HSC CHEMISTRY Marilyn Schell Margaret Hogan
© Science Press 2007 First published 2007 Reprinted 2007 (twice), 2008, 2009 Science Press Private Bag 7023 Marrickville NSW 1475 Australia Tel: (02) 9516 1122 Fax: (02) 9550 1915
[email protected] www.sciencepress.com.au
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Science Press. ABN 98 000 073 861
Contents Introduction
v
Verbs to Watch
vi
Dot Points Production of Materials
vii
The Acidic Environment
ix
Chemical Monitoring and Management
xi
Industrial Chemistry
xiii
Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation
xv
Questions Production of Materials
1
The Acidic Environment
45
Chemical Monitoring and Management
101
Industrial Chemistry
157
Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation
207
Answers Production of Materials
251
The Acidic Environment
273
Chemical Monitoring and Management
299
Industrial Chemistry
325
Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation
345
Appendix Data Sheet
361
Periodic Table
362
Science Press
Dot Point HSC Chemistry
iii
Contents
Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Science Press
Contents
iv
Dot Point HSC Chemistry
Introduction What the book includes ,QWKLVERRN\RXZLOO¿QGW\SLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQTXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVIRUHDFKGRWSRLQWLQWKH%RDUGRI6WXGLHV syllabus for the following topics in the Year 12 Chemistry course:
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Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates WKDWVWXGHQWVVKRXOGFDUU\RXWµ¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQV¶ Format of the book The book has been formatted in the following way: 1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus) 1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3. 1RWHWKDWWKHQXPEHULQJRIWKHVHUHTXLUHPHQWVLVWKHDXWKRU¶VFKRLFHDQGKDVEHHQXVHGWRPDNHUHIHUHQFLQJ TXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVFOHDUHU7KHLQGLYLGXDOUHTXLUHPHQWVDUHQRWQXPEHUHGLQWKHV\OODEXVWKH\DUHVLPSO\ EXOOHWHG±KHQFHRXUXVHRIµGRWSRLQWV¶ZKHQZHUHIHUWRWKHP 1.1.1 )LUVWW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV UHTXLUHPHQW 1.1.2 6HFRQGW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV UHTXLUHPHQWHWF 7KHQXPEHURIOLQHVSURYLGHGIRUHDFKDQVZHUJLYHVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIKRZPDQ\PDUNVWKHTXHVWLRQPLJKWEH worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in PDQ\DQVZHUVWKUHHOLQHVKDYHEHHQSURYLGHGDVWKHDPRXQWRIZULWLQJUHTXLUHGH[FHHGVWZROLQHVEXWWKH chemistry involved is worth only one mark. How to use the book &RPSOHWLQJDOOTXHVWLRQVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDVXPPDU\RIDOOWKHZRUN\RXQHHGWRNQRZIURPWKHV\OODEXV You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered, but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams. :KHQZRUNLQJWKURXJKWKHTXHVWLRQVZULWHWKHDQVZHUV\RXKDYHWRORRNXSLQDGLIIHUHQWFRORXUWRWKRVH\RX NQRZZLWKRXWKDYLQJWRUHVHDUFKWKHZRUN7KLVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDTXLFNUHIHUHQFHWRZRUN\RXVKRXOG spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively.
Science Press
Dot Point HSC Chemistry
v
Introduction
Verbs to Watch account/account for State reasons for, report on, give an account of, narrate a series of events or transactions.
distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from, note difference between things.
analyse Identify components and the relationships among them, draw out and relate implications.
evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria. examine ,QTXLUHLQWR
apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation.
explain Relate cause and effect, make the relationship between things evident, provide why and/or how.
appreciate Make a judgement about the value of something.
extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details.
assess 0DNHDMXGJHPHQWRIYDOXHTXDOLW\RXWFRPHV results or size.
extrapolate Infer from what is known.
calculate 'HWHUPLQHIURPJLYHQIDFWV¿JXUHVRULQIRUPDWLRQ
identify Recognise and name.
clarify Make clear or plain.
interpret Draw meaning from.
classify Arrange into classes, groups or categories.
investigate 3ODQLQTXLUHLQWRDQGGUDZFRQFOXVLRQVDERXW
compare Show how things are similar and different.
justify Support an argument or conclusion.
construct Make, build, put together items or arguments.
outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features.
contrast Show how things are different or opposite.
predict Suggest what may happen based on available data.
critically (analyse/evaluate) Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge DQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJORJLFTXHVWLRQLQJUHÀHFWLRQDQG TXDOLW\WRDQDQDO\VLVRUHYDOXDWLRQ
propose Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion etc) for consideration or action.
deduce Draw conclusions.
recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences.
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recommend Provide reasons in favour.
demonstrate Show by example.
recount Retell a series of events.
describe Provide characteristics and features.
summarise Express concisely the relevant details.
discuss Identify issues and provide points for and against.
synthesise Put together various elements to make a whole. Science Press
Verbs to Watch
vi
Dot Point HSC Chemistry
Production of Materials Dot Point
Page
Dot Point
Page
1.
Energy and raw materials from fossil fuels
2
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Molar heats of combustion of alkanols
1.1
Ethylene (ethene) from petroleum
2
3.9
Calculating molar heat of combustion
23
5HDFWLYLW\RIHWK\OHQH¶VGRXEOHERQG
3.10 Ethanol as a car fuel
24
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Alkanes and alkenes with bromine water
3.11 Ethanol as an alternative fuel
25
1.4
Ethylene as a monomer
5
) LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ Fermentation of glucose
1.5
Polymers, e.g. polyethylene
6
3.13 Conditions for fermentation
26
1.6
Industrial production of polyethylene
6
3.14 Chemistry of fermentation
26
1.7
Modelling polymerisation
8
(TXDWLRQIRUIHUPHQWDWLRQ
1.8
Vinyl chloride and styrene as monomers
8
4.
Energy from redox reactions
27
1.9
Properties and uses of polystyrene and PVC
9
)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ *DOYDQLFFHOOV
Materials from biomass
11
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ 3RWHQWLDO ) difference of metals in an electrolyte
2. 2.1
Products of the petrochemical industry
11
4.3
Displacement of metals from solution
28
2.2
Development and use of a biopolymer
11
4.4
Activity of metals and displacement
28
2.3
Condensation polymers
13
4.5
Oxidation states
29
2.4
Formation of condensation polymers
13
4.6
Redox reactions in galvanic cells
30
2.5
Cellulose – a condensation polymer in biomass
14
4.7
Construction of galvanic cells
31
4.8
Components of galvanic cells
32
2.6
Cellulose – a source of commercial polymers
15
4.9
Calculations using the redox table
33
$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ
3.
Ethanol – use and manufacture
17
3.1
Dehydration of ethanol
17
3.2
Hydrolysis of ethylene
18
3.3
Modelling the dehydration and hydrolysis of ethylene
18
3.4
Industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane
19
3.5
Ethanol as a solvent
3.6 3.7
4.10 Chemistry and uses of batteries compared 35 $SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ
5.
Nuclear chemistry
39
5.1
Stable and radioactive isotopes
39
5.2
Recent discoveries of elements
40
5.3
Production of transuranic elements
41
5.4
Production of commercial radioisotopes
41
5.5
Detection of radiation
42
20
5.6
Radioisotopes in industry and medicine
42
Ethanol as a fuel – a renewable resource
20
5.7
Radioisotopes – uses and properties
42
5DGLRLVRWRSHV±EHQH¿WVDQGSUREOHPV
Naming alkanols
21
Answers to Production of Materials
251
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Dot Point HSC Chemistry
vii
Production of Materials
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Production of Materials
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Dot Point HSC Chemistry
The Acidic Environment Dot Point
Page
Dot Point
Page
1.
Indicators
46
3.10 Calculation of pH
68
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Natural indicators
3.11 Strong and weak acids – ionisation
70
6WURQJDQGZHDNDFLGV±HTXLOLEULXP
1.2
Indicators – colour changes
47
3.13 Strong and weak acids – calculating pH
71
1.3
Prepared indicators
47
3.14 Acids as food additives
72
1.4
Acidic, basic or neutral
49
4.
Acid/base theories
73
1.5
Acidity/basicity of household substances
50
4.1
Using secondary sources
73
1.6
Uses of indicators
51
4.2
Acidic oxides and the atmosphere
53
Development of ideas about acids and bases – Lavoisier, Davy and Arrhenius
73
2.
2[LGHVRIQRQPHWDOVDVDFLGV
%U|QVWHG/RZU\DFLGEDVHWKHRU\
2.2
Periodic Table and acidity of oxides
53
4.4
Conjugate acids and bases
76
/H&KkWHOLHU¶VSULQFLSOH
4.5
Conjugate acid/base pairs
76
)DFWRUVDIIHFWLQJHTXLOLEULXP
2.5
Solubility of carbon dioxide
55
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) pH of salt solutions
2.6
Calculating gas volumes
56
4.7
Explaining pH of salts
78
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Decarbonation of a soft drink
4.8
Amphiprotic substances
79
4.9
79
Natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
59
Neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction
Chemical reactions that release SO2 and NOX
2.8
7LWUDWLRQWHFKQLTXHV
60
)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ 7LWUDWLRQV
2.10 Formation and effects of acid rain
60
2.11 Evidence for changes in atmospheric oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
61
) LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ 7LWUDWLRQ of a domestic substance using FRPSXWHUEDVHGWHFKQRORJ\ 4.13 Neutralisation in accidents
89
2.12 Industrial origins of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
62
4.14 Buffers
90
3.
Acids and pH
2.9
5.
(VWHUL¿FDWLRQ
93
63
5.1
Alkanols and alkanoic acids
93
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Using pH meters or probes
5.2
Melting and boiling points of alkanols and alkanoic acids
95
3.2
Acids as proton donors
63
(VWHUL¿FDWLRQ
3.3
Common acids
64
5.4
Naming esters
96
3.4
Naturally occurring acids and bases
64
8VHRIDFLGLQHVWHUL¿FDWLRQ
3.5
The pH scale
65
5HÀX[LQJLQHVWHUL¿FDWLRQ
3.6
Concentrated and dilute acids
66
3.7
Strong and weak acids
67
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) 3UHSDUDWLRQRIDQHVWHUE\UHÀX[
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Esters – occurrence, production and uses
99
3.9
Modelling acids – molecular nature and ionisation
68
5.9
Esters – uses in foods and cosmetics
99
Answers to The Acidic Environment
273
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Dot Point HSC Chemistry
ix
The Acidic Environment
Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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The Acidic Environment
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Chemical Monitoring and Management Dot Point
Page
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Page
1.
The work of chemists
102
4.
Atmospheric chemistry and ozone
129
1.1
The work of chemists
102
4.1
129
1.2
Chemists – roles and chemical principles used
103
Composition and layered structure of the atmosphere
4.2
Atmospheric pollutants
129
1.3
Collaboration between chemists
104
4.3
Ozone in the atmosphere
130
1.4
Monitoring a chemical reaction
104
4.4
Formation of coordinate covalent bonds
131
2.
Monitoring in industry – the Haber process
107
4.5
Coordinate covalent bonds and Lewis structures
132
2.1
Industrial uses of ammonia
107
4.6
Allotropes of oxygen
132
2.2
Synthesis of ammonia
107
4.7
Oxygen allotropes – properties
134
2.3
Synthesis of ammonia – DQHTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQ
107
4.8
Isomers of haloalkanes
134
4.9
Modelling haloalkanes
136
2.4
Synthesis of ammonia – an exothermic reaction
108
4.10 CFCs and halons in the atmosphere
137
Reaction rate and temperature
109
4.11 Changes in atmospheric ozone concentrations
139
2.5
KH+DEHUSURFHVVDQG/H&KkWHOLHU¶V 7 principle
4.12 Destruction of atmospheric ozone
141
4.13 Problems associated with use of CFCs
142
2.7
The Haber process and pressure
110
4.14 Replacements for CFCs
143
2.8
The Haber process – a balancing act
110
$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ
2.9
Development of the Haber process DQGLWVVLJQL¿FDQFH
111
5.
Monitoring the water supply
145
5.1
Ions in water
145
'HWHUPLQLQJZDWHUTXDOLW\
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5.4
Monitoring water for heavy metals and eutrophication
150
5.5
The local water supply
152
5.6
Effectiveness of water management
154
0LFURVFRSLFPHPEUDQH¿OWHUV
2.10 The Haber process and catalysts
112
2.11 Monitoring the Haber process
113
$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ
3.
Chemical analysis
115
)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ )ODPHWHVWV
3.2
Monitoring ions in substances we use
118
3.3
Deducing ions present from test results
119
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ 6XOIDWH ) content of lawn fertiliser
3.5
Analysing reliability of results
122
3.6
Atomic absorption spectroscopy
124
3.7
Interpreting data from AAS analysis
126
Answers to Chemical Monitoring and Management
299
Science Press
Dot Point HSC Chemistry
xi
Chemical Monitoring and Management
Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Chemical Monitoring and Management
xii
Dot Point HSC Chemistry
Industrial Chemistry Dot Point
Page
Dot Point
Page
OHFWURO\VLVRIPROWHQDQGDTXHRXV ( sodium chloride
4.4
Industrial production of sodium hydroxide by electrolysis
183
4.5
The mercury, diaphragm and membrane processes
184
5.
6DSRQL¿FDWLRQ
189
)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ 6DSRQL¿FDWLRQ
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ $QDO\VLQJDQ ) HTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQ
6DSRQL¿FDWLRQ
5.3
Fats and oils to make soap
190
2.3
Effects of changes on HTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQV
163
/DERUDWRU\DQGLQGXVWULDOVDSRQL¿FDWLRQ
7KHHTXLOLEULXPFRQVWDQW
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) An emulsion, properties and uses
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2QO\WHPSHUDWXUHFDQFKDQJH.
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Soap as an emulsion
$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ
5.7
Soap – structure and cleaning action
193
3.
Sulfuric acid
171
5.8
Soap as an emulsion
194
3.1
Industrial uses of sulfuric acid
171
5.9
194
3.2
Sulfuric acid ionisation
171
Anionic, cationic and QRQLRQLFGHWHUJHQWV
3.3
Safety using sulfuric acid
171
3.4
Transport and storage of sulfuric acid
172
3.5
Extraction of sulfur
172
3.6
Indusrial production of sulfuric acid
174
3.7
Reaction conditions – production of SO2 and SO3
174
DWHVRIUHDFWLRQDQGHTXLOLEULXP± 5 production of SO2 and SO3
3.9
Industrial production of H2SO4 – chemistry and output
176
1.
Resources and replacements
158
1.1
A natural resource (not a fossil fuel)
158
1.2
Shrinking world resources
159
$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ
2.
Equilibrium and the equilibrium constant
161
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ 0RGHOOLQJDQ ) HTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQ
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3.11 Reactions of H2SO4 – an oxidising and dehydrating agent
178
4.
Sodium hydroxide
179
*DOYDQLFDQGHOHFWURO\WLFFHOOV
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Electrolysis of sodium chloride
5.10 Soaps and synthetic detergents
195
5.11 Environmental impacts of soaps and detergents
196
6.
The Solvay process
199
6.1
The Solvay process – raw materials
199
6.2
Uses of sodium carbonate
199
6.3
The Solvay process – steps and chemistry
199
6.4
The Solvay process – environmental issues
201
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) The Solvay process
6.6
Calculations involving the Solvay process
202
6.7
Location of a chemical plant using the Solvay process
204
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Answers to Industrial Chemistry
325
Science Press
Dot Point HSC Chemistry
xiii
Industrial Chemistry
Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Industrial Chemistry
xiv
Dot Point HSC Chemistry
Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation Dot Point
Page
Dot Point
Page
1.
The ocean as an electrolyte
208
4.6
Cathodic protection
232
1.1
Minerals in oceans
208
4.7
233
1.2
Electron transfer in redox reactions
208
Cathodic protection – chemistry and uses
1.3
Redox reactions occur when ions are free to move
209
4.8
Applications of cathodic protection
234
5.
Corrosion in a sunken ship
235
, PSDFWRI*DOYDQL'DY\)DUDGD\ and electron transfer reactions
5.1
Solubility of gases
235
*DVHVGLVVROYHGLQRFHDQV
:RUNRI*DOYDQL'DY\DQG)DUDGD\
5.3
Solubility of gases and depth of oceans
237
$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ
5.4
Temperature and corrosion rates
237
2.
Ships of metal
213
Rusting of iron
213
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Rate of corrosion
2.1 2.2
Conditions for rusting
214
5.6
Predicting corrosion rates at depth
239
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Corrosion of iron and steel
$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ
6.
Corrosion at depth
241
2.4
Composition and properties of steel
218
Composition, properties and uses of a range of steels
219
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ 5DWHRI ) corrosion and acidity
2.5
6.2
Acidity and corrosion rates
242
2.6
Iron and steel in ships
219
6.3
Corrosion at depth
243
2.7
Corrosion of active and passivating metals
220
6XOIDWHUHGXFLQJEDFWHULDDQGFRUURVLRQ
7.
Electrolytic cells
221
Salvage, conservation and restoration of artefacts
245
3. 3.1
Electrolysis – anode and cathode reactions
221
7.1
Artefacts from shipwrecks are saturated
245
7.2
Factors affecting electrolysis
224
Evaporation of a saturated solution from artefacts
245
3.2
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Rate of electcrolysis
7.3
Electrolysis to remove salts from artefacts
246
4.
Corrosion in a marine environment
227
7.4
History of ship construction – materials used
227
Electrolysis to clean and stabilise metal artefacts
247
4.1
7.5
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Corrosion rate of metals and alloys
Chemical procedures to clean, preserve and stabilise artefacts
247
7.6
Protection of metal hulls
228
RHVWRUDWLRQWHFKQLTXHVXVHG in Australian projects
4.3
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ ) Prevention of corrosion
Answers to Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation
345
4.5
Using the redox table to predict corrosion
231
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xv
Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation
Notes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 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Dot Point HSC Chemistry
DOT POINT Production of Materials
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1
Production of Materials
1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of other substances. 1.1
Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the UH¿QLQJRISHWUROHXP 1.1.1
Describe the composition of petroleum.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.1.2
When petroleum undergoes distillation, fractions are produced. Identify some of these.
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1.1.3 D
'H¿QHIUDFWLRQDOGLVWLOODWLRQ
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(b)
Use a diagram to show the industrial process of fractional distillation of petroleum.
(c)
Use a diagram to show the process of fractional distillation in the school laboratory.
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1.1.4 (a)
Identify the IUPAC name for ethylene.
(b)
Construct the structural formula for ethylene.
(c)
Outline the main source of ethylene.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.1.5
Ethene is produced by the cracking of petroleum fractions. Describe the process of cracking.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.2
Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into many useful products. 1.2.1
Complete the following:
Ethylene (ethene) belongs to a homologous group of hydrocarbons called ........................................ . All alkenes have a ........................................ bond as their functional group. This is called a covalent bond because the carbon atoms ........................................ electrons. It is called a double bond because the ........................................ atoms share ........................................ pairs of ........................................ . 1.2.2 (a)
Complete the following table to summarise the differences between the three series of hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. Homologous series
General formula
Functional group
Alkane CnH2n –CŁC–
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(b)
1.2.3
Write molecular formulas for: (i) ethane
.......................................................................................
(ii) ethene
.......................................................................................
(iii) ethyne
.......................................................................................
Ethane and ethene (ethylene) are both hydrocarbons, and they share a number of properties. 7KH\ERWKKDYHVPDOOQRQSRODUPROHFXOHVZLWKZHDNGLVSHUVLRQIRUFHVEHWZHHQWKHLU molecules, they are both relatively insoluble in water, have low melting and boiling points and they both burn readily in air or oxygen. Despite these similarities, ethene is used much more extensively in industry than ethane. Account for this difference in use.
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1.2.4
Alkanes such as ethane undergo substitution reactions.
(a)
What is meant by a substitution reaction?
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E
8VHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZDQH[DPSOHRIDVXEVWLWXWLRQUHDFWLRQ
1.2.5
Alkenes such as ethene (ethylene) undergo addition reactions.
(a)
What is meant by an addition reaction?
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8VHDQHTXDWLRQZLWKVWUXFWXUDOIRUPXODVWRVKRZWKHDGGLWLRQRIFKORULQHWRHWKHQH HWK\OHQH
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, GHQWLI\GDWDSODQDQGSHUIRUPD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRFRPSDUHWKHUHDFWLYLWLHVRI appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water. 1.3.1
Describe the test you would use to distinguish an alkane such as ethane from an alkene such DVHWKHQH HWK\OHQH 7KLVVKRXOGLQFOXGHWHVWUHVXOWVDQGHTXDWLRQV
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1.3.2
'XULQJ\RXUFRXUVH\RXSODQQHGDQGSHUIRUPHGD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRFRPSDUHWKH reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water.
(a)
Identify the chemicals you used and justify their choice.
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(b)
Explain one safety precaution necessary when carrying out this experiment.
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1.4
Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made. 1.4.1 D
'H¿QHPRQRPHU
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'H¿QHSRO\PHUDQGLGHQWLI\WKUHHH[DPSOHVRISRO\PHUV
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(c)
Identify the term used to describe the process by which monomers are converted to a polymer.
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Production of Materials
1.4.2
-XVWLI\WKHFODVVL¿FDWLRQRIHWK\OHQH HWKHQH DVDPRQRPHU
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.5
1.4.3
Classify each of the following as either a monomer or a polymer.
(a)
starch .............................................................................
(b)
glucose
(c)
ethylene (ethene) ....................................................
(d)
polyethylene
.........................................................................
.............................................................
Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term. 1.5.1
'H¿QHZKDWLVPHDQWE\DQDGGLWLRQSRO\PHU
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.5.2 (a)
Identify the monomer used to manufacture the polymer called polyethylene.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.6
E
8VHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKDWSRO\HWK\OHQHLVDQDGGLWLRQSRO\PHU
(c)
Draw the structural formula for a part of a polyethylene molecule showing three monomer units joined together.
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially important polymer. 1.6.1
Justify the statement that polyethylene is a commercially important polymer.
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1.6.2
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene.
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1.6.3 (a)
Explain what is meant by a free radical.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Explain how the formation of an ethene free radical assists in the formation of a polymer.
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1.6.4 (a)
Identify the type of catalyst used in the industrial production of polyethylene.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Describe the effect of this catalyst on the polymerisation process.
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1.6.5
8VHDÀRZFKDUWWRVKRZWKHLQGXVWULDOSURGXFWLRQRISRO\HWK\OHQHIURPHWK\OHQH
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Production of Materials
1.6.6
, QLQGXVWULDOSURFHVVHVVXFKDVSRO\PHULVDWLRQTXDOLW\FRQWUROLVFDUULHGRXW,GHQWLI\WKUHH factors that would need to be continually monitored and explain why this process is important in the production of polyethylene.
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1.6.7
During the production of polyethylene it is important to monitor temperature of the reaction vessel. Explain.
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1.7
Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process. 1.7.1
Describe how you modelled the polymerisation process in class.
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,GHQWLI\WKHIROORZLQJDVFRPPHUFLDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWPRQRPHUV YLQ\OFKORULGH VW\UHQH by both their systematic and common names. 1.8.1
Complete the following table to summarise information about the monomers vinyl chloride and styrene. Common name of monomer
Systematic name of monomer
Formula of monomer
Name of polymer
Vinyl chloride
Styrene (Vinyl benzene)
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1.9
Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties. 1.9.1
Use the following table to summarise some uses of the polymers made from the monomers vinyl chloride and styrene.
Name of polymer
Structure of polymer
Uses
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polystyrene
1.9.2
Complete the following table to link the uses of the different forms of the polymers shown to properties that allow them to be used in these ways.
Name of polymer
Use
PVC
Flooring and carpet backing
PVC
Sheets for roofs and skylights
Polyethylene
Natural gas pipes Coating steel pipes
Polyethylene
Plastic bags and Food containers
Polyethylene
Sheathing for wire cables used for phone and TV
Polystyrene
Disposable foam cups
Polystyrene
Surfboards
Property that determines this use
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1.9.3
Assess the impact of the development of the production of polymers on society and on the environment.
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2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. 2.1
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the petrochemical industry. 2.1.1
What is meant by the petrochemical industry?
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2.1.2
Identify 10 chemicals presently produced by the petrochemical industry.
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2.1.3
Discuss the need for alternative sources of compounds presently manufactured by the petrochemical industry.
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2.2
Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the VSHFL¿FHQ]\PH V XVHGRURUJDQLVPXVHGWRV\QWKHVLVHWKHPDWHULDODQGDQHYDOXDWLRQRIWKHXVH or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties. 2.2.1
'H¿QHWKHWHUPELRSRO\PHU
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2.2.2 (a)
Identify a biopolymer which is produced commercially.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Describe the structure of this polymer.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Production of Materials
(c)
Identify and give the formula of the monomer(s) used to manufacture this named biopolymer.
(d)
Identify the source of the monomer(s).
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2.2.3
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1DPHWKHVSHFL¿FHQ]\PH V RURUJDQLVP V XVHGWRV\QWKHVLVHWKLVELRSRO\PHU
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(b)
Analyse progress in the development of this biopolymer.
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(c)
Identify uses of this biopolymer.
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(d)
Identify properties of this biopolymer.
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(e)
Choose one use of this biopolymer and relate this use to its properties.
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(f)
Analyse progress in the uses of this biopolymer.
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2.3
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer. 2.3.1
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer and identify three examples.
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2.4
Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed. 2.4.1
8VHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKHIRUPDWLRQRIDFRQGHQVDWLRQSRO\PHU
2.4.2
Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.4.3
Compare condensation and addition reactions. Condensation reactions
Addition reactions
Both involve .................................................... joining to form a long chain molecule. No double bonds necessary
No small molecule produced
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2.5
Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass. 2.5.1 (a)
Describe the structure of glucose. Include a diagram in your answer.
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(b)
Describe the structure of cellulose. Include a diagram in your answer.
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(c)
Explain why cellulose is a condensation polymer.
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2.5.2
Cellulose is a condensation polymer found in biomass. Outline the importance of this compound.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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, GHQWLI\WKDWFHOOXORVHFRQWDLQVWKHEDVLFFDUERQFKDLQVWUXFWXUHVQHHGHGWREXLOGSHWURFKHPLFDOV and discuss its potential as a raw material. 2.6.1
Explain why cellulose is a suitable raw material for the production of petrochemicals.
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2.6.2
Discuss the potential of cellulose as a raw material in the manufacture of petrochemicals.
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Production of Materials
2.7
Applied question. 2.7.1
Ethene is a starting point for the petrochemical industry. At the present time, ethene is produced from petroleum, however in the future it may be produced from cellulose in biomass. Compare and evaluate these two methods of ethene production.
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3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants. 3.1
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used. 3.1.1 (a)
Write the structural formula of ethanol.
E
-XVWLI\WKHFODVVL¿FDWLRQRIHWKDQRODVDQDONDQRO
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.1.2 (a)
What is meant by a dehydration reaction?
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
E
&RQVWXFWDQHTXDWLRQWRLOOXVWUDWHWKHGHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQROWRHWK\OHQH
(c)
Describe the dehydration of ethanol.
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3.1.3
Outline a reason for the use of a catalyst in the dehydration of ethanol.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Production of Materials
3.2
Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used. 3.2.1
:ULWHDPROHFXODUHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHUWRHWK\OHQHWRSURGXFHHWKDQRO
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.2.2
Describe the addition of water to ethylene to produce ethanol.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.3
Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital technologies RUFRPSXWHUVLPXODWLRQVWRPRGHO WKHGHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQRO WKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHUWRHWK\OHQH 3.3.1
Use structural formulas to model the following reactions:
(a)
dehydration of ethanol
(b)
addition of water to ethylene
3.3.2
Describe how you modelled one of the following reactions: WKHGHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQRO WKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHUWRHWK\OHQH
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3.4
Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane. 3.4.1
Outline the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.4.2
7KHIROORZLQJÀRZFKDUWVXPPDULVHVWKHLQGXVWULDOSURGXFWLRQRIHWKDQROIURPELRPDVV organic biomass
crush and grind
dilute acid, e.g. HCl
hydrolyse
Process A
more acid
solid residue
filtrate
hydrolyse
sugars in acid solution
Ca(OH)2 to neutralise acid
Process A
solid residue, e.g. (CaSO4)
sugar solution
yeast or bacteria
Process B
ethanol mixture
carbon dioxide
Process C
by-products and wastes
ethanol
Identify the processes that occur at: A
......................................................................................
B
......................................................................................
C
......................................................................................
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HVFULEHDQGDFFRXQWIRUWKHPDQ\XVHVRIHWKDQRODVDVROYHQWIRUSRODUDQGQRQSRODU ' substances. 3.5.1 (a)
Identify the type of bonding within a molecule of ethanol.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Explain why ethanol is a polar molecule.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Identify the intermolecular forces between molecules of ethanol.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(d)
Use a diagram to show a hydrogen bond between atoms in adjacent ethanol molecules.
3.5.2
Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and QRQSRODUVXEVWDQFHV
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3.6
Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource. 3.6.1
Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel.
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3.6.2
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3.6.3
Distinguish between the terms renew, reuse and recycle.
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,GHQWLI\WKH,83$&QRPHQFODWXUHIRUVWUDLJKWFKDLQHGDONDQROVIURP&WR& 3.7.1 D
&RPSOHWHWKHIROORZLQJWDEOHWRUHYLVHWKHVWUXFWXUHDQGQRPHQFODWXUHRIWKH¿UVWHLJKW alkanols. Name of alkanol
Molecular formula
Structural formula
Methanol
H
C
C
H
H
HO
H H Propanol
C4H9OH
Pentanol
Hexanol
C7H15OH
Octanol
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(b)
Show the structural formulas of: L KH[DQRO
LL SURSDQRO
, GHQWLI\GDWDVRXUFHVFKRRVHUHVRXUFHVDQGSHUIRUPD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRGHWHUPLQHDQG compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole. 3.8.1 D
,GHQWLI\WKHWKUHHOLTXLGDOFRKROV\RXXVHGZKHQSHUIRUPLQJD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWR determine and compare heats of combustion of alkanols.
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(b)
Use a labelled diagram to show the method you used.
(c)
Comment on the accuracy of your results.
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(d)
Suggest ways you could improve the accuracy of your results.
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(e)
Explain one safety precaution you applied when carrying out this experiment.
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H¿QHWKHPRODUKHDWRIFRPEXVWLRQRIDFRPSRXQGDQGFDOFXODWHWKHYDOXHIRUHWKDQROIURP ' ¿UVWKDQGGDWD 'H¿QHWKHPRODUKHDWRIFRPEXVWLRQRIDFRPSRXQG
3.9.1
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3.9.2
The following table shows the heats of combustion for a number of fuels.
(a)
Complete the following table by calculating the heat of combustion in kJ g–1 for each of the fuels shown. Fuel
Hydrogen Coke (carbon)
Formula
Heat of combustion (kJ/mole)
H2
285
C
393
Methane
CH4
890
Ethane
C2H6
1560
Propane
C3H8
2220
Methanol
CH3OH
727
Ethanol
C2H5OH
1367
(b)
Heat of combustion (kJ/gram)
Identify the fuel that would produce the most heat by the combustion of 1 g of fuel.
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(c)
Consider which has the lower heat of combustion, ethanol or methanol. Using this information, which would be more expensive to use as a fuel?
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3.9.3
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