o the i r o pp on e n t s ' i n i t i a t i ve - ­ a tra it wh i ch sprang f o r th f r om the i r r e c o g n i t i o n o f a d ve r s a r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I t wa s o n l y i n the p l a y o f t h e wo r l d c h a m ­ p i o n B o r i s S p a s s k y ( 1 9 3 7 - ) , howeve r , t h a t a f u l l r e c o g n i t i on o f a d v e r s a r i a l r e s p o n ­ s i b i 1 i t y c am e t o 1 i gh t . F o r S p a s s ky moved beyond hi s c o n t e mp o r a r i e s by c o rn i n g to gr i ps w i th h i s o pp o n e n t ' s c o mp l e t e ex i s ­ t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g - - no t the me r e c a p a ­ city for i n i t i a t i ve . Th i s is why he s t y l e - - o ne d e ve l o p e d a u n i ve r s a l th a t c on f o r m e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n ( a n d o pp o n e n t ) at hand . I n d eed , S p a s s k y ' s p l a y s t yl i s ­ t i cally d i s t i n gu i she s i tself f r om o t he r l e a d i n g S ov i e t m a s t e r s by i t s f l ex i b i l i t y ; Smys l ov , Ge l l e r , Pet ros i an , B r on s t e i n , T a l , a n d S t e i n - - t o n a m e a f e w - - h a v e we l l ­ ea rne d r e pu t a t i ons f o r be i n g ou t s t a n d i n g m a s t e r s o f t h e i r own t yp e o f g a m e , wh i l e t h e v e r s a t i l e S p a s s k y wa s a b l e t o a d a p t t o wha t e v e r s t y l e wou l d b e mo s t u n c o m f o r t a b l e f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r o pp o n e n t a t h a n d . One m i g h t s a y th a t , in Spa ssky ' s p l a y , the mod e r n a e s t h e t i c of c h a r a c t e r h a s f i n a l l y t a k e n o n a p u r e l y c omp e t i t i v e f o r m . Cand i dates F i nal Match Tbi l i s i , 1 965 Ta l 1 . e4 2 . Nf3

Spa s sky e5 Nc6

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3 . Bb5 a6 4 . Ba4 Nf6 5 . 0-0 Be7 6 . Re l b5 7 . Bb3 0-0 8 . h3 Bb7 9 . d3 d6 1 0 . c3 Nb8 I n t he B r e y e r R u y L o p e z , B l a c k i s o f t en f o r c e d t o c a r e f u l l y r e o rgan i z e h i s f o rces be f o r e u n d e r t a k i n g p o s i t i ve a c t i on . Thu s it ' s a prec a r i ou s ch o i c e aga i n s t an a t t a c k i ng ma s te r of Tal ' s s t a t ure ; s t i l l , B l a c k ' s p o s i t i o n c a n b e r ema r k a b l y r e s i l i ­ ent i f hand l e d correc t l y . 1 1 . Nbd2 Nbd7 1 2 . Nf l Nc5 1 3 . Bc 2 Re8 1 4 . Ng3 Bf8 1 5 . b4 Ncd7 1 6 . Bb3 a5 ab 1 7 . a3 h6 1 8 . cb 1 9 . Nf 5 ? ! B e t t e r i s t h e ch a n g e o f f r o n t 1 9 . d 4 , c 5 ; 2 1 . d e , Ne S ; 2 2 . Ne 5 , R e 5 ; 2 3 . Bb 2 , 2 0 . bc , d c ; R e 8 ; 2 4 . Q f 3 , a s p l a y e d a f ew y e a r s l a te r by Tal himself ( v s . Smej k a l , Tall in , 197 1 ) . After the move p l a y e d i n the p r e s e n t game , Spa ssky proceed s to e s t a bl i sh an a d v a n t a g e i n t h e c e n t e r , wh i l e T a l pre­ p a r e s t h e f a m i 1 i a r S p a n i sh a t t a c k o n the k i ngs i de . d5 19 . 20 . N3h4 ? ! O n c e a ga i n , the m o r e b a l anced 2 0 . Bb2 , de ; 2 1 . de , Ne4 ( 2 1 . . . . , Be4 ? ; 2 2 . Re 4 ! , Ne4 ; 23 . QdS ) ; 2 2 . B d S ! ( S h a m k o v i ch ) wo u l d have •

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A fu l l a pp r e c i a t i on of a d ve r s a r i a l respons i b i l i t y mad e S p a s sky parti cul arly s t r o n g r e g a r d i n g the s ub t l e t i e s o f " p l a y ­ ing the ma n " ; i n the p r e s e n t inst ance , cons i der how he forti f ies hi s p o s i t i on aga i ns t Ta l ' s i mp e n d i n g a t t a ck on the k i ng . Ra6 ! 24 . the o f t en c r i t i c a l re inforces Black " Span i sh " thi rd r ank . -------- --2 5 �- -Nii6 'f gh Qa8 ! 2 6 . Nf5 T a l ' s a c t i v i t y h a s b e e n d a mp e n e d b y h i s vu l n e r a b l e c e n t e r . Bh6 2 7 . Nh6 Kh8 28 . Qf5+ Rg8 2 9 . Bh6 Qe8 30 . Bg5 •

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Cand i dates F i na1 Match K i ev , 1 968 Spas sky -!orchnoi 1 . d4 Nf6 g6 2 . c4 3 . Nc3 Bg7 d6 4 . e4 s . f3 Th i s t i m e , S p a s s k y p l a y s t h e role of a g gr e s s o r . s. . 0-0 Nc6 6 . Be3 7 . Nge2 a6 8 . Nc l eS 9 . dS Nd4 Nb3 1 0 . Nb3 1 1 . Qb3 cs be 1 2 . de Be6 ? ! 1 3 . 0-0-0 B l a ck shou l d ins tead try the mo r e a c t i ve , t h o u g h a e s t h e t i c a l l y l e s s r e s i l i ­ ent , 1 3 . . . . , Qe7 ; 14 . c5 , d5 ! ? ; 1 5 . ed , cd ; 1 6 . Nd 5 , Nd 5 ; 1 7 . Qd 5 , Rb8 w i th ( K o r chn o i ) ,

Contemporary Chess

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c o mp e n s a t i o n f o r t h e s a c r i f i c e d p awn . Ne8 1 4 . Qa3 f6? 1 5 . h4 K o r chn o i m i s s e s h i s l a s t o pp o r t u n i t y t o play " n on - r e s i l i e n t l y " : 1 5 . . . . , Bf6 ! ? ; 1 6 . Bh 6 , Bh 4 ! ( T a l , B o n d a r ev s ky ) . 1 6 . c5 ! Rf7 Now 16 , dS? ; 1 7 . ed , cd ; 1 8 . B c 4 , Nc 7 ; 1 9 . Nd 5 , Nd 5 ; 2 1 . Bd 5 ! , Rb 3 ; 2 0 . Qb 3 , Rb8 ; 2 2 . B e 6 + ( K o r ch n o i ) w o u l d h a v e on l y l e d t o a f i a sco for B l ack . 1 7 . Qa4 ! Qc7 1 8 . Bc4 Bc4 1 9 . Qc4 Bf8 2 0 . b5 ! de 2 1 . hg bg 2 2 . Qe6 Rd8 2 3 . Rd8 Qd8 24 . Rd l Qe7 2 5 . Qc6 Nc7 B l a c k h o p e s to s i mp l i f y w i th . . . , Q e 6 , stee r ing towa rd an endgame w i th d r aw i ng cha n c e s . .

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a pp r e c i a t i on is gr oun d e d in exi s tent i a l unde r s t and ing . A t f i r s t g l ance , Spa s s ky ' s move s ee m s on l y to be m a r k i n g t i me , p e r h a p s wa i t i n g f o r Bl ack t o " s how h i s h a n d " ; on c l o s e r i n s p e c t i on , howeve r , we r e a l i z e t h a t 2 6 . . . . , Q e 6 ? c a n n o w b e m e t by 2 7 . B c 5 ( wh i ch p r o t e c t s the q u e en on b 6 - ­ t h e p o i n t ) , a n d w e b e g i n t o a pp r e c i a t e how s e ve r e l y 2 6 . Qb6 ha s s t r a i ne d Black ' s " res i l i ent cooperat i on " . J u s t a s i n the p r e v i ou s g a m e Spa ssky wa s a b l e t o d i v i n e t h e we a k 1 i n k i n T a l ' s a t t a c k , s o he r e h e h a s b e en a b l e t o b r e e d c on f u s i o n in the midst of Ko rchn o i ' s def ens ive f o r t r e ss . 26 . . . . Kg7 2 7 . Nd5 ! Oe6 2 8 . Bc5 Bc5 2 9 . Oc5 Nb5 3 0 . Oe3 Oc6 + 3 1 . Kb l Nd4 3 2 . Re l Ob5 3 3 . Nc7 Oe2 34 . Ne6 + Kb7 3 5 . Oh6 + ! Res igns All in all , the a b ove p a i r o f g a m e s s h ou l d b e t a k en a s i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e s o f Spa s s ky ' s abi l i ty to " play off " hi s i n d i v i dua l o pp o n e n t ' s pecu l i a r brand of perpetua l l y kee p ing und e r s t a n d i ng , it " u n d e r g ua r d " wh i l e s i mu l t a n e ou s l y d i s r u p ­ t i ng any d e s i gns i t may carry out .

2 8 . F i scher I n t e r a c t i ve R e s p o n s i b i l i t y

We h a ve a r r i v e d a t t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f o u r s t ud y . F i r s t , h o w e ve r , w e n e e d t o d o a b i t o f ph i l o s o ph i c a l h o u s e k e e p i n g . T o r e i t e r a t e a p o i n t we m a d e e a r l i e r : Adve r s a r i a l r e s pons i b i l i t y i s e s s ent i a l l y d i s t i nct f r om !!!.Y. r e s p o n s i b i l i t y bec au s e the i n n e r wo r l d o f o t h e r s i s m o r e r e mo t e tha n m y own - - my f e e l i ng s , my ego , my £.Q!l­ sc i ousnes s , etc . Th i s i s t h e c a s e b e c a u s e a l l t he s e p h e n om e n a h a ve t o d o w i th h um a n be i n g s as s ub j e c t s r a the r than ob j ects . L e t u s t he r e f o r e e x a m i n e t he s e c on c e p t s a b i t more closely . A n o b j e c t i s a n y t h i n g i n t h e wo r l d t h a t you c a n " l a y y ou r h a n d s o n " - - a n y t h i ng th a t c a n b e p u b l i c l y s e e n , d e s c r i b e d , a n d put i nt o cl ea r terms c o mmu n i c a b l e to o the r s . Thu s I c ou l d d e s c r i b e a p a r t i c u ­ l a r t a b l e i n m y home , a n d y o u w ou l d h a v e an i mage of it i n y o u r m i n d ; I c ou l d d e s c r i b e s om e o ne ' s b o d y , a n d o n c e a g a i n a p i c t u r e c om e s t o m i n d ; e v e n a b r a i n c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d , c on j u r i n g up a v i s i on o f s o l i d , o b j e c t i ve g r e y m a t t e r . But how , f o r i n s t a n c e , c ou l d a n e g o b e d e s c r i b e d ? How c ou l d a p e r s o n ' s d e e p e s t s e l f c om e t o l i g ht ? Whe n I " l o o k i n t o " my s e l f t o d i s c ov e r who " I 11 a m , n u m e r ou s i d e a s s p r i n g t o m i n d . I th i n k o f my w i f e a n d ch i l d r e n , o f my h o m e and my j o b . But c e r t a i n l y , n o ne o f the s e a r e me . So I p r e s s on , ponde r i n g mo r e " p e r s o n a l " th i n g s s u ch a s m y b o d y - ­ e s pec i a l l y m y b r a i n . Is thi s me? I f w e w e r e t o l oo k a t ah um a n b r a i n , we

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w ou l d f i n d a v a r i e t y o f ob j e c t i v e p h y s i c a l che m i c a l react i ons , phe n o m e n a - - n e u r o n s , a n d s o f o r th . S t i 1 1 , the m o r e we w ou l d " d i s s e c t " t h e b r a i n i n q u e s t i o n , t h e mo r e pu z z l i n g w ou l d s ee m the q u e r y : Why i s i t c on s c i o u s ? Sure , it f un c t i o n s , but so does a clock . Why i sn 1 t a cl ock con­ sc i ou s ? No ma t t e r how deeply s c i ent i st s have probed i nt o the bra in , they have n e v e r b e e n a b l e t o p i n - d own a n y s ub j e c t i ve p h e n om e n a - - n o f ee l i n g s , no e g o , n o c on ­ s c i o u s n e s s ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e , howeve r , we c o n t i n u e t o expe r i e n c e t he s e th i n g s . Why ? I d o n ' t k n o w t h e a n s we r t o t h i s . Wha t I d o k n o w i s tha t p eo p l e , i n th e i r e ve r y ­ d a y 1 i ve s , a r e c o nv i n c e d tha t t h e y h a v e a n ego - - a self tha t 1 s r a d i c a l l y u n l i k e a n y p i ece o f g r e y ma t t e r a sc i en t i s t m i ght place i n a j ar . I n t h e s am e wa y , eve r y o ne g o i n g a b ou t t h e i r d a i l y b u s i n e s s b e l i e ve s the y 1 r e con s c i ous , they 1 re r e s po n s i b l e , the y h a ve i n t ang i bl e f e e l i ng s of l ove , ha te , hope , a n d despai r . And b e c au s e p e o p l e l i ve t h e i r l i ve s i n th i s s t a t e o f c on v i c t i on , a l l the s e n o t i o n s h a v e a p l a c e i n p r a c t i c a l p s ycho l ogy . I n o t h e r wo r d s , i t 1 s i r r e l ev a n t whe t h e r the s ub j e c t i ve wo r l d r e a l l y e x i s t s - - whe t h e r a n y o f t h e s e c onv i c t i o n s a r e b a s e d i n t r u t h . Wh a t m a t ­ t e r s he r e i s tha t the f r ame of m i nd e r r o n e ou s l y - - i n be l i eve s - - howeve r the s ub j e c t i ve wo r l d . Th i s is why I ' ve a c c e p t e d s u bj e c t i ve n o n o b j e c t i ve i n t a ng i bl e , phenom ena as But " t h i n g s " t h a t c a n ' t b e p i n n e d - d own . i f we 1 r e on l y i mm e d i a t e l y a wa r e o f o u r -own s e l ve s a s s u b j e c t s , h o w c a n the c on c e p t of m a i n t a i ne d ? a dve r s a r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e H o w c a n a s u b j e c t b e c om e a w a r e o f a n o t h e r

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s ub j e c t ? O n c e a g a i n , we d o n ' t h a v e t o k n o w h o w Of does . it tha t o cc u r s , on l y thi s at we ' r e l o o k i n g as l ong as cour s e , a s a n ob j e c t - - a s a b r a i n a n o t h e r p e r s on u n d e r a m i c r o s c o p e , f o r i n s t a n c e - - we w o n ' t in N o n e the l e s s , s u bj e c t . a n o the r f i nd th e i r e ve r y d a y l i ve s , peo p l e do b e c om e c o nv i n c e d tha t o t he r p e o p l e a r e s ub j e c t s - ­ fee l i ngs , have c on s c i o u s , that they ' re H um a n b e i n g s h o n e s t l y b e l i e ve th a t etc . t h e y c a n r e l a t e t o e a ch o t h e r a s s u b j e c t s . P e r h a p s th i s f e e l i n g i s gr ou n d e d i n t r u th , a n d s o m e t h i n g w i l d l y m e t a ph y s i c a l i s g o i n g on he r e ; or m a yb e we j ust e r r o n e ou s l y i ma g i n e o u r s e l ve s i n e a ch o th e r ' s shoe s . B u t e v e n i f th i s i s the gr o s s e s t " c o mmu ­ nity error " i n hi s tory , it ha s been repea ted ly c o mm i t t e d for t h ou s a n d s of yea r s , and i s cons equent l y of s i gn i f i c ance i n hum a n p s y ch o l o g y . B a ck to ch e s s . The l ea d i ng S ov i e t ma s t e r s o f t h e s i x t i e s c o mm a n d e d a s o ph i s ­ und e r s t a n d i n g wh i ch ti cated exi s t ent i a l wa s k e e n l y a wa r e o f a dve r s a r i a l res pon­ sibi l i ty . B u t d i d th i s a w a r e n e s s m e a n they w e r e mak i n g f u l l u s e o f t h e i r c om ­ A f te r pet i to r ' s exi s t en t i a l " ;? r e s e n c e " ? all , one can be a wa r e of an art ist ' s c r e a t i v i t y w i t h o u t t e s t i n g i t o r qu e s t i o n ­ i n g i t - - w i th o u t e n g a g i n g i t i n s t r u gg l e . We h a v e a l ready a l l ud e d t o the f a c t th a t , n o t on l y d o p e o p l e b e c om e a w a r e o f o t he r s a s s u b j e c t s , t h e y a l s o r e l a t e to them i n a n i n t a n g i b l e , pu r e l y s u b j e c t i ve manne r . S ub j e c t s do mee t " s om e whe r e " - ­ t h e y e x c h a n g e i d ea s , t he y s h a r e f e e l i n g s , t h e y s t r u gg l e w i t h e a ch o t h e r p o l i t i c a l l y . B u t whe r e d o t h e y m e e t ? It ' s absurd to

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s u gg e s t tha t m y s ubj e c t meets a n o the r s ub j e c t h e r e o r t he r e - - o n t h i s t a b l e o r i n t h a t ch a i r . I t ' s e q u a l l y p r e p o s t e r ou s t o c l a i m m e e t i n g s o c c u r i n !!!.Y b r a i n o r i n h i s br a i n - - a s if egos f l oa t m y s t e r i ou s l y through space , p a y i n g visits on s ubj ect a f te r s ub j e c t , a l l t h e t i me l eav i n g a n u n c on s c i o u s s h e l l a t " hom e " . The p o i n t i s tha t t h e wh o l e p h e n o m e n o n i s s ub j e c t i ve : Just a s the p r e c i s e l o c a t i o n o f the ego c a n ' t b e p i n ne d - d o w n i n t h e b r a i n , s o the pl ace whe r e t wo e g o s m e e t i s e l u s i v e l y s u bj e c t i ve . In any event , s ub j e c t s do r e l a t e , a n d mu ch o f wha t o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n c a n b o a s t s t e m s f r o m s u c h i n t e r a c t i on . Th i s i s h o w I p r o p o s e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t wo r l d cha mp i o n o f a l l t i m e , R o b e r t F i s c he r ( 1 9 4 3 - ) , wa s a b l e t o t r a n s c e n d e v e n h i s In s t r on g e s t c o mp e t i t o r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g . our l ast ch a p t e r , it wa s a rgued tha t Spa ssky made an e s s ent i a l c ompe t i t i ve a d v a n c e by " p l a y i n g off " h i s o pp o n e n t ' s und e r s t and i n g . N e ve r t he l e s s , the c oncept o f a u n i ve r s a ! s t y l e - - o n e wh i ch i s u l t i ­ ma t e l y d e t e rm i n e d by o ne ' s o pp o n e n t - - i s s ugg e s t i ve of an essent i a lly p a s s i ve r e l a t i o n t o t h e a d ve r s a r y . A l t h o u g h th i s i s o f 1 i t t l e o r n o t e chn i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , i t c a n h a r d l y b e i g no r e d s i n c e ou r i n ve s ­ t i ga t i o n ha s e n t e r e d the pu r e l y c omp e t i ­ t i ve l e ve l o f exi s t en t i a l unde r s t a n d ing , whe r e a n y l o s s o f i n t e n s i t y i s o f i mp o r ­ tance . In c omp a r i s on , F i s c he r d i dn ' t m e r e l y r e a c t t o h i s o pp o n e n t ' s u n d e r s t a n d ­ i n g ; c o nve r s e l y , h e " m a d e t h e f i r s t move " and e n g a g e d h i s a d ve r s a r y d i r e c t l y . For F i s che r , che s s wa s n ' t an i n d e p en d e n t b a t t l e f i e l d t o wa r d wh i c h t wo e g o s r e a ch e d o u t t o c o mp e t e ; r a the r , t h e r o y a l g a m e h a d

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b e c o m e s t r u gg l e i t s e l f - - the who l l y s u b j e c ­ t i v e e v e n t t h a t o c c u r s whe n e v e r two e g o s c o l l i d e i n i n t e r a c t i ve r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The s e o b s e rva t i o n s a r e e n d o r s e d by t h e f o l l ow i n g g a m e , i n wh i ch F i s che r en g a g e s hi s opponent in a seem i ng l y end less s t r u gg l e to settle the c e nt r a l p awn c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n h i s f a vo r . Le i pz i g Olymp i ad ,

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Lete l i er F i scher 1 . d4 Nf6 2 . c4 g6 3 . Nc 3 Bg7 4 . e4 0 -0 ! ? 5 . e5? ! F i s c he r ' s i nv i t a t i o n t o Wh i t e a c c e p t s crea te a s c e ne of battle on wh i ch to s t rugg l e for the game ' s d e t e rm i n i n g s t r a teg i c r ea l i t i es . Ne8 5. 6 . f4 d6 c5 ! 7 . Be3 Th i s s a c r i f i c e o f a p awn w i l l k e e p the c e n t r a l s t r u g g l e a l i v e f o r s e ve r a l m o v e s . Nc6 8 . de 9 . cd? . . . F i s c he r l a t e r s u gg e s t e d t h a t Wh i t e now r e t u r n the p aw n in as e c o n o m i c a l a w a y a s p o ss i bl e : 9 . N f 3 , B g4 ; 1 0 . B e 2 . 9. . . . ed 1 0 . Ne4 ? ! Once a ga i n , the l e s s a mb i t i o u s 1 0 . N f 3 wa s c a l l e d f o r . 10. . . . Bf5 ! 1 1 . Ng3 ? ! Mo r e r e s i l i e n t wou l d h a v e b e e n 1 1 . N d 6 , Nd 6 ; 1 2 . Qd6 , Qd6 ; 1 3 . e d , Bb2 ; 1 4 . R d l , Nb 4 ! •

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( th r e a t e n i n g , Bc 2 ) ; 1 5 . K f 2 ( 1 5 . Ne 2 , Bc 2 ; 1 6 . Ne 2 1 6 . Rd 2 , Nd 3 + ) , Na 2 ; ( 1 6 . Rd 2 , Nc 3 ) , a 5 ( F i s che r ) , th ough Bl ack ' s p a s sed a - p awn shou l d t e l l i n the end . 11 Be6 1 2 . Nf 3 Oc7 1 3 . Ob l de 14 . f5 .

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Re6 1 9 . Kf2 Rae8 20 . Re l 2 1 . Bf 3 ? Wh i t e wa s h a r d - p r e s s e d , b u t t h i s ove r s i g h t p e rm i t s a n i mm e d i a t e c on c l u s i on . 21 . . Re3 ! Re3 2 2 . Re3 Qf4+ ! 2 3 . Ke3 24 . Res i gns A poss i bl e f ina le : 24 . Kf2 ( 24 . Kf4 , 2 6 . K f 2 , Nd4 ; 2 5 . Kg2 , Ne 3 + ; Bh 6 # ) , Ng 4 + ; 2 7 . Q h l , Ng 4 + ; 2 8 . K f l , N f 3 ( F i s c h e r ) . •

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o n the k i ngs i d e . B e t t e r w ou l d h a v e b e en a wa i t i n g move s u ch a s 1 1 . a 4 , a s p l a y e d i n G l i g o r i c - K a va l e k , S k o p j e O l y mp i a d , 1 9 7 2 .

11. Nh5 ! As in the p r ev i ou s g ame , F i s che r i nv i t e s a s t r u gg l e f o r the e s t a b l i s hmen t of a pr i nc i pa l s t r a teg i c r ea l i t y - - a re-de f i ned k ings i de p aw n s t ructur e . A move o f th i s s o r t i s b ou n d t o b e r e j e c t e d by an exi s t en t i a l unde rst and ing tha t a cc e p t s the s i t u a t i on a s " g i v en " , a n d i s s i mu l t a n e o u s l y m o s t r e a d i l y d i s c ove r e d by a m i n d tha t p e r c e i ve s e ve r y s i t ua t i o n a s a p e r s on a l s t rugg l e in an e ve r - ch a n g i n g game . 1 2 . Bh5 gh Ne5 1 3 . Nc4 Oh4 ! 1 4 . Ne 3 1 5 . Bd 2 Ng4 hg 1 6 . Ng4 Qf6 ! 1 7 . Bf4 . . . 1 8 . g3? A s t h e b a t t l e c l o s e s , Wh i t e c o mm i t s the c o n d emn i n g d e c i s i ve m i s t ake , hi s k i ng p a wn - - a s we l l a s t h e l i g ht s q ua r e s o n h i s

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weakk i n g s i d e - - t o the s t a t u s o f static nes s e s . C o r r e c t w a s 1 8 . Bg 3 . Bd7 18 . . . . b6 1 9 . a4 a6 20 . Rfe l 2 1 . Re2 b5 2 2 . Rae l Mo r e a g g r e s s i ve - - bu t u l t i ma t e l y no b e t t e r - - wa s 2 2 . ab , ab ; 2 3 . Ra 8 , Ra 8 ; 24 . e5 , 2 6 . Re 5 , b4 ; 2 7 . Ne 4 , Q a 6 ; 2 5 . Kg 2 , de ; Ra l + ; 2 8 . Nd 2 , Be 5 ; 2 9 . Be 5 , Q e 2 . Qg6 ! 22 . . . . Re7 2 3 . b3 Rb8 24 . Qd3 ab 2 5 . ab c4 26 . b4 Rbe8 2 7 . Qd2 The res u l t s of the f o r m a t i ve battle have n o w c l a r i f i e d , a n d Wh i t e i s c l e a r l y o n t h e d e f e n s i ve . h5 2 8 . Re3 Kh7 29 . R3 e2 Kg8 30 . Re3 3 1 . R3e2 Bc3 � 3 2 . Qc3 Re 4 3 3 . Re4 Re4 34 . Re4 Qe4 . 3 5 . Bh6 3 5 . Bd 6 ? , Qd 5 l ets Bl ack ' s b i shop i nt o t h e g a m e w i t h d e c i s i ve e f f e c t , f o r e xa m ­ ple : 3 6 . Q f 6 , Qd l + ; 3 7 . Kg2 , Bc 6 + . 35 . . Qg6 36 . Be l Qbl Bf5 3 7 . Kf l 3 8 . Ke2 Qe4+ 3 9 . Qe3 Qc 2 + 40 . Qd 2 ? . G l i go r i c s ugg e s t s tha t Wh i t e , though s t i l l wo r s e , c ou l d o ff e r a s t i f f res i s .

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t a n c e w i th 4 0 . K e l . Qb3 40 . . . . 4 1 . Qd4 ? Once aga i n , 4 0 . Ke l have left wou l d B l ack p r e s s e d f o r the w i n . The S ov i e t p r e s s o f t h e e a r l y s e v e n t i e s l am e n t e d about how " p oor ly " F i s c he r ' s o p p on e n t s my s t e r i o u s l y pl ayed , a t t r i bu t ­ ing th i s phenomenon to ev e r y th i n g f r om " p s y c h - o u t " t a c t i c s t o the l a r g e a m o u n t o f m o n e y i nvo l ve d i n t h e p r e s e n t m a t ch . The t r u t h , h o w e ve r , i s much s i mp l e r : F i s c he r made f e wer m i s t a k e s th a n h i s opponen ts , and r e l ent l e s s l y pun i shed t he i r errors ; a n d i n a l l l eve l s o f c o mp e t i t i on , e r r o r s c a p i t a l i z e d on a r e f a r more memo r a b l e than tho s e t h a t g o u n exp l o i t e d . As a p s ycho­ l og i c a l expl an a t i on f o r F i s che r ' s s u p e r i o r c o m p e t i t i ve cha r a c t e r , ou r mode l puts f o r th t h e i d e a t h a t h i s e x i s t e n t i a l u n d e r ­ stand ing f e l t che s s t o b e a n essent ial s t rugg l e be t we e n h i m a n d h i s a d ve r s a r y ; thu s he wa s c o n s t a n t l y " on hi s toes " -­ keenl y on the wa tch f o r h i s oppon e n t ' s m i s - s t e p s , a n d c o n s t a n t l y wa r y o f h i s own . Bd3 + ! 41 . . . . 42 . Res i gns Reshevsky g i ve s the f o l l ow i n g as a 43 . Qb2 , c 3 ; 42 . Ke 3 , Qd l ; " c o n c l u s i on " : 4 4 . Q c 3 , Q f 3 + , w i t h m a t e i mp e n d i n g o n e i t h e r e 2 or e4 . A s s t r i k i n g a s t h e s e e x a mp l e s m a y b e , the m o s t c o nv i n c i n g ev i d en c e tha t F i s c he r c o n c e p t u a l i z e d c he s s a s a " c l a s h o f e g o s " i s the en d l e s s e ne r g y h e wa s a b l e t o p o u r into e ve r y e n c o un t e r . No m a t t e r whe t h e r the g a m e wa s a t e c h n i c a l d r aw , F i s c he r s t i 1 1 p r e s s e d f o r mo r e - - a s i f he r e f u s e d

1 94

Contemporary Chess

t o a c c e p t t h e o b j e c t i v e d r a w a s g i ve n , a n d wa s s om eh o w a b l e to i mpo s e a s t r u gg l e o n hi s o pp o n e n t by con t i nua l l y set t i ng problem a f te r probl e m . I t m i ght b e o b j e c t e d a t th i s p o i n t t h a t o u r p r e s e n t a t i on o f S p a s s k y a n d F i s c he r i s hope l e s s l y s p e c u l a t i ve , based on l i ttle m o r e e v i d en c e tha n the f a c t tha t S p a s s k y w a s ve r s a t i l e e n o u g h t o p l a y a n y k i n d o f g a m e , a n d F i s c he r.:_ wa s the f i e r c e s t c o mp e t - -BuT _ _ _ the i tor i n t-he h i s t o r y- of- che ss . -b T h a t r e a d e r s h ou l d e a r i n m n cr--t. b o t h t he s e m a s t e r s a r e n ' t known f o r th e i r radically i n n o v a t i ve p l a y , a n d t h e i r s u c c e s s i s p o p ­ ularly a t t r i bu t e d to purely c o m p e t i t i ve f eature s ; and s i nce the e vo l u t i o n a r y p s y c h o l o g y we ' ve been tra c i n g grace f u l l y f i t s t h e s e cha r a c t e r i z a t i o n s , we have a mu t u a l agreement wh i c h endorses both p o pu l a r o p i n i on a n d t he t h e o r y o f i n t e r ­ a c t i ve r e s pons i b i l i t y .

2 9 . Karpov D om i n a t i on

L i ke F i sche r , wo r l d c h a mp i o n An a t o l y K a r p ov ( 1 9 5 1 - ) wa s a b l e t o d om i n a t e wo r l d che s s b y w i nn i ng g a m e s th a t wou l d h a v e " no r m a l l y " b e e n d r awn , and by d r aw i ng by g a m e s th_a_t_ .wou l d _ h a v e b e e n l on g l o s t !ess ��=-g_r a n d m a s t e r s . - - - - tn. -- te c h n :L c a l p o s i ­ _ _ th i s tTons , _K a. r p o v h a ci no - p- e e r s ; s t i IT , wa-sn i t m e r e l y d u e t-o su p e r i o r t e c h n i q u e ' but a l s o to h i s a b i l i t y to keep t e s t ing the o pp o s i t i on thr ough l i t t l e _s k i rm i s h e s s t a g e d a c r o s s _ t;be b o a r d . T h i s h a s-Te-a-- m e - c a t o r :i ze a r to e-g F i s c he r - - a s a K p ov w i th ma s t e r who conceptua l i z ed che s s t h r ou g h i n t e r a c t i ve r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t he r e by i mp o s ­ i n g a n e ve r - e n d i n g s t r ugg l e on h i s a d ve r ­ sar i es . A e s t h e t i c a l l y , a n e ve n s t r o n g e r r e a s on t o ch a r a c t e r i z e K a r p o v i n t h i s wa y i s h i s s t r i k i ng use of t h e d om i n a t i o n theme . O f t en d u r i n g h i s g a m e s , we f i n d K a r p ov ' s pieces s l ow l y , a lmost i mp e r c e p t i b l y , d r i v i n g the e nemy back . One by one , o p p o s i n g t r o o p s a r e c on f r on t e d , r e s t r i c t ­ e d , a n d d r i v e n t o p a s s i ve p o s t s . And a l l t h e wh i l e , u n d e r t h e s u r f a c e , a m i gh t y the i n i t i a t i ve is t ak ing s t r u gg l e for p l a c e , r e a d y t o e r u p t t h e momen t a f i s s u r e opens . _ _

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Cand i dates Semi -Fina1 Match Leni ngrad , 1 9 74 Karpov 1 . e4 2 . Nf 3

Spas sky c5 e6

Contemporary Chess

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cd d4 Nf6 Nd4 d6 Nc3 Be2 tha t d ev e l o p s K a r p ov pre fers a game m o r e s l ow l y t o t h e v i o l en t t a c t i c a l l i n e s av a i l a b l e a t t h i s p o i nt . Be7 6. . . . 0-0 7 . 0-0 Nc6 8 . f4 Bd7 9 . Be3 w i th Spassky refra i ns f r om 9 . . . . , eS , wh i ch he w o n b r i l l i a n t l y ea r l i e r i n the the m a t ch . T h i s t i me , he p r e p a r e s f o r s a m e a d v a n c e b y ove r - p r o t e c t i n g d S . a5 1 0 . Nb3 Nb4 1 1 . a4 Bc6 1 2 . Bf3 A l th ough th i s f i ts i n w i th Bl ack ' s p l a n , he wou l d h a v e b e e n b e t t e r o f f p l a y ­ ing , es i mm e d i a t e l y - - f o r b i d d i n g the Wh i t e k n i ght a c c e s s to d 4 . 1 3 . Nd4 g6 forced Now S p a s s ky i s fS gua rd to be f o r e c o mm i t t i n g the l on g - p l a n n e d advance . 1 4 . Rf2 e5 1 5 . Nc6 be de 1 6 . fe 1 7 . Qf l ! K a r p ov a l m o s t a l wa y s p l a c e s h i s p i e c e s as e f f e c t i ve l y a s poss i bl e . He r e , he d i s c ov e r s an u n u s u a l e mp l o y m e n t f o r the c 4 s q ua r e ; a n d a f t e r a s ho r t s k i rm i sh , t h i s w i l l r e s u l t i n a m o r e a c t i ve queen for Wh i t e . 17 . . . Qc8 ? Thi s thr e a t e n s . . . , Ng 4 , but does n o t h i n g a g a i n s t Wh i t e ' s i n tended Qc4 . A 3. 4. 5. 6.

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better a l t e r n a t i ve wa s 1 7 , Nd 7 ! , as g i ve n b y B o t v i n n i k : 1 ) 1 8 . Q c 4 , Nb 6 ; 1 9 . Q b 3 , Bg 5 ; 2 0 . B c 5 , B e 7 . 2 ) 1 8 . Rd l , Qc 7 ; 1 9 . Qc4 , Rab8 ; 2 0 . Kh l , Kg7 , wi th , Nb 6 t o f o l l ow . 1 8 . h3 Nd7 The p r o b l e m i s t h a t B l a c k c a n ' t c o n t e s t c 4 w i th 1 8 . . . . , Q e 6 : 1 9 . Rc l , R a d B ; 2 0 . Be 2 , a n d i f B l a c k t r i e s t h e p r om i s i n g e x ch a n g e sacr i f i ce 20 , Rd4 ! , the s i mp l e 2 1 . b 3 ! ! ( Bo t v i nn i k ) l eaves Wh i t e in c omp l e t e c o nt r o l . 1 9 . Bg4 h5 2 0 . Bd7 Od7 . . . 2 1 . Oc4 At l a st the s q u a r e i s g a i ned , and Wh i t e ' s q u e e n i s m o r e a c t i ve l y p l a c e d . 21 . Bh4 2 2 . Rd 2 Qe7 Rfd8 2 3 . Rf l .

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W i th a s ubt l e r e o r g a n i z a t i on o f f o r c e s , K a r p ov wi l l now beg in to d r i ve his o p p on e n t ' s m i n o r p i e c e s t o t h e e d g e o f the boa r d , all the t i me c a p tur ing cruc i a l s q u a r e s o n e - by - o n e .

Contemporary Chess

1 98

Ob7 24 . Nb l ! Kg7 2 5 . Kh2 Na6 2 6 . c3 ! 2 7 . Re2 ! Wh i t e ' s p i e c e s a r e mo r e a c t i ve , s o he ev a d e s e x c h a n g e s . T h r o u ghou t t h i s g a m e , K a r p ov k e e p s t h e s t r u gg l e a l i ve , p e r p e t ua l l y test ing his a d ve r s a r y ' s p i eces wh i l e s i mu l t a n e o u s l y w a i t i n g f o r a n o pp o r t u n e m om e n t t o s e i z e t h e i n i t i a t i ve . Rf8 27 . Bd8 2 8 . Nd 2 B l a ck pl ans to gua rd the i mp e n d i n g a tt a ck on hi s e - p awn w i th . . . , f6 . An a l t e r n a t i v e w a s to ch a r g e p i e c e s w i t h th i s task , c on d e m n i n g t he m t o p a s s i ve p o s t s : 2 8 . . . . , Ra e S ; 2 9 . Nf 3 , Bd 8 ; 3 0 . Rd 2 ( Botv i nn i k ) . 2 9 . Nf 3 f6 Th a n k s t o t h i s a pp a r e n t l y s l i gh t w e a k ­ e n i n g o f t h e l i gh t s qua r e s , the l a t en t i n i t i a t i ve i n t he Wh i t e f o r c e s c a n f i n a l l y c om e t o l i f e . 30 . Rd2 Be7 Rad8 3 1 . Oe6 ! Bd8 3 2 . Rd8 ! Or : 32 , Rd S ; 3 3 . Ne 5 ! , Qc 7 ; 3 4 . Q f 7 + , Kh8 ; 3 5 . Qe 7 . Nb8 3 3 . Rd l Rh8 34 . Bc5 Res i gns 3 5 . Rd8 ! . bec aus e o f 3 5 . . . . , Rd S ; 3 6 . Be 7 and the B l a c k k i n g d i e s a l l a l o n e wh i l e hi s wea ry p i eces l ie sca t tered across the boa rd . •

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Kasparov

C ommunal Responsibility In che ss , as else where , we 1 ive in the age of infor mation. Each year , thousands of annotated games are published , filled with valuable hints for the avid competi ­ tor. As far as we ' re concerned , the precise technical advances are irrelev ant; w hat matters here is how all this infor­ mation is appropriated e xistentially . When a player examines a new game in a periodical , he takes in a certain amount of clear , w ell-defi n e d te chnical data. T hus he may have foun d th at on the tenth move of a par ticular 1 i n e , he should play Ne5 or else ... , Bg4 w i 1 1 g enerate unplea­ sant threats; then , if the opponent should meet Ne5 with this , he should play that , and if his opponent should play that , he Specific moves li ke this should try this. can be memorized by anyone , but can any of the new ideas be appropriated i n a way which benefits a player's existential understanding? In one sense , we've already answer ed th is in the affirmative by assertin g th at existential understanding does evolve , and must therefore be comm un i cable fr om one generation to the next. At the s am e ti me , however , it ' s w ell-k now n that chess players don ' t study as i ntensely as they compete. True , e veryone tr ies to simulate their compe titive m ode of thought as closely as possible w hen r evi ewi ng the latest b� ts of theory. This way , th ei r exi stenti al un de rstan di n g i s em ploy ed , an d r ecei ves ex p os ur e to a type of thought i t

200

Conteaporary Chess

may n o t h a v e c o mp l e t e l y ma s t e r e d . O n the o th e r hand , if we a r e to accept the portr a i t of c o n t e mp o r a r y che s s we have d r aw n , a n e s s e n t i a l c om p on e n t i s m i s s ing f r om the s o l i ta ry ma s te r ' s t h eo r e t i c a l f r ame o f m i n d : adver s a r i a l respons i b i l ­ ity . Thu s a n a d d i t i o n a l c o mp o n e n t mu s t b e i n t r o d u c e d t o a l l ow t h e c o n t e mp o r a r y c h e s s s cho l a r the f u l l u s e o f h i s ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t a nd i ng : c ommu n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . F o r the s a m e r ea s o n s i n t r o d u c e d i n the ch a p t e r s on T a l and P e t r o s i a n , th i s c on ­ c e p t i s r en d e r e d n o n t r i v i a l b y t h e e s s en ­ t i a l l y s ub j e c t i ve nature o f respons i b i l ­ I t s h ou l d c om e a s n o s u r p r i s e t h a t a i ty . mind i mm e r s e d i n a game i s mo s t k ee n l y a wa r e o f h i s own unde r s t an d i ng , sec ond l y oppon e n t ' s unde r s t a n d i n g , and on l y hi s t h i r d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o t he r s . Tho s e c o n t e mp o r a r y ma sters who are abl e to a cc e s s t h i s th i r d l e ve l o f r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y w i l l p e r p e t u a l l y e x p o s e t he i r m i n d s t o the und e r s t and ing of o t he r l e a d i n g ma s te r s t h r o u g h th e o r e t i c a l i n qu i ry , y i e l d i n g a n o pp o r t u n i t y t o i mp r ov e th e i r t h o u g h t w h i ch i n f i n i t e l y o u t we i ghs the m e r e a s s i m i l a t i o n of t e c hn i c a l i n f o r m a t i on . Thu s t he y ' l l d i s c ove r s t r i k i n g n e w i d e a s wh i ch wou l d have p r ev i ou s l y e m e rg e d in a n o t he r ' s hand s . F u r t h e rmo r e , they ' l l deve l o p a h i gh l y i n d i v i d ua l , eclectic s t y l e - - o ne " p a t ch e d t o g e t h e r " f r o m b i t s a n d p i e c e s o f the s t r on g e s t m i n d s o f the d a y . It ' s in th i s w a y t h a t I ' d l i k e t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e current leade r in wo r l d che s s , Gary K a s p a r ov ( 1 9 6 3 - ) . Un f o r t u n a t e l y , all w e have t o g o on he r e i s K a s p a r o v ' s r e p u t a t i o n a s the ou t ­ s t a n d i n g o p e n i n g the o r e t i c i a n o f a 1 1 t i m e ,

Kasparov

20 1

a s w e l l a s the gr e a t e r b r e a d th of his s t y l e ( wh e n c omp a r e d t o F i s c h e r a n d K a r p ov in p a r t i c u l a r ) . The p r o b l e m i s th a t , t o g i ve o u r hy p o t h e s i s g r e a t e r cred i b i l i t y , we w ou l d n e e d t o t r a c e the g e n e s i s of K a s p a r ov ' s o p e n i n g i n n o va t i o n s t o a e s t h e t e c hn i c a l - - a s p e c t s t i c - - not me r e l y of o t he r e n c ou n t e r s . B u t th i s i s a b o o k i n i t s e l f , s o f o r n o w we ' 1 1 s e t t l e f o r the a dm i s s i o n t h a t t he s e r em a r k s a r e purely s p e c u l a t i ve - - e v e n though t he y s e em to round - o f f ou r s t u d y i n a ne a t , conc i s e m a n ne r . G i ve n t he s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , I ' l l r e s t r i c t m y s e l f t o o n e e x a mp l e o f a K a s p a r ov i n n o ­ v a t i o n t h a t s t a n d s o u t by i t s i n d i v i d u a l ­ i t y - - by i t s r a d i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n f r om a l l p r ev i o u s t e ch n i c a l i dea s i n the open i ng c on c e r ne d . Match Tournament of USSR Teams Moscow , 1 9 8 1 Kasparov Romani shin 1 . d4 Nf6 2 . c4 g6 3 . Nc3 d5 4 . cd Nd5 5 . e4 Nc3 6 . be Bg7 c5 7 . Nf3 Qa5 8 . Be3 Nc6 9 . Qd2 cd 1 0 . Re l 1 1 . cd Qd2 + 1 2 . Kd2 0-0 Out o f th i s s e e m i n g l y i n no c uou s p o s i ti on , K a s p a rov manages t o s c a r e - up a l a rming compl i c a t i ons .

Contemporary Chess

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Rd8 1 3 . d5 1 4 . Ke l ! T h i s i n nova t i on p u t s the B l a c k k n i ght on c6 i n an e mb a r r a s s i n g s i t u a t i o n , f o r i f e i the r 1 4 , Ne S ? ; 1 5 . N e 5 , B e 5 ; 1 6 . f 4 , Bg 7 ; 1 7 . Kf2 ( K a s p a r ov ) , or 1 4 . . . . , Nb4 ? ; 1 5 . Bd 2 ! , Na 6 ; 1 6 . B c 4 ( K a s p a r ov ) , Wh i t e i s clearly better . Ove r the boa rd , R o m a n i sh i n f inds the mo s t te s t ing cont i nu a t i on . Na5 ! 14 . . . . S u d d en l y , w i th . . . , f 5 a n d . . . , e 6 i n the a i r , t h e Wh i t e c e n t e r h a s b e c o m e f r a g i l e . instance , For 1 5 . B b 5 ? , f 5 ! ( K a s p a r ov ) n o th i n g , a c c om p l i s h e s and 1 5 . Rc7? , e6 ; l eaves 1 6 . Bg 5 , Rd 7 ( K a s p a r ov ) Wh i t e ' s p i e c e s s c a t t e r e d purpo s e l e s s l y a c r o s s the boa r d . Luck i ly , K a s p a r ov d i s c o ve r s an i n t e rm e d i a t e m ove tha t t e mp o r a r i l y con­ f u s e s t he B l a c k a r my . 1 5 . Bg5 ! Bf6? ! Mo r e t o t h e · p o i n t i s 1 5 , Bd 7 ! , a f te r wh i ch Wh i t e mu s t i n ve s t t i me count e r i ng B l a c k ' s th r e a t s a l on g t h e c - f i l e . 1 6 . Bd2 b6 .

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W i th hi s nex t thr ee mov e s , K a s p a r ov a l mo s t ma g i c a l l y m ou l d s a n a e s t h e t i c a l l y r a n dom c o l l e c t i on of p ieces i nto an a gg r e s s i v e l y c o o p e r a t i v e u n i t . 1 7 . Rc7 ! Bg4 Mo r e c i r c um s p e c t w a s t h e mo d e s t 1 7 , Rd7 . e6 ! 1 8 . Ba6 t r u th ; of the o n s e t o f The mom e n t s t rugg l e . 1 9 . Ng5 ! U n e xp e c t e d l y , f 7 h a s b e c om e the f o c a l p o i n t o f a b l o s s om i n g i n i t i a t i ve . I f now 19 , ed ? ; 20 . Nf 7 , Rd7 ; 2 1 . Nh 6 + , K g 7 ; 2 2 . R c 8 ! ( K a s p a r ov ) , Wh i t e w i n s e a s i l y . 19 . Be5 20 . R f 7 ! ed The a pp a r e n t l y e mb a r r a s s i n g 2 0 , h6 ? a c c omp l i s he s n o t h i n g o n a cc o u n t o f 2 1 . N f 3 . 2 1 . f4 ! . . . of c om e s ano the r out r e s e rv e Yet n o whe r e t o k e e p the Wh i t e p i e c e s c oo p e r a t i ve . 21 . Bg7 ! A f u r t he r m i r a c l e b r i n g s the k i n g r o o k into the fray in the a l t e r n a t i ve l i ne 2 1 . . . . , Bd4 ? ; 2 2 . Rh 7 , N c 4 ; 2 3 . e 5 , Re 8 ; 2 6 . Kf 2 , Rf8+ ; 25 . fe , ReS+ ; 2 4 . h3 ! , Be 5 ; 2 9 . Rh 8 + , K f 7 ; 2 8 . hg ! , R g 5 ; 2 7 . Kg 3 , Nd 2 ; 3 0 . R l h 7 + , K e 8 ; 3 1 . Bb S + e t c . 22 . f5 ! ? I t wa s l a t e r d i s c ov e r e d t h a t 2 2 . h 3 ! i s s u p e r i o r , l e a d i n g e v e n t ua l l y t o a n en d g a m e I n a n y eve n t , t h e a e s t he ­ e d g e f o r Wh i t e . t i c con s i s t e n c y o f 2 2 . f 5 ! ? i s mo s t a t t r a c ­ t i ve . 22 . de? B l a c k s h ou l d h a v e The d e c i s i v e e r r o r . 22 , gf ! ; 2 3 . h 3 ! , Bh 5 ; 2 4 . Rg7+ , pl ayed .

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K g 7 ; 2 5 . N e 6 + , K f 6 , so th a t a f t e r 2 6 . e f ( a s i n t e n d e d b y K a s p a r ov ) , B l a c k c ou l d r e l i e ve the p r e s s u r e w i th 2 6 , Re S ; 2 7 . g4 , Re 6 + ! ; 2 8 . f e , Bg6 . ba 2 3 . Ba5 Bc3+ ! 24 . Bc4 e3+ ! 25 . Kf2 Be5+ 2 6 . Kg3 Rd4+ 2 7 . Kg4 Rc4 2 8 . Kh3 2 9 . f6 and d e s p i t e h i s r e s ou r c e f u l n e s s , B l a c k wa s n o w f o r c e d t o g i ve u p h i s b i s h o p f o r t h e p awn on f 6 b e c au s e 2 9 . . . . , R c 7 ; 3 0 . Rc 7 , Bc 7 ; 3 1 . f 7 + , Kh8 ; 3 2 . Ne 6 , Bd 6 ; 3 3 . Re l w ou l d be d e va s t a t i n g . So , a f te r s om e f u r th e r a d v e n t u r e s , . Whi te Won .

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A s m e n t i o n e d a b ove , o n e w o u l d h a v e t o r e l a t e th i s g a m e t o t h e a e s t h e t i c t r en d s o f t h e t i m e t o c o n f i r m t h e hy p o t h e s i s o f c o mmu n a l r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y . On the o t he r hand , the i nexpl i cabl e s ou r c e of K a s p a r ov ' s p l a y , c o u p l e d w i th h i s w e a l th of f r esh open i ng ideas ( he r e as else­ whe r e ) , p r ov i d e a t t r a c t i ve c o r r o b o r a t i o n - ­ i f n o t c o n f i rrn a t i o n - - o f o u r t h e o r y . The r e a r e f a r t o o m a n y f e a s i b l e wa y s t o o p e n a che s s g a m e f o r a n y o n e t o m e m o r i z e them a l l . Adm i t te d ly , i t ' s p o s s i b l e th a t o n e d a y o p e n i n g t he o r y w i l l d e ve l o p t o t h e p o i n t whe r e e v e n we l l - ve r s e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l p l aye r s wi l l abandon hope o f an a dvan t age a t t h e ou t s e t . S t i 1 1 , t he r e w i 1 1 a l wa y s be n e w l i n e s t o t r y - - l i ne s tha t may not t e ch n i c a l l y i mp r ove t h e o r y , b u t n e ve r the ­ l e s s cha l l en g e the opponent ' s exi s t e n t i a l und e r s t and i n g i n a new , u n i que s t yl e . The

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q u e s t i on , t he r e f o r e , i s n ' t whe the r che s s w i l l e v e r b e p l a y e d - o u t , b u t w he t h e r t h e r e w i l l a l wa y s b e ma s t e r s w i th a f r e sh p e r s p e c t i ve on the game .

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Thr ough o u t the b o o k , I h a v e t r i e d t o empha s i z e t h e f a c t t h a t n o n e o f m y p r i n ­ c i p a l i d e a s a r e a b s o l u t e l y t r u e , bu t th a t the y merely c om e r e a s on a b l y close to ch a r a c t e r i z i n g the e vo l u t i on o f e x i s t en ­ Before procee d i ng und e rs t a n d i ng . tial w i th the s umm a t i on , I w i 1 1 c l a r i f y th i s p o i n t by d r aw i n g a n a n a l o g y w i t h t h e w o r k o f Fr eud . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , r a t i o n a l i s t ph i l o s o ph e r s h a ve p r o c ee d e d c a r e f u l l y : T h e y ' ve c l e a r l y d e f i ned key t e rm s , p r ov e n a s s e r t i on s b e f o r e p r o n ou n c i n g t he m , a n d s o on . All t h i s s ou n d s f i n e o n t h e s u r f a c e , b u t a f t e r t wo t h ou s a n d years of r i g o r ou s t h o u g ht fai led to produce even one p o s i t i ve , abs o l u te ly true i d ea , N i e t z s che s te pp e d f o rw a r d a n d a r g u e d t h a t t he r e a r e n o t r u e m o d e l s o f t h i n g s 1 i k e t h e huma n m i n d , a n d t he r e f o r e t h e s e a r ch f o r t h e g r e a t r i d d l e o f t h e u n i ve r s e i s i n v a i n . As a result , N i e t z s ch e s tee red awa y f r o m s y s t em a t i c p h i l o s o p h y , a n d b e c a m e a th i n k e r p r i ma r i l y conce rned w i t h e t h i c s - - w i t h wha t m a n k i n d i s 11 s u pp o s e d 11 t o d o now tha t t he r e a r e no a b s o l u t e s to c l i n g t o . F r om s i m i l a r o r i g i n s , F r e ud move d in C e r t a i n l y , he w a s o pe n anothe r d i rect i on . t o the p o s s i b i l i t y th a t s t ud e n t s o f the m i n d a r e g r a pp l i n g w i t h the u n f a th o m a b l e - ­ th a t a n y m o d e l o f the p s yche he p r o du c e d m i gh t be necess a r i ly f l awed . N e v e r the ­ l e s s , he d i d c o n s t r u c t m o d e l s - - no t a cc o r d ­ i n g t o r i g o r o u s , ph i l o s o ph i c a l m e t h o d , b u t a cc o r d i n g t o wh a t eve r r ou g h l y f i t t h e d a t a o f h u m a n b eh a v i o r . F r e u d wa s n ' t i n t e r e s t -

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ed i n p r e c i s e l y d e f i n i n g the c on c e p t o f t h e u n c on s c i o u s , o r w i th p r ov i n g t h a t o u r " s ense o f s e l f " o r " e g o " i s g r oun d e d i n t ruth . S t i 1 1 , he c on s t r u c t e d m o d e l s w i t h a sp e c t s of t he s e e l em e n t s th a t e x p l a i n e d the m i nd . In sho rt , o n l y by a b a n d o n i n g t h e q u e s t f o r a bs o l u t e t r u t h d i d i t b e c om e p o s s i b l e t o s a y s om e t h i n g po s i t i ve about the p s yche . F r om th i s ori g in , s ev e r a l p a t h s a r e o p e n t o t h e m od e r n p s y c h o l o g i s t , o f wh i ch I w i l l b r i e f l y exam i n e t w o o f the d e ge n e r a t e v a r i e t y . ph i l o ­ The f i r s t i s t h a t o f r a t i o n a l s ophy - - wh a t m i ght prope r ly be ca ! l ed Thu s i t ' s b e e n a r g u e d t h a t t h e c r i t i gu e . n o t i o n o f u n c o n s c i ou s t h ou g h t s a n d d e s i r e s is nonsens i ca l , and t he r e f o r e F r eud ' s a s s e r t i on th a t d r e a m s h a ve a l a t e n t c on ­ tent is u n f ou n d e d . Th i s a pp r o a ch has on i t s s i d e , bu t - - l i k e mo s t of truth mod e r n ph i l o s o phy - - i t asserts n o t h i ng . Wh a t ' s p e r t i n e n t i n t h i s c a s e i s t h e f a c t t h a t p r ev i o u s l y n o n - c o n s c i o u s i d e a s have o f t e n c om e t o l i ght ( i n i n d i v i d ua l p s y ch o ­ a n a l y s i s ) wh i ch p r ov i d e a c o n s i s t e n t , u s e ­ ful p i c t u r e a s the l a t e n t c o n t e n t o f a g i ve n d r e a m . O n the o t h e r h a n d , a c r i t i ­ c a l e y e c ou l d p i c k a w a y a t s u c h a t h e o r y u n t i 1 t h e r e w a s n o t h i ng l e f t ; th i s m i ght l e a d to a t r u e r m o d e l , bu t d o e s i t f i t t h e data bet ter? A s e c on d p a t h i s t h a t t a k e n b y p o pu l a r p s y ch o l o g y . H e r e , the hum a n m i n d i s a l l ­ t o o - o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a n e n t i t y wh i ch i s " r e a l l y " b e n e vo l e n t , c r e a t i ve , a n d m a n y Whe r e a s th i s c e r ­ o t he r wo r. d e r f u l t h i n g s . ha r d l y fits it we l l , the sells ta inly Thus p a c i f i s t s a r e f on d of r e j ect ­ data . i n g t h e n o t i o n th a t h u m a n s h a v e a n a g g r e s -

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s i ve i n s t i nct , bu t t he y fail to o ffer a n o t h e r m o d e l wh i ch e x p l a i n s t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s o f wa r ; mo r a l i s t s s k o f f a t t h e i d e a that sex pl ays a c e n t r a l r o l e i n h um a n p s y cho l o g y , i gnor i n g the c onven i e n t ly state of m o d e r n m a s s m e d i a ; t h e c u l t o f s e l f - e s t e em r e f u s e s t o a l l ow g u i 1 t a p l a c e i n t h e i r o f f i c i a l d o gm a , y e t t h e y f a i l t o r e p l a c e i t w i t h a n y th i n g th a t c ou l d c i v i l ­ i z e a spec i e s a s s e l f i sh a s homo s a p i en s . The m i n d , l i k e the wo r l d , i s n o t a l wa y s wh a t w e wou l d 1 i k e i t t o b e , s o p o pu l a r p s y cho l o g y h a s m ou l d e d i t i n t o a m a r k e t ­ abl e product . I don ' t mean to g i ve t h e i mp r e s s i o n th a t I ' m a d i e - h a r d F r e u d i a n . I ' ve on l y cho s e n t o p r e s e n t h i s c a s e b e c a u s e c omm o n m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s i n th a t s p he r e c ou l d b e a p p l i e d in s p i r i t t o the g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h i s wo r k . I h o p e t h i s h a s c l a r i f i e d why I d o n ' t c a r e whe t h e r c o u n t e r - ex a mp l e s c a n be p r o duc e d w h i ch refute my f in d i ngs . Sure , T a r r a s ch created ma s t e r p i eces s u gg e s t i ve o f i n te gr a t i on , a n d C a p a bl a n c a p r o d u c e d g a m e s i n t h e s t y l e o f A l e kh i n e ' s i n i t i a t i ve . Wh a t m a t t e r s , h oweve r , is whe t h e r my cha r a c t e r i z a t i o n s fit the d a t a - - h o w w e l l t h e y a g r e e w i th t h e o ve r a l l a e s t he t i c s o f the m a s t e r s ' s t y l e s c o n c e r n ­ ed . S o l e t ' s b r i e f l y r e c a p i t u l a t e wh a t ' s been s a i d wi th a m i l d l y cr i t i c a l eye . P r i o r t o P h i l i d o r , the r e r e a l l y i s ve r y l i t t l e e v i d e n c e o f a n y c he s s t a l e n t b e y o n d a f l a i r f o r c omb i n a t i o n s , thu s ou r h y p o ­ thes i s of the ex i s t e n t i a l c omb i n a t i ve u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r ov i d e s a g o o d f i t t o the data . The n , a f t e r a p r e d o m i n a n t l y t e ch n i c a l i n t e r l ud e w i th P h i l i d o r , we ch a r a c t e r i z e d

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B ou r d o nn a i s , S t aunton , and Ander s s en as h a v i n g v e r y 1 i t t l e a b i 1 i t y ou t s i d e t h e a r t of attack . C o n s i d e r i n g the a e s t h e t i c s o f t he i r g a m e s , thi s a lso fits the d a t a o cc a s i o n a l l y S t a u n t on we l l - - a l though essayed i dea s w h i ch ant i c i pated later d e ve l o pm e n t s . Mo r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , S t a u n t on a n d A n d e r s s e n ' s r e f i n e me n t s t o t h e c o n c e p t of a tt a ck ( vu l ne r a b i 1 i t y a n d a n t a g o n i s m , r e s p e c t i ve l y ) a r e , o f c o u r s e , n o t a p p l i c ­ a b l e t o a l l t h e i r g a m e s , bu t t he s e i d e a s do h i ghl i ght p r om i n e n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e i r r e s pe c t i ve s t y l es . R o u n d i n g o f f o u r s t u d y o f t h e r om a n t i c s i s Mo r p hy , who s e r e pu t a t i o n a s a n i n s t i n c ­ t i ve p o s i t i o n a l p l a y e r i s we l l - s e r v e d by o u r m o d e l o f the g l o b a l ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r ­ stand i ng . Unt i l th i s po int , one pr imary hypo­ t he s i s ha s ca rr i e d the ent i r e ana lys i s : t h e ex i s t e n c e o f exi s t ent i a l und e r s tand­ i ng . B u t n o w - - a f t e r a p r e p a r a t o r y ch a p t e r o n P a u l s e n - - we f o u n d t h e n e e d f o r a s e c o n d f u n d a m e nt a l a s s u mp t i o n : th a t t h e e x i s t e n ­ t i a l a n d t e chn i c a l l e v e l s o E u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n i n t e r - r e l a t e a n d c on f u s e e a ch o t he r - ­ s t r a t eg i c ma s k i ng tha t occu r s . Th i s d o e s n ' t s e e m a 1 1 th a t f a n t a s t i c a n a s s e r ­ t i o n f o r t wo r e a s o n s : ( 1 ) In our day-to­ d a y l i ve s , i t ' s c omm on p l a c e th a t l o g i �� � _ �p oug!:t.�. _ ti n d e m o t i o n s a r e a t o d d s , a n d ( 2 ) Mo r p h y ' s style c l e a r l y a.·nti c i p a t e d the f u n d a m e n t a l t e n e t s of che s s a s s c i e n c e , s o i t ' s r e a s on a b l e th a t t e c h n i c a l i d e a s r o s e o u t o f a p r ev i o u s l y ex i s t e n t exi s tent i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g - - t he r e by pu s h i n g i t i n t o the background . F u r the r , t h e e vo l u t i o n of s t r a te g i c ma s k ing as a p r o bl em c an be i n te l l i g i bl y t raced through Ste i ni tz ,

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T a r r a s ch , T ch i g o r i n , a n d L a s k e r - - e a ch o f whom e mp l o y e d h i s own u n i q u e a b i l i t i e s i n d e a l i n g w i th t he s e t wo l e v e l s . T o wh a t d e g r e e i n t e gr a t i on m a y have been ant i c i ­ p a t e d by a n y o f t he s e ma s t e r s , I l e a v e i t t o the r e a d e r t o dee ide ; in any case , t he r e d o e s a pp e a r t o b e a g en u i ne t r en d h e r e t o wa r d r e c o g n i t i o n o f s t r a t e g i c m a s k ­ i ng . O u r n e x t h y p o th e s i s wa s t h a t o f i n t e ­ g r a t i o n - - t he i d e a th a t ou r t wo pr i nc i pa l l e ve l s o f t h o u g h t c a n r e l a t e p o s i t i ve l y , th a t t h e y c a n b e e n t e r t a i ne d s i mu l t a n e o u s ­ lY · I n m a n y w a y s , t h e cha p t e r s o n Rub i n ­ s t e i n a n d C a p a b l a n c a a r e the f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e b o o k , p r ov i d i n g a p e r f e c t t r a n s i ­ t i on f r om the ea r l y cl a s s i ca l s ch oo l ( t e chn i c a l s t rategy ) to A l e kh i n e ( th e r e c o g n i t i on o f t r a n s i e n t s t r a teg i c r ea l ­ i t i e s v i a res pons i b i l i t y and the i n i t i a ­ t i ve ) . Wh a t ' s mo r e , g i v en the n u m e r ou s f o rm s o f i n t e g r a t i o n tha t h a v e a pp e a r e d throughout the ea r l y Sov i et S ch oo l , it s e e m s a l l b u t i mp o s s i b l e t h a t th i s s a m e d a t a s h ou l d b e exp l a i n a b l e w i t h a d i f f e r ­ ent concept . R e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( a s we l l a s the a c c om ­ p a n y i n g a n x i e t y a n d f r e e d om ) wa s ou r n e x t m a j o r bu i ! d i n g bl ock . After a pre! iminary f o r mu l a t i on i n the ch a p t e r o n N i m z o v i ch , we emp l o y e d th i s c o n c e p t a s t h e p s y c h o l o ­ g i c a l gr ound o f A l e k h i ne ' s f e e l f o r the i n i t i a t i ve - - th i s by wa y of i n t e gr a t i on w i th p u r e l y s u b j e c t i v e t r a n s i e n t s t r a t e g i c rea l i t i e s . A s h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d l y emph a s i zed , the i n i t i a t i ve c ou l d h a ve b e en presented a s an " ungr ound e d " var i e t y of i n t e gr a t i on ( i n d e p en d e n t of r espons i b i l ­ i ty ) , but th i s wou l d have left us no

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g r o u n d s f o r why a s e n s e f o r t h e o p po n e n t ' s i n i t i a t i v e s h o u l d b e c ome p r eva l e n t th i r t y years l a te r . Once aga in , a pr i nc i pa l h y p o th e s i s i s c o r r o b o r a t e d by t h e wa y i t f i t s i n t o o u r evo l u t i on a s a who l e . On t h e n e g a t i ve s i d e , h o w e ve r , th i s pha s e o f t h e a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t s A l e kh i ne mo r e un i ­ d i me n s i o n a l l y t h a n h i s s t y l e a c t u a l l y wa s . W i th t h e n e c e s s a r i l y i n c r e a s i n g e mp h a s i s on s p ecul a t i ve psycho l og i c a l concepts a nx i e t y , ( respons ibi l i ty , s ubj e c t i v i t y , e t c . ) , the ch a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s beg i n t o be mo r e s t r a i ne d - - b u t t h e y d o f i n d a p l a c e i n t h e c o r e o f t he g r e a t m a s t e r s ' s t y l e s . The c on c e p t o f s u b j e c t / o b j e c t i n t e gr a ­ t i o n i s , o f c ou r s e , d e r i ve d f r om i n t e g r a ­ t i on p r op e r - - i t s d i s t i n g u i sh i n g f ea ture being no th i n g m o r e th a n a p s ycho l og i c a l e mp h a s i s on t h e r a d i c a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s u b j e c t i ve c on c e p t o f p i e c e c oo p e r a ­ - -o t i on --aria: b} e c t i ve s t r a t e g i c r e a l i t i e s . pr i nc i pa l T hTs is cons equen t l y not a h yp o t h e s i s , b u t i t d o e s he l p t o e x p l a i n B o t v i n n i k ' s u n u s ua l s t r e n g t h i n i mb a l a n c e d s t r a teg i c pos i t i ons . Fur the r co rrobora ­ t i o n wa s f ou n d i n t h e c h a p t e r s o n S m y s l ov , Bo l e s l avsky , and Brons t e i n --a l l of whom i n t e gr a te d mod e rn , a e s thet i c a l l y p l e a s ing p i e c e c oo p e r a t i o n w i th o b j e c t i v e s t r a t e g i c rea1 iti es . I a m prepared t o adm i t , once aga i n , tha t t he s e ch a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s on l y a s pec t o f the p l a y e r s ' s t y l e s i n f i t an que s t i on ; b u t a g a i n , t he s e ch a r a c t e r i z a ­ t i o n s o c c u p y c en t r a l r o l e s i n t h e d e ve l o p ­ ment of the mod e r n game . A f t e r a f i n a l i n t e r l ud e t o d i s c u s s T a l , w e i nve s t i g a t e d a t r e n d i n t he s t y l e s o f P e t r o s i a n , K o r chn o i , a n d S p a s s k y t ow a r d a s e n s i t i v i t y o f the o pp o n e n t ' s u n d e r s t a n d -

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Th u s the i n g - - e s p e c i a l l y the i n i t i a t i ve . r e s po n s i b i l i t y a d ve r s a r i a l hypothe s i s of f i t s t h e d a t a he r e t o o , a l th o u g h t h e w i d e r r em a i n u n e x s t y l e s o f T a l a n d K o r chn o i pl a i ne d . A e s t h e t i c a l l y , t h e a n a l y s i s o f c o n t em ­ p o r a r y c he s s c l o s e s n e a t l y w i t h a p o r t r a i t of F i s c he r , Ka rpov , and i n t e r a c t i ve I t m i g h t b e o b j e c t e d th a t r e s po n s i b i 1 i t y . b o t h o f t he s e n e a r - p e r f e c t m a s t e r s ' s t y l e s mu ch of a r e b e y o n d cha r a c t e r i z a t i on , a s th e i r s u p e r i o r i t y s t e m s f r o m s u p e r i o r c om ­ p e t i t i ve ch a r a c t e r . Bu t t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y whe r e o u r m o d e l f i t s t h e d a t a m o s t c l e a r ­ ly . F i n a l l y , the cha p t e r on K a s p a r ov h a s r e m a i ne d pur e ly s p e c u l a t i ve , so the hy p o t h e s i s of c ommu n a l r e s po n s i b i l i t y mu s t awa i t a future ana l ys i s of a e s the t i c t r e n d s i n m o d e r n o p en i n g t h e o r y . A p s y cho l o g i c a l theory is a t t r a c t i ve i n s o f a r a s i t e mp l o y s a s f ew h y p o t h e s e s a s p o s s i b l e t o f i t the d a t a . I n the p r e s ent c a s e , w e h a v e u s e d s e ven pr i n c i pa l i d e a s a s f ou n d a t i o n b l o c k s : exi s t e n t i a l un d e r ­ stand i ng , st rateg i c masking , i n tegra t i on , adve r s a r i a l respons i b i l ­ respons i b i l i ty , i n t e r a c t i ve r e s p on s i b i l i t y , and ity , c ommu n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I f a n y o n e s h ou l d d e ve l o p a m o d e l wh i ch c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e s e ma s t e r s ' thought in a s i mp l e r , mo r e c o mm on - s e n s e f a s h i o n , t h e n my th e o r y w i l l have b e c om e o b s o l e t e . U n t i l th a t t i me , howeve r , m a y t h e s e i d e a s b e j u d g e d o n how we l l they f i t t h e d a t a - - t he a e s th e t i c s o f the g r e a t m a s t e r s ' g a m e s a s a wh o l e ; t o th i s e n d , I t h r ow m y s e l f o n t h e m e r c y o f the c h e s s p u b l i c , a n d t r u s t t h a t t h e y ' 1 1 p r o ve mo r e d i sce r n i ng than the many

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Append ix 1 O n the R a t i n g o f C he s s p l a y e r s

A f e w c omm e n t s on the l e g i t i m a c y o f c ompa r i n g p a s t a n d p r e s e n t p l a y e r s v i a the E l o r a t i ng s y s t em . A proper s t a t i s t i c a l s y s t em c an ' t be c r i t i c i z e d o n the b a s i s o f p u r e n u mb e r s because e ve r y th i n g is c o n s i s t e n t - - e ve r y ­ 11 th i n g a d d s up " . Ma thema t i c a l mode ls , howeve r , a r e a l wa y s p o t e n t i a l l y vu l n e r a b l e a t the po i nt whe r e t h e y " m e e t " r e a l i t y . Thu s i t ' s he r e t h a t I w i l l focus on a pecu l i a r i t y o f Pro f e ssor E l o ' s sys tem . I h a ve c o n s i s t e n t l y a r g u e d th a t exi s ­ t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s evo l v e d t h r o u g h ­ ou t t h e h i s t o r y o f c he s s - - th a t t h e u n c o n ­ s c i ou s thought proc e s ses o f the l e ad ing m a s t e r s h a ve p r o g r e s s e d f r om y e a r t o y e a r . I f th i s i s i n d e e d t h e c a s e , t h e n n o t on l y does the future offer more t e c hn i c a l i n f o rma t i o n t o c a rr y i nt o ba t t l e , but a l s o a b e t t e r f e e l f o r t h e g a me , a m o r e c a p a b l e i n tu i t i on - - a s t r on g e r exi s t ent i a l under­ s t a nd i ng . I n th i s s e n s e , w e ' r e j u s t i f i e d i n a s s e r t i n g th a t p l a y e r s o f the p r e s e n t are , gene r a l l y s p e a k i n g , s t r on g e r than p l a ye r s o f the pa st . Thu s i f Mo r p h y wa s a b l e t o t i me - t r a v e l t o 1 9 9 4 , but me r e l y memo r i z e d the t e chn i c a l k n ow l e d g e o f t o d a y ( t he c o r r e c t open i ng mov e s , i n p a r t i c u ­ l a r ) , h e wou l d s t i l l b e a n n i h i l a t e d b y a l l the t o p gr a ndm a s t e r s . B u t wha t i f Mo r phy d i d n ' t o n l y t a k e in th i s k n ow l e dg e a s a c omp u t e r wo u l d , a n d a s s i m i l a t e d i t i n a m a n n e r th a t ch a n g e d h i s ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r ­ s t a n d i ng i n t o a m o r e m o d e r n f o rm ? I h a ve n o d o u b t th a t Mo r p h y wou l d h a ve

Append ix 1

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d o ne h i m s e l f j u s t i c e i f h e h a d b e e n b o r n in 1 9 6 0 , and had an ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g f o r m e d i n a m od e r n che s s a t mo s ­ phe r e . O n t h e o t he r h a n d I ' m h e s i t a n t t o a dm i t th a t , i f h e b r o u g h t a m a t u r e n i n e ­ teenth century unde r s t an d i n g into today ' s w o r l d , he c ou l d t r a n s f o r m i t i n t o a c o m ­ p l e t e l y e f f e c t i ve m o d e r n f r a m e o f m i n d . and We ' r e speak i ng he r e of f e e l i ng s i n tu i t i on , and i t ' s by no mea n s c l e a r that s u ch t h i n g s c a n b e e j e c t e d f r om t h e m i n d and c a s u a l l y r e p l a c e d t h e wa y t e chn i c a l da ta can . It ' s mani f e s t ly u n c l e a r wh a t exi s tent i a l und e r s t a n d i ng i s , whe r e it c om e s f r o m , a n d h o w i t wo r k s ; thu s w e h a v e n o bu s i n e s s c l a i m i n g tha t an e s t a b l i shed u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n t r a n s f o r m i t s e l f a cc o r d ­ i ng t o a n e w m o d e o f t hought . On a l e s s d r a s t i c s c a l e ( th a n Mo r phy v s . 1 9 9 4 ) , we m i gh t a l s o wo n d e r h o w we l l a ve t e r a n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l a d a p t t o new i d e a s ; m e a n wh i l e , we k n o w tha t the mo s t young t a l ented un d e r s t a n d i n g w i 1 1 f o rm itself in as e f f e c t i ve a m a n n e r a s p o s ­ s i bl e . C omb i n i n g t he s e t wo o b s e rv a t i o n s , po t e n t i a l - - i f not we f i nd a probab l e - ­ a d v a n t a g e o n the s i d e o f y ou th . And i f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s i s i n d e e d t r u e , i t wou l d m e a n tha t y ou n g p l a y e r s have a b u i 1 t - i n e d g e ove r t he i r o l d e r o pp o n e n t s ; a d m i t t e d ­ l y , b o th a r e a b l e t o a s s i m i l a t e n e w t e ch ­ n i c a l i n f o rm a t i o n e q u a l l y we l l , b u t o n l y o n e c a n c e r t a i n l y c on f o r m t o the un d e r ­ l y i n g e x i s t e n t i a l un d e r s t and i n g . For t he s e r ea s o n s , I s u gg e s t it ' s po s s i bl e tha t E l o r a t i n gs shou l d i nc r ea s e f r om g e ne r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i on . Pe rhaps , yea r a f ter yea r , younger pl ayers rea l l y do b e c ome mo r e t a l e n t e d , s o t he y d e s e r ve t o

216

Append ix 1

b e h i ghe r r a t e d . A n d a s che s s i n f o rm a t i on ha s m u l t i p l i e d , t h e exch a n g e o f ex i s t e n ­ t i a l a b i l i t y h a s t a k e n o n a f a s t , a l mo s t frant i c , pace . S o tha t f i n a l l y , i n the m i d s t o f a ch a o t i c " wh i r l p oo l " o f t r a n s a p r ev i o u s l y un f a thomabl e f o rma t i o n , numb e r of t e enage gr a n d m a s t e r s have a p p e a r e d , t r a n s c e n d i n g a l l p r ev i o u s r a t i n g r e c o r d s th a n k s t o t h e i r YQJ:!th_fJJ. l__ a b i 1 i t:Y t o a Q, gQt _ � Q . new _��y i:; o_r t h i n k i f1_g � A m I c l a i m i n g tha t t he -gra n d m a s t e r s o f today have more r a w t a l en t than M o r phy did? B y n o m e a n s ; I r e p e a t th a t I b e l i eve Mo r phy c o u l d h a ve he l d hi s own i f b o r n toda y . I a m c l a i m i n g tha t t o d a y 1 s u n d e r ­ stand ing is i nhe r e n t l y supe r i o r to the p a s t tha n k s t o t h e p r o g r e s s i ve n a t u r e o f na t ur a l s e l ect i on . Hence I ' ll concl ude w i th wha t all hone s t i nqu i ry s h ou l d - - a que s t i on : C a n the young g r a n dma s t e r s o f t o d a y c o n t i n u e t o m ou l d th e i r un d e r s t a n d ­ i n g s i n t h e m o s t e f f e c t i ve wa y p o s s i b l e , o r w i l l the ch a n g i n g t i m e s l e a ve t h e m , i n turn , repl aced b y more pl i a bl e m i n d s ? - ---- - -- - �

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Append ix 2 O n T r a i n i n g Ex i s t e n t i a l Un d e r s t a n d i n g

The p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f tr. i s b o o k h a s b e e n t o d r aw a p o r t r a i t o f the gr e a te s t To ma s t e r s ' ex i s t en t i a l underst and i ngs . wha t ev e r d e g r e e the r e a d e r may f e e l I ' ve s v c c e e d e d , i t ' s c l e a r t h a t t h e m e r e k n ow l ­ edge o f the pr e s ent w o r k c a n ' t i n c r ea s e an) one ' s ta lent ; for our central hypo ­ t h e s i s ha s b E· e n tha t t t e " i n ne r me ch a n i s m " of the che E' s ma s t e r ' s m i n d cannot be p r e c i s e l y f o rmu l a t e d . S i n c e t h e r e ' s n o f o rmu l a f o r how one c a n s e e £ O O d mov e s w i th h i s e x i s t e n t i a l unde r s t a n d i n g , we ' r e f o rc e d t o a d m i t tha t t he r e ' s a p a s s i ve e l em e n t of che s s t h o u g h t ; a t r e gu l a r i n t e r va l s d u r i n g p l a y , e ve r y s t r on g p l a y e r mu s t " s i t b a c k " , " t a k e a b r e a th " , and s u rve y the boa rd l i ke a l a n d s c a p e - - the wa y a p e r s o n i n a n a i r p l a ne m i ght s p ot a p a r t i c u l a r l andma rk w i thou t c o n s c i o u s l y e x am i n i n g eve r y b i t o f s e n s o r y i n pu t . Al though th i s proce s s occ u r s p r i ­ m a r i l y u n c o n s c i ou s l y , i t ' s s t i l l t r u e tha t aes thet i c e·x- i _s t e n t i a l - u - -n d e ·r s- t a n d i ng.. , l i k e a p p r e c i a t i on � 1 s e s se nt i a 1 l y p a s s i ve . -O f c o u r s e , the a b i l i t y t o t h i rik c l e a r l y a n d a c t i ve l y o n a t e c h n i c a l l e ve l - - a cc o r d ­ i n g t o a - - w e l l - d e f i n e d a l g o r i thm - - i s a p r e th e r equi s i te f o r - -eiil-ry fr;to h i g he s t r anks . A s a c on �; e q u e n c e , o ve r - a l l , i t ' s desi rable t o b e a d e p t a t mov i n g b e t w E· e n our t wo l e ve l s of understand i n g - - f i rst a pp l y i n g p e r t i nent f ea t u r e s of a c t i ve l y t e chn i c a l k n ow l e d g e , t h E , n pa s s i ve l y a l l ow ­ i ng a l l v i a b l e c a n d i d a t e move s t o p r e s e n t t h e m s e l ve s exi stent i a l l y , and so f o r th . _ _ __

218

Append ix 2

( It s h ou l d b e p o i n t e d ou t th a t a l l the essent i a l e l emen t s of our ana lys i s are o n l y a pp l i c a b l e t o t h e " e x i s t e n t i a l i n t e r ­ va l s " i n th i s scena r i o . Thu s s t r a t e g i c ma s k i n g wa s an " i nva s i on " of techn i c a l i d e a s w h e n ex i s t e n t i a l t h o u g h t s h o u l d h a v e b e en i n c o n t r o l ; a n d i n t e gr a t i on o cc u r r e d when R u b i n s t e i n a n d C a p a b l a n c a d e ve l o p e d t h e a b i 1 i t y t o th i n k o f s t r a te g i c r e a l i ­ dur ing ex i s t e n t i a l t i es ex i s t e n t i a l l y i n te rva l s . ) I n o t he r wo r d s , i f a l l a p e r s o n d o e s d u r i n g p l a y i s th i n k a c c o r d i n g t o a w e l l - d e f i ne d a l g o r i thm , he ' s try ing t o c omp e t e o n t h e l ev e l o f c omp u t e r s - - a hope l e s s i d ea l . The s e o b s e rva t i o n s p o i n t t h e wa y t ow a r d h o w o ne ' s che s s t a l e n t c a n b e u n l e a s h e d , i f not i mproved . Whe r e a s i t ' s n e c e s s a r i l y uncl ear h o w a n ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n b e d i r e c t l y e n h a n c e d , we a t l e a s t k no w tha t th i s c r u c i a l e l e m e n t o f a che s s p l a y ­ e r ' s p s yche c a n be o f l i t t l e h e l p i f i t ' s b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y c on f u s e d w i th t e c h n i c a l Thu s o u r o b j e c t i ve i s t o d i s s o c i a t e data . the a c t i ve ct_n d__ pa s s_ i ve- -- rn-ode-s-�:=·91�--��-che � �­ t h o ug_!'lJ;:._ . -f o thi s en d , a pl ayer s h ou l d f i rst a cc u mu l a t e pos i t i ons in w h i ch h i s t wo f o rm s of thought bec ame con fused . The o bv i ou s s ou r c e he r e is e rrors made in a c t u a l p l a y - - e s p ec i a l l y tho s e tha t one w ou l d h a v e c a u g h t i f h e h a d o n l y " t a k en a b r e a th " a n d l ooked a t the s i t ua t i on non ­ t e chn i c a l l y . O n c e t h i s d a t a h a s b e e n a c c umu l a t e d , a care f u l , me thod i c a l ana l ys i s o f the p o s i ­ t i on s shou l d be und e r taken ; I r e c omm e n d s u rve y i n g a " n e i ghb o rh o o d " o f f i ve t o t en move s a r ou n d e a ch e r r o r . A s the a n a l y s i s

Append ix 2

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p r o c ee d s ( a n d b e t w e en e a ch s t e p of the t e chn i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n ) , p a r t i c u l a r e mp h a ­ sis s h ou l d b e p l a c e d o n a l l ow i n g o ne ' s ex i s t e n t i a l unde r s t an d i n g to ex e r c i s e i tsel f by c o n s c i ou s l y r e p r e s s i l'1: g £JJ, t e ch n i c i!_.l. . t;, h o u g h_t_:;; f o r a s p ecTf l. ecf p e r i o d o f t i m e:... - th i r t y s e c on d s o r o n e m i nu t e , f o r exa mp l e . I n t h i s wa y , p r a c t i c e w i l l be g a i n e d i n d i s s o c i a t i n g a c t i ve a n d p a s s i ve thought - - an d i n a pr e c i s e s i t ua t i on tha t ha s a l ready p r ov e n d i ff icult for the pl ayer in thi s respect ; f u r the r , his ex i s t e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i l l have been e x p o s e d t o a t y p e o f p o s i t i o n w i t h w h i ch i t h a d n e ve r b e f o r e i n t e r f a c e d . W e ' ve f r a n k l y a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e r e ' s n o f o rmu l a f o r h o w t o i n c r e a s e che s s t a l e n t ; s t i 1 1 , i t ha s been a s s e rted tha t a n exi s ­ i n t e r t w i ne d w i th unde r s t an d i ng t e nt i a l t e chn i c a l t h o u g h t i s o f n o u s e wha t s o e ve r . I n o t he r wo r d s , the p r o bl e m i s n ' t how t o i n c r e a s e che s s t a l e n t , b u t how t o g i ve For free r e i gn t o the t a l e n t o n e h a s . a n y t h i n g m o r e , a pp e a l t o C a i s s a . __ __ _

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