Diversity in Modern Greek Culture

Cretan Greek

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Cretan Greek History of the Greek language (see also: Greek alphabet)

Proto-Greek (c. 3000–1600 BC) Mycenaean (c. 1600–1100 BC) Ancient Greek (c. 800–330 BC) Dialects: Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, Attic-Ionic, Doric, Locrian, Pamphylian, Homeric Greek, Macedonian Koine Greek (c. 330 BC–330) Medieval Greek (330–1453) Modern Greek (from 1453) Dialects: Calabrian, Cappadocian, Cheimarriotika, Cretan, Cypriot, Demotic, Griko, Katharevousa, Pontic, Tsakonian, Maniot, Yevanic *

Dates (beginning with Ancient Greek) from Wallace, D. B. (1996). Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p. 12. ISBN 0310218950.

Cretan Greek (Cretan dialect — in Greek, Kritikí diálektos – Κρητική διάλεκτος or Kritiká Κρητικά) is a dialect of the Greek language, spoken by more than half a million people in Crete and many thousands in the diaspora.

Geographic distribution The Cretan dialect is spoken by the majority of the Cretan Greeks in the island of Crete, as well as by several thousands of Cretans who have settled in major Greek cities, notably in Athens. In the major centers of the Greek diaspora, the dialect continues to be used by the Cretans, mainly in the United States, Australia, and Germany. In addition, the descendants of many Cretan Muslims who left the island during the 19th and early 20th century continue to use it. In Turkey, they are called Cretan Turks. There is another grouping of Cretan Muslims in the coastal town of Al Hamidiyah, Syria, and the neighboring territories of Lebanon.

Cretan Greek

Phonology • Palatalisation. Standard Greek has an allophonic alternation between velar consonants ([k], [ɡ], [x], [ɣ]) and palatalised counterparts (([c], [ɟ], [ç], [ʝ]) before front vowels (/i/, /e/). In southern dialects, the palatalisation goes further towards affricates (e.g. [tɕe] vs. standard [ce] 'and'). Subtypes can be distinguished that have either palato-alveolar ([tʃ], [dʒ], [ʃ], [ʒ]) or alveolo-palatal sounds ([tɕ], [dʑ], [ɕ], [ʑ]). The former are reported for Cyprus, the latter for Crete, among others.[1]

Grammar • inda? versus ti? In Standard Greek, the interrogative pronoun 'what?' is ti. In most of the Aegean Islands (except at its geographical fringe: Rhodes in the south-east, Lemnos, Thasos and the Sporades in the north; and Andros in the west), it is inda[2] as it is for Cyprus.

Usage and settings Today the Cretan dialect is rarely used in writing. However, Cretan Greeks usually communicate with each other in this dialect. Cretan is not much different from the Greek dialects or Standard Greek, and has a fairly high level of mutual intelligibility. Many organizations of Cretans aim to preserve their culture, including their dialect, and the dialect does not seem to be in danger of extinction. Some academics speculate that Cretan could have become the basis of Modern Standard Greek, given its flourishing history and achievements. According to them, this process was interrupted by the Ottoman conquest in 1669.

History Like all other modern Greek dialects except Tsakonian and, to some extent, Griko, Cretan evolved from Koine. Its structure and vocabulary have preserved different features than standard Greek, due to the distance of Crete from the main Greek centers. There are also influences from other languages. The conquest of Crete by the Andalusian Moors in 824 left mainly toponyms. However, Venetian influence proved to be stronger since the island remained under Venetian control for nearly five centuries. To this day, many toponyms, names and words stem from the Venetian language of early modern times, which came to reinforce the Latin influence from antiquity and the early Byzantine Empire. Following the Ottoman conquest of 1669, Turkish words entered the vocabulary of Cretans as well. Borrowings, as usual, are mainly lexical; Arabic, Turkish, and Venetian had little or no effect on grammar and syntax. With the beginning of the 20th century and the evolution of technology and tourism, English, French and German terms are widely used.

Literature Medieval works suggest that Modern Greek started shaping as early as the 10th century, with one of the first works being the epic poem of Digenis Acritas). However, the first literary activity which was important enough to be identified as "modern Greek literature" was done in the Cretan dialect during the 16th century. Erotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of the Cretan literature, and perhaps the supreme achievement of modern Greek literature. It is a romantic work written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553-1613). In over 10,000 lines of rhyming fifteen-syllable couplets, the poet relates the trials and tribulations suffered by two young lovers, Erotokritos and Aretousa, daughter of Heracles, King of Athens. It was a tale that enjoyed enormous popularity among its Greek readership. The poets of the period of Cretan literature (15th-17th centuries) used the spoken Cretan dialect. The tendency to purge the language of foreign elements was above all represented by Chortatsis, Kornaros and the anonymous poets

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Cretan Greek of Voskopoula and the Sacrifice of Abraham, whose works highlight the expressive power of the dialect. As dictated by the pseudo-Aristotelian theory of decorum, the heroes of the works use a vocabulary analogous to their social and educational background. It was thanks to this convention that the Cretan comedies were written in a language that was an amalgam of Italicisms, Latinisms and the local dialect, thereby approximating to the actual language of the middle class of the Cretan towns. The time span separating Antonios Achelis, author of the Siege of Malta (1570), and Chortatsis and Kornaros is too short to allow for the formation, from scratch, of the Cretan dialect we see in the texts of the latter two. The only explanation, therefore, is that the poets at the end of the sixteenth century were consciously employing a particular linguistic preference – they were aiming at a pure style of language for their literature and, via that language, a separate identity for the Greek literary production of their homeland. The flourishing Cretan school was all but terminated by the Turkish capture of the island in the 17th century. The ballads of the klephts, however, survive from the 18th century; these are the songs of the Greek mountain fighters who carried on guerrilla warfare against the Turks. Many Greek authors have integrated Cretan literary elements in their respective works. Among these authors were Nikos Kazantzakis who was known for his literary contributions mainly written in standard Greek. This paradigm, overall, has helped Kazantzakis to write significant works such as Zorba the Greek and thus establish for himself recognition in various international circles.

References [1] Trudgill 2003: 54. [2] Kontosopoulos 1999.

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Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Cretan Greek  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479858592  Contributors: Akhilleus, Cplakidas, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, Deucalionite, El Greco, Erutuon, Eugene-elgato, Fjmustak, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Hectorian, Macrakis, Melenc, Miskin, Neoptolemos, Notesenses, Patroklis, Perique des Palottes, Steinbach, Stevepeterson, TimBentley, William Avery, 8 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:P46.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P46.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Dsmdgold, Foroa, Heycos, Kersti Nebelsiek, Neithsabes, Saiht, Sscotts, Unicorn, Wst, 1 anonymous edits

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Sfakians

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Sfakians The Sfakians (or Sphakians or Sfakiots; Greek: Σφακιανοί) are the inhabitants of the region of Sfakia located in western Crete. The Sfakians hold themselves to be the direct descendants of the Dorians who invaded the island around 1100 BC. Although they are not as strong or aggressive as the Maniots, but like the Maniots, the inhabitants of Sfakia have faced numerous foreign invaders, to which fact they owe their reputation as courageous warriors that they have had for centuries as cousins of the Maniots and Souliots. A group of modern Sfakians dancing at Komitades, Sfakia.

Sfakians and Saracens When the Saracen Arabs invaded Crete in 824 AD, many regions of the island, Sphakia included, escaped effective Arab rule. One reason frequently offered is geography: Sphakians, secure in their mountain fastness, could mount a formidable deep defence de haut en bas (from top to bottom), gradually retreating upward while imposing relatively high casualties on invaders from the lowlands. In refusing to submit to the Arabs, the Sfakians established a form of self-government known as the Gerousia ("Council of Elders"); this had its antecedent in the Spartan Gerousia, but it is not clear there is any connection. The members of the council were either known as Gerontes ("Elders") or Dimogerontes ("Public Elders") who were selected based on the general consensus of the members of the entire community (cf. alderman). Nicephorus Phocas, general of the Greek Byzantine forces sent to liberate Crete, appointed large numbers of Sfakian warriors to defend his rear against Arab attacks from the south while he besieged Chandax. Chandax was the key to Phocas's campaign as it was both the most formidable Arab fortress and the capital of Crete under Arab rule. The Sfakians not only successfully protected General Phocas's troops, but they also supported him in the siege of Chandax, which fell on March 7, 961 AD, marking the end of Arab rule in Crete. General Phocas was so grateful for the contributions of the Sfakians that he gave the Gerontes many presents which included weapons and lavish clothing. Moreover, the general allowed the Sfakians the right to continue with their own form of self-government with the added benefit of being exempt from all taxes. Moreover, when General Phocas became the emperor of the Byzantine Empire, he reconfirmed these privileges.

Peace in Byzantine Crete At the dawn of the second Byzantine period in Crete (961 - 1204), the island itself was in a state of devastation. Many of the inhabitants were sold to slave markets, the economy was in ruins, and the administrative structure of government had no presence on the island. The Byzantines immediately started to rebuild fortifications on the island in order to guard against future attacks. Also, they placed a new administrative system that divided the island into a number of provinces that appointed their own governors. View of Loutro community at Sfakia region.

Sfakians A new period of cultural and economic renewal began to emerge in Crete. Christianity in Crete was undergoing a revival thanks to missionaries such as Saint Saint Nikon the Metanoeite ("The Repenter") and Saint Ioannis Xenos ("John the Stranger"). The local population grew and further assistance was provided by Emperor Alexius I Comnenus. In 1080, the emperor ordered the migration and settlement of Greek Byzantine families in Crete. Emperor Alexius II Comnenus, grandson of Alexius I Comnenus, issued an imperial order that divided the island into twelve provinces and appointed twelve princes from the Byzantine Empire to govern them. Each prince was known as an archondopoulon ("petty lord"; cp. English baron) and he would arrive with his extended family to settle in the area allocated to him. From this event, a number of great aristocratic families of Crete emerged, some of them still in existence today. The archondopoula of Crete entailed the families of Kallergis, Skordilis, Melisseni, Varouchi, Mousouri, Vlasti, Hortatzi, and others. Sfakia itself was allocated to the emperor's nephew, Marinos Skordilis, who came to Crete with nine of his brothers who also brought over their sons and families. The borders of Skordilis's territory ranged from Askyfou east to Koustogerako and along the south coast to Agia Roumeli, Omprosgialos (today's Hora Sfakion) and to Frangokastello (the largest town in Skordilis's territory was Anopoli and many Sfakian families today claim to be direct descendants of the original Skordiles). John Phocas, a direct descendant of the emperor who freed Crete from the Arabs, was considered to be the most senior member of the twelve archontopoula. His territory was one of the largest, which covered the greater part of today's province of Rethymno, all the way south to the coast and westward up to the valley of Askyfou, where the border of the Skordilis' territory was located (the name of the family changed a few years later under the Venetians to Kallergis and families that today claim to be direct descendants of the Phocas-Kallergis dynasty are one of the largest family groups in Crete, including a number from Sfakia).

Revolts against Venice Rebellions (1212 - 1283) During Venetian rule in Crete (1204 - 1669), the Greek inhabitants of the island rebelled at least twenty-seven times (without counting any of the other smaller local uprisings). Some of these revolutions lasted for years and were eventually suppressed by the Venetians with great brutality. Many of these revolutions sprang out of the "Lefka Ori" (or "White Mountains"), which was a Sfakian stronghold. Many of the revolutionaries were led by members of the Archondopoula families, especially members of the Sfakian-based families of Skordilis and Phocas/Kallergis. There occurred over fourteen insurrections between 1207 and 1365. The first rebellion in 1212, against Venetian resettlement, was started by the Aghiostephanites or Argyropouli but was quickly quelled by Venice. In 1217, another revolt occurred that was caused by a private dispute over stolen horses between the noble Skordilis and the Venetian Castellan. The revolt spread rapidly, but a treaty was made and signed between a new Duke and the rebels. Another large rebellion occurred in 1230 in the Rethymno area as a result of the gathering of the noble clans of Skordilis, Melisseni, and Drakontopouli. The rebellion went on for six years until Venice conceded much land and many garrisons in order to bring the revolt to an end. Venice, from this point on, had its hands full with Crete. Over the next few decades starting in 1212, the Venetians began to resettle numerous noble families from Venice in order to acquire better control over Crete. Chandax was renamed Candia (today's Heraklion) and became the seat of the Duke of Candia. The duke was appointed for a two-year term by Venice and the island was known as the "Regno di Candia" or the "Kingdom of Crete." In 1252, Chania was built on the ancient city of Kydonia by the Venetians and Crete was divided into six provinces (sexteria). Eventually, the six provinces became four counties, but Sfakia always remained out of the direct control of the Venetians who maintained only a small garrison at the castle at Omprosgialos (today's Hora Sfakion). The Venetians would rarely venture outside of their castle walls. In 1273, the Hortatzi brothers became the leaders of a great rebellion. The revolt lasted for six years and the costs to the Venetians were heavy. However, the Cretan nobleman, Alexios Kallergis, was lured by the promises given to

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Sfakians him by the Venetians and he eventually supported them. The Venetian attack against the Hortatzi brothers was decisive and in 1279, the entire rebellion was crushed. The Venetians did not keep their promises to Alexios Kallergis and were unfortunately very cruel in their treatment of the Cretan rebels. As a result, Kallergis started one of the largest and most destructive rebellions against the Venetians in 1283. After sixteen years of fighting, the Venetians and Kallergis secretly negotiated an end to the rebellion with numerous concessions made on both sides. In return for the Venetian concessions that entailed the allowing of mixed marriages (in which such a "privilege" did not persuade the Sfakians and Cretans to perceive the Venetians any more favorably) and the installation of a Greek bishopric, Kallergis would swear allegiance to Venice.

The Chrysomalousa revolution (1319) One of the major Sfakian revolutions against Venetian rule was the Chrysomallousa Revolution of 1319. The Venetian garrison maintained at Omprosgialos at Sfakia consisted of only fifteen soldiers and an officer. These troops were merely keeping an eye out on the Sfakians, but rarely did they venture outside and they never interfered in Sfakian affairs. Capuleto, the Venetian officer in charge of the garrison, was attracted one day by a young girl at the well of the village. He approached the young girl and kissed her. She slapped Capuleto in the face, but he managed to pull out a dagger and cut some of the girl's golden hair. The girl's name was Chrysi Skordilis and she was from the Archondopoula family of the Skordilises. She was also called "Chrysomallousa" (or "Golden Hair") due to her blond hair. Upon hearing what happened to Chrysi, her relatives immediately killed the offending Venetian officer and most of the guards. Venetian troops arrived soon from Chania and the locals fought the Venetians bravely throughout the district. The revolution went on for more than a year until Archondas Kallergis intervened and had reached a peace treaty with the Venetians. The peace treaty entailed an agreement for the withdrawal of the Venetian forces from the area and an end to hostilities.

Rebellions (1332 - 1371) More rebellions against the Venetians broke out in 1332 in Margarites and in 1341 in Apokoronas. In Amari, Sfakia, Mesara and elsewhere throughout the island, the Cretans succeeded in winning for themselves many new benefits. As a result of the hard tax policy Venice exercised towards its colony, both Cretans and Venetian settlers revolted in 1363. The revolt, which became to be known as the revolt of St. Titus, overthrew official Venetian rule and declared a Cretan Republic under the protection of Saint Titus, Crete's patron saint who had christianized the island thirteen centuries earlier. A new rebellion occurred in 1365 and it was crushed by Venice to the point where life in Crete was very miserable. The Venetians decided to build a castle on the fertile plains east of Sfakia where they intended to place a strong military presence in order to protect Venetian nobles and their properties. This decision was a result of the constant incursions the Venetians were experiencing on the southern coast of Crete from pirates (some of whom were Sfakians). The castle itself would also serve to protect the Venetians from the Sfakians who lived in the mountains north and west of the plains and who were harassing Venetian nobles. In 1371, a Venetian fleet with soldiers and builders arrived on the fertile plain to begin construction on the castle. However, the local Sfakians were against having a castle on their territory. The Sfakians, under the leadership of the six Patsos brothers from the nearby settlement of Patsianos, would destroy every night what the Venetians built during the day. Eventually, the Venetians were forced to bring in additional troops that surrounded the whole area during the whole period that the castle was being built. The Patsos brothers, ready to resume their campaigns against the Venetians, were unfortunately betrayed, arrested and ultimately hanged at the site of the castle. In 1374, the castle was complete, but the Sfakians were not threatened in their stronghold by the Venetian troops who much preferred to be stationed at the castle looking out for pirates instead of trying to establish control over the Sfakians. The castle is now known as Frangokastello.

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Sfakians

War of the chickens (1470) Another major Sfakian revolution was known as the "Ornithopolemos" (or the "War of the Chickens"), which took place in 1470. This revolution was caused by the pressures the Venetians were placing on the Cretans in order to extract additional tax revenues. A new tax was introduced requiring all Cretan families to provide one well-fed chicken every month to the Venetian in charge of their area. As time went by and Cretan families began to multiply, the number of chickens demanded was increasing and arguments began to start about the correct amount of chickens that should be given to the Venetian in charge of the area. Some villages started giving eggs rather than chickens on the basis that the Venetians would hatch the eggs themselves. Legal action was taken by the Venetians against the villagers for short payment, as well as against the Sfakians who were refusing to pay the tax altogether. Eventually, the Venetians issued over 10,000 indictments. The Sfakians, in return, compiled a report charging the Venetian authorities of corruption and sent the report to Chania for dispatch to Venice. The authorities at Chania imprisoned the Sfakian who brought the report and as a result, the Sfakians declared a revolution and encouraged the rest of the Cretans to refuse the tax. The revolution lasted for three years and at the end of the fighting, the Venetians agreed to withdraw the tax from the whole island, as well as withdraw all outstanding legal actions.

Kantanoleon's revolution (1527 or 1570) There occurred yet another Sfakian revolution, which became a part of Cretan mythology since the publication of a book in 1872 known as "The Cretan Weddings" by a Lefkadiot writer and historian named Zambelios. The full historical events have never been proven, but there are Venetian records that substantiate large parts of the overall story. However, the records do not fully explain why the wedding was proposed in the first place and by whom. The name of this major uprising was called Kantanoleon's Revolution and the Cretan Weddings. The protagonists of this revolution were George Kantanoleon (who came from the small village of Koustogerako north of Sougia), his son Petros, Francesco Molino (a Venetian noble from Chania), and Sophia (Molino's daughter). Although Kantanoleon came from Koustogerako, a small village just outside of today's province of Sfakia, the village itself was on the border of the Sfakian territory owned by Archondopoulo Skordilis. Kantanoleon was also from the family of Skordilis (some sources also claim that his correct surname was Skordilis and that the surname "Kantanoleon" was given to him by the Venetians). Some time before 1527 (or 1570 according to another source), a large number of families from western Crete decided to meet at the monastery of Saint John at Akrotiri in order to revolt against their Venetian rulers. This meeting came into order as a result of the unbearable taxes the Venetians placed on the Cretans, as well as the brutal treatment the Cretans dealt with from their rulers. At the monastery, the families elected George Kantanoleon as head of a new government. Following a number of successful battles against the Venetians at Impros Gorge near Rethymno and at Samaria Gorge at Lasithi, the Venetians withdrew to Chania, allowing the new Cretan independent government total freedom in governing all of western Crete. Kantanoleon established his headquarters at Meskla at the foot of the Lefka Ori, which was about 15 kilometers south of Chania. There, he set up proper government processes that included a more acceptable level for collecting taxes. The events that followed are subject to debate. Zambelios, in his book "The Cretan Weddings", claims that Petros (Kantanoleon's son) fell in love with Sophia (Molino’s daughter) and that Molino conspired with the Duke of Candia to trap and exterminate all of the revolutionaries. Molino's plan entailed the arrangement of a marriage between his daughter and Petros in which the invitees at the wedding will be arrested and the protagonists of the rebellion will be killed. A Venetian historian, however, stated that it was Kantanoleon that tried to impose a reconciliation between Cretans and the noble Venetian families of western Crete by arranging the marriage of his son to Molino's daughter thus trying to establish a new dynasty to govern western Crete. Both historians agree on the events that transpired at the wedding. The wedding itself had a large number of invited Cretan guests and traditional festivities had large amounts of wine consumed (spiced with opium according to Zambelios). Eventually, all of the guests were surrounded by Venetian troops that came secretly from Chania,

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Sfakians

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Rethymno, and Candia. The troops arrested both Kantanoleon and his son Petros and hanged them on the spot together with more than thirty other Cretan nobles. The rest of the prisoners, ranging in the hundreds, were divided into four groups and one was hanged at the gates of Chania, one at Koutsogerako, one on the road from Chania to Rethymno, and one at Meskla (the headquarters of the rebel government). Yet, the atrocities did not stop there as whole villages were destroyed including Koutsogerako, Meskla, and a few others. The atrocities continued for some time and quite a few Cretan leaders and their families fled up to the mountains and stayed there for some time until eventually an amnesty was issued.

Sfakians and the fall of Constantinople In January 1453, Sultan Mehmet II had the capital city of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, surrounded. He decided that he was going to take it over either by breaking through the city's defenses or by starving the inhabitants into submission. The sultan had his troops and an enormous fleet at his disposal while the besieged Byzantines (and their Christian allies) were demoralized and divided amongst themselves. Responding to a request for help from the Byzantine Emperor, the Sfakian leader Manousos Kallikratis gathered 300 Sfakian warriors and another 760 Cretan fighters from other parts of the island. The leader then sailed in five ships (three of which were Sfakian) and went to help the besieged Emperor. The Sfakian/Cretan forces fought valiantly by breaking through the Ottoman blockade and by defending the city itself. Many Cretans died alongside the Byzantines, as well as alongside the few Genoese and Venetian co-defenders. When the city fell, the only 170 surviving Cretans had been surrounded by Ottoman troops in one of the city's towers and were refusing to surrender. The sultan was so impressed by their courage and fierce fighting skills that he agreed to let them walk out of the city with their flags, arms, and wounded and sail away to Crete in one of their ships.

Woman from Sfakia; 19th century.

A poet of the time has the Byzantine Emperor saying as he was surrounded by the Ottomans, "Christians, Greeks, cut off my head, take it, good Cretans, and carry it to Crete, for the Cretans to see it and be sad at heart." Just a few words from an anonymous poet described the deep impact the fall of Constantinople had on the Cretans. They were to become the next home of the refugees from Byzantium and responsible for nurturing the rich heritage left to them by the collapsing Byzantine Empire.

Against the Ottomans During the Ottoman occupation of Crete (1669–1898), and especially from the 18th century onwards, the Greeks looked towards Christian Russia as its savior. Peter the Great, as part of his plan to expand southward to the Black Sea, promoted himself as a champion of the Christians residing in the Balkans. His overall policy, with some variations, was continued by Catherine the Great (1762–1796) in her wars against the Ottoman Turks. She dreamed of resurrecting the Byzantine Empire and placing her grandson as its emperor. Before the first Russo-Turkish War, she sent Russian agents to Morea and the islands in order to stir up the Greeks to fight against the Turks. One of the Russian agents reached a man named Daskaloyiannis and told the Sfakian from Anopoli to lead a revolt. This was ill advice since the Sfakians, let alone the Cretans in general, were hardly ready for such a revolt, as they had virtually no weapons.

Sfakians Yet, when in 1770, a Russian fleet under Count Aleksey Grigoryevich Orlov appeared in the Aegean, precipitating the Orlov Revolt, Daskaloyiannis and his Cretan followers revolted. However, when the Russo-Turkish conflict ran to an end, the Cretans were left alone against Turkish troops from Chania, Rethymno, and Heraklion. The pasha of Crete had captured the brother and daughters of Daskaloyiannis and with the promise of leniency he demanded that Daskaloyiannis surrender. Daskaloyiannis decided to surrender so that he could see his brother and daughters released. Most of the other leaders of the revolt were killed, and the pasha had Daskaloyiannis first tortured in order to provide any valuable strategic information. Naturally, Daskaloyiannis refused to surrender his people to the Turks. Even after the pasha had the Sfakian skinned alive strip by strip in front of hundreds summoned at a public square, Daskaloyiannis did not betray his people. Neither the failed revolt of 1770 AD nor the death of Daskaloyiannis went in vain since both events aroused the national sentiments of all Cretans. The revolts made by the Cretans and the legendary Sfakians contributed to the rise of the independent Cretan state in 1898, which also paved the way for Crete’s union with Greece in 1912.

The Sfakian dialect The Sfakian dialect is much like any other Creten dialect, and yet it is also quite different. Like many other Cretan dialects, /k/, /ɡ/, /x/, and /ɣ/ before front vowels become [tʃ], [dʒ], [ʃ], and [ʒ]. However, one oddity present in the Sfakian dialect is how it treats /l/. Before an /il or an /e/, ⟨λ⟩ is a lateral [l]. However, before an /a/, /o/, or /u/, it becomes an approximant [ɹ], much like the English "r" sound.[1] For example, "θάλασσα" (thalassa, meaning "sea") is pronounced by a Sfakian as [ˈθaɹasa], but πουλί (pouli, meaning bird) is [pouˈli], closer to standard Greek. This feature is not shared anywhere else, except for certain villages in the Aegean, including the village of Apiranthos on the Cyladic island of Naxos. Indeed, the Sfakians believe that hundreds of years ago, probably after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, a group of Sfakians left Crete and came to Apiranthos on Naxos. The cultures of Sfakia and Apiranthos bear many striking similarities, not least of which includes the aforementioned dialectal peculiarity.

Notable Sfakians • Georgios Tsontos, general and politician • Emmanouil Manousogiannakis, general

References [1] http:/ / www. sfakia-crete. com/ sfakia-crete/ dialect. html

External links • History of Crete and the Region of Sfakia (http://www.sfakia-crete.com/sfakia-crete/history.html) • Brief History of Crete (http://hep.physics.uoc.gr/HistCrete.htm#bix) • (http://www.sfakia-crete.com/sfakia-crete/dialect.html)

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Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Sfakians  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=475931735  Contributors: Behemoth, CALR, Caroldermoid, Chapterprimdown, Chatzaras, Chirags, Cplakidas, Deucalionite, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Ghmyrtle, Greco22, Ikokki, Iridescent, JaGa, Jpbrenna, KRBN, Ken Gallager, Kross, Kwamikagami, Loco70, Mtiedemann, Nick Number, Nipsonanomhmata, Pearle, RasputinAXP, Ravedave, Rjwilmsi, Sdcheung, Segv11, Sshadow, Sv1xv, TimBentley, Withevenoff, Yamakiri, 22 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:Sfakia-dance.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sfakia-dance.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kilom691, Malo, Man vyi, Oniros, OnrevW File:Loutron (Crete).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loutron_(Crete).JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Chris.urs-o File:Crete Sfakia.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crete_Sfakia.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E.A. Cavaliero

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Cretan Turks

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Cretan Turks Cretan Muslims (Girit Türkleri)

Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi  • Ismail Fazil Pasha  • Mustafa Ertuğrul Aker

Total population est. 200,000-300,000 [1] Regions with significant populations Lebanon  • Syria  • Turkey Languages Cretan Greek, Turkish Religion Sunni Islam, Bektashism Related ethnic groups Greeks, Turks

The Cretan Turks, Turco-Cretans (Greek: Τουρκοκρητικοί, Tourkokritikoi), or Cretan Muslims (Turkish: Giritli, Girit Türkleri, or Türk Giritliler) were the Muslim inhabitants of Crete (until 1923) and now their descendants, who settled principally in Turkey, the Levant, and Egypt as well as in the larger Turkish diaspora. After the Ottoman conquest of Crete (1645–1669), a high rate of local conversions made the island a unique case in Ottoman history; indeed, the Muslim population of Crete resulted "primarily through conversion to Islam".[2] Sectarian violence during the 19th century caused many to leave, especially during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897,[3] and after autonomous Crete's unilateral declaration of union with Greece rule in 1908.[4] Finally, after the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 and the Turkish War of Independence, the remaining Muslims of Crete were compulsorily exchanged for the Greek Christians of Anatolia under the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). At all periods, most Cretan Muslims were Greek-speaking,[5] but the language of administration and the prestige language for the Muslim urban upper classes was Ottoman Turkish. In the folk tradition, however, Greek was used to express Muslims' "Islamic--often Bektashi--sensibility".[5] Under the Ottoman Empire, many Cretan Turks attained prominent positions. Those who left Crete in the late 19th and early 20th centuries settled largely along Turkey's Aegean and Mediterranean coast; other waves of refugees settled in Syrian cities like Damascus, Aleppo, and Al Hamidiyah; in Tripoli, Lebanon; Haifa, Israel; Alexandria and Tanta in Egypt. While some of these peoples have integrated themselves with the populations around them over the course of the 20th century, the majority of them still live in a tightly knit communities preserving their unique culture, traditions, Cretan Greek dialect and Turkish language. In fact many of them made reunion visits to distant relatives in Lebanon, in Crete and even other parts of Greece where some of the cousins may still share the family name but follow a different religion. Although most Cretan Turks are Sunni Muslims, Islam in Crete during the Ottoman rule was deeply influenced by the Bektashi Sufi order, as it has been the case in some parts of the Balkans. This influence went far beyond the

Cretan Turks actual numbers of Bektashis present in Crete and it contributed to the shaping of the literary output, folk Islam and a tradition of inter-religious tolerance.

Culture Literature Turks in Crete produced an unusually rich and varied literary output, leading one researcher to define a "Cretan School" which counts twenty-one poets who evolved within Ottoman Divan poetry or Turkish folk literature traditions, especially in the 18th century [6] Personal, mystical, fantastic themes abound in the works of these men of letters, reflecting the dynamism of the cultural life in the island. A taste and echo of this tradition can be perceived in the verses below by Giritli Sırrı Pasha (1844–1895); Fidânsın nev-nihâl-i hüsn ü ânsın âfet-i cânsın Gül âşık bülbül âşıkdır sana, bir özge cânânsın[7] which were certainly addressed to his wife, the poetess-composer Leyla Saz, herself a notable figure of Turkish literature and Turkish Classical Music. Recently, a number of books written by descendants of Cretan Turks in the form of novellized family souvenirs with scenes set in Crete and Anatolia have seen the day in Turkey's book market. Saba Altınsay's "Kritimu" and Ahmet Yorulmaz's trilogy were the first to set the example in this move. There has even been family souvenirs written by a Cretan Turk - Afro-Turk, namely Mustafa Olpak whose biographies in retrospect from the shores of Istanbul, Crete and Kenya follow his grandfathers who were initially brought to the Ottoman Empire as slaves to Crete. (see below: Further reading)

Music A study by one Greek researcher counts six Muslim Cretans who engaged themselves into music in Cretan Greek dialect.[8] The Cretans brought the musical tradition they shared with the Cretan Christians to Turkey with them: One of the significant aspects of Giritli culture is that this Islamic--often Bektashi--sensibility is expressed through the Greek language. [There has been] some confusion about their cultural identity, and an assumption is often made that their music was somehow more "Turkish" than "Cretan". In my view this assumption is quite wrong....[5]

Cretan Turkish popular culture in Turkey Nuances may be observed among the waves of immigrations from Crete and the respective behavioral patterns. At the end of the 19th century Turks often fled massacres to take refuge in the present-day territory of Turkey or beyond (see Al Hamidiyah). During the 1910s, with the termination of the Cretan State which had recognized the Muslim community of the island a proper status, many others left. The Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)[9] and the ensuing population exchange is the final chapter among the root causes that shaped these nuances. Among contributions made by Cretan Turks to the Turkish culture in general, the first to be mentioned should be their particular culinary traditions based on consumption at high-levels of olive oil and of a surprisingly wide array of herbs and other plant-based raw materials. While they have certainly not introduced olive oil and herbs to their compatriots, Cretan Turks have greatly extended the knowledge and paved the way for a more varied use of these products. Their predilection for herbs, some of which could be considered as unusual ones, has also been the source of some jokes. The Giritli chain of restaurants in İstanbul, Ankara and Bodrum, and Ayşe Ün's "Girit Mutfağı" (Cretan Cuisine) eateries in İzmir are indicative references in this regard. Occasional although intrinsically inadequate care has also been demonstrated by the authorities in the first years of the Turkish Republic for settling Cretan Turks in localities where vineyards left by the departed Greeks were found, since this capital was bound to be

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Cretan Turks lost in the hands of cultivators with no prior knowledge of viniculture. In the field of maritime industries, the pioneer of gulet boats construction that became a vast industry in Bodrum in our day, Ziya Güvendiren was a Cretan Turk, as are many of his former apprentices who themselves have become master shipbuilders and who are based in Bodrum or Güllük today. An overall pattern of investing in expertise and success remains remarkable among Cretan Turks, as attested by the notable names below. However, with sex roles and social change starting out from different grounds for Turkish Cretans,[10] the adaptation to the "fatherland" [11] did not always take place without pain, including that of being subjected to slurs as in other cases involving immigration of people.[12] According to Peter Loizos, they were often were relegated to the poorest land: They were briefly feted on arrival, as 'Turks' 'returning' to the Turkish heartland... like the Asia Minor Christians seeking to settle on land in northern Greece, the Muslim refugees found that local people, sometimes government officials, had already occupied the best land and housing.[13] The same author depicts a picture where they did not share the "Ottoman perceptions of certain crafts and trades as being of low status",[13] so more entrepreneurial opportunities were open to them. Like others who did not speak Turkish, they suffered during the "Citizens Speak Turkish" campaign which started in 1928. "Arabs, Circassians, Cretan Muslims, and Kurds in the country were being targeted for not speaking Turkish. In Mersin, for instance, ‘Kurds, Cretans, Arabs and Syrians’ were being fined for speaking languages other than Turkish.".[14] In the summary translation of a book on Bodrum made by Loizos, it is stated that, even as late as 1967, the Cretans and the 'local Turks' did not mix in some towns; they continued to speak Greek and mostly married other Cretans.[15]

Greek perception of Cretan Turks The Greek perception of Muslims in Crete used the terms "Turk" and "Greek" in a religious rather than ethnic or racial meaning (Turks themselves would have more readily used the term "Muslim" at the time). A Greek observer remarks that we are acquainted with extremely few cases of Muslim Cretan lyra-players as against Cretan Greeks (the very name for that instrument in Turkish language being Rum kemençesi - Greek kemenche).[16]

Cretan Turks in Lebanon and Syria Today there are about 7,000 living in Tripoli, Lebanon and about 3,000 in Al Hamidiyah, Syria.[17] The majority of them are Muslims of Cretan origin. Records suggest that the community left Crete between 1866 and 1897, on the outbreak of the last Cretan uprising against the Ottoman empire, which ended the Greco-Turkish War of 1897.[17] Sultan Abdul Hamid II provided Cretan Muslim families who fled the island with refuge on the Levantine coast. The new settlement was named Hamidiye after the sultan. Many Cretan Muslims of Lebanon somewhat managed to preserve their identity and language. Unlike neighbouring communities, they are monogamous and consider divorce a disgrace. Until the Lebanese Civil War, their community was close-knit and entirely endogamous. However many of them left Lebanon during the 15 years of the war.[17] Cretan Muslims constitute 60% of Al Hamidiyah's population. The community is very much concerned with maintaining its culture. The knowledge of the spoken Greek language is remarkably good and their contact with their historical homeland has been possible by means of satellite television and relatives.[17]

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Cretan Turks

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History Starting in 1645, the Ottoman Empire gradually took Crete from the Republic of Venice, which had ruled it since 1204. In the final major defeat, Candia (modern Iraklion) fell to the Ottomans in 1669 (though some offshore islands remained Venetian until 1715). Crete remained part of the Ottoman Empire until 1897. Unlike other Ottoman provinces, the fall of Crete was not accompanied by a large influx of Muslims. On the other hand, many Cretans converted to Islam — more than in any other part of the Greek world. Various explanations have been given for this, including the disruption of war, the possibility of receiving a timar (for those who went over to the Ottomans during the war), Latin-Orthodox dissension, avoidance of the head-tax (cizye) on non-Muslims ( but this is highly unlikely reason since by becoming Muslims they would have to pay the zakat which is higher in amount than the jizya), the increased social mobility of Muslims, and the opportunity that Muslims had of joining the paid militia (which the Cretans also aspired to under Venetian rule).[18] It is difficult to estimate the proportion which became Muslim, as Ottoman cizye tax records count only Christians: estimates range from 30-50%.[19] By the late 18th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim. The Muslim population declined through the 19th century, and by the last Ottoman census, in 1881, Muslims were only 26% of the population, concentrated in the three large towns on the north coast, and in Monofatsi. [20] 1821 1832 1858 1881 1900 1910 1920 1928

Year

Muslims 47% 43% 22% 26% 11%

8%

7%

0%

Most Cretan Muslims were local Greek converts who spoke Cretan Greek, yet at the dawn of Greek nationalism, the Christian population labeled them "Turks".[21] People who claim descent from Muslim Cretans are still found in several Muslim countries today, and principally in Turkey. Between 1821 and 1828, during the Greek War of Independence, the island was the scene of repeated hostilities. Most Muslims were driven into the large fortified towns on the north coast and both the Muslim and Christian populations of the island suffered severe losses, due to conflicts, plague or famine. In the 1830s, Crete was an impoverished and backward island. Since the Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II, had no army of his own available, he was forced to seek the aid of his rebellious vassal and rival, Kavalalı Mehmed Ali Pasha of Egypt, who sent troops to the island. Starting in 1832, the island was administered for two decades by an Albanian from Egypt, Mustafa Naili Pasha (later a Grand Vizier), whose rule attempted to create a synthesis between the Muslim landowers and the emergent Christian commercial classes. His rule was generally cautious, pro-British, and he tried harder to win the support of the Christians (having married the daughter of a priest and allowed her to remain Christian) than the Muslims. In 1834, however, a Cretan committee had already been founded in Athens to work for the union of the island with Greece. In 1840, Egypt was forced by Palmerston to return Crete to direct Ottoman rule. Mustafa Naili Pasha angled unsuccessfully to become a semi-independent prince but the Cretans rose up against him, once more driving the Muslims temporarily into siege in the towns. An Anglo-Ottoman naval operation restored control in the island and Mustafa Naili Pasha was confirmed as its governor, though under command from İstanbul. He remained in Crete until 1851 when he was summoned to the capital, where at a relatively advanced age he pursued a successful career.

Cretan Turks

Religious tensions erupted on the island between Muslims and Christians and the Christian populations of Crete revolted twice against Ottoman rule (in 1866 and in 1897). In the uprising of 1866, the rebels initially managed to gain control of most of the hinterland although as always the four fortified towns of the north coast and the southern town of Ierapetra remained in An ethnic map of Crete, around 1861. Turks are in red, Greeks in blue Ottoman hands. The Ottoman approach to the Cretan question was that, if Crete was lost, the next line of defense would have to be the Dardanelles, as indeed it was the case later. The Ottoman Grand Vizier, Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha arrived in the island in October 1867 and set in progress a low profile district-by-district reconquest of the island followed by the erection of blockhouses or local fortresses across the whole of it. More importantly, he designed an Organic Law which gave the Cretan Christians equal (in practice, because of their superior numbers, majority) control of local administration. At the time of the Congress of Berlin in the summer of 1878, there was a further uprising, which was speedily halted through the adaptation of the Organic Law into a constitutional settlement known as the Pact of Halepa. Crete became a semi-independent parliamentary state within the Ottoman Empire under a Greek Orthodox Governor. A number of the senior "Christian Pashas" including Photiades Pasha and Adossides Pasha ruled the island in the 1880s, presiding over a parliament in which liberals and conservatives contended for power. Disputes between these led to a further insurgency in 1889 and the collapse of the Pact of Halepa arrangements. The international powers allowed the Ottoman authorities to send troops to the island and restore order but the Sultan Abdulhamid II used the occasion for ruling the island by martial law. This action led to international sympathy for the Cretan Christians and to a loss of any remaining acquiescence among them for continued Ottoman rule. When a small insurgency began in September 1895, it quickly spiralled out of control and by the summer of 1896, the Ottoman forces had lost military control over most of the island. The insurrection in 1897 led to a war between Greece and the Ottoman Empire. By March 1897 however, the Great Powers decided to govern the island temporarily through a committee of four admirals who remained in charge until the arrival of Prince George of Greece as first governor-general of an autonomous Crete, effectively detached from the Ottoman Empire, in late December 1898. Ottoman forces were expelled in 1898, and an independent Cretan State, headed by Prince George of Greece, was founded. The island's Muslim population dropped dramatically from these changes. From the summer of 1896 until the end of hostilities in 1898, Cretan Muslims remained under siege in the four coastal cities, where massacres against them took place. Subsequent waves of emigration followed as the island was united by stages with Greece. Those remaining were forced to leave Crete under the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations in 1924. In Turkey, some descendants of this population continued to speak a form of Cretan Greek dialect until recently. In 1908, the Cretan deputies declared union with Greece, which was internationally recognized after the Balkan Wars in 1913. Under the Treaty of London, Sultan Mehmed V relinquished his formal rights to the island.

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Cretan Turks

Notable Cretan Turks (in chronological order) • Ali Baba Giritli: May refer to two different persons who are also called under other names. One is the founder of the first Bektashi tekke in Crete in the early stages of the Ottoman conquest, and the other is an 18th century Bektashi mystic and author of several works of a Sufi nature. • Ahmed Resmî Efendi: 18th century Ottoman statesman, diplomat and author (notably of two sefâretnâme). Turkey's first ever ambassador in Berlin [22] (during Frederick the Great's reign). • Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi: Turkey's third ambassador in Berlin and arguably the first Turkish author to have written in novelistic form. • Giritli Hüseyin Pasha: Kapudan Pasha (Admiral of the Fleet) of the Ottoman Empire between 1789–1792 • Salacıoğlu: (1750 Hanya - 1825 Kandiye): One of the most important 18th century poets of Turkish folk literature. • Giritli Sırrı Pasha: Ottoman administrator, Leyla Saz's husband and a notable man of letters in his own right. • Vedat Tek: Representative figure of the First National Architecture Movement in Turkish architecture. Son of Leyla Saz and Giritli Sırrı Pasha. • Giritli Hüseyin: 19th century Turkish painter. • Dr. İbrahim Pertev: 19th century community leader. • Paul Mulla (alias Mollazade Mehmed Ali): Roman Catholic bishop and author. • Tahmiscizade Mehmed Macid: Memorialst • Rahmizâde Bahaeddin Bediz: The first Turkish photographer by profession. The thousands of photographs he took, based as of 1895 successively in Crete, İzmir, İstanbul and Ankara (as Head of the Photography Department of Turkish Historical Society), have immense historical value. • Salih Zeki: Turkish photographer in Chania [23] • Mustafa Karagioules: Turkish musician of Cretan folk music [24] • Ismail Fazil Pasha: (1856-1921) descended from the rooted Cebecioğlu family of Söke who had settled in Crete [25] He has been the first Minister of Public Works in the government of Grand National Assembly in 1920. He was the father of Ali Fuad and Mehmed Ali. • Mehmet Atıf Ateşdağlı: (1876-1947) Turkish officer. • Ahmed Cevat Emre: (1876-1961) Linguist, close aid of Atatürk and a notable figure in the Turkish Language Association during the reform of the Turkish language started in the 1930s. • Mustafa Ertuğrul Aker: (1892-1961) Turkish officer who sank HMS Ben-my-Chree. Writer Cevat Şakir Kabaağaçlı, alias Halikarnas Balıkçısı (The Fisherman of Halicarnassus), although born in Crete and has often let himself be cited as Cretan, descends from a family of Ottoman aristocracy with roots in Afyonkarahisar, and his father had been an Ottoman High Commissioner in Crete and later ambassador in Athens. Likewise, as stated above, Mustafa Naili Pasha was Albanian/Egyptian.[26]

Further reading • Saba Altınsay (2004). Kritimu: Girit'im benim - novellized souvenirs ISBN 978-9750704246. Can Yayinlari. • Ahmet Yorulmaz (2002). Savaşın çocukları (Children of the war) - novellized souvenirs ISBN 975-1408474. Remzi Kitabevi. • Mustafa Olpak (2005). Kenya - Girit - İstanbul Köle Kıyısından İnsan Biyografileri (Human biographies from the shores of slavery of Kenya, Crete and Istanbul) ISBN 975-7891800. Ozan Yayıncılık. • Mustafa Olpak (2005). Kenya'dan İstanbul'a Köle Kıyısı (Shores of slavery from Kenya to Istanbul) ISBN 975-0110344. Ozan Yayıncılık. • İzmir Life magazine, June 2003

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Cretan Turks • Nükhet Adıyeke & Nuri Adıyeke, Fethinden Kaybına Girit (Crete from its conquest to its loss), Babıali Kültür Yayıncılığı, 2007 • Michael Herzfeld, A Place in History: Social and Monumental Time in a Cretan Town, Princeton University Press, 1991 • Michael Herzfeld, "Of language and land tenure: The transmission of property and information in autonomous Crete", Social Anthropology 7:7:223-237 (1999), • Richard Clogg, A Concise History of Greece, Cambridge University Press, 2002 • Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911), s.v. Crete; La Grande Encyclopédie (1886), s.v. Crète • Kemal Özbayri and Emmanuel Zakhos-Papazahariou, "Documents de tradition orale des Turcs d'origine crétoise: Documents relatifs à l'Islam crétois" Turcica VIII/I (5), pp. 70–86 (not seen) • Molly Greene, A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean, Princeton, 2000. ISBN 0-691-00898-1 • A. Lily Macrakis, Cretan Rebel: Eleftherios Venizelos in Ottoman Crete, Ph.D. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1983.

References [1] http:/ / www. e-telescope. gr/ gr/ cat02/ art02_060626. htm [2] Elif Bayraktar. (full text) "The Implementation of Ottoman Religious Policies in Crete 1645-1735: Men of faith as actors in the Kadı court" (http:/ / www. thesis. bilkent. edu. tr/ 0003011. pdf). Bilkent University, Ankara. (full text). Retrieved 2007-04-30., p. 76. See also ( limited preview (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN0691008981& id=Ecy575SBY1cC& pg=PP1& lpg=PP1& ots=4pVgRbZvo8& dq="molly+ greene"& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html& sig=kutYq9LkCZIBtigtBKv9loqtH4w)) Greene, Molly (2000). A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the early modern Mediterranean. London: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691008981. [3] Henry Noel Brailsford ( full text (http:/ / knigite. abv. bg/ en/ hb/ hb_7_6. html)), an eyewitness of the immediate aftermath, uses the term "wholesale massacre" to describe the events of 1897 in Crete. [4] (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN1850653682& id=E4OuoSFztt8C& pg=RA1-PA86) Smith, Michael Llewellyn (1998). Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919-1922. London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653682., Chapter 5, p. 87. "In the eve of the Occupation of İzmir by the Greek army in 1922, there was in the city a large colony of Turcocretans who had left Crete around the time that the island was united with the Greek Kingdom." [5] Chris Williams, "The Cretan Muslims and the Music of Crete", in Dimitris Tziovas, ed., Greece and the Balkans: Identities, Perceptions, and Cultural Encounters since the Enlightenment [6] Filiz Kılıç. (full text) "Cretan [[Bektashi (http:/ / www. hbektas. gazi. edu. tr/ portal/ html/ modules. php?name=News& file=article& sid=541)] school in Ottoman Divan poetry"] (in Turkish). Hacı Bektash Veli and Turkish Culture Research Center. (full text). Retrieved 2007-04-30. (abstract also in English) Aside from those cited in the article, the principal men of letters considered to compose the "Cretan school" are; 1. Ahmed Hikmetî Efendi (also called Bî-namaz Ahmed Efendi) (? - 1727), 2. Ahmed Bedrî Efendi (? - 1761), 3. Lebib Efendi (? 1768), 4. Ahmed Cezbî Efendi (? - 1781), 5. Aziz Ali Efendi (? - 1798), 6. İbrahim Hıfzî Efendi (? - ?), 7. Mustafa Mazlum Fehmî Pasha (1812 - 1861), 8. İbrahim Fehim Bey (1813 - 1861), 9. Yahya Kâmi Efendi (? - ?), 10. Ahmed İzzet Bey (? - 1861), 11. Mazlum Mustafa Pasha (? - 1861), 12. Ahmed Muhtar Efendi (1847 - 1910), 13. Ali İffet Efendi (1869 - 1941). [7] Summary translation: A slender sapling you are, freshly shooting beauty and grace you are, an affection for one's mind you are! The rose is in love with you, the nightingale is in love you. An uncommon beloved one you are! (note that "fidân" can mean "sapling" as a noun and "slender" as an adjective, and "âfet" has more than one meaning as its English equivalent "affection".) [8] Prof. Theodoros I. Riginiotis. "Christians and Turks: The language of music and everyday life" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070927201744/ http:/ / www. muammerketencoglu. com/ roportajlar/ tr/ ChristianandTurks. pdf). www.cretan-music.gr (http:/ / www. cretan-music. gr), Rethimno. Archived from (full text) the original (http:/ / www. muammerketencoglu. com/ roportajlar/ tr/ ChristianandTurks. pdf) on 2007-09-27. . Retrieved 2007-04-30. [9] (limited preview) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN1850653682& id=E4OuoSFztt8C& pg=RA1-PA87& lpg=RA1-PA86& vq=turcocretans& dq=ionian+ vision& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html& sig=TAs2Q-r8dGgncfB7nZVPmByvzqI) Smith, Michael Llewellyn (1998). Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919-1922. London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653682., Chapter 5, p. 88. Some effort was made by Greece prior to the war to win Turcocretans to the idea of Greek government in Anatolia. The Greek Prime Minister Venizelos dispatched an obscure Cretan politician by the name of Makrakis to İzmir in the early months of 1919, and his mission is qualified a "success", although the Greek mission set up İzmir, "presenting a naive picture of the incorrigible Turks", is cited as describing "the various [Turkish] organizations which includes the worst elements among Turcocretans and the Laz people (...) as disastrous and inexpedient" in the same source. [10] Deniz Kandiyoti. (citation and first page) "Sex roles and social change: A comparative appraisal of Turkey's women" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0097-9740(197723)3:12. 0. CO;2-A). The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1977. (citation and first page). Retrieved 2007-04-30.

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Cretan Turks [11] Ferhat Kentel - M. Ragıp Zık. (full text) "Giritli Mübadillerde Kimlik Oluşumu ve Toplumsal Hafıza: Gündelik hayatın sosyolojisi" (http:/ / www. lozanmubadilleri. org/ ragip_zik. htm) (in Turkish). Bilgi University, Istanbul. (full text). Retrieved 2007-04-30. [12] Yiannis Papadakis, Echoes from the Dead Zone: Across the Cyprus Divide, 2005, ISBN 1-85043-428-X, p. 187; [13] Peter Loizos, "Are Refugees Social Capitalists?" in Stephen Baron, John Field, Tom Schuller, eds., Social Capital: Critical Perspectives, Oxford 2001, ISBN 0-19-829713-0, p. 133-5 [14] Soner Cagaptay, "Race, Assimilation and Kemalism: Turkish Nationalism and the Minorities in the 1930s", Middle Eastern Studies 40:3:95 (May 2004) doi:10.1080/0026320042000213474 [15] Fatma Mansur, Bodrum: A Town in the Aegean, 1967, ISBN 90-04-03424-2 [16] A Greek point of view on Cretan Turks (http:/ / www. cretan-music. gr/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=251& Itemid=36) [17] Greek-Speaking Enclaves of Lebanon and Syria (http:/ / webs. uvigo. es/ ssl/ actas2002/ 05/ 08. Roula Tsokalidou. pdf) by Roula Tsokalidou. Proceedings II Simposio Internacional Bilingüismo. Retrieved 4 December 2006 [18] Greene, pp. 39-44 [19] Greene, pp. 52-54 [20] Macrakis, p. 51 [21] Demetres Tziovas, Greece and the Balkans: Identities, Perceptions and Cultural Encounters Since the Enlightenment; William Yale, The Near East: A modern history Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1958) [22] List of Ambassadors "Tuerkische Botschafter in Berlin" (http:/ / www. tuerkischebotschaft. de/ de/ index. htm) (in German). Turkish Embassy, Berlin. List of Ambassadors. [23] (http:/ / anopolis72000. blogspot. com/ 2009/ 09/ salih-zeki. html) Salih Zeki [24] (http:/ / anopolis72000. blogspot. com/ 2009/ 09/ 3. html) Karagioules [25] [Interview with Ayşe Cebesoy Sarıalp, Ali Fuat Pasha's niece http:/ / www. aksiyon. com. tr/ aksiyon/ haber-13538-37-ataturk-ile-pasalarin-arasini-acmak-istediler. html] Karagioules [26] Yeni Giritliler (http:/ / www. lozanmubadilleri. org/ 2003_-. htm) Article on the rising interest in Cretan heritage (Turkish)

External links • Project film: Benim Giritli limon ağacım - My Cretan lemon tree (http://www.benimgiritlilimonagacim.com/ default.asp?page=1) • Lozan Mübadilleri: The Association of Turks exchanged under Lausanne Treaty (http://www.lozanmubadilleri. org) • Testimonials by Greeks from Ayvalık and Turkish Cretans from Rethymno (http://www.fhw.gr/films/index. php?view=details&erg_id=5)

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Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Cretan Turks  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=480502356  Contributors: Absar, Adoniscik, Alexander Domanda, Alexikoua, Apcbg, Artaxiad, Avienus, Baristarim, Behemoth, BlueEyedCat, Bobblehead, Bogdangiusca, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canterbury Tail, Chevymontecarlo alt, CommonsDelinker, Cplakidas, Crackerjackal, Cretanforever, Denizz, Dirak, DivineIntervention, Doktor Gonzo, Ettrig, Eugene-elgato, Fang Aili, FayssalF, Fleshedovert2, Foufoulitsa, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Good Olfactory, Goustien, Hectorian, Hugo999, Igiffin, J04n, JanCeuleers, Jonxwood, Kariola, Khoikhoi, Macrakis, Makalp, Mardavich, Metb82, Miskin, Moriscoinegipto, Nick Number, Nigel Campbell, NikoSilver, Ninio, Nscheffey, Oatmeal batman, Palindrome75, Paxse, Pearle, Pembeana, Pezanos, Phuzion, Ploutarchos, RafaAzevedo, Ramsso, Reddi, Rjwilmsi, Sammd, Superk1a, Supreme Deliciousness, Sv1xv, Takabeg, Tekleni, Telex, Thetruthonly, TimBentley, Torebay, Tuiryie, Turco85, VirtualSteve, Vyruss, Xenovatis, YUL89YYZ, Yoram Inger, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, 87 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giritli_Ali_Aziz_Efendi.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beria, Cretanforever, Ecummenic, Frank C. Müller, Kramer Associates, Mattes, Takabeg, TomasoAlbinoni, Ulf Heinsohn, Warburg File:Ismail Fazil Pasha.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ismail_Fazil_Pasha.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Takabeg File:Mustafa Ertugrul.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mustafa_Ertugrul.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Takabeg Image:Crete - ethnic map, 1861.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crete_-_ethnic_map,_1861.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ethnographie de la Turquie d'Europe par G.Lejean, Gotha: Justus Perthes

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9

Al-Hamidiyah

1

Al-Hamidiyah Al Hamidiyah ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻤﻴﺪﻳﺔ‬

Al Hamidiyah Location in Syria Coordinates: 34°43′N 35°56′E Country

 Syria

Governorate

Tartus Governorate

District

Tartus District

Population (2008)  • Total

8000 est.

Time zone

EET (UTC+2)

 • Summer (DST)

+3 (UTC)

Al Hamidiyah (Arabic: ‫ )ﺍﻟﺤﻤﻴﺪﻳﺔ‬is a town on the coastal Syrian line about 3km from the Lebanese border. The town was founded in a very short time on direct orders from the Turkish Sultan ‘Abdu’l-Hamid II circa 1897, to serve as refuge for the Muslim Cretans, be they Muslim Greeks or Cretan Turks, who were forced to leave Crete when the island stop being a part of the Ottoman Empire. The town is home to about 8.000 people, with the majority still speaking Cretan Greek in their daily lives.

References

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Al-Hamidiyah  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=465665694  Contributors: Alborztv, Baristarim, Betacommand, Cretanforever, Dr. Blofeld, Euchiasmus, Foufoulitsa, George Al-Shami, Greeksyrian, Hectorian, Ithinkhelikesit, JenLouise, John Carter, Kariola, Khoikhoi, Onorem, Parishan, Paxse, Rjwilmsi, Sammd, Supreme Deliciousness, TimBentley, Xenovatis, Zozo2kx, ‫ﻋﻤﺮﻭ ﺑﻦ ﻛﻠﺜﻮﻡ‬, 13 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors file:Syria location map2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Syria_location_map2.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:NordNordWest File:Red pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Syria.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Syria.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: see below

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2

Afro-Turks

1

Afro-Turks Afro-Turks

1st row: Defne Joy Foster • Mehmet Aurélio • Ahmet Ali Çelikten • Bashi-bazouk Regions with significant populations Muğla Izmir Antalya Languages Turkish Religion Islam

Afro-Turks, African Turks, or Turkish Africans are people of African descent in Turkey. "Afro-Turk" is a neologism; they have been colloquially named as Arap (Arab) or zenci in Turkish, and are now also referred to as Afrika kökenli Türkler (Turks with African roots).

History Beginning several centuries ago, a number of Africans, usually via Zanzibar and from places like Niger, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Kenya and Sudan.[1] came to the Ottoman Empire settled by the Dalaman, Menderes and Gediz valleys, Manavgat, and Çukurova. African quarters of 19th century İzmir like Sabırtaşı, Dolapkuyu, Tamaşalık, İkiçeşmelik, and Ballıkuyu have mention in contemporary records.[2] Some came from Crete following the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. They settled on the Aegean coast, mainly around İzmir.[3] Afro-Turks in Ayvalık declare that their ancestors from Crete spoke Greek when they came to Turkey and learned Turkish later.[4] Afro-Turks living in İzmir had celebrated the traditional spring festival Dana Bayramı ("Calf Festival") until the 1960s. Dana Bayramı is currently revived among the younger generation of Afro-Turks.[2] Ulcinj in Montenegro had its own black community – descendent of the Ottoman slave trade that had flourished here.[5] As a consequence of the slave trade and privateer activity, a considerable number of Ulcinj inhabitants until 1878 were black.[6] The Ottoman Army counted thousands of Black African soldiers in its ranks. The army sent to Balkans during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18 included 24,000 men from Africa.[7]

Today Areas with significant populations are in the Aegean Region, especially İzmir, Aydın, and Muğla. At the time of Barack Obama's inauguration, a group of Afro-Turks from the districts Ortaca, Dalaman, and Köyceğiz gathered in Ortaca for celebration.[8] There are also people of African ancestry living in some villages and municipalities of Antalya and Adana provinces.[9] Some of the descendants of African settlers remain, mixed with the rest of the population in these areas, and many migrated to larger cities.[3] These factors make it difficult to guess the number of Turks of African ancestry.[10]

Afro-Turks

Notable Afro-Turks Arts • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Defne Joy Foster, television presenter (African American father) Neşe Sayles, actress (Jamaican father) Esmeray, singer Tuğçe Güder, adopted by Turkish parents, model and actress Kuzgun Acar, sculptor Mansur Ark, musician Safiye Ayla, musician Yasemin Esmergül, actress Ahmet Kostarika, actor Dursune Şirin, actress İbrahim Şirin, classical Ottoman musician Sait Sökmen, ballet dancer, choreographer (Guinean mother) Melis Sökmen, actress, musician (Guinean grandmother) Cenk Sökmen, musician Sibel Sürel, ballerina

• Tuncay Vural, choreographer Sports • • • • • • • • • •

Alemitu Bekele Degfa, Naturalized, Ethiopian long distance runner Elvan Abeylegesse, Naturalized, Ethiopian long distance runner Fercani Bey, footballer Ömer Besim Koşalay, athlete, journalist Vahap Özaltay, footballer Hadi Türkmen, former vice-president of the Turkish Football Federation Sadri Usuoğlu, football manager Mustafa Yıldız known as "Arap Mustafa", wrestler Marco "Mehmet" Aurélio, naturalized, Brazilian born footballer Gökçek Vederson, naturalized, Brazilian born footballer

Literature • Mustafa Olpak, writer and activist Politics • Zenci Musa, Teşkilât-ı Mahsûsa member Military • Ahmet Ali (Arap Ahmet), Ottoman military pilot

2

Afro-Turks

Notes [1] (http:/ / www. todayszaman. com/ tz-web/ detaylar. do?load=detay& link=141522) [2] Afro-Türklerin tarihi, Radikal, 30 August 2008, retrieved 22 January 2009 (http:/ / www. radikal. com. tr/ Default. aspx?aType=Detay& ArticleID=896230& Date=30. 08. 2008& CategoryID=79) [3] Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt, Today's Zaman, 11 May 2008, Sunday, retrieved 28 August 2008 (http:/ / www. todayszaman. com/ tz-web/ detaylar. do?load=detay& link=141522) [4] Yerleşim Yerleri ve Göç: Balıkesir/Ayvalık, afroturk.org, retrieved 25 January 2009 (http:/ / www. afroturk. org/ balikesir. aspx) [5] Yugoslavia – Montenegro and Kosovo – The Next Conflict? (http:/ / www. cyber-adventures. com/ yugo. html) [6] ULCINJ – HISTORY (http:/ / www. visit-montenegro. com/ cities-ulcinj-h. htm) [7] African Slave Trade in Russia (http:/ / www. cwo. com/ ~lucumi/ russia2. html), By Dieudonne Gnammankou in La Channe et le lien, Doudou Diene, (id.) Paris, Editions UNESCO, 1988 [8] Afro-Turks meet to celebrate Obama inauguration, Today's Zaman, 20 January 2009, retrieved 22 January 2009 (http:/ / www. todayszaman. com/ tz-web/ detaylar. do?load=detay& link=164554) [9] Yerleşim Yerleri ve Göç, afroturk.org, retrieved 25 January 2009 (http:/ / www. afroturk. org/ yasam_alanlari. aspx) [10] Afrika'nın kapıları İzmir'e açılıyor, Yeni Asır, 21 November 2008, retrieved 25 January 2009 (http:/ / www. yeniasir. com. tr/ haber_detay. php?hid=13561)

External links • (Turkish) Afro-Turk (http://www.afro-turk.org) Website of the Afro-Turks' association in Ayvalık • (Turkish) Sessiz Bir Geçmişten Sesler (http://www.afroturk.org/) Website of a research project on Afro-Turks • (English) Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt (http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/ detaylar.do?load=detay&link=141522), Today's Zaman, 25 June 2008

3

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Afro-Turks  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=473139060  Contributors: Afroturkleton, AlecTrevelyan402, AllstonTMitchell, Arman88, Ayasi, Bart133, Bcorr, Behemoth, Belovedfreak, Blackdoom77, CanuckAnthropologist, Cretanforever, Crystalclearchanges, Denizz, Devran d, Dogfacebob, Drilnoth, Ecsperto, Edelweißpiraten, Ezeu, Foxj, Futurebird, GirasoleDE, Grenavitar, Grey Shadow, Gyrofrog, Hittit, Hmains, Jefjire, Jonxwood, JumboJetty, Kerem Ozcan, KillaShark, MBisanz, Malcolmo, Malizengin, Marek69, MatthewVanitas, Medicineman84, Middayexpress, Mttll, Neilbeach, Olahus, OrionBoreas, Rangond, Redman19, Rjwilmsi, RoboRanks, SAMSUNGF3, Saimdusan, Sardanaphalus, Sağdıç6390, Schwindp, Scoops, Scythian1, Sillyfolkboy, Sluzzelin, Soupforone, Takabeg, Thetruthonly, Toussaint, Tukes, Vidimian, Washingtongff, Winter Gaze, Wobble, Woohookitty, Xaghan, 133 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Flag of Turkey.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: David Benbennick (original author) File:Defne Joy Foster Izmir Fatih College Graduation Ceremony Pic.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Defne_Joy_Foster_Izmir_Fatih_College_Graduation_Ceremony_Pic.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: copyright held by İzmir Özel Fatih College. File:Aurelio in Turkey Jersey.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aurelio_in_Turkey_Jersey.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Umi1903 File:DenizTayyareMektebi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DenizTayyareMektebi.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ottoman Empire File:Gérôme-Black Bashi-Bazouk-c. 1869.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gérôme-Black_Bashi-Bazouk-c._1869.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Frank C. Müller, Grendelkhan, Gryffindor, Gumruch, Kimse, Mattes, Origamiemensch, Shakko, İnfoCan

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4

Greek Muslims

1

Greek Muslims Greek Muslims

"Young Greeks at the Mosque" (Jean Léon Gérôme, oil on canvas, 1865); this oil painting portrays Greek Muslims at prayer in a mosque. Total population 1.4 million Regions with significant populations Turkey  · Syria · Lebanon · Cyprus · Greece Languages Greek (Pontic Greek, Cretan Greek, Cypriot Greek etc.) Religion Sunni Islam

Greek Muslims, also known as Greek-speaking Muslims, are Muslims of Greek ethnic origin, nowadays found mainly in Turkey, although migrations to Lebanon and Syria have been reported.[1] Historically, Greek Orthodoxy has been associated with being Romios, i.e. Greek, and Islam with being Turkish, despite ethnic or linguistic references. Most Greek-speaking Muslims in Greece left for Turkey during the 1920s population exchanges under the Treaty of Lausanne (sometimes in return for Turkish-speaking Christians), with the exception of the Muslims in Thrace, who are officially recognized as a minority. In Turkey, where most Greek-speaking Muslims live, there are various groups of Greek-speaking Muslims, some autochthonous, some from parts of present-day Greece and Cyprus who migrated to Turkey under the population exchanges or immigration.

Greek Muslims

Reasons for conversion to Islam As a rule, the Ottomans did not require the Greeks to become Muslims, although many did so in order to avert the socioeconomic hardships of Ottoman rule,[2] take advantage of greater employment prospects and possibilities of advancement in the Ottoman government bureaucracy and military, or simply because of the corruption of the Greek clergy.[3] Thomas Walker Arnold noted that the Greek Church hierarchy burdened Christians with extraordinary tax, and made them purchase, at high rates, the right of a Christian burial as well as other sacraments.[3]

Pontic Greek Muslims Muslims of Pontic Greek origins, speakers of the Pontic language (named Ρωμαίικα Roméika, not Ποντιακά Pontiaká as it is in Greece), which is spoken by some people in Tonya, Maçka, Sürmene, Çaykara, the Dernekpazarı districts of Trabzon and the province of Kars. Due to mass migration from the region, high linguistic assimilation to Turkish, and the fact that the language has no official status, the total number of the speakers may be guessed; roughly 2,000 mainly elderly speakers. According to Heath W. Lowry's[4] great work about Ottoman tax books[5] (Tahrir Defteri) with Halil İnalcık it is claimed that most Turks of Trabzon city are of Greek origin. The community is usually considered deeply religious Sunni Muslims of Hanafi madh'hab. Sufi orders such as Qadiri and Naqshbandi have a great impact.

Cretan Muslims Cretan Turks (Turkish: Girit Türkleri, Greek: Τουρκοκρητικοί) or Cretan Muslims (Turkish: Girit Müslümanları) cover Muslims who arrived in Turkey after or slightly before the start of the Greek rule in Crete in 1908 and especially in the framework of the 1923 agreement for the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations and have settled on the coastline stretching from the Çanakkale to İskenderun. Today, only elderly women may be found to be fluent in Cretan Greek and only estimates can be made regarding their number. They often name the language as Cretan (Kritika (Κρητικά) or Giritçe) instead of Greek. The Cretan "Turk" (i.e., Greek Muslim) are Sunnis of the (Hanafi) rite with a highly influential Bektashi minority that helped shape the folk Islam and religious tolerance of the entire community. Significant numbers of Cretan Muslims were re-settled in other Ottoman controlled areas around the eastern Mediterranean by the Ottomans following the re-conquest of Crete by the Kingdom of Greece in 1898. Most ended up in coastal Syria, particularly the town of al-Hamidiyya (named after the Ottoman sultan who settled them there), where many continue to speak Greek as their mother tongue. Others were resettled in Ottoman Libya especially in the east side cities like Susa and Benghazi, where they are distinguishable by their Greek surnames. Many of the older members of this community still speak Cretan Greek in their homes.

2

Greek Muslims

3

Epirote Muslims Muslims from the region of Epirus, known collectively as Yanyalılar (Yanyalı in singular, meaning "person from Ioannina") in Turkish and Τουρκογιαννιώτες Turkoyanyótes in Greek (Τουρκογιαννιώτης Turkoyanyótis in singular, meaning "Turk from Ioannina"), who had arrived in Turkey in two waves of migration in 1912 and after 1923. Although majority of the Epirote Muslim population was of Albanian origin, Greek Muslim communities existed in the towns of Souli,[6] Margariti (both majority-Muslim),[7][8] Ioannina, Preveza, Louros, Paramythia, and Konitsa.[9] Hoca Es'ad Efendi, a Greek-speaking Muslim from Ioannina who lived in the eighteenth century, was the first translator of Aristotle into Turkish.[10] The community now is fully integrated into Turkish culture. Ethnographic map of Macedonia (1892). Muslim Greek areas are shown in yellow.

Macedonian Greek Muslims Muslims living in Haliacmon valley of Central Macedonia were Greek-speaking.[11] They were known collectively as Vallahades. They arrived in Turkey after 1923 and became gradually assimilated into Turkish Muslim mainstream. According to Todor Simovski's assessment (1972), in 1912 in the region of Macedonia in Greece there were 13,753 Muslim Greeks.[12]

Cypriot Muslims In 1878 the Muslim inhabitants of Cyprus (constituting about 1/3 of the island's population, which then numbered 40,000 inhabitants) were classified as being either Turkish or "neo-Muslim." The latter were of Greek origin, Islamised but speaking Greek, and similar in character to the local Christians.The last of such groups was reported to arrive at Antalya in 1936. These communities are thought to have abandoned Greek in the course of integration.[13]

Crimea In the Middle Ages the Greek population of Crimea traditionally adhered to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, even despite undergoing linguistic assimilation by the local Crimean Tatars. In 1777–1778, when Catherine the Great of Russia conquered the peninsula from the Ottoman Empire, the local Orthodox population was forcibly deported and settled north of the Azov Sea. In order to avoid deportation, some Greeks chose to convert to Islam. Crimean Tatar-speaking Muslims of the village of Kermenchik (renamed to Vysokoe in 1945) kept their Greek identity and were practising Christianity in secret for a while. In the nineteenth century the lower half of Kermenchik was populated with Christian Greeks from Turkey, whereas the upper remained Muslim. By the time of the Stalinist deportation of 1944, the Muslims of Kermenchik had already been identified as Crimean Tatars, and were forcibly expelled to Central Asia together with the rest of Crimea's ethnic minorities.[14]

Greek Muslims

Lebanon and Syria There are about 7,000 Greeks living in Tripoli, Lebanon and about 8,000 in Al Hamidiyah, Syria.[15] The majority of them are Muslims of Cretan origin. Records suggest that the community left Crete between 1866 and 1897, on the outbreak of the last Cretan uprising against the Ottoman empire, which ended the Greco-Turkish War of 1897.[15] Sultan Abdul Hamid II provided Cretan Muslim families who fled the island with refuge on the Levantine coast. The new settlement was named Hamidiye after the sultan. Many Greek Muslims of Lebanon somewhat managed to preserve their identity and language. Unlike neighbouring communities, they are monogamous and consider divorce a disgrace. Until the Lebanese Civil War, their community was close-knit and entirely endogamous. However many of them left Lebanon during the 15 years of the war.[15] Greek Muslims constitute 60% of Al Hamidiyah's population. The percentage may be higher but is not conclusive because of hybrid relationship in families. The community is very much concerned with maintaining its culture. The knowledge of the spoken Greek language is remarkably good and their contact with their historical homeland has been possible by means of satellite television and relatives. They are also known to be monogamous.[15]

Central Asia In the Middle Ages, after the Seljuq victory over the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV, many Byzantine Greeks were taken as slaves to Central Asia. The most famous among them was Al-Khazini, a Byzantine Greek slave taken to Merv, then in the Khorasan province of Persia but now in Turkmenistan, who was later freed and became a famous Muslim scientist.[16]

Notable Muslims of partial Greek descent (non-conversions) • Ahmed I - (1590–1617), Ottoman sultan, Greek mother Handan Sultan (originally named Helena (Eleni)) - wife of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed III • Ahmed III - (1673–1736), Ottoman sultan, Greek mother (Emetullah Rabia Gülnûş Sultan), originally named Evemia, who was the daughter of a Greek Cretan priest • Bayezid I - (1354–1403), Ottoman sultan, Greek mother (Gulcicek Hatun or Gülçiçek Hatun) wife of Murad I • Bayezid II - (1447–1512), Ottoman sultan, Greek mother (Amina Gul-Bahar or Gulbahār Khātun, tr:I. Gülbahar Hatun), a Greek Orthodox woman of noble birth from the village of Douvera, Trabzon • Hasan Pasha (son of Barbarossa) (c. 1517-1572) was the son of Hayreddin Barbarossa and three-times Beylerbey of Algiers, Algeria. His mother was a Morisco. He succeeded his father as ruler of Algiers, and replaced Barbarossa's deputy Hasan Agha who had been effectively holding the position of ruler of Algiers since 1533. • Hayreddin Barbarossa, (c. 1478–1546), privateer and Ottoman admiral, Greek mother, Katerina from Mytilene on the island of Lesbos • Ibrahim I, (1615–1648), Ottoman sultan, Greek mother (Mahpeyker Kösem Sultan), the daughter of a priest from the island of Tinos; her maiden name was Anastasia and was one of the most powerful women in Ottoman history • Muhammad al-Mahdi (‫ )ﺍﻹﻣﺎﻡ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﺪﻯ‬also known as Hujjat ibn al-Hasan, final Imām of the Twelve Imams Shi'a, Greek mother, Her Greatness Narjis (Melika), was a Byzantine princess who pretended to be a slave so that she might travel from her kingdom to Arabia • Murad I, (1360–1389) Ottoman sultan, Greek mother, (Nilüfer Hatun (water lily in Turkish), daughter of the Prince of Yarhisar or Byzantine Princess Helen (Nilüfer)) • Murad IV (1612–1640), Ottoman sultan, Greek mother (Valide Sultan, Kadinefendi Kösem Sultan or Mahpeyker, originally named Anastasia) • Mustafa I - (1591–1639), Ottoman sultan, Greek mother (Valide Sultan, Handan Sultan, originally named Helena (Eleni))

4

Greek Muslims

5

• Mustafa II - (1664–1703),[17][18][19][20] Ottoman sultan, Greek Cretan mother (Valide Sultan, Mah-Para Ummatullah Rabia Gül-Nush, originally named Evemia) • Oruç Reis, (also called Barbarossa or Redbeard), privateer and Ottoman Bey (Governor) of Algiers and Beylerbey (Chief Governor) of the West Mediterranean. He was born on the island of Midilli (Lesbos), mother was Greek (Katerina) • Osman II - (1604–1622), Ottoman sultan, Greek mother (Valide Sultan, Mahfiruze Hatice Sultan, originally named Maria) • Selim I, Ottoman sultan, Greek mother (Gulbahar Sultan, also known by her maiden name Ayşe Hatun); his father, Bayezid II, was also half Greek through his mother's side (Valide Sultan Amina Gul-Bahar or Gulbahar Khatun - a Greek convert to Islam) - this made Selim I three-quarters Greek • Suleiman I (Suleiman the Magnificent), Ottoman sultan, his father Bayezid II was three-quarters Greek; (Suleiman's mother was of Georgian origin). • Shah Ismail I, the founder of Turkic-Persian Safavid Dynasty of Iran: Ismā'il's mother was an Aq Qoyunlu (Turkmen) noble, Martha, the daughter of Turkmen Uzun Hasan by his Pontic Greek wife Theodora Megale Comnena, better known as Despina Hatun. Theodora was the daughter of Emperor John IV of Trebizond whom Uzun Hassan married in a deal to protect Trebizond from the Ottomans. • Kaykaus II, Seljuq Sultan. His mother was the daughter of a Greek priest; and it was the Greeks of Nicaea from whom he consistently sought aid throughout his life. • Osman Hamdi Bey - (1842 – 24 February 1910), Ottoman statesman and art expert and also a prominent and pioneering painter, the son of Edhem Pasha,[21] a Greek[22] by birth abducted as a youth followong the Massacre of Chios. He was the founder of the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul.[23] • Ibn al-Rumi - Arab poet was the son of a Persian mother and a half-Greek father. • Sheikh Bedreddin - (1359–1420) Revolutionary theologian, Greek mother named "Melek Hatun".

Notable Muslims of Greek descent (non-conversions) • Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt (Arabic: ‫( )ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﺷﺎ‬1789 – November 10, 1848), a 19th century general of Egypt. He is better known as the (adopted) son of Muhammad Ali of Egypt. Ibrahim was born in the town of Drama, in the Ottoman province of Rumelia, currently located in Macedonia to a Greek Christian woman and a man named Tourmatzis. • Hussein Hilmi Pasha - (1855–1922), Ottoman statesman born on Lesbos to a family of Greek ancestry[24][25][26][27] who had formerly converted to Islam.[28] He became twice Grand vizier[29] of the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the Second Constitutional Era and was also Co-founder and Head of the Turkish Red Crescent.[30] Hüseyin Hilmi was one of the most successful Ottoman administrators in the Balkans of the early 20th century becoming Ottoman Inspector-General of Macedonia[31] from 1902 to 1908, Ottoman Minister for the Interior[32] from 1908 to 1909 and Ottoman Ambassador at Vienna[33] from 1912 to 1918. • Ahmet Vefik Paşa (Istanbul, July 3, 1823-April 2, 1891), was a famous Ottoman of Greek descent[34][35][36][37][38][39][40]

Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha (1855–1922/1923) was born into a Muslim family of Greek descent on Lesbos.

Greek Muslims

6

(whose ancestors had converted to Islam).[34] He was a statesman, diplomat, playwright and translator of the Tanzimat period. He was commissioned with top-rank governmental duties, including presiding over the first Turkish parliament.[41] He also became a grand vizier for two brief periods. Vefik also established the first Ottoman theatre[42] and initiated the first Western style theatre plays in Bursa and translated Molière's major works.

Ahmed Vefik Pasha (1823-1891) Ottoman statesman, diplomat and playwright of Greek ancestry who presided over the first Turkish parliament

Notable Greek converts to Islam • Al-Khazini - (flourished 1115–1130) was a Greek Muslim scientist, astronomer, physicist, biologist, alchemist, mathematician and philosopher - lived in Merv (modern-day Turkmenistan) • Atik Sinan or "Old Sinan" - Ottoman architect (not to be confused with the other Sinan who's origins are disputed between Greek or Armenian (see below)) • Carlos Mavroleon - son of a Greek ship-owner, Etonian heir to a £100m fortune, close to the Kennedys and almost married a Heseltine, former Wall Street broker and a war correspondent, leader of an Afghan Mujahideen unit during the Afghan war against the Soviets - died under mysterious circumstances in Peshawar, Pakistan • Damat Hasan Pasha, Ottoman Grand Vizier between 1703-1704.[44] He was originally a Greek convert to Islam from the Morea.[45][46] • Diam's (Mélanie Georgiades) French rapper of Greek origin. • Emetullah Rabia Gülnûş Sultan (1642–1715) was the wife of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV and Valide Sultan to their sons

İbrahim Edhem Pasha (1819–1893) was a Ottoman [43] statesman of Greek origin.

Mustafa II and Ahmed III (1695–1715). She was born to a priest in Rethymno, Crete, then under Venetian rule, her maiden name was Evmania Voria and she was an ethnic Greek.[47][48][49][50][51][18][52][53][54][55] She was

Greek Muslims

•

• • • •

captured when the Ottomans conquered Rethymno about 1646 and she was sent as slave to Constantinople, where she was given Turkish and Muslim education in the harem department of Topkapı Palace and soon attracted the attention of the Sultan, Mehmed IV. Gawhar al-Siqilli,[56][57][58][59] (born c. 928-930, died 992), of Greek descent originally from Sicily, who had risen to the ranks of the commander of the Fatimid armies. He had led the conquest of North Africa[60] and then of Egypt and founded the city of Cairo[61] and the great al-Azhar mosque. Gazi Evrenos - (d. 1417), an Ottoman military commander serving as general under Süleyman Pasha, Murad I, Bayezid I, Süleyman Çelebi and Mehmed I Hamza Yusuf - American Islamic teacher and lecturer Handan Sultan, wife of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed III İbrahim Edhem Pasha, born of Greek ancestry[21][43][62][63][64] on the island of Chios, Ottoman statesman who held the office of Grand Vizier in the beginning of Abdulhamid II's reign between 5 February 1877 and 11 January 1878

• İshak Pasha (? - 1497, Thessaloniki) was a Greek (though some reports say he was Croatian) who became an Ottoman general, statesman and later Grand Vizier. His first term as a Grand Vizier was during the reign of Mehmet II ("The Conqueror"). During this term he transferred Turkmen people from their Anatolian city of Aksaray to newly conquered İstanbul to populate the city which had lost a portion of its former population prior to conquest. The quarter of the city is where the Aksaray migrants had settled is now called Aksaray. His second term was during the reign of Beyazıt II. • John Tzelepes Komnenos - (Greek: Ἰωάννης Κομνηνὸς Τζελέπης) son of Isaac Komnenos (d. 1154). Starting about 1130 John and his father, who was a brother of Emperor John II Komnenos ("John the Beautiful"), plotted to overthrow his uncle the emperor. They made various plans and alliances with the Danishmend leader and other Turks who held parts of Asia Minor. In 1138 John and his father had a reconciliation with the Emperor, and received a full pardon. In 1139 John accompanied the emperor on his campaign in Asia Minor. In 1140 at the siege of Neocaesarea he defected. As John Julius Norwich puts it, he did so by "embracing simultaneously the creed of Islam and the daughter of the Seljuk Sultan Mesud I." John Komnenos' by-name, Tzelepes, is believed to be a Greek rendering of the Turkish honorific Çelebi, a term indicating noble birth or "gentlemanly conduct". The Ottoman Sultans claimed descent from John Komnenos. • Kösem Sultan - (1581–1651) also known as Mehpeyker Sultan was the most powerful woman in Ottoman history, consort and favourite concubine of Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603-1617), she became Valide Sultan from 1623–1651, when her sons Murad IV and Ibrahim I and her grandson Mehmed IV (1648–1687) reigned as Ottoman sultans; she was the daughter of a priest from the island of Tinos - her maiden name was Anastasia • Leo of Tripoli (Greek: Λέων ὸ Τριπολίτης) was a Greek renegade and pirate serving Arab interests in the early tenth century. • Mahfiruze Hatice Sultan - (d 1621), maiden name Maria, was the wife of the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I and mother of Osman II. • Mahmud Pasha Angelović - Mahmud Pasha or Mahmud-paša Anđelović (1420–1474), also known simply as Adni, was Serbian-born, of Byzantine noble descent (Angeloi) who became an Ottoman general and statesman, after being abducted as a child by the Sultan. As Veli Mahmud Paşa he was Grand Vizier in 1456–1468 and again in 1472–1474. A capable military commander, throughout his tenure he led armies or accompanied Mehmed II on his own campaigns. • Mimar Sinan (1489–1588) - Ottoman architect - his origins are possibly Greek. There is not a single document in Ottoman archives which state that Sinan was Armenian or Greek, only "Orthodox Christian". Those who suggest that he could be Armenian do this with the mere fact that the largest Christian community living at the vicinity of Kayseri were Armenians, but there was also a considerably large Greek population (e.g. the father of Greek film director Elia Kazan) in Kayseri. Actually, in Ottoman records, Sinan's father is named "Hristo", which suggests Greek ancesty, and which is probably why Encyclopedia Britannica states that he was of Greek origin.

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Greek Muslims • Misac Palaeologos Pasha, a member of the Byzantine Palaiologos dynasty and the Ottoman commander in the first Siege of Rhodes (1480). He was an Ottoman statesman and Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1499-1501. • Mustapha Khaznadar (‫ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﺧﺰﻧﺪﺍﺭ‬, 1817–1878), was Prime Minister of the Beylik of Tunis[65] from 1837 to 1873. Of Greek origin,[66][67][68][69][70] as Georgios Kalkias Stravelakis[70][71][72] he was born on the island of Chios in 1817.[71] Along with his brother Yannis, he was captured and sold into slavery[73] by the Ottomans during the Massacre of Chios in 1822, while his father Stephanis Kalkias Stravelakis was killed. He was then taken to Smyrna and then Constantinople, where he was sold as a slave to an envoy of the Bey of Tunis.

Muslim Greeks of the 19th century Ottoman Empire. Left: Mustapha Khaznadar (ca. 1817–1878) was a muslim Greek who served as Prime [67] Minister of Tunis. Right: Raghib Pasha (ca. 1819–1884) was a Greek convert to Islam who served as Prime Minister of Egypt.

• Narjis, mother of Muhammad al-Mahdi the twelfth and last Imam of Shi'a Islam, Byzantine Princess, reportedly the descendant of the disciple Simon Peter, the vicegerent of Jesus • Pargalı İbrahim Pasha (d. 1536), the first Grand Vizier appointed by Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire (reigned 1520 to 1566) • Raghib Pasha (1819–1884), was Prime Minister of Egypt.[74] He was of Greek ancestry[75][76][77][78] and was born in Greece[79] on 18 August 1819 on either the island of Chios following the great Massacre[80] or Candia[81] Crete. After being kidnapped to Anatolia he was brought to Egypt as a slave by Ibrahim Pasha in 1830[82] and converted to Islam. Raghib Pasha ultimately rose to levels of importance serving as Minister of Finance (1858–1860), then Minister of War (1860–1861). He became Inspector for the Maritime Provinces in 1862, and later Assistant (Arabic: ‫ )ﺑﺎﺷﻤﻌﺎﻭﻥ‬to viceroy Isma'il Pasha (1863–1865). He was granted the title of beylerbey and then appointed President of the Privy council in 1868. He was appointed President of the Chamber of Deputies (1866–1867), then Minister of Interior in 1867, then Minister of Agriculture and Trade in 1875. Isma'il Ragheb became Prime Minister of Egypt in 1882. • Rum Mehmed Pasha was an Ottoman statesman. He was Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1466-1469. • Turgut Reis - (1485–1565) was a notorious Barbary pirate of the Ottoman Empire. He was born of Greek descent[83][84][85][86][87][88] in a village near Bodrum, on the Aegean coast of Asia Minor. After converting to Islam in his youth[87] he served as Admiral and privateer who also served as Bey of Algiers; Beylerbey of the Mediterranean; and first Bey, later Pasha, of Tripoli. Under his naval command the Ottoman Empire was extended across North Africa.[89] When Tugut was serving as pasha of Tripoli, he adorned and built up the city, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African Coast.[90] • Yaqut al-Hamawi (Yaqut ibn-'Abdullah al-Rumi al-Hamawi) (1179–1229) (Arabic: ‫ )ﻳﺎﻗﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻤﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﻣﻲ‬was an Islamic biographer and geographer renowned for his encyclopedic writings on the Muslim world. • Yusuf Islam (born Steven Demetre Georgiou; 21 July 1948, aka Cat Stevens) the famous singer of Cypriot Greek origin, converted to Islam at the height of his fame in December, 1977[91] and adopted his Muslim name, Yusuf Islam, the following year. • Jamilah Kolocotronis, scholar and writer.

8

Greek Muslims

References [1] Barbour, S., Language and Nationalism in Europe, Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-19-823671-9 [2] Crypto-Christians of the Trabzon Region of Pontos (http:/ / pontosworld. com/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=1387& Itemid=90) [3] The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg. 135-144 [4] Professor. Department of Near Eastern Studies. Princeton University [5] Trabzon Şehrinin İslamlaşması ve Türkleşmesi 1461–1583 (http:/ / www. e-bogazici. com/ pinfo. asp?pid=224) ISBN 975-518-116-4 [6] Municipality of Paramythia, Thesprotia (http:/ / www. paramythia. gr/ enpage2. html). Paramythia.gr [7] Historical Abstracts: Bibliography of the World's Historical Literature (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=y1NsAAAAIAAJ& dq=greeks+ margariti). Published 1955 [8] Handbook for Travellers in Greece (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7c0GAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA678& dq=margariti+ mohammedan) by Amy Frances Yule and John Murray. Published 1884. J. Murray; p. 678 [9] Das Staatsarchiv (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cmIcAAAAMAAJ& q=greek-mohammedans& dq=greek-mohammedans& lr=& pgis=1) by Institut für auswärtige Politik (Germany), Berlin (Germany) Institut für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, Germany Auswärtiges Amt Today. Published 1904. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft m.b.h.; p.31 [10] Dimitris Tziovas, Greece and the Balkans: Identities, Perceptions and Cultural Encounters since the Enlightenment (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RjGidYC9pUYC& pg=PA56& dq=greek-speaking-muslim& lr=& sig=ACfU3U3W5feidLaUDXiTTSqpw3NwMHUgRQ) by Dēmētrēs Tziovas. Published 2003. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.; p.56 [11] Jubilee Congress of the Folk-lore Society (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zOkEAAAAMAAJ& q=Vallahades& dq=Vallahades& pgis=1) by Folklore Society (Great Britain). Published 1930; p.140 [12] Who are the Macedonians? (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8_zeaeTOz6YC& pg=PA85& dq=muslim-greeks+ macedonia& lr=& sig=ACfU3U1V_kpw_mBVBLVBR64xuBjBHHTpgA) by Hugh Poulton. Published 2000, Indiana University Press; p. 85 [13] Peter Alford Andrews, Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1989, ISBN 3-89500-297-6 [14] The Russian World: Kermenchik - Crimea's Lonely Spot? (http:/ / www. krimoved. ru/ region1. html) by I.Kovalenko [15] Greek-Speaking Enclaves of Lebanon and Syria (http:/ / webs. uvigo. es/ ssl/ actas2002/ 05/ 08. Roula Tsokalidou. pdf) by Roula Tsokalidou. Proceedings II Simposio Internacional Bilingüismo. Retrieved 4 December 2006 [16] Klotz, "Multicultural Perspectives in Science Education: One Prescription for Failure".

"Al-Khazini (who lived in the 12th century), a slave of the Seljuk Turks, but of Byzantine origin, probably one of the spoils of the victory of the Seljuks over the Christian emperor of Constantinople, Romanus IV Diogenes." [17] Freely, John (1996). Istanbul: the imperial city. Viking. p. 242. ISBN 0140244611. "Rabia Gulnus a Greek girl who had been captured in the Ottoman invasion of Crete. Rabia Gulnus was the mother of Mehmet’s first two sons, the future sultans Mustafa II and Ahmet III" [18] Library Information and Research Service (2005). The Middle East. Library Information and Research Service. p. 91. "She was the daughter of a Cretan (Greek) family and she was the mother of Mustafa II (1664-1703), and Ahmed III (1673-1736)." [19] Bromley, J. S. (1957). The New Cambridge Modern History. University of California: University Press. p. 554. ISBN 0521221285. "the mother of Mustafa II and Ahmed III was a Cretan" [20] Palmer, Alan (2009). The decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire. Barnes & Noble. p. 27. ISBN 156619847X. "Unusually, the twenty-nine year old Ahmed III was a brother, rather than a half- brother, of his predecessor; their Cretan mother, Rabia" [21] Shankland, David (2004). Archaeology, anthropology, and heritage in the Balkans and Anatolia: the life and times of F.W. Hasluck, 1878-1920. Isis Press. p. 125. ISBN 9754282803. "Osman Hamdi Bey's father, Edhem Pasha (ca. 1818-1893) was a high official of the Empire. A Greek boy captured on Chios after the 1822 massacres, he was acquired and brought up by Husrev Pasha, who sent him to Paris in 1831 in order to acquire a western education." [22] Yust, Walter (1956). Encyclopædia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 119. OCLC 3467897. "HAMDI BEY, OSMAN (1842-1910), Turkish statesman 2id art expert, son of Hilmi Pasha, one of the last of the grand viziers of the old regime, was born at Istanbul. The family was of Greek origin. Hilmi Pasha himself, as a boy of 12, was rescued from the massacre of the Greeks at Chios in 1825 and bought by Mahmud" [23] "Osman Hamdi Bey" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 253298/ Osman-Hamdi-Bey). www.britannica.com. . Retrieved 2009-07-13. "Osman Hamdi Bey..Statesman and art expert who asserted the right of Constantinople to receive the finds made by various archaeological enterprises in the Ottoman Empire. Hamdi Bey founded the Archaeological Museum of Istanbul and became its director in 1881. His enlightened taste and energy did much to establish the reputation of the museum and its impressive collection of Greco-Roman antiquities." [24] Prothero, George Walter (1920). Peace Handbooks: The Balkan states. H. M. Stationery Office. p. 45. OCLC 4694680. "Hussein Hilmi Pasha, descended from a Greek convert to Islam in the island of Mitylene, was sent to Macedonia as High Commissioner." [25] Wheeler, Edward J, ed. (1909). Current Literature. Current Literature Pub. Co. p. 389. OCLC 4604506. "His Excellency Hussein Hilmi Pacha is a Turk "of the isles." The politest Turks of all come from the isles. There is also Greek blood in his veins," [26] Great Britain. Foreign Office. Historical Section (1920). Handbooks prepared under the direction of the Historical section of the foreign office. H.M. Stationary off.. p. 45. OCLC 27784113. "Hussein Hilmi Pasha, descended from a Greek convert to Islam in the island of

9

Greek Muslims Mitylene, was sent to Macedonia as High Commissioner." [27] Abbott, George Frederick (1909). Turkey in transition. E. Arnold. p. 149. OCLC 2355821. "For Hilmi is a novus homo. A native of Mytilene, of obscure origin, partly Greek, he began his career as secretary to Kemal Bey" [28] Prothero, George Walter (1920). Peace Handbooks: The Balkan states. H. M. Stationery Office. p. 45. OCLC 4694680. "Hussein Hilmi Pasha, descended from a Greek convert to Islam in the island of Mitylene." [29] Archivum ottomanicum v. 23. Mouton. 2006. p. 272. "Hüseyin Hilmi (1855-1923), who was to become Grand Vezir twice in 1909" [30] Trivedi, Raj Kumar (1994). The critical triangle: India, Britain, and Turkey, 1908-1924. Publication Scheme. p. 77. ISBN 8185263914. OCLC 31173524. "the Ottoman Red Crescent Society of which Hilmi Pasha was the head, which he said, utilized their money for the purpose it was contributed by Muslims in India." [31] Kent, Marian (1996). The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire. Routledge. p. 227. ISBN 0714641545. "Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha (1855-1923) (Ottoman Inspector-General of Macedonia, 1902-8" [32] Kent, Marian (1996). The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire. Routledge. p. 227. ISBN 0714641545. "Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha (1855-1923) Minister for the Interior, 1908-9)" [33] Kent, Marian (1996). The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire. Routledge. p. 227. ISBN 0714641545. "Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha (1855-1923) Ambassador at Vienna, 1912-18" [34] Berkes, Niyazi – Ahmad, Feroz (1998). The development of secularism in Turkey. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 29. ISBN 1850653445. "Ahmed Vefik Pasa (1823-91), the grandson of a Greek convert to Islam and the holder of several of the highest positions, was one of those interested in Turkish studies." [35] Galton, Sir Francis (1864). Vacation tourists and notes of travel in 1860 [1861, 1962-3]. Macmillan. p. 91. OCLC 228708521. "The statesman whom the Turks like best is Achmet Vefyk Effendi. Although a Greek by descent, he is a more orthodox Moslem than Fuad or Aali, and is the head of the reforming party, whose object is to bring about reform for the purpose of re-establishing the Turkish empire on the basis on which it stood in its palmy day, rather than adopt European customs." [36] Stewart, Desmond (1971). The Middle East: temple of Janus. Doubleday. p. 189. OCLC 135026. "Ahmed Vefik Pasha was the grandson of a Greek convert to Islam." [37] Layard, Sir Austen Henry – Bruce, William Napier – Otway, Sir Arthur John (1903). Sir A. Henry Layard, G.C.B., D.C.L.. J. Murray. p. 93. OCLC 24585567. "Fuad Pasha — unlike Ahmed Vefyk, who had Greek blood in his veins — was a pure Turk by descent." [38] Pickthall, Marmaduke William - Islamic Culture Board – Asad, Muhammad (1975). Islamic culture. Islamic Culture Board - Hyderabad, Deccan. OCLC 1774508. "Ahmad Vefik Pasha) (grandson of a Greek convert) published influential works : Les Tuns Anciens et Modernes (1169) and Lahja-i-Osmani, respectively" [39] Macfie, A. L. (1998). The end of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1923. Longman. p. 85. ISBN 0582287634. "In 1876 Ahmed Vefik Pasha, the grandson of a Greek convert to Islam, and a keen student of Turkish customs, published the first Turkish-Ottoman dictionary" [40] Taher, Mohamed (1997). Encyclopaedic survey of Islamic culture. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. p. 97. ISBN 8174884874. "Ahmad Vefik Pasha) (grandson of a Greek convert) published influential works : Les Turcs Anciens et Modernes ( 1 1 69) and Lahja-i-Osmani, respectively" [41] "Ahmed Vefik Paşa" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 10234/ Ahmed-Vefik-Pasa). www.britannica.com. . Retrieved 2009-08-12. "Ahmed Vefik Paşa Ottoman statesman and scholar born July 6, 1823, Constantinople [now Istanbul] died April 2, 1891, Constantinople… He presided over the first Turkish Parliament (1877) and was twice appointed grand vizier (chief minister) for brief periods in 1878 and 1882." [42] "Ahmed Vefik Paşa" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 10234/ Ahmed-Vefik-Pasa). www.britannica.com. . Retrieved 2009-08-12. "Ahmed Vefik Paşa Ottoman statesman and scholar born July 6, 1823, Constantinople [now Istanbul] died April 2, 1891, Constantinople....In 1879 he became the vali (governor) of Bursa, where he sponsored important reforms in sanitation, education, and agriculture and established the first Ottoman theatre." [43] Latimer, Elizabeth Wormeley (2008). Russia and Turkey in the Nineteenth Century. BiblioBazaar. p. 204. ISBN 055952708X. "Gand vizier Edhem Pasha…The history of Edhem is a curious one. He was born of Greek parents, and saved from the massacre of Scio in 1822. He was then sold as a slave in Constantinople, and bought by the grand vizier." [44] Catharine Theimer Nepomnyashchy, Nicole Svobodny, Ludmilla A. Trigos (2006). Under the sky of my Africa: Alexander Pushkin and blackness. Northwestern University Press. p. 53. ISBN 0810119714. "Shortly afterward a new grand vizier, Hasan, came to take the place of the old one, and he held his post during the period we are interested in: from November 16, 1703, to September 28, 1704." [45] Evg Radushev, Svetlana Ivanova, Rumen Kovachev - Narodna biblioteka "Sv. sv. Kiril i Metodiĭ. Orientalski otdel, International Centre for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations, Research Centre for Islamic History, Art, and Culture (2003). Inventory of Ottoman Turkish documents about Waqf preserved in the Oriental Department at the St. St. Cyril and Methodius National Library. Narodna biblioteka "Sv. sv. Kiril i Metodiĭ. p. 224. ISBN 954523072X. "Hasan Pasa (Damad-i- Padisahi), Greek convert from Morea. He began his career as imperial armourer and rose to the post of Grand Vezir (1703). He married the daughter of Sultan Mehmed IV, Hatice Sultan, fell into disgrace and was exiled with his wife to izmit." [46] Catharine Theimer Nepomnyashchy, Nicole Svobodny, Ludmilla A. Trigos (2006). Under the sky of my Africa: Alexander Pushkin and blackness. Northwestern University Press. p. 53. ISBN 0810119714. "Shortly afterward a new grand vizier, Hasan, came to take the place of the old one, and he held his post during the period we are interested in: from November 16, 1703, to September 28, 1704. He was the new sultan's son-in-law… “he was a very honest and comparatively humane pasha of Greek origin and cannot be suspected of selling the sultan's pages to a foreigner.”"

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Greek Muslims [47] Baker, Anthony E (1993). The Bosphorus. Redhouse Press. p. 146. ISBN 9754130620. "The Valide Sultan was born Evmania Voria, daughter of a Greek priest in a village near Rethymnon on Crete. She was captured by the Turks when they took Rethymnon in 1645." [48] Freely, John (1996). Istanbul: the imperial city. Viking. p. 242. ISBN 0140244611. "Rabia Gulnus a Greek girl who had been captured in the Ottoman invasion of Crete. Rabia Gulnus was the mother of Mehmet’s first two sons, the future sultans Mustafa II and Ahmet III." [49] Bromley, J. S. (1957). The New Cambridge Modern History. University of California: University Press. p. 554. ISBN 0521221285. "the mother of Mustafa II and Ahmed III was a Cretan." [50] Palmer, Alan (2009). The decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire. Barnes & Noble. p. 27. ISBN 156619847X. "Unusually, the twenty-nine year old Ahmed III was a brother, rather than a half- brother, of his predecessor; their Cretan mother, Rabia." [51] Sardo, Eugenio Lo (1999). Tra greci e turchi: fonti diplomatiche italiane sul Settecento ottomano. Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche. p. 82. ISBN 88-8080-014-0. "Their mother, a Cretan, lady named Rabia Gulnus, continued to wield influence as the Walide Sultan - mother of the reigning sultan." [52] Thys-Şenocak, Lucienne (2006). Ottoman women builders. Ashgate. p. 46. ISBN 0754633101. "The sultan appears to have been in no hurry to leave his prized concubine from the Ottoman conquest of Rethymnon, Crete - the haseki Emetullah Gulnus, and their new son Mustafa." [53] Buturović, Amila; Schick, İrvin Cemil (2007). Women in the Ottoman Balkans: gender, culture and history (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xEHnuObu1D4C& pg=PA24& dq). I.B.Tauris. p. 24. ISBN 1845115058. . "Mahpeikir [Kösem Mahpeyker] and Revia Gülnûş [Rabia Gülnûş] were Greek." [54] Freely, John (2000). Inside the Seraglio: private lives of the sultans in Istanbul. Penguin. p. 163. ISBN 844930962X. "Mehmet had by now set up his own harem, which he took with him in his peregrinations between Topkapi Sarayi and Edirne Sarayi. His favourite was Rabia Gülnûş Ummetüllah, a Greek girl from Rethymnon." [55] Freely, John (2001). The lost Messiah. Viking. p. 132. ISBN 0670886750. "He set up his harem there, his favourite being Rabia Giilniis Ummetiillah, a Greek girl from Rethymnon on Crete." [56] Raymond, André (2000). Cairo. Harvard University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0674003160. "After the accession of the fourth Fatimid caliph, al-Mu'izz (953- 975), a cultivated and energetic ruler who found an able second in Jawhar, an ethnic Greek, conditions for conquest of Egypt improved." [57] Richardson, Dan (2003). Egypt. Rough Guides. p. 133. ISBN 1843530503. "The Fatimid general, Gohar (Jewel), a converted ~ Greek, immediately began a new city where the dynasty henceforth reigned * (969-1171)." [58] Collomb, Rodney (2006). The rise and fall of the Arab Empire and the founding of Western pre-eminence. Spellmount. p. 73. ISBN 1862273278. "a Greek mercenary born in Sicily, and his 100000-man army had little" [59] Saunders, John Joseph (1990). A History of Medieval Islam. Routledge. p. 133. ISBN 0415059143. "Under Mu’izz (955-975) the Fatimids reached the height of their glory, and the universal triumph of isma ‘ilism appeared not far distant. The fourth Fatimid Caliph is an attractive character: humane and generous, simple and just, he was a good administrator, tolerant and conciliatory. Served by one of the greatest generals of the age, Jawhar al-Rumi, a former Greek slave, he took fullest advantage of the growing confusion in the Sunnite world." [60] Chodorow, Stanley – Knox, MacGregor – Shirokauer, Conrad – Strayer, Joseph R. – Gatzke, Hans W. (1994). The Mainstream of Civilization. Harcourt Press. p. 209. ISBN 0155011979. "The architect of his military system was a general named Jawhar, an islamicized Greek slave who had led the conquest of North Africa and then of Egypt" [61] Fossier, Robert – Sondheimer, Janet – Airlie, Stuart – Marsack, Robyn (1997). The Cambridge illustrated history of the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0521266459. "When the Sicilian Jawhar finally entered Fustat in 969 and the following year founded the new dynastic capital, Cairo, 'The Victorious', the Fatimids ..." [62] Appletons' Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events. D. Appleton. 1878. p. 268. OCLC 184889012. "EDHEM PASHA, the successor of Midhat Pasha as Grand Vizier, was born at Chio, of Greek parents, in 1823. He was saved, when a child, by Turkish soldiers" [63] Littell, Eliakim (1888). The Living age. The Living Age Co.. p. 614. OCLC 10173561. "Edhem Pasha was a Greek by birth, pure and unadulterated, having when an infant been stolen from the island of Chios at the time of the great massacre there" [64] Gilman, Daniel Coit (1906). The New International Encyclopaedia. Dodd, Mead and company. p. 644. OCLC 223290453. "A Turkish soldier and statesman, born of Greek parents on the island of Chios. In 1831 he was taken to Paris, where he was educated in engineering" [65] Morsy, Magali (1984). orth Africa, 1800-1900: a survey from the Nile Valley to the Atlantic. Longman. p. 185. ISBN 0582783771. "Mustafa Khaznadar became Prime Minister in 1837, a position he maintained under three successive bey-s, more or less continuously until 1873." [66] Ziadeh, Nicola A. (1969). Origins of nationalism in Tunisia. Librarie du Liban. p. 11. OCLC 3062278. "Mustafa Khaznadar was of Greek origin (b. 1817), and proved to be one of the most influential persons Tunisia saw in her modern history. He took the interest of his master and the country to heart and did all he could to prevail on Ahmad Bey to see that Tunisia acquired as much as she could" [67] Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony; Sanderson, G. N. (1985). The Cambridge history of Africa, Volume 6. Cambridge University Press. p. 173. ISBN 0521228034, 9780521228039. "Politically, the only person of any account in the Bardo palace was the prime minister, the all-powerful Mustafa Khaznadar, a mamluk of Greek extraction, who had managed to remain in power, under three beys, since 1837. The khaznadar, intelligent and cunning, maintained at court a careful balance between France and England, but his own sympathies were on the side of Great Britain on account of his connections with Wood, the British consul. At the palace, he alone exercised influence over the feeble spirit of the bey." [68] Association of Muslim Social Scientists.; International Institute of Islamic Thought (2008). The American journal of Islamic social sciences, Volume 25, Issues 1-4. American journal of Islamic social sciences (AJISS). p. 56. OCLC 60626498. "A mamluk of Greek origin raised by Prince Ahmad (later Ahmad Bey). Khaznadar first worked as the prince's private treasurer before the latter succeeded his father to the throne in 1837. Then, he immediately became Ahmad Bey's khaznadar (treasurer )"

11

Greek Muslims [69] Rowley, Harold Henry; Weis, Pinkas Rudolf (1986). Journal of Semitic Studies, Volumes 31-32. Manchester University Press. p. 190. OCLC 1782837. "the Greek Mustafa Khaznadar, a former slave who from 1837 to 1873 was Minister of Finance and the actual ruler of the country" [70] Shivji, Issa G. (1991). State and constitutionalism: an African debate on democracy. SAPES Trust. p. 235. ISBN 0797409939. "The Hussienite Dynasty was itself of Greek origin and Prime Minister Mustapha Kharznader was a Greek whose original name was Stravelakis." [71] Binous, Jamila – Jabeur, Salah (2002). Houses of the Medina: Tunis. Dar Ashraf Editions. p. 143. OCLC 224261384. "Mustapha’s name was in fact Georges Kalkias Stravelakis, born in l8l7 on the island of Chio (Greece) where he was captured during the l824 massacres" [72] Gallagher, Nancy Elizabeth (2002). Medicine and Power in Tunisia, 1780-1900. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. ISBN 0521529395. "Mustafa Khaznadar (George Kalkias Stravelakis) was born on the island of Chios in 1817. The nephews were sons of a brother who had remained in Chios in 1821. Bin Diyaf stated that he had learned of his expenditure from a receipt he had seen on the fifteenth page of a state treasury register kept by Khaznadar." [73] Simon, Reeva S. – Mattar, Philip – Bulliet, Richard W. (1996). Encyclopedia of the modern Middle East. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 1018. ISBN 0028970624. "Mustafa Khaznader was born Georges Kalkias Stravelakis, on the island of Chios. In 1821, during the Greek rebellion against the Turks, he was seized, taken to Constantinople, and sold into slavery, In 1821 he was sent to Tunis, where he was sold again." [74] Mohamed, Duse (1911). In the land of the pharaohs: a short history of Egypt from the fall of Ismail to the assassination of Boutros Pasha. D. Appleton and company. p. xii. OCLC 301095947. "PRIME MINISTERS * Ragheb Pasha was Prime Minister from July 12, 1882" [75] Vizetelly, Edward (1901). From Cyprus to Zanzibar, by the Egyptian delta: the adventures of a journalist in the isle of love, the home of miracles, and the land of cloves. C.A. Pearson. p. 118. OCLC 81708788. "This Ragheb Pasha, a decrepit old man with a reputation of venality, was of Greek extraction, and had originally been a Greek slave." [76] The Nineteenth century, Volume 13. Henry S. King & Co. 1883. p. 121. OCLC 30055032. "Ragheb Bey, as I knew him first, was a Candiote, a Mussulman of Greek origin, and gifted with the financial cunning of his race. He began political life in Egypt under Said Pasha, as an employe in the financial department where he was speedily promoted to a high…" [77] ‘Izz al-‘Arab, ‘Abd al-‘Azīz (2002). European control and Egypt's traditional elites: a case study in elite economic nationalism Volume 15 of Mellen studies in economics. Edwin Mellen Press. p. 59. ISBN 0773469362. "Isma'il Pasha Raghib and al-Shaykh al-Bakri. Raghib was an established figure in the state administrative machinery, who came from Greek origins, and who had held various portfolios in finance and served as President of the first Majlis Shura al-Nuwwab in 1866." [78] Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen (1980). Secret history of the English occupation of Egypt: being a personal narrative of events Volume 2 of Centenary of the Arabi revolution 1881-1981. Arab Centre for Research and Publishing. OCLC 7840850. "Ragheb Pasha is (as mentioned by Ninet) of Greek descent, though a Moslem" [79] Schölch, Alexander (1981). Egypt for the Egyptians!: the socio-political crisis in Egypt, 1878-1882. Ithaca Press. p. 326. ISBN 0903729822. "Isma'il Raghib was born in Greece in 1819; the sources differ over his homeland. After first being kidnapped to Anatolia, he was brought as a slave to Egypt in 1246 (1830/1), by Ibrahim Pasha, and there he was ‘converted’ from Christianity" [80] McCoan, James Carlile (1898). Egypt. P. F. Collier. p. 102. OCLC 5663869. "Raghib Pasha, the new Minister — by birth a Sciote Greek, sold into Egypt after the massacre of 1822 — is said to be an able administrator, and enjoys a high personal character" [81] The Nineteenth century, Volume 13. Henry S. King & Co. 1883. p. 121. OCLC 30055032. "Ragheb Bey, as I knew him first, was a Candiote, a Mussulman of Greek origin" [82] Schölch, Alexander (1981). Egypt for the Egyptians!: the socio-political crisis in Egypt, 1878-1882. Ithaca Press. p. 326. ISBN 0903729822. "Isma'il Raghib …After first being kidnapped to Anatolia, he was brought as a slave to Egypt in 1246 (1830/1), by Ibrahim Pasha, and there he was ‘converted’ from Christianity" [83] Naylor, Phillip Chiviges (2009). North Africa: a history from antiquity to the present. University of Texas Press. pp. 120–121. ISBN 0292719221, 9780292719224. "One of the most famous corsairs was Turghut (Dragut) (?–1565), who was of Greek ancestry and a protégé of Khayr al-Din. He participated in the successful Ottoman assault on Tripoli in 1551 against the Knights of St. John of Malta." [84] Beeching Jack (1983). The galleys at Lepanto: Jack Beeching. Scribner. pp. 72–73. ISBN 0684179180, 9780684179186. "And the corsairs' greatest leader, Dragut, had also done time, at the oar of a Genoese galley. Dragut was born of Greek parents, Orthodox Christians, at Charabulac on the coast of Asia Minor, but a Turkish governor took a fancy to the boy and carried him off to Egypt." [85] Chambers, Iain (2008). Mediterranean crossings: the politics of an interrupted modernity. Duke University Press. pp. 38–39. ISBN 0822341263, 9780822341260. "Neither was the career of Dragut, another Greek whom we find in 1540s on the Tunisian coast and in 1561 installed at Tripoli in Barbary, in place of the Knights of Malta whom the Turks had expelled five years earlier." [86] Pauls, Michael ; Facaros, Dana (2000). Turkey. New Holland Publishers. pp. 1860110789, 9781860110788. ISBN 286-287. "It is named after the 16th-century Admiral Turgut (Dragut), who was born here to Greek parents; his mentor Barbarossa, another Greek who 'turned Turk', in a moment of unusual humility declared that Dragut was ahead of him 'both in fishing and bravery’." [87] Lewis, Dominic Bevan Wyndham (1931). Charles of Europe. Coward-McCann. pp. 174–175. OCLC 485792029. "A new star was now rising in the piratical firmament, Barbarossa's lieutenant Dragut-Reis, a Greek who had been taken prisoner by the corsairs in his youth and had turned Mahometan." [88] Braudel, Fernand (1995). The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II, Volume 2. University of California Press. pp. 908–909. ISBN 0520203305, 9780520203303. "Of all the corsairs who preyed on Sicilian wheat, Dragut (Turghut) was the most dangerous. A Greek by birth, he was now about fifty years old and behind him lay a long and adventurous career including four years in the Genoese galleys."

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Greek Muslims [89] Reynolds, Clark G. (1974). Command of the sea: the history and strategy of maritime empires. Morrow. pp. 120–121. ISBN 0688002676, 9780688002671. "Ottomans extended their western maritime frontier across North Africa under the naval command of another Greek Moslem, Torghoud (or Dragut), who succeeded Barbarossa upon the latter's death in 1546." [90] Naylor, Phillip Chiviges (2009). North Africa: a history from antiquity to the present. University of Texas Press. pp. 120–121. ISBN 0292719221, 9780292719224. "One of the most famous corsairs was Turghut (Dragut) (?–1565), who was of Greek ancestry and a protégé of Khayr al-Din. ... While pasha, he built up Tripoli and adorned it, making it one of the most impressive cities along the North African littoral." [91] Fitzsimmons, Mick; Harris, Bob (5 January 2001). "Cat Stevens - A Musical Journey" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio2/ r2music/ documentaries/ catstevens. shtml). Taped documentary interview synopsis. BBC2. . Retrieved 20 December 2008.

External links • • • • •

www.GreekMuslims.com (http://www.greekmuslims.com) Karalahana.com (http://www.karalahana.com) Trebizond Greek: A language without a tongue (http://lahana.org/index.php?topic=74.0) Radio Ocena (http://www.ocena.info) Rest in Crimea (http://www.sevrest.com)

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors Greek Muslims  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=476104941  Contributors: A.Garnet, Absar, Ace of Spades, Aldux, Alessandro57, Alexf, Algormortis, Andreas Kaganov, AndreasJS, Andrij Kursetsky, Aramgar, Ashrf1979, Athenean, Awewe, BasilioC, Behemoth, Bekird, Bender235, Bentogoa, Big Adamsky, Bluemoose, Bogdangiusca, Catalographer, Chaoborus, Civirn, CommonsDelinker, Conglacio, Cretanforever, Datezikiz, Delirium, Denizz, Dolavon, Domitius, DragonTiger23, Edward321, English Bobby, FastAsleep2, Fidelove, Fjbfour, Future Perfect at Sunrise, George Al-Shami, Gilliam, Good Olfactory, GorgeCustersSabre, Grafen, Greekmuslimgirl, Ground Zero, Harvnorma, Hasanovic26, Hectorian, Igiffin, J04n, Jagged 85, Jeancey, Jingiby, Jonxwood, Kaiwynn, Kapnisma, Kavas, Khoikhoi, KökBöri, Laveol, Macukali, Mahmudmasri, MariusM, Markussep, Mayumashu, Meden agan, Metb82, Misheu, Mmorgil, Nightrain80, NikoSilver, NortyNort, Ohconfucius, OttomanReference, Parishan, PebbledBeach, Periptero, PhnomPencil, Premeditated Chaos, Produmiice, R'n'B, Radwquer, Rich Farmbrough, RumPontos, SamuelTheGhost, Sardanaphalus, Sarfuz, Scythian1, Sthenel, Sulmues, Supreme Deliciousness, Tafikyak, Tekleni, Telex, Wai Hong, Welsh, Woohookitty, Xenovatis, Xythianos, Zerida, ZjarriRrethues, 180 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:Greek Janissaries - Greek youths who are being converted to Islam - Young Greeks at the Mosque - oil painting on canvas - Jean Léon Gérôme - 1865.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_Janissaries_-_Greek_youths_who_are_being_converted_to_Islam_-_Young_Greeks_at_the_Mosque_-_oil_painting_on_canvas_-_Jean_Léon_Gérôme_-_1865.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ChristosV, CristianChirita, EpiriPrincipis, G.dallorto, Mattes, Origamiemensch, Shakko, Tasoskessaris, Ukas, 1 anonymous edits Image:Makedonien ethnisch (1892).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Makedonien_ethnisch_(1892).JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: own scan Image:Hussein Hilmi.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hussein_Hilmi.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bain News Service, publisher. Image:Ahmed Vefik Pasha.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ahmed_Vefik_Pasha.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Disderi, Paris Image:Ethem Pasha Greek Muslim Ottoman.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ethem_Pasha_Greek_Muslim_Ottoman.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Astliteimo Image:Khazdadar.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Khazdadar.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Inconnugh, Moumou82

License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

Tsakonian language

1

Tsakonian language Tsakonian Τσακωνικά Tsakōniká Spoken in

Greece

Region

Eastern Peloponnese around Mount Parnon

Native speakers

several hundred fluent

[1]

 (date missing)

Language family Indo-European •

Hellenic •

Doric •

Tsakonian

Language codes ISO 639-3

tsd

Linguasphere

56-AAA-b

Tsakonian, Tsaconian, Tzakonian or Tsakonic (Greek: Τσακωνική διάλεκτος or Τσακώνικα) is a Hellenic language, spoken in the Tsakonian region of the Peloponnese, Greece. Tsakonian derives from Doric Greek, being its only living descendant.[2] Tsakonian is critically endangered, with only a few hundred, mostly elderly, fluent speakers left.[1]

Etymology It is named after its speakers, the Tsakonians, which in turn may be derived from 'exo-Laconians' 'Outer Lakonians'.

Geographic distribution Tsakonian is found today in a group of mountain towns and villages slightly inland from the Argolic Gulf, although it was once spoken farther to the south and west as well as on the coasts of Laconia (ancient Sparta). There was formerly a Tsakonian colony on the Sea of Marmara (or Propontis; two villages near Gönen, Vatika and Havoutsi), probably dating from the 18th century, whose members were resettled in Greece with the 1924 population exchanges.[1] Propontis Tsakonian appears to have died out around 1970.

Official status Tsakonian has no official status. Prayers and liturgies of the Greek Orthodox Church have been translated into Tsakonian, but the ancient Koine of the traditional church services is usually used as in other locations in Greece. Some teaching materials in Tsakonian for use in local schools have reportedly also been produced.[3]

Dialects Tsakonian is divided by scholars into three dialects, Northern Tsakonian, Southern Tsakonian and Propontis Tsakonian. Another difference between Tsakonian and the common Demotic Greek dialect is its verb system - Tsakonian preserves different archaic forms, such as participial periphrasis for the present tense. Certain complementisers and other adverbial features present in the standard Modern Greek dialect are absent from Tsakonian, with the exception of the Modern που (pu) relativiser, which takes the form πη (pʰi) in Tsakonian (note: the traditional Tsakonian orthography uses the digraph πφ + η, giving πφη). Noun morphology is broadly similar to Standard Modern Greek,

Tsakonian language although Tsakonian tends to drop the nominative, final -ς (-s) from masculine nouns, thus Tsakonian ο τσχίφτα for Standard o τρίφτης (o tshifta/o triftis: "grater"). The Propontis dialect was much more heavily influenced by the modern Thracian dialect and although there were significant grammatical differences, in terms of vocabulary it was much closer to Standard Modern Greek. Compare the Northern and Southern word for water, ύο (io, derived from Ancient Greek ὕδωρ) to Propontic νερέ and Standard νερό (nere, nero). However, there has always been contact with Koine Greek speakers and the language was affected by the neighboring Greek dialects. Additionally, there are some lexical borrowings from Arvanitika Albanian and (Tsakonian/Greek) "Our language is Tsakonian. Ask and they'll tell you./Groússa Turkish. The core vocabulary remains námou eíni ta Tsakónika. Rotéete na nioúm'aléoi./E glóssa mas eínai ta Tsakónika. recognizably Doric, though experts disagree Rotéste na sas poun.", bilingual (Tsakonian and Standard Greek) sign in the towns of Leonidio and Tyros. on the extent to which other true Doricisms can be found. There are only a few hundred, mainly elderly true native speakers alive,[1] although there are a great many more who can speak the language less than fluently. Geographical barriers to travel and communication kept the Tsakonians relatively isolated from the rest of Greece until the 19th century, although there was some trade between the coastal towns. The rise of mass education and improved travel beginning after the Greek War of Independence meant that fluent Tsakonian speakers were no longer as isolated from the rest of Greece and there began a rapid decline from an estimated figure of some 200,000 fluent speakers to the present fluent core estimated in the hundreds. Since the introduction of electricity to all villages in Tsakonia by the late 1950s, the Greek mass media can reach the most remote of areas and profoundly affect the speech of younger speakers. Efforts to revive the language by teaching it in local schools do not seem to have had much success. Standard Modern Greek is the official language of government, commerce and education, and it appears inevitable that the continued modernization of Tsakonia will lead to the language's disappearance sometime this century.

Sounds Vowels • A [a] can appear as a reflex of Doric [aː], in contexts where Attic had η [ɛː] and Modern Greek has [i]: αμέρα [aˈmera] corresponding to Modern ημέρα [imera] "day", στρατιώτα [stratiˈota] corresponding to Modern στρατιώτης [stratiˈotis] "soldier". • Ε [e] > [i] before vowels: e.g. Βασιλήα [vasiˈlia] instead of βασιλέα [vasiˈlea]. • O occasionally [o] > [u]: ουφις [ufis] < όφις [ˈofis] "snake", τθούμα [ˈtʰuma] < στόμα [ˈstoma] "mouth". Final [o] > [e] after coronals and front vowels: όνος [ˈonos] > όνε [ˈone], χοίρος [ˈxyros] > χιούρε [ˈxjure], γραφτός [ɣrafˈtos] > γραφτέ [ɣrafˈte], χρέος [ˈxreos] > χρίε [ˈxrie], but δρόμος [ˈðromos] > δρόμο [ˈðromo] • Υ Pronounced in Modern Greek [i], this was [u] in Doric and [y] in Attic. The reflex of this phoneme in Tsakonian is [u], and [ju] after coronals (suggesting an origin in [y]). σούκα [ˈsuka] corresponding to Modern

2

Tsakonian language σύκα [ˈsika] "figs", άρτουμα [ˈartuma] corresponding to άρτυμα [ˈartima] "bread"; λύκος [ˈlykos] > λιούκο [ˈljuko] [ˈʎuko] "wolf" • Ω [ɔː] in Ancient Greek, regularly goes to [u]: μουρήα [muˈria] (Ancient μωρέα [mɔːˈrea], Modern μουριά [murˈja]), αού [au] < λαλών [laˈlɔːn] "speaking". (Note: Tsakonian citation forms for verbs are participles, hence they are given as derived from the ancient participle in -ών.)

Consonants Tsakonian in some words preserves the pre-classical Greek [w]-sound, represented in some Ancient Greek texts by the digamma (ϝ). In Tsakonian, this sound has become a fricative [v]: βάννε [ˈvane] "sheep", corresponding to Ancient ϝαμνός [wamˈnos] (Attic ἀμνός). Tsakonian has extensive changes triggered by palatalisation: • • • •

[k] > [tɕ] : κύριος [ˈkyrios] > τζιούρη [ˈtɕuri], occasionally [ts]: κεφάλι [keˈfali] > τσουφά [tsuˈfa] [ɡ] > [dz] : αγγίζων [aŋˈɡizɔːn] > αντζίχου [anˈdzixu] [p] > [c] : πηγάδι [piˈɣaði] > κηγάδι [ciˈɣaði] [t] > [c] : τυρός [tyˈros] > κιουρέ [cuˈre], occasionally [ts]: τίποτα [ˈtipota] > τσίπτα [ˈtsipta]

• • • •

[m] > [n] : Μιχάλης [miˈxalis] > Ν(ν)ιχάλη [niˈxali] [n] > [ɲ] : ανοίγων [aˈniɣɔːn] > ανοίντου [aˈɲindu] [l] > [ʎ] : ηλιάζων [iliˈazɔːn] > λιάζου [ˈʎazu] [r] > [ʒ] : ρυάκι [ryˈaki] > ρζάτζι [ˈʒatɕi]. This sound appears to have been a fricative trill in the 19th century, and [ʒ] survived latterly only in women's usage in Southern Tsakonian.

In Southern Tsakonian, [l] is deleted before back and central vowels: λόγος [ˈloɣos] > Northern λόγo [ˈloɣo], Southern όγo [ˈoɣo]; λούζων [ˈluzɔːn] > Northern λούκχου [ˈlukʰu], Southern ούκχου [ˈukʰu]; Occasionally [θ] > [s], which appears to reflect an earlier process in Laconian, but in others [θ] is retained though the word is absent in Standard Greek: θυγάτηρ [θyˈɣatir] > σάτη [ˈsati], but Ancient θύων [ˈθiɔːn] (Modern σφάζω [ˈsfazo]) > θύου [ˈθiu] Word-final [s] > [r], which reflects an earlier process in Laconian; in Tsakonian, it is a liaison phoneme: τίνος [ˈtinos] > τσούνερ [ˈtsuner] Word-initial [r] > [ʃ]: *ράφων [ˈrafɔːn] > σχάφου [ˈʃafu] In the common verb ending -ζω, [z] > [nd] : φωνάζων [foˈnazɔːn] > φωνιάντου [foˈɲandu] Tsakonian avoids clusters, and reduces them to aspirated or prenasalised stops and affricates: • [ðr, θr, tr] > [tʃ]: δρύας, άνθρωπος, τράγος [ˈðryas, ˈanθropos, ˈtraɣos] > τσχούα, άτσχωπο, τσχάο [ˈtʃua, ˈatʃopo, ˈtʃao] • [sp, st, sθ, sk, sx] > [pʰ, tʰ, tʰ, kʰ, kʰ]: σπείρων, ιστός, επιάσθη, ασκός, ίσχων [ˈspirɔːn, isˈtos, epiˈasθi, asˈkos, ˈisxɔːn] > πφείρου, ιτθέ, εκιάτθε, ακχό, ίκχου [ˈpʰiru, iˈtʰe, eˈcatʰe, aˈkʰo, ˈikʰu] • [mf, nθ, ŋx] > [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ]: ομφαλός, γρονθία, ρύγχος [omfaˈlos, ɣronˈθia, ˈryŋxos] > απφαλέ, γροτθία, σχούκο [apʰaˈle, ɣroˈtʰia, ˈʃukʰo] • [ks] > [ts]: ξερός [kseˈros] > τσερέ [tseˈre] • [kt, xθ] > [tʰ]: δάκτυλο, δεχθώ [ˈðaktylo, ðexˈθɔː] > δάτθυλε, δετθού [ˈðatʰile, ðeˈtʰu] • [l] after consonants often goes to [r]: πλατύ, κλέφτης, γλώσσα, αχλάδες [plaˈty, ˈkleftis, ˈɣlɔːsa, aˈxlaðes] > πρακιού, κρέφτα, γρούσα, αχράε [praˈcu, ˈkrefta, ˈɣrusa, aˈxrae] • [rp, rt, rk, rð] > [mb, nd, ŋɡ, nd]: σκορπίος, άρτος, άρκα, πορδή [skorˈpios, ˈartos, ˈarka, porˈði] > κχομπίο, άντε, άγκα, πφούντα [kʰomˈbio, ˈande, ˈaŋɡa, ˈpʰunda] [z, v] are added between vowels: μυία, κυανός [myˈia, kyaˈnos] > μούζα, κουβάνε [ˈmuza, kuˈvane] [ɣ, ð] often drop out between vowels: πόδας, τράγος [ˈpoðas, ˈtraɣos] > πούα, τσχάο [ˈpua, ˈtʃao]

3

Tsakonian language

4

Prosody original song-Tsakonian

In Roman transliteration

Πουλάκι έμα έχα τθο κλουβί τσαί μερουτέ ωι έμα έχα

Poulaki ema echa t-tho klouvi tse meroute oi ema echa

τάχιγα νι εμα ζάχαρι ποκίχα νι έμα μόσκο,

tachigha ni ema zachari pokicha ema mosko

τσαί από το μόσκο το περσού τσαί από τα μυρωδιά

tse apo to mosko to persu tse apo ta mirodia

εσκαντάλιστε το κλουβί τσ' εφύντζε μι τ'αϊδίνι.

eskantaliste to klouvi ts efitze mi taidine.

Τσ'αφέγκι σι νιε τσυνηγού με το κλουβί τθα τζέρρι.

Tsafegi si ni tsinighou me to klouvi t-tha chera

Έλα πουλί τθο τόπο ωτι έλα τθα κατοιτσία

Ela pouli t-tho topo oti ela t-tha katitsia

ω'αλάτσου τα κουδούνια ωτι να βάλου άλλα τσαινούρζα.

o alatsou ta koudhounia oti na valou alla tsenourza.

In modern Greek

Modern Greek pronunciation - Roman guideline

Πουλάκι είχα στο κλουβί και μερομένο το είχα.

Poulaki icha sto klouvi ke meromeno to icha

το τάιζα ζάχαρι και το πότιζα μόσχο

to taiza zachari ke to potiza moscho

και από τον πολύ τον μόσχο και την μυρωδιά του

ke apo ton poli ton moscho ke tin mirodia tou

εσκανταλίστη και το κλουβί και μου έφυγε τ'αϊδόνι

eskantalisti le to klouvi ke mou efyghe taidoni.

Κι ο αφέντης το κυνηγάει με το κλουβί στο χέρι:

ke o afegis to kinigai me to klouvi sto cheri

Έλα πουλί στον τόπο σου, έλα στην κατοικία σου

Ela pouli ston topo sou, ela stin katikia sou

ν'αλλάξω τα κουδούνια σου να βάλω άλλα καινούργια

Nallaxo ta koudounia sou na valo alla kenourgia.

English translation I had a bird in a cage and I kept it happy I gave it sugar and wine-grapes and from the great amount of grapes and their essence, it got naughty (possibly means it got drunk) and escaped. And its master now runs after it with the cage in his hands: Come my bird back where you belong, come to your house I will remove your old bells and buy you new ones.

Phonotactics Tsakonian avoids consonant clusters, as seen, and drops final [s] and [n]; as a result, syllable structure tends more to CV than in Standard Modern Greek. (The use of digraphs in tradition spelling tends to obscure this). For instances, ancient [hadros] "hard" goes to Tsakonian [a.tʃe], where /t͡ʃ/ can be considered a single phoneme; it is written traditionally with a trigraph as ατσχέ (= atskhe).

Grammar Tsakonian has undergone considerable morphological simplification: there is minimal case inflection. The present and imperfect indicative in Tsakonian are formed with participles, like English but unlike the rest of Greek: ενεί αού, έμα αού "I am saying, I was saying" < ειμί λαλών, ήμην λαλών. • Ενεί (Enee) = I am • Εσεί (Esi) = you are • Έννι (Eni) = he/she/it is • Έμε (Eme) = we are • Έτε (Ete) = you are

Tsakonian language

5

• Είνι (Eeni) = they are • • • • • •

Έμα (Ema) = I was Έσα (Esa) = you were Έκη (Eki) = he/she/it was Έμαϊ (Emai) = we were Έταϊ (Etai) = you were Ήγκιαϊ (Igiai) = they were

• • • • • •

φερήκου (males) φερήκα (females) (ferikou/ferika) = I bring φερήκεις (ferikis) = you bring φερήκει (feriki) = he/she/it brings φερήκουντε (ferikoude) = we bring φερήκουτε (ferikoute) = you bring φερήκουσι (ferikousi) = they bring

Writing system Traditionally, Tsakonian used the standard Greek alphabet, along with digraphs to represent certain sounds which either do not occur in Demotic Greek, or which do not commonly occur in combination with the same sounds as they do in Tsakonian. For example, the [ʃ] sound, which does not occur in standard Greek, does in Tsakonian, and is spelled σχ (much like German sch). Another sound recalls Czech ř. Prof. Thanasis Costakis invented an orthography using dots, spiritus asper, and caron for use in his works, which has been used in his grammar and several other works. This is more like the Czech usage of hačeks (such as š). Lastly, unpalatalized n and l before a front vowel can be written double, to contrast with a palatalised single letter. (e.g. in Southern Tsakonian ένι [eɲi] "he is", έννι [eni] "I am" -- the latter corresponding to Northern Tsakonian έμι [emi] and Standard Greek είμαι [ime].) [4]

Transcribing Tsakonian Digraphs

Costakis

IPA

σχ

σ̌

ʃ

τσχ

σ̓

tʃ

ρζ

ρζ

rʒ

τθ

τ̒

tʰ

κχ

κ̒

kʰ

πφ

π̒

pʰ

τζ

 ̌

 ̌

(Κ) τζ – τζ & τρζ — τρζ

 ̌

(K) tɕ, trʒ (L) tɕ d͡ʒ

(Λ) τζ – τζ νν

ν̇

n (not ɲ)

λλ

λ̣

l (not ʎ)

Note: (K) is for the northern dialect of Kastanitsa and Sitaina, (Λ) and (L) for the southern which is spoken around Leonidio and Tyros.

Tsakonian language

6

Examples English

Modern Greek

Tsakonian (Greek alphabet) Tsakonian (Latin script) Tsakonian (Costakis Notation)

Where is my room?

Πού είναι το δωμάτιό μου; Κιά έννι τθο όντα νι;

Ciá éñi o óda ni?

κιά έν̇ι τ̒ο όντα νι;

Where is the beach?

Πού είναι η παραλία;

Κιά έννι τθο περιγιάλλι;

Ciá éñi to perigiálli?

κιά έν̇ι α περιγιάλ̣ι;

Where is the bar?

Πού είναι το μπαρ;

Κιά έννι τθο μπαρ;

Ciá éñi to bar?

κιά έν̇ι τ̒ο μπαρ;

Μη' μ' αντζίτζερε όρπα!

Mē' m'adzíchere órpa!

Μαν με ατζ ̌ίτζερρε όρπα!

Don't touch me there! Μη μ' αγγίζεις εκεί!

References [1] C. Moseley. Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages, p. 271 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6LoNl7ZRO70C& pg=PA272& dq=tsakonian& hl=en& sa=X& ei=im4xT8iCO6mRiALw8623Aw& ved=0CF0Q6AEwCA#v=onepage& q=tsakonian& f=false). Psychology Press, 2007, 669 pages. ISBN 9780700711970 [2] Linguist List (http:/ / linguistlist. org/ forms/ langs/ LLDescription. cfm?code=tsd) [3] P. Trudgill, D. Schreier (2006): Greece and Cyprus. In: U. Ammon (ed.), Sociolinguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. [4] Sources: Nicholas, Houpis, Costakis

Sources • Costakis, Athanasios (Thanasis) P. (1951). Σύντομη Γραμματική της Τσακωνικής Διαλέκτου (Brief Grammar of the Tsakonian Dialect). Athens: Institut Français d'Athènes. • Horrocks, Geoffrey (1997). Greek: A history of the language and its speakers. London: Longman. • Nicholas, Nick (unpublished). [n/a A Critical Lexicostatistical Examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian]. Second Draft. n/a. • Nicholas, Nick (1999). The Story of pu: The grammaticalisation in space and time of a Modern Greek complementiser (http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/Work/thesis.html). Final. • Pernot, H. (1934). Introduction à l'étude du dialecte tsakonien. Paris.

External links • Brief Description - Ethnologue (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tsd) • Linguistic Lineage (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_lang_family.asp?code=TSD) • Projet Homere (http://www.projethomere.com/travaux/dialectes_grecs/tsakonien/tsakonien1.htm) (text sample and audio files) • Tsakonian Bibliography (http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/Work/tsakbib.html) • The Lord's Prayer in Tsakonian (http://www.christusrex.org/www1/pater/JPN-tsakonian.html) (text sample) • Church Service in Tsakonian (http://arcadia.ceid.upatras.gr/arkadia/realaudio/leitourgia.rm) (RealAudio) • Tsakonian in the Tree for Hellenic (http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/get-familyid. cfm?CFTREEITEMKEY=IEG) • Greek-Tsakonian dictionary (http://www.leonidio.gr/leonidio/?p=473|Tsakonian-Greek,)

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Tsakonian language  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479906165  Contributors: 3rdAlcove, Aeusoes1, Angr, Anthony Appleyard, Athenean, Avicennasis, BishkekRocks, Bogdangiusca, Bookofjude, Budelberger, Bwilkins, Carlsruhe4, CasperBraske, Cplakidas, Curps, Dddf4, Demonax, Deville, Djnjwd, Dkounias, Dogface, Dpv, Edwy, Ekki01, Etz Haim, Filiocht, Flauto Dolce, Francis Schonken, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Garzo, Gilgamesh, Hadal, Helikophis, Hottentot, Hrothberht, JW1805, Jeff3000, Jorge Stolfi, JorisvS, Jp, Jpbrenna, Ketiltrout, Kupirijo, Kwamikagami, Leewonbum, Ligulem, Lo2u, Lubossekk, Lunar Jesters, MaartenVidal, Macrakis, Mahmudmasri, Martarius, Megistias, Melenc, Miskin, Mundart, NeoJustin, NikoSilver, Nil Blau, Node ue, Notesenses, Olahus, Opoudjis, Optim, OwenBlacker, Paul August, Picapica, Raayen, Railsmart, Remember the dot, Rexhep Bojaxhiu, Shqiptar nga Kosova, Steinbach, Taivo, Tedernst, Telex, Th676, Theathenae, Tzetzes, Unyoyega, Uyui89, Мико, 66 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:Leonidio-Tsakonian-sign.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leonidio-Tsakonian-sign.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Мико

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7

Pontic Greeks

1

Pontic Greeks Pontian Greeks Έλληνες του Πόντου (Ρωμιοί)

Pontian Greek man in traditional clothes. Total population c. 3,000,000 Regions with significant populations Greece, Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Armenia, Cyprus Languages Predominantly Modern and Pontian Greek. Also the languages of their respective countries of residence. Religion Greek Orthodox Christianity, Sunni Muslim (Only in Turkey)

The Pontic Greeks of the Pontians (Greek: Πόντιοι, Turkish: Pontus Rumları) are an ethnic group traditionally living in the Pontus region, the shores of Turkey's Black Sea. They consist of Greek descendants and speak the Pontic Greek dialect, a distinct form of the standard Greek language which, due to the remoteness of Pontus, has had a process of linguistic evolution different from that of the rest of the Greek world. Pontians were historically Christian Greeks who were persecuted, beginning in the 15th Century, by the Ottoman Empire.

Population

Pontus region.

Nowadays, due to extensive intermarriage (also with non-Pontic Greeks), the exact number of Greeks hailing from the Pontus, or people with Greek descent living there, is unknown. After 1988, Pontian Greeks in the Soviet Union started to migrate to Greece settling in and around Athens and Thessaloniki. They are known as "Russian Pontians" (Ρωσσοπόντιοι) by fellow Greeks. The largest communities of Pontian Greeks (or people of Pontian Greek descent) around the world are[1]:

Pontic Greeks

Country / region

2

Official data

Estimation

Concentration

Note(s)

Article

 Greece

over 2,000,000

Athens, Macedonia, Thrace

 USA

200,000

Greek American

 Germany

100,000

Greeks in Germany

 Russia

97,827 (2002)

34,078 in Stavropol Krai 26,540 in Krasnodar Krai

Greeks in Russia

 Ukraine

91,548 (2001)

77,516 in Donetsk Oblast

Greeks in Ukraine (Sometime referred to as Crimean Greeks)

 Australia

56,000

Greek Australian

 Canada

20,000

Greek Canadians

 Cyprus

20,000

Greek Cypriots

less than 3,500; 12,000 (1949-1974)

Greeks in the Czech Republic

 Czech Republic  Georgia

15,166 (2002)

7,415 in Kvemo Kartli 3,792 in Tbilisi 2,168 in Adjara

Greeks in Georgia

 Kazakhstan

12,703 (2010)

2,160 in Karagandy 1,767 in Almaty 1,637 in Zhambyl

Greeks in Kazakhstan

 Uzbekistan

10,453 [2] (1989)

 Armenia

1,176 [3] (2001)

Greeks in Uzbekistan

2,000

655 in Lori 308 in Yerevan

Greeks in Armenia

Pontic Greeks

3

History Antiquity In Greek mythology the Black Sea region is the region where Jason and the Argonauts sailed to find the Golden Fleece. The first recorded Greek colony, established on the northern shores of ancient Anatolia, was Sinop, circa 800 BC. The settlers of Sinop were merchants from the Ionian Greek city state of Miletus. After the colonization of the shores of the Black Sea, known until then to the Greek world as Pontos Axeinos (Inhospitable Sea), the name changed to Pontos Euxeinos (Hospitable Sea). In time, as the numbers of Greeks settling in the region grew significantly, more colonies were established along the whole Black Sea coastline of what is now Turkey, Bulgaria, Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, and Romania. The region of Trapezus, later called Trebizond, now Trabzon, was mentioned by Xenophon in his famous work Anabasis, describing how he and other 10,000 Greek mercenaries fought their way to the Euxine Sea after the failure of the rebellion of Cyrus the Younger whom they fought for, against his older Mithridates VI, the King of Pontus. brother Artaxerxes II of Persia. Xenophon mentions that when at the sight of sea they shouted "Thalatta! Thalatta!" – "The sea! The sea!", the local people understood them. They were Greeks too and, according to Xenophon, they had been there for over 300 years.[4] A whole range of trade flourished among the various Greek colonies, but also with the indigenous tribes who inhabited the Pontus inland. Soon Trebizond established a leading stature among the other colonies and the region nearby become the heart of the Pontian Greek culture and civilization. This region was organized circa 281 BC as a kingdom by Mithridates I of Pontus, whose ancestry line dated back to Ariobarzanes I, a ruler of the Greek town of Cius. The most prominent descendant of Mithridates I was Mithridates VI of Pontus, who between 90 and 65 BC fought the Mithridatic Wars, three bitter wars against the Roman Republic, before eventually being defeated. Mithridates VI the Great, as he was left in memory, claiming to be the protector of the Greek world against the barbarian Romans, expanded his kingdom to Bithynia, Crimea and Propontis (in present day Ukraine and Turkey) before his downfall after the Third Mithridatic War.

Roman Diocese of Pontus, 400 AD.

Nevertheless, the kingdom survived as a Roman vassal state, now named Bosporan Kingdom and based in Crimea, until the 4th century AD, when it succumbed to the Huns. The rest of the Pontus became part of the Roman Empire, while the mountainous interior (Chaldia) was fully incorporated into the Byzantine Empire during the 6th century.

Pontic Greeks

4

Middle Ages Pontus was the birthplace of the Komnenos dynasty, which ruled the empire from 1082 to 1185, a time in which the empire resurged to recover much of Anatolia from the Seljuk Turks. In the aftermath of the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Empire of Trebizond was established by Alexios I of Trebizond, a descendant of Alexios I Komnenos, the patriarch of the Komnenos dynasty. This empire lasted for more than 250 years until it eventually fell at the hands of Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire in 1461.

Alexios III (1338–1390), Emperor of Trebizond, and his wife. Chrysobull at Dionysiou monastery, Mount Athos.

Cardinal Bessarion of Trebizond (1395–1472), a Pontian Greek scholar, [5] statesman, and cardinal.

During the Ottoman period a number of Pontian Greeks converted to Islam and adopted the Turkish language. This could be willingly, for example so to avoid paying the higher rate of taxation imposed on Orthodox Christians or in order to make themselves more eligible for higher level government and regular military employment opportunities within the empire (at least in the later period following the abolition of the infamous Greek and Balkan Christian child levy or 'devshirme', on which the elite Janissary corps had in the early Ottoman period depended for its recruits). But conversion could also occur in response to pressures from central government and local Muslim militia (e.g.) following any one of the Russo-Turkish wars in which ethnic Greeks from the Ottoman Empire's northern border regions were known to have collaborated, fought alongside, and sometimes even led invading Russian forces, such as was the case in the Greek governed, semi-autonomous Romanian Principalities, Trebizond, and the area that was briefly to become part of the Russian Caucasus in the far northeast.

Pontic Greeks

5

Modern In fact, the second half of the nineteenth century saw large numbers of such pro-Russian Pontic Greeks from the eastern Trebizond region resettle in the area around Kars (which together with southern Georgia already had a nucleus of Caucasus Greeks), which was ceded to the Russian Empire following the Russo-Turkish war that culminated in the 1878 Treaty of San Stefano. They had declined the expedient of conversion to Islam, abandoned their lands, and sought refuge in territory now controlled by their Christian Orthodox "protector", which used Pontic Greeks, Georgians, and southern Russians, and even Greek population in Anatolia and Asia Minor in blue color, 1911. non-Orthodox Armenians, Germans, and Estonians to "Christianize" this recently conquered southern Caucasus region, which it now administered as the newly created Kars Oblast (Kars Province). On the eve of World War I, the Young Turk administration exerted a policy of assimilation and ethnic cleansing of the Orthodox Christians in the Empire, which affected Pontian Greeks too. In 1916 Trabzon itself fell to the forces of the Russian Empire, fomenting the idea of an independent Pontic state. As the Bolsheviks came to power with the October Revolution (7 November 1917), Russian forces withdrew from the region to take part in the Russian Civil War (1917–1923). In 1917–1922, there existed an unrecognized by the name Republic of Pontus, led by Chrysanthus, Metropolitan of Trebizond. In 1917 Greece and the Entente powers considered the creation of a Hellenic autonomous state in Pontus, most likely as part of a Ponto-Armenian Federation.[6] In 1919 on the fringes of the Paris Peace Conference Chrysanthos proposed the establishment of a fully independent Republic of Pontus, but neither Greece nor the other delegations supported it.[7] Proposed flag of the Republic of Pontus.

Pontian Greek women and children harvesting tea in the Black Sea town of Chakva, Georgia, ca. 1905–15. Photograph by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii.

Once the Russians had evacuated Pontus, Greeks and Armenians in the region became the targets of irregular Turkish and Kurdish militia. Seeing the fate of Armenians, Pontian Greeks were themselves forced to take up armed resistance, leading to what became known as the Pontus resistance (αντάρτικο του Πόντου in Greek), which lasted until 1923, when the population exchange between Greece and Turkey was agreed under the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne. While most Christian Pontians were forced to leave for Greece - avoiding nearby Russia, which in the decade post-1917 was of course plunged into the chaos of revolution and civil war - those who had converted to Islam (and in accordance with historical precedent were considered to have "turned Turk") remained in Turkey and were assimilated into the Muslim population of the north and northeast, where their bi-lingual Greek- and Turkish-speaking descendents can still be found (including amongst the notoriously nationalistic Turks of present-day Trebizond).

Pontic Greeks

6

Rumca, as the Pontian Greek language is known in Turkey, survives today, mostly among older speakers. After the exchange most Pontian Greeks settled in Macedonia and Attica. Pontian Greeks inside the Soviet Union were predominantly settled in the regions bordering the Georgian SSR and Armenian SSR. They also had notable presence in Black Sea ports like Odessa and Sukhumi. About 100,000 Pontian Greeks, including 37,000 in the Caucasus area alone, were deported to Central Asia in 1949 during Stalin's post-war deportations. Big indigenous communities exist today in former USSR states, while through immigration large numbers can be found in Germany, Australia, and the United States.

Persecution and population exchange Like Armenians, Assyrians and other Ottoman Greeks, the Greeks of Trebizond and the shortlived Russian Caucasus province of Kars (which in 1916 fell back under Ottoman control) suffered widespread massacre and what is now usually termed ethnic cleansing at the beginning of the 20th century, first by the Young Turks and later by Kemalist forces. In both cases, the pretext was again that the Pontic Greeks and Armenians had collaborated or fought with the forces of their Russian co-religionists and "protectors" before the termination of hostilities between the two empires that followed the October Revolution. Death marches[8] through Turkey's mountainous terrain, forced labour in the infamous "Amele Taburu" in Anatolia and slaughter by the irregular bands of Topal Osman resulted in tens of thousands of Pontic Greeks perishing during the period from 1915 to 1922. In 1923, after hundreds of years, those remaining were expelled from Turkey to Greece as part of the population exchange between Greece and Turkey defined by the Treaty of Lausanne. In his book Black Sea, author Neal Ascherson writes: The Turkish guide-books on sale in the Taksim Meydane offer this account of the 1923 Katastrofĕ: 'After the proclamation of the Republic, the Greeks who lived in the region returned to their own country [...].' Their own country? Returned? They had lived in the Pontos for nearly three thousand years. Their Pontian dialect was not understandable to twentieth-century Athenians.[9] The suffering of the Pontian Greeks did not end upon their violent and forceful departure from the lands of their ancestors. Many Pontian Greek refugees perished during the voyage from Asia Minor to Greece. Notable accounts of these voyages have been included in Steve Papadopoulos’ work on Pontian culture and history. Pontian Greek immigrants to the United States from that era were quoted as saying: Many children and elderly died during the voyage to Greece. When the crew realized they were dead, they were thrown overboard. Soon the mothers of dead children started pretending that they were still alive. After witnessing what was done to the deceased, they would hold on to them and comfort them as if they were still alive. They did this to give them a proper burial in Greece.

Settlements Some of the settlements historically inhabited by Pontian Greeks include (current official names in parenthesis): In Pontus Amasia (Amasya), Meletios (Mesudiye), Aphene, Kerasounta (Giresun), Kissa, Kromna, Amisos (Samsun), Sinope (Sinop), Themiscyra (Terme), Trapezounta (Trabzon), Bafra, Argyroupolis

Traditional rural Pontian houses.

(Gümüşhane), Xeroiana (Şiran), Ofis (Of), Santa (Dumanlı), Tonya, Matsouka (Maçka), Galiana (Konaklar), Sourmena (Sürmene), Imera (Olucak), Rizounta (Rize), Mouzena, Kotoiora (Ordu), Livera, Platana, Kel Kit,

Pontic Greeks

7

Nikopolis, Kakatsis, Merzifounta, Tokat, Oinoe (Ünye), Neokaisareia (Niksar), Fatsa, Tripolis (Tirebolu), Thermi (Terme), Gümüşhacıköy, Komana, Hopa, Athina (Pazar), Koloneia, Gemoura (Yomra), Akdağmadeni. Outside Pontus Kars Oblast, Balya, Sevasteia (Sivas), Çorum, Bayburt, Adapazarı. In Crimea and the northern Azov Sea Chersonesos, Kerkinitida, Panticapaeum, Soughdaia, Tanais, Theodosia. On the Taman peninsula, Krasnodar Krai and the Colchian coast Batis, Dioscurias, Germonassa, Gorgippa, Heraclea Pontica, Phanagoria, Phasis, Pitsunda, Sebastopolis. On the southwestern coast of Ukraine and the Eastern Balkans Mariupol, Antiphilos, Apollonia (Sozopol), Germonakris, Mesembria, Nikonis, Odessos (Varna), Olbia, Tira.

Culture The culture of Pontus has been strongly influenced by the topography of its different regions. In commercial cities like Trebizond, Samsunda, Kerasounda and Sinopi upper level education and arts flourished under the protection of a cosmopolitan middle class. In the inland cities such as Argyroupolis, the economy was based upon agriculture and mining, thus creating an economic and cultural gap between the developed urban ports and the rural centers which lay upon the valleys and plains extending from the base of the Pontic alps.

Language Pontic's linguistic lineage stems from Ionic Greek via Koine and Byzantine Greek with many archaisms and contains loanwords from Turkish and to a lesser extent, Persian and various Caucasian languages.

Education The rich cultural activity of Pontian Greeks is witnessed by the number of educational institutions, churches, and monasteries in the region. These include the Phrontisterion of Trapezous that operated from 1682/3 to 1921 and provided a major impetus for the rapid expansion of Greek education throughout the region.[10] The building of this institution still remains the most impressive Pontic Greek monument in the city.[11]

Close-up view of Sümela Monastery.

Another well known institution was the one of and Argyroupolis, built in 1682 and 1722 respectively, 38 highschools in the Sinopi region, 39 highschools in the Kerasounda region, a plethora of churches and monasteries, most notable of which are the St. Eugenios and Agia Sophia churches of Trapezeus, the monasteries of St. George and St. Ioannes Vazelonos, and arguably the most famous and highly regarded of all, the monastery of Panagia Soumela.

Pontic Greeks

8

Music Pontian music retains elements of the musical traditions of Ancient Greece, Byzantium, and the Caucasus (especially from the region of Kars). Possibly there is an underlying influence from the native peoples who lived in the area before the Greeks as well, but this is not clearly established. Musical styles, like language patterns and other cultural traits, were influenced by the topography of Pontos. The mountains and rivers of The Phrontisterion of Trapezous, early 20th the area impeded communication between Pontian Greek communities century. and caused them to develop in different ways. Also significant in the shaping of Pontian music was the proximity of various non-Greek peoples on the fringes of the Pontic area. For this reason we see that musical style of the east Pontos has significant differences from the that of the west or south-west Pontos. The Pontian music of Kars, for example, shows a clear influence from the music of the Caucasus and elements from other parts of Anatolia. The music and dances of Turks from Black Sea region are very similar to Greek Pontic and some songs and melodies are common. Except for certain laments and ballads, this music is played primarily to be danced to. An important part of Pontic music is the Acritic songs, heroic or epic poetry set to music that emerged in the Byzantine Empire, probably in the 9th century. These songs celebrated the exploits of the Akritai, the frontier guards defending the eastern borders of the Byzantine Empire. The most popular instrument in the Pontian musical collection is the kemenche or lyra, which has origins in Byzantine times and it is related closely with the Byzantine lyra and other bowed musical instruments of the medieval West, like the Kit violin and Rebec. Also important are other instruments such as the Angion or Tulum (a type of Bagpipe), the davul, a type of drum, the Shiliavrin, and the Kaval or Ghaval (a flute-like pipe). The zurna existed in several versions which varied from region to region, with the style from Bafra sounding differently due to its bigger size. The Violin was very popular in the Bafra region and all throughout west Pontos. The Kemane, an instrument closely related to the one of Cappadocia, was highly popular in south-west Pontos and with the Pontian Greeks who lived in Cappadocia. Finally worth mentioning are the Defi (a type of tambourine), Outi and in the region of Kars, the clarinet. Traditional Pontian musical instruments; Kemençe, davul, zurna. Photo from 1950s in Matzouka, Trabzon, Turkey.

Dance Pontian dance retains aspects of Persian and Greek dance styles. The dances called Horoi (Greek: Χοροί), singular Horos (Greek: Χορός), meaning literally "Dance" in both Ancient Pontian and Modern Greek languages, are circular in nature and each is characterized by distinct short steps. A unique aspect of Pontian dance is the tremoulo (Greek: Τρέμουλο), which is a fast shaking of the upper torso by a turning of Folk dances in Turkey. Horon in blue. the back on its axis. Like other Greek dances, they are danced in a line and the dancers form a circle. Pontian dances also resemble Persian and Middle Eastern dances because they are not led by a single dancer. The most renowned Pontian dances are Tik, Serra, Maheria or Pyrecheios, Kotsari and Omal.

Pontic Greeks

9

In popular culture • In the 1984 movie Voyage to Cythera (Ταξίδι στα Κύθηρα),[12] directed by Theodoros Angelopoulos, the protagonist is a Pontian Greek who was deported to the Soviet Union after the Greek civil war. He returns to Greece after 32 years. • In his 1998 movie From the Edge of the City (Από την άκρη της πόλης), [13] the film director Constantinos Giannaris describes the life of a young "Russian Pontian" from Kazakhstan in the prostitution underworld of Athens. • In the 1999 movie Soil and Water (Χώμα και νερό),[14] one of the characters is a Pontian Greek from Georgia who works as a woman's trafficker for a strip club. • In the 2000 movie The Very Poor, Inc. (Πάμπτωχοι Α.Ε.),[15] one of the characters is a Pontian Greek from the Soviet Union named Thymios Hloridis. A mathematician with a specialty in Chaos theory, Hloridis is forced to make a living selling illegal cigars in front of the stock-market. • In the 2003 Turkish movie Waiting for the Clouds (Bulutlari Beklerken, Περιμένοντας τα σύννεφα),[16] one Pontian Greek woman, who didn't leave as a child with her brother during the general expulsion of Pontian Greeks to the Greek Peloponnese after the first world war and the Treaty of Lausanne's mandated Population transfer, meets Thanasis, a Pontian Greek man from the Soviet Union, who helps her to find her brother in Greece. The movie makes some references to the pontian genocide. • In the 2008 short movie Pontos,[17] written, produced, and directed by Peter Stefanidis, he aims to capture a small part of the genocide from the perspective of its two central characters, played by Lee Mason (Kemal) and Ross Black (Pantzo).

Notable Pontian Greeks •

Diogenes of Sinope

•

George Gurdjieff

•

Yevhen Khacheridi

•

Bion of Borysthenes

•

Dimitris Psathas

•

Vasilis N. Triantafillidis

•

Heraclides Ponticus

•

Markos Vafiadis

•

Fyodor Yurchikhin

•

Strabo

•

Ioannis Passalidis

•

Theodoros Papaloukas

•

Mithridates the VI of Pontus

•

Dimitrios Partsalidis

•

Lazaros Papadopoulos

•

Memnon of Heraclea

•

Iovan Tsaous

•

Antonios Nikopolidis

•

Marcion of Sinope

•

Pamphylia Tanailidi

•

Demis Nikolaidis

•

Aquila of Sinope

•

Odysseas Dimitriadis

•

Mike Zambidis

•

Evagrius Ponticus

•

A.I. Bezzerides

•

Stan Longinidis

•

Athanasius the Athonite

•

Viktor Sarianidi

•

Michael Katsidis

•

Ecumenical Patriarch John VIII

•

Stelios Kazantzidis

•

Matthaios Tsahouridis

•

Ecumenical Patriarch Maximus V

•

Takis Loukanidis

•

Ioannis Melissanidis

•

Michael Panaretos

•

Kostas Nestoridis

•

Dimitris Diamantidis

•

George Amiroutzes

•

Apostolos Nikolaidis

•

Peter Andrikidis

•

Gregory Choniades

•

Mimis Papaioannou

•

Alex Dimitriades

•

George of Trebizond

•

Antonis Antoniadis

•

Alexandros Nikolaidis

•

Basilios Bessarion

•

Nikos Xanthopoulos

•

Voula Patoulidou

•

Alexander Ypsilantis

•

Ivan Savvidi

•

Nikolaos Siranidis

•

Demetrios Ypsilantis

•

Dimitris Melissanidis

Pontic Greeks

References [1] Pontian Diaspora, 2000 [2] [3] [4] [5]

(Russian) Этнический Атлас Узбекистана / Ethnic Atlas of Uzbekistan (http://www.library.cjes.ru/files/pdf/ethno-atlas-uzb.pdf)

2001 Armenian Census (http:/ / docs. armstat. am/ census/ pdfs/ 51. pdf) Who are the Pontians? (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ folk/ pontian_net/ News/ who. html). Angelfire.com. Retrieved on 2011-02-12. Bunson, Matthew (2004). OSV's encyclopedia of Catholic history. Our Sunday Visitor Publishing. p. 141. ISBN 1592760260. "BESSARION, JOHN (c. 1395–1472) + Greek scholar, cardinal, and statesman. One of the foremost figures in the rise of the intellectual Renaissance" [6] A Short History of Modern Greece, 1821-1940, Edward Seymour Forster, 1941, p. 66. [7] Dimitri Kitsikis, Propagande et pressions en politique internationale, 1919-1920 (Paris, 1963) pp. 417-422. [8] Library Journal Review of Not Even My Name by Thea Halo. (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ product/ product-description/ 0312262116/ ) [9] Ascherson, Neal (1996). Black Sea. p. 184. ISBN 978-0809015931. [10] Özdalga, Elisabeth (2005). Late Ottoman society: the intellectual legacy (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=sRtTyyGIgXsC& pg=PA259& dq=frontistirion+ ottoman& hl=el& ei=VWq3TLrQF4OD4AacounwCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=In 1683, a teachers' college (Frontistirio) was opened in Trabzon, which provided a major impetus for the development of the so-called 'Pontus Renaissance', ie, the rapid expansion of Greek education throughout the region. & f=false). Routledge. p. 259. ISBN 9780415341646. . [11] Bryer, Anthony; Winfield, David (2006). The post-Byzantine monuments of Pontos (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?ei=l6qwTP_PJpDG4gaDjYClBg& ct=result& id=gmfqAAAAMAAJ& dq=Trebizond+ greek+ phrontisterion& q=phrontisterion#search_anchor). Ashgate. p. xxxiii. ISBN 9780860788645. . [12] Taxidi sta Kythira (1984) (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0088241/ ), imdb.com [13] Apo Tin Akri Tis Polis (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0181547/ ), imdb.com [14] [15] [16] [17]

kai nero (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0230167/ Homa), imdb.com The Very Poor, Inc. (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0273937/ ), imdb.com Waiting for the Clouds (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0418309/ ), imdb.com Pontos (2008) (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt1553201/ ), imdb.com

Bibliography • Halo, Thea. Not Even My Name. Picador. 2000. ISBN 978-0-312-26211-2. • Hofmann, Tessa, ed. Verfolgung, Vertreibung und Vernichtung der Christen im Osmanischen Reich 1912–1922. Münster: LIT, 2004. ISBN 978-3-8258-7823-8

External links • Michel Bruneau (ed.), Grecs pontiques: Diaspora, identité, territoires, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (Cnrs) Éditions, Paris, 1998 (http://barthes.ens.fr/clio/revues/AHI/livres/pontiq.html) ( recension and presentation (http://www.cnrs.fr/Cnrspresse/Archives/n362a6.htm)) • Nikos Doukas, The Pontian muslims at the target of Turkey (http://www.e-grammes.gr/2002/02/pontos_en. htm) • About Pontic Culture of Anatolia (http://www.karalahana.com/) • The official web site of the Pontian Federation of Greece (http://www.pontos.gr/) • Web site of everything Pontian (http://www.pontian.info/) • World wide Pontian Forum (http://www.pontosworld.com/) • Pontian Federation of Australia (http://www.pontos.org.au/) • Pontian Association in Stuttgart, Germany (http://www.pontos-stuttgart.de/) • Pontian Association in South Russia (http://www.hyos.nostos.gr/) • Pontian web site catalogue (http://www.angelfire.com/folk/pontian_net/links.html) • Pontian Association in Frankfurt, Germany / Verein der Griechen aus Pontos in Frankfurt (http://www. pontos-ffm.de/) • Pontian International site (http://www.pontos.org/) • Internet Radio "Akrites tou Pontou" (http://sc5.audiorealm.com:11128/listen.pls) • Pontian folk music (http://www.dunav.org.il/balkan_music_greece.html) • Tsiambasin, traditional Pontian song (http://ru.youtube.com/watch?v=fDKNpceVU_g&feature=related)

10

Pontic Greeks • Trebizond Greek: A language without a tongue (http://lahana.org/index.php?topic=74.0) • All about Pontian culture (http://www.karalahana.com/english.html) • Website with map showing colonization of the Black Sea by Greek (http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/ Articles/bondyrev.html#*) • The Incredible Odyssey of the Black Sea Greeks (http://www.karalahana.com/english/pontians.htm) • Greek Penetration of the Black Sea (http://www.karalahana.com/english/greeks_black_sea.htm) • Matthaios Tsahouridis, A great Pontian Lyra player (http://www.tsahouridis.com)

11

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Pontic Greeks  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479982695  Contributors: 3centsoap, 3rdAlcove, Aivazovsky, Alex earlier account, Alexikoua, Altenmann, Angel ivanov angelov, Arjayay, ArnoldPettybone, Asteraki, Athenistan, Avienath, Awiseman, Baristarim, Bebek101, Behemoth, Bishzilla, Briaboru, Briangotts, Caerwine, Chapterprimdown, CommonsDelinker, Cplakidas, Cretanforever, Cryptic, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, DStoykov, DaTraveller, DandyDan2007, Delirium, Denizz, Desi Erasmus, Dimadick, Dimitrii, Dipa1965, Domitius, Don Alessandro, Drobba, DuncanHill, El Greco, Erp, Euclidq, FiachraByrne, Fisenko, Future Perfect at Sunrise, GRBerry, Gaius Cornelius, Gaius Octavius Princeps, Geogreek, Gilgamesh, Giwrgos1122, Glacialfox, GnatsFriend, Greco22, Hardscarf, Hectorian, Henbacl, Hibernian, Igrek, Ioannes Tzimiskes, Iridescent, J04n, JaGa, JorisvS, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kalambaki2, Kamikazi2, Ken Gallager, Khatru2, Khoikhoi, Kintetsubuffalo, Kirk, Kober, Kritikos99, Kwacka, Laertes d, Lambiam, Macedonian, Macrakis, Macukali, Makalp, Mallaccaos, Materialscientist, Mato, Mdebets, Merovingian, Mostacciano, Myrmidon7, Narsil, NikoSilver, Nostham, Nscheffey, Nuttah, Oceolcspsms, Ohconfucius, PMK1, Panagos1, Parishan, Pavassiliadis, Peibiao1, Peripitus, Ploutarchos, Pontiakos, PontianEllinas, ReubenB, Rich Farmbrough, RivGuySC, Rjecina, Rjwilmsi, RumPontos, Sardanaphalus, Scarian, Scythian1, Secleinteer, Seksen iki yüz kırk beş, Sephia karta, Shilkanni, Skywriter, Smith2006, SpectacularMisfit, Stergiosaurus, Sthenel, Storkk, Stravon, Suhardian, Takabeg, Tekleni, Telex, The Myotis, Thulium, TimBentley, TopoCode, Torontz, Tot12, Vanished1234, Varlaam, Vkritis, Whytecypress, Woohookitty, Yarovit, Yerevanci, Zeusdeus, Zundark, ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟΣ, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, 265 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:Pontic Greek man from Trebizond in traditional clothes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pontic_Greek_man_from_Trebizond_in_traditional_clothes.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Vlassis Agtzides ([email protected]) File:Pontus.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pontus.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Avron, Semolo75 File:Flag of Greece.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Greece.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk) File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Russia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Ukraine.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Created by: Jon Harald Søby, colors by Zscout370 File:Flag of Australia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie, Mifter File:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Cyprus.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Cyprus.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Vzb83 File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: special commission (of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. Colors according to Appendix No. 3 of czech legal Act 3/1993. cs:Zirland. File:Flag of Georgia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: -xfiFile:Flag of Uzbekistan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370 File:Flag of Armenia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp File:Mithridates VI Louvre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mithridates_VI_Louvre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Sting, User:Sting File:Dioecesis Pontica 400 AD.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dioecesis_Pontica_400_AD.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cplakidas File:Chrysobull of Alexius III of Trebizond.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chrysobull_of_Alexius_III_of_Trebizond.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cirt, Cplakidas, Geagea, Kintetsubuffalo, Ras67, Shakko, Μυρμηγκάκι Image:Bessarion 1476.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bessarion_1476.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Batraqote, Miniwark, Sailko, Vincent Steenberg, Zolo Image:Ethnicturkey1911.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ethnicturkey1911.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andros64, Beao, Geagea, Kintetsubuffalo, Mladifilozof, WordLived, Yarovit, Молох, 1 anonymous edits Image:Tr ponto2.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tr_ponto2.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Cplakidas, Jolle, Moto53 Image:Group of workers harvesting tea Chakva Prokudin-Gorsky.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Group_of_workers_harvesting_tea_Chakva_Prokudin-Gorsky.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: digital rendering for the Library of Congress by Walter Frankhauser / WalterStudio Image:Evler2b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Evler2b.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Macukali at en.wikipedia File:Sumela From Across Valley.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sumela_From_Across_Valley.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Bjørn Christian Tørrissen File:Phrontisterion of Trapezous.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phrontisterion_of_Trapezous.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown/άγνωστος Image:Matzouka macukali.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Matzouka_macukali.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Macukali at en.wikipedia File:Verbreitungskarte der türkischen Volkstänze.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Verbreitungskarte_der_türkischen_Volkstänze.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Maximilian Dörrbecker (Chumwa)

License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

12

Pontic Greek

1

Pontic Greek Pontic Greek Ποντιακά/Pontiaká Spoken in

Greece, Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkey, Germany, Netherlands

Region

Southeastern Europe

Native speakers

324,535  (date missing)

Language family Indo-European •

Hellenic •

Ionic–Attic •

Writing system

Pontic Greek

Greek alphabet, Latin, Cyrillic Language codes

ISO 639-3

pnt

History of the Greek language (see also: Greek alphabet)

Proto-Greek (c. 3000–1600 BC) Mycenaean (c. 1600–1100 BC) Ancient Greek (c. 800–330 BC) Dialects: Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, Attic-Ionic, Doric, Locrian, Pamphylian, Homeric Greek, Macedonian Koine Greek (c. 330 BC–330) Medieval Greek (330–1453) Modern Greek (from 1453) Dialects: Calabrian, Cappadocian, Cheimarriotika, Cretan, Cypriot, Demotic, Griko, Katharevousa, Pontic, Tsakonian, Maniot, Yevanic *

Dates (beginning with Ancient Greek) from Wallace, D. B. (1996). Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p. 12. ISBN 0310218950.

Pontic Greek

Pontic Greek (Greek: Ποντιακή διάλεκτος or Ποντιακά) is a form of the Greek language originally spoken in the Pontus area on the southern shores of the Black Sea, northeastern Anatolia, Eastern Turkish/Caucasus province of Kars, southern Georgia, and today mainly in northern Greece. Its speakers are referred to as Pontic Greeks or Pontian Greeks, although many Greeks mistakenly refer to some Pontic Greek speakers from Georgia as Russo-Ponti. The linguistic lineage of Pontic Greek stems from Ionic Greek via Koine and Byzantine Greek and contains influences from Georgian, Russian, Turkish and to a lesser extent, Persian (via Ottoman Turkish) and various Caucasian languages. Pontic is most closely related to Cappadocian Greek, and the Greek spoken in Mariupolis (and formerly in Crimea, Ukraine) (see Mariupolitan Greek). The language is called Rumca in Turkish, derived form the Turkish word Rum denoting ethnic Greeks living in Turkey in general; however, this term comprises other Greek speakers in Turkey such as those from Istanbul or Smyrna who speak a language close to Standard Modern Greek.

Dialects Greek linguist Manolis Triantafyllides has divided Pontic into two groups: • Western group (Oinountiac/Niotika) around Oenoe/Ünye. • Eastern group • Coastal subgroup (Trapezountiac) around Trebizond/Trapezus, • Inland subgroup (Chaldiot) in Chaldia (around Argyroupolis/Gümüşhane — Kanin in Pontic), in its vicinity (Kelkit, Baibourt/Bayburt, etc.), and around Kotyora/Ordu. Speakers of Chaldiot were the most numerous. In phonology, some varieties of Pontic are reported to demonstrate vowel harmony, a well-known feature of Turkish (Mirambel 1965).

Romeyka The inhabitants of the Of valley, who had converted to Islam in the 17th century, remained in Turkey and have partly retained the Pontic language until today.[1] Their dialect is called "Ophitic" by linguists, but speakers generally call it Romeyka, (Romeika, Greek: Ρωμαίικα) which in a more general sense is an historical and colloquial term for the modern Greek language as a whole. As few as 5,000 people speak this dialect.[2][3] Romeyka has retained the infinitive, which is present in Ancient Greek but has been lost in other variants of Modern Greek; it has therefore been characterized as "archaic" and as the living language that is closest to Ancient Greek.[2][3] In his 1996 book entitled Pontos Kültürü, Ömer Asan gives further details about the current Pontic-speaking community of the Of valley.[4] A very similar dialect is spoken by descendants of Christians from the Of valley now living in Greece in the village of Nea Trapezounta (part of Kalamaria, Central Macedonia), with about 400 speakers.[5]

Geographic distribution Though Pontic was originally spoken on the southern shores of the Black Sea, substantial numbers migrated into the northern and eastern shores (into the Russian Empire of the 18th and 19th century); Pontic is still spoken by large numbers of people in Ukraine, Russia (around Stavropol'), and Georgia, and the language enjoyed some use as a literary medium in the 1930s, including a school grammar (Topkhara 1998 [1932]). After the massacres of the 1910s, the majority of speakers remaining in Asia Minor were subject to the Treaty of Lausanne population exchange, and were resettled in Greece (mainly northern Greece). A second wave of migration occurred in the early 1990s, this time from the former Soviet Union.[6]

2

Pontic Greek

3

In Greece, Pontic is now used mainly emblematically rather than as a medium of communication. • Greece: 200,000 speakers (2001) mostly in Macedonia (East, Central and West) • Turkey: ~4000 speakers • • • • • • • • •

Çaykara: Multiple villages Dernekpazarı: (13 villages) Kars: Multiple villages and provincial capital. Of: multiple villages Maçka: No information Rize İkizdere: (21 villages) Sürmene: (6 villages) Tonya: (17 villages) Torul-ardasa, Yağlıdere-kromni, Santa, Imera: (no village)

Official status Pontic has no official status. During the late 1910s, it was destined to become the official language of the proposed Republic of Pontus. Historically, it was the de facto language of the Greek minority in the USSR, despite the fact that in the Πανσυνδεσμιακή Σύσκεψη (All-Union Conference) of 1926, organized by the Greek-Russian intelligentsia, it was decided that demotic should be the official language of the community.[7]

Culture The language has a rich oral tradition and folklore and Pontic songs are particularly popular in Greece. There is also some limited production of modern literature in Pontic, including poetry collections (among the most renowned writers is Kostas Diamantidis), novels, and translated Asterix comic albums.

Pontic alphabets Pontic in Greece is written in historical Greek orthography, with diacritics: σ̌ ζ̌ ξ̌ ψ̌ for /ʃ ʒ kʃ pʃ/, α̈ ο̈ for [æ ø] (phonological /ia io/). Pontic in Turkey is written in Latin script following Turkish conventions, and Pontic in Russia is written in Cyrillic. In early Soviet times, Pontic was written in the Greek script phonetically, as shown below, using digraphs instead of diacritics; [æ ø] were written out as ια, ιο. The Pontic Wikipedia uses a Greek script: it has adopted εα, εο for these vowels, to avoid clashes with Modern Greek ια, ιο, and uses digraphs from the Soviet system instead of diacritics, but otherwise follows historical orthography. Greek alphabet

Turkish alphabet

Russian alphabet

Αα

Aa

Аа

Ββ

Vv

Вв

Γγ

Ğğ

Гг

Δδ

DH dh

Дд

Εε

Ee

Ее

Ζζ

Zz

Зз

ΖΖ ζζ

Jj

Жж

Θθ

TH th

С с, Ф ф, Т т

Ιι

İi

Ии

IPA

[ä] [v] [ɣ] [ʝ] [ð] [e̞] [z] [ʒ] [θ] [i]

Example

ρομεικα, romeyika, ромейика κατιβενο, kativeno, кативено γανεβο, ğanevo, ганево δοντι, dhonti, донти εγαπεςα, eğapesa, егапеса ζαντος, zantos, зантос πυρζζυας, burjuvas, буржуас θεκο, theko, теко τοςπιτοπον, tospitopon, тоспитопон

Pontic Greek

4 Κκ

Kk

Кк

Λλ

Ll

Лл

Μμ

Mm

Мм

Νν

Nn

Нн

Οο

Oo

Оо

Ππ

Pp

Пп

Ρρ

Rr

Рр

Σς

Ss

Сс

ΣΣ ςς

Şş

Шш

Ττ

Tt

Тт

ΤΖ τζ

Cc

Чч

ΤΣ τς

Çç

Цц

Υυ

Uu

Уу

Φφ

Ff

Фф

Χχ

H, KH (sert H) Х х

[k] [l] [m] [n] [o̞] [p] [ɾ] [s] [ʃ] [t] [d͡ʒ]

καλατζεμαν, kalaceman, калачеман

[t͡ʃ] [u] [f] [x]

μανιτςα, maniça, маница

λαλια, lalia, лалиа μανα, mana, мана ολιγον, oliğоn, олигон τεμετερον, temeteron, теметерон εγαπεςα, eğapesa, егапеса ρομεικα, romeyika, ромейка καλατζεπςον, kalacepson, калачепсон ςςερι, şeri, шери νοςτιμεςα, nostimesa, ностимеса καλατζεμαν, kalaceman, калачеман

νυς, nus, нус εμορφα, emorfa, эморфа χαςον, hason, хасон

Archaisms • Preservation of the ancient pronunciation of 'η' as 'ε' (κέπιν = κήπιον, κλέφτες = κλέπτης, συνέλικος = συνήλικος, νύφε = νύ(μ)φη, έγκα = ἤνεγκον, έτον = ἦτον, έκουσα = ἤκουσα etc). • Preservation of the ancient pronunciation 'ω' as 'o' where Koine Greek received it as 'ου' (ζωμίν = ζουμί, καρβώνι, ρωθώνι etc). • Preservation of the ancient nominative suffix of neuter diminutive nouns in 'ιον' (παιδίον, χωρίον). • Preservation of the Ionic consonant pair 'σπ' instead of Koine 'σφ' (σποντύλιν, σπἰγγω, σπιντόνα). • Preservation of the termination of feminine compound adjectives in -ος (ή άλαλος, ή άνοστος, ή έμορφος). • The declension of male nouns from singular, nominative termination '-on' to genitive '-ος' (ο νέον -> τη νέονος, ο πάππον -> τη πάππονος, ο λύκον -> τη λύκονος, ο Τούρκον -> τη Τούρκονος etc). • The aorist ordering form in -ον (ανάμνον, μείνον, κόψον, πίσον, ράψον, σβήσον). • The middle voice verb termination in -ούμαι (ανακατούμαι, σκοτούμαι, στεφανούμαι). • The passive voice aorist termination in -θα (anc. -θην): εγαπέθα, εκοιμέθα, εστάθα etc. • The imperative form of passive aorist in -θετε (anc -θητι): εγαπέθετε, εκοιμέθετε, εστάθετε. • The sporadic use of infinitives (εποθανείναι, μαθείναι, κόψ'ναι, ράψ'ναι, χαρίσ'ναι, αγαπέθειν, κοιμεθείν). • The ancient accenting of nouns in vocative form: άδελφε, Νίκολα, Μάρια. • The sporadic use of 'ας' in the place of 'να': δός με ας φάγω.

Comparison with Ancient Greek • • • •

Example 1: Pontic en (is), Ancient Greek esti, Koine idiomatic form enesti, Biblical form eni, Modern Greek ine Example 2: Pontic temeteron (ours), Ancient Greek to(n) hemeteron, Modern Greek to(n) * mas Example 3: Pontic pedhin (child), Ancient Greek paidion, Standard Greek pedhi Example 4 (combining 2 and 3): Pontic temeteron to pedin (our child), Ancient Greek/Koine to hemeteron paidion, Modern Greek to pedi mas

Pontic Greek

5

• 1. Attachment of the /e/ sound to the ancient infinitive suffix –ειν (in Trapezountiac Pontic) PONTIC

ANCIENT

ipíne

εἰπεῖν

pathíne

παθεῖν

apothaníne ἀποθανεῖν piíne

πιεῖν

iδíne

εἰδεῖν

fiíne

φυγεῖν

evríne

εὑρεῖν

kamíne

καμεῖν

faíne

φαγεῖν

mathíne

μαθεῖν

erthéane

ἐλθεῖν

meníne

μένειν

• 2. Similar infinitive suffix -ηναι PONTIC

ANCIENT

anevίne

ἀναβῆναι

katevine

καταβῆναι

embine

ἐμβῆναι

evjine

ἐκβῆναι

epiδeavine ἀποδιαβῆναι kimethine

κοιμηθῆναι

xtipethine

κτυπηθῆναι

evrethine

εὑρεθῆναι

vrasine

βραχῆναι

raine

ῥαγῆναι

• 3. Ancient first aorist infinitive suffix -αι has been replaced by second aorist suffix -ῆναι PONTIC ANCIENT κράξειν

κράξαι

μεθύσειν μεθύσαι

• 4. Attachment of the /e/ sound to the ancient aorist infinitive suffix –σειν ράψεινε, κράξεινε, μεθύσεινε, καλέσεινε, λαλήσεινε, κτυπήσεινε, καθίσεινε • 5. Same aorist suffix –ka (–ka was also the regular perfect suffix)

Pontic Greek

6

PONTIC ANCIENT eδoka

ἔδωκα

enδoka

ἐνέδωκα

epika

ἐποίηκα

efika

ἀφῆκα

ethika

ἔθηκα

• 6. Ancient Greek –ein (-εῖν) infinitive > Pontic Greek –eane (-έανε) infinitive PONTIC ANCIENT erthéane

ἐλθεῖν

Notes [1] Mackridge 1987. [2] Against all odds: archaic Greek in a modern world (http:/ / www. research-horizons. cam. ac. uk/ features/ -p-against-all-odds--archaic-greek-in-a-modern-world--p-. aspx), University of Cambridge [3] Jason and the argot: land where Greek's ancient language survives (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ life-style/ history/ jason-and-the-argot-land-where-greeks-ancient-language-survives-2174669. html), The Independent, Monday, 3 January 2011 [4] Ömer Asan, Pontos Kültürü 'Pontos Culture', Belge Yayınları of Ragip Zarakolu, 1996. Second edition, 2000 (ISBN 975-344-220-3). [5] "www.latsis-foundation.org" (http:/ / www. latsis-foundation. org/ files/ Meletes2009/ 11. report. pdf). . Retrieved 2011-10-29. [6] Selm, Joanne van (2003). The Refugee Convention at fifty: a view from forced migration studies. Lexington, Mass: Lexington Books. p. 72. ISBN 0-7391-0565-5. (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=CLqlP77RUpUC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA72#v=onepage& q& f=false) [7] "ΟΨΕΙΣ ΤΗΣ ΕΚΠΑΙΔΕΥΣΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΤΗΣ ΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΑΣ ΤΩΝ ΕΛΛΗΝΩΝ" (http:/ / www. elemedu. upatras. gr/ eriande/ synedria/ synedrio3/ praltika 11/ malkidis-karatzas. htm). . Retrieved 2011-01-15.(Greek)

Bibliography • Georges Drettas, Aspects pontiques, ARP, 1997, ISBN 2-9510349-0-3. "... marks the beginning of a new era in Greek dialectology. Not only is it the first comprehensive grammar of Pontic not written in Greek, but it is also the first self-contained grammar of any Greek “dialect” written, in the words of Bloomfield, “in terms of its own structure”." (Janse) • Özhan Öztürk, Karadeniz: Ansiklopedik Sözlük. 2 Cilt. Heyamola Yayıncılık. İstanbul, 2005. ISBN 975-6121-00-9 • Mackridge, P. 1987. Greek-Speaking Moslems of North-East Turkey: Prolegomena to Study of the Ophitic Sub-Dialect of Pontic. Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 11: 115–137. • Τομπαΐδης, Δ.Ε. 1988. Η Ποντιακή Διάλεκτος. Αθήνα: Αρχείον Πόντου. (Tompaidis, D.E. 1988. The Pontic Dialect. Athens: Archeion Pontou.) • Τομπαΐδης, Δ.Ε. ϗ Συμεωνίδης, Χ.Π. 2002. Συμπλήρωμα στο Ιστορικόν Λεξικόν της Ποντικής Διαλέκτου του Α.Α. Παπαδόπουλου. Αθήνα: Αρχείον Πόντου. (Tompaidis, D.E. and Simeonidis, C.P. 2002. Additions to the Historical Lexicon of the Pontic Dialect of A.A. Papadopoulos. Athens: Archeion Pontou.) • Παπαδόπουλος, Α.Α. 1955. Ιστορική Γραμματική της Ποντικής Διαλέκτου. Αθήνα: Επιτροπή Ποντιακών Μελετών. (Papadopoulos, A.A. 1955. Historical Grammar of the Pontic Dialect. Athens: Committee for Pontian Studies.) • Παπαδόπουλος, Α.Α. 1958–61. Ιστορικόν Λεξικόν της Ποντικής Διαλέκτου. 2 τόμ. Αθήνα: Μυρτίδης. (Papadopoulos, A.A. 1958–61. Historical Lexicon of the Pontic Dialect. 2 volumes. Athens: Mirtidis.) • Οικονομίδης, Δ.Η. 1958. Γραμματική της Ελληνικής Διαλέκτου του Πόντου. Αθήνα: Ακαδημία Αθηνών. (Oikonomidis, D.I. 1958. Grammar of the Greek Dialect of Pontos. Athens: Athens Academy.)

Pontic Greek • Τοπχαράς, Κονσταντίνος. 1998 [1932]. Η Γραμματική της Ποντιακής: Ι Γραματικι τι Ρομεικυ τι Ποντεικυ τι Γλοςας. Θεσσαλονίκη: Αφοί Κυριακίδη. (Topcharas, K. 1998 [1932]. The Grammar of Pontic. Thessaloniki: Afoi Kiriakidi.)

External links • Mark Janse, " Aspects of Pontic grammar (http://www.benjamins.com/jbp/series/JGL/3/art/0008a.pdf)", a Review Article of Drettas (1997). The paper summarizes the high points of the book. • Ethnologue report for Pontic (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pnt) • Committee for Pontian Studies (Επιτροπή Ποντιακών Μελετών) (http://www.epm.gr/) • Trebizond Greek: A language without a tongue (http://www.karalahana.com/english/omer_asan.htm) • Info about Pontians (http://www.pontian.info) • Pontic Greek: A cost of a language (http://www.karalahana.com/english/cost-of-language.htm) • The Pontic Dialect (http://pontosworld.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=776& Itemid=75) • Argonautai Komninoi Association (http://www.argonautai-komninoi.gr) • Pontic Greek - English Dictionary (http://pontosworld.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view& id=53&Itemid=72) • Development of the Pontic Greek Dialect (http://www.karalahana.com/english/ development-of-the-pontic-greek-dialect.html) • Archaic Greek in a modern world (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UcAYP4irSyQ) video from Cambridge University, on You Tube

7

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Pontic Greek  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479853128  Contributors: Aeusoes1, Alex '05, Alexander Domanda, Alexikoua, Andreas Kaganov, AndreasJS, ArnoLagrange, Asteraki, Austin Hair, Avicennasis, Barticus88, Behemoth, Bogdangiusca, Bomac, Briangotts, Caeruleancentaur, Chapterprimdown, Chris the speller, Chronographos, Coskuneruz, Cplakidas, Deipnosophista, Delirium, Dryazan, Duja, Ecemaml, Embryomystic, Etz Haim, Euxine, Fiet Nam, Fratrep, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gaius Cornelius, Gidonb, Gilgamesh, Historiographer, Hottentot, Illexsquid, Ioannes Tzimiskes, JW1805, Jon Harald Søby, JorisvS, Khoikhoi, Konstantinos, Kwamikagami, Ling.Nut, Macedonian, Macrakis, Macukali, Mahmudmasri, Makedonier, Melenc, Meursault2004, Mikenassau, Miskin, NeoRetro, Notesenses, Omicronpersei8, Omnipaedista, Opoudjis, Orkh, Parishan, Patroklis, Prsephone1674, Qoan, Raayen, Rexhep Bojaxhiu, Roleplayer, SPQRobin, Saravask, Sephia karta, Spacepotato, Steinbach, Sysin, Telex, Teofteo, Titoxd, Uocila, Yangula, ZaDiak, ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟΣ, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, ΣΠΑΡΤΙΑΤΗΣ, 66 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:P46.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P46.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Dsmdgold, Foroa, Heycos, Kersti Nebelsiek, Neithsabes, Saiht, Sscotts, Unicorn, Wst, 1 anonymous edits

License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

8

Pontic Greeks

1

Pontic Greeks Pontian Greeks Έλληνες του Πόντου (Ρωμιοί)

Pontian Greek man in traditional clothes. Total population c. 3,000,000 Regions with significant populations Greece, Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Armenia, Cyprus Languages Predominantly Modern and Pontian Greek. Also the languages of their respective countries of residence. Religion Greek Orthodox Christianity, Sunni Muslim (Only in Turkey)

The Pontic Greeks of the Pontians (Greek: Πόντιοι, Turkish: Pontus Rumları) are an ethnic group traditionally living in the Pontus region, the shores of Turkey's Black Sea. They consist of Greek descendants and speak the Pontic Greek dialect, a distinct form of the standard Greek language which, due to the remoteness of Pontus, has had a process of linguistic evolution different from that of the rest of the Greek world. Pontians were historically Christian Greeks who were persecuted, beginning in the 15th Century, by the Ottoman Empire.

Population

Pontus region.

Nowadays, due to extensive intermarriage (also with non-Pontic Greeks), the exact number of Greeks hailing from the Pontus, or people with Greek descent living there, is unknown. After 1988, Pontian Greeks in the Soviet Union started to migrate to Greece settling in and around Athens and Thessaloniki. They are known as "Russian Pontians" (Ρωσσοπόντιοι) by fellow Greeks. The largest communities of Pontian Greeks (or people of Pontian Greek descent) around the world are[1]:

Pontic Greeks

Country / region

2

Official data

Estimation

Concentration

Note(s)

Article

 Greece

over 2,000,000

Athens, Macedonia, Thrace

 USA

200,000

Greek American

 Germany

100,000

Greeks in Germany

 Russia

97,827 (2002)

34,078 in Stavropol Krai 26,540 in Krasnodar Krai

Greeks in Russia

 Ukraine

91,548 (2001)

77,516 in Donetsk Oblast

Greeks in Ukraine (Sometime referred to as Crimean Greeks)

 Australia

56,000

Greek Australian

 Canada

20,000

Greek Canadians

 Cyprus

20,000

Greek Cypriots

less than 3,500; 12,000 (1949-1974)

Greeks in the Czech Republic

 Czech Republic  Georgia

15,166 (2002)

7,415 in Kvemo Kartli 3,792 in Tbilisi 2,168 in Adjara

Greeks in Georgia

 Kazakhstan

12,703 (2010)

2,160 in Karagandy 1,767 in Almaty 1,637 in Zhambyl

Greeks in Kazakhstan

 Uzbekistan

10,453 [2] (1989)

 Armenia

1,176 [3] (2001)

Greeks in Uzbekistan

2,000

655 in Lori 308 in Yerevan

Greeks in Armenia

Pontic Greeks

3

History Antiquity In Greek mythology the Black Sea region is the region where Jason and the Argonauts sailed to find the Golden Fleece. The first recorded Greek colony, established on the northern shores of ancient Anatolia, was Sinop, circa 800 BC. The settlers of Sinop were merchants from the Ionian Greek city state of Miletus. After the colonization of the shores of the Black Sea, known until then to the Greek world as Pontos Axeinos (Inhospitable Sea), the name changed to Pontos Euxeinos (Hospitable Sea). In time, as the numbers of Greeks settling in the region grew significantly, more colonies were established along the whole Black Sea coastline of what is now Turkey, Bulgaria, Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, and Romania. The region of Trapezus, later called Trebizond, now Trabzon, was mentioned by Xenophon in his famous work Anabasis, describing how he and other 10,000 Greek mercenaries fought their way to the Euxine Sea after the failure of the rebellion of Cyrus the Younger whom they fought for, against his older Mithridates VI, the King of Pontus. brother Artaxerxes II of Persia. Xenophon mentions that when at the sight of sea they shouted "Thalatta! Thalatta!" – "The sea! The sea!", the local people understood them. They were Greeks too and, according to Xenophon, they had been there for over 300 years.[4] A whole range of trade flourished among the various Greek colonies, but also with the indigenous tribes who inhabited the Pontus inland. Soon Trebizond established a leading stature among the other colonies and the region nearby become the heart of the Pontian Greek culture and civilization. This region was organized circa 281 BC as a kingdom by Mithridates I of Pontus, whose ancestry line dated back to Ariobarzanes I, a ruler of the Greek town of Cius. The most prominent descendant of Mithridates I was Mithridates VI of Pontus, who between 90 and 65 BC fought the Mithridatic Wars, three bitter wars against the Roman Republic, before eventually being defeated. Mithridates VI the Great, as he was left in memory, claiming to be the protector of the Greek world against the barbarian Romans, expanded his kingdom to Bithynia, Crimea and Propontis (in present day Ukraine and Turkey) before his downfall after the Third Mithridatic War.

Roman Diocese of Pontus, 400 AD.

Nevertheless, the kingdom survived as a Roman vassal state, now named Bosporan Kingdom and based in Crimea, until the 4th century AD, when it succumbed to the Huns. The rest of the Pontus became part of the Roman Empire, while the mountainous interior (Chaldia) was fully incorporated into the Byzantine Empire during the 6th century.

Pontic Greeks

4

Middle Ages Pontus was the birthplace of the Komnenos dynasty, which ruled the empire from 1082 to 1185, a time in which the empire resurged to recover much of Anatolia from the Seljuk Turks. In the aftermath of the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the Empire of Trebizond was established by Alexios I of Trebizond, a descendant of Alexios I Komnenos, the patriarch of the Komnenos dynasty. This empire lasted for more than 250 years until it eventually fell at the hands of Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire in 1461.

Alexios III (1338–1390), Emperor of Trebizond, and his wife. Chrysobull at Dionysiou monastery, Mount Athos.

Cardinal Bessarion of Trebizond (1395–1472), a Pontian Greek scholar, [5] statesman, and cardinal.

During the Ottoman period a number of Pontian Greeks converted to Islam and adopted the Turkish language. This could be willingly, for example so to avoid paying the higher rate of taxation imposed on Orthodox Christians or in order to make themselves more eligible for higher level government and regular military employment opportunities within the empire (at least in the later period following the abolition of the infamous Greek and Balkan Christian child levy or 'devshirme', on which the elite Janissary corps had in the early Ottoman period depended for its recruits). But conversion could also occur in response to pressures from central government and local Muslim militia (e.g.) following any one of the Russo-Turkish wars in which ethnic Greeks from the Ottoman Empire's northern border regions were known to have collaborated, fought alongside, and sometimes even led invading Russian forces, such as was the case in the Greek governed, semi-autonomous Romanian Principalities, Trebizond, and the area that was briefly to become part of the Russian Caucasus in the far northeast.

Pontic Greeks

5

Modern In fact, the second half of the nineteenth century saw large numbers of such pro-Russian Pontic Greeks from the eastern Trebizond region resettle in the area around Kars (which together with southern Georgia already had a nucleus of Caucasus Greeks), which was ceded to the Russian Empire following the Russo-Turkish war that culminated in the 1878 Treaty of San Stefano. They had declined the expedient of conversion to Islam, abandoned their lands, and sought refuge in territory now controlled by their Christian Orthodox "protector", which used Pontic Greeks, Georgians, and southern Russians, and even Greek population in Anatolia and Asia Minor in blue color, 1911. non-Orthodox Armenians, Germans, and Estonians to "Christianize" this recently conquered southern Caucasus region, which it now administered as the newly created Kars Oblast (Kars Province). On the eve of World War I, the Young Turk administration exerted a policy of assimilation and ethnic cleansing of the Orthodox Christians in the Empire, which affected Pontian Greeks too. In 1916 Trabzon itself fell to the forces of the Russian Empire, fomenting the idea of an independent Pontic state. As the Bolsheviks came to power with the October Revolution (7 November 1917), Russian forces withdrew from the region to take part in the Russian Civil War (1917–1923). In 1917–1922, there existed an unrecognized by the name Republic of Pontus, led by Chrysanthus, Metropolitan of Trebizond. In 1917 Greece and the Entente powers considered the creation of a Hellenic autonomous state in Pontus, most likely as part of a Ponto-Armenian Federation.[6] In 1919 on the fringes of the Paris Peace Conference Chrysanthos proposed the establishment of a fully independent Republic of Pontus, but neither Greece nor the other delegations supported it.[7] Proposed flag of the Republic of Pontus.

Pontian Greek women and children harvesting tea in the Black Sea town of Chakva, Georgia, ca. 1905–15. Photograph by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii.

Once the Russians had evacuated Pontus, Greeks and Armenians in the region became the targets of irregular Turkish and Kurdish militia. Seeing the fate of Armenians, Pontian Greeks were themselves forced to take up armed resistance, leading to what became known as the Pontus resistance (αντάρτικο του Πόντου in Greek), which lasted until 1923, when the population exchange between Greece and Turkey was agreed under the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne. While most Christian Pontians were forced to leave for Greece - avoiding nearby Russia, which in the decade post-1917 was of course plunged into the chaos of revolution and civil war - those who had converted to Islam (and in accordance with historical precedent were considered to have "turned Turk") remained in Turkey and were assimilated into the Muslim population of the north and northeast, where their bi-lingual Greek- and Turkish-speaking descendents can still be found (including amongst the notoriously nationalistic Turks of present-day Trebizond).

Pontic Greeks

6

Rumca, as the Pontian Greek language is known in Turkey, survives today, mostly among older speakers. After the exchange most Pontian Greeks settled in Macedonia and Attica. Pontian Greeks inside the Soviet Union were predominantly settled in the regions bordering the Georgian SSR and Armenian SSR. They also had notable presence in Black Sea ports like Odessa and Sukhumi. About 100,000 Pontian Greeks, including 37,000 in the Caucasus area alone, were deported to Central Asia in 1949 during Stalin's post-war deportations. Big indigenous communities exist today in former USSR states, while through immigration large numbers can be found in Germany, Australia, and the United States.

Persecution and population exchange Like Armenians, Assyrians and other Ottoman Greeks, the Greeks of Trebizond and the shortlived Russian Caucasus province of Kars (which in 1916 fell back under Ottoman control) suffered widespread massacre and what is now usually termed ethnic cleansing at the beginning of the 20th century, first by the Young Turks and later by Kemalist forces. In both cases, the pretext was again that the Pontic Greeks and Armenians had collaborated or fought with the forces of their Russian co-religionists and "protectors" before the termination of hostilities between the two empires that followed the October Revolution. Death marches[8] through Turkey's mountainous terrain, forced labour in the infamous "Amele Taburu" in Anatolia and slaughter by the irregular bands of Topal Osman resulted in tens of thousands of Pontic Greeks perishing during the period from 1915 to 1922. In 1923, after hundreds of years, those remaining were expelled from Turkey to Greece as part of the population exchange between Greece and Turkey defined by the Treaty of Lausanne. In his book Black Sea, author Neal Ascherson writes: The Turkish guide-books on sale in the Taksim Meydane offer this account of the 1923 Katastrofĕ: 'After the proclamation of the Republic, the Greeks who lived in the region returned to their own country [...].' Their own country? Returned? They had lived in the Pontos for nearly three thousand years. Their Pontian dialect was not understandable to twentieth-century Athenians.[9] The suffering of the Pontian Greeks did not end upon their violent and forceful departure from the lands of their ancestors. Many Pontian Greek refugees perished during the voyage from Asia Minor to Greece. Notable accounts of these voyages have been included in Steve Papadopoulos’ work on Pontian culture and history. Pontian Greek immigrants to the United States from that era were quoted as saying: Many children and elderly died during the voyage to Greece. When the crew realized they were dead, they were thrown overboard. Soon the mothers of dead children started pretending that they were still alive. After witnessing what was done to the deceased, they would hold on to them and comfort them as if they were still alive. They did this to give them a proper burial in Greece.

Settlements Some of the settlements historically inhabited by Pontian Greeks include (current official names in parenthesis): In Pontus Amasia (Amasya), Meletios (Mesudiye), Aphene, Kerasounta (Giresun), Kissa, Kromna, Amisos (Samsun), Sinope (Sinop), Themiscyra (Terme), Trapezounta (Trabzon), Bafra, Argyroupolis

Traditional rural Pontian houses.

(Gümüşhane), Xeroiana (Şiran), Ofis (Of), Santa (Dumanlı), Tonya, Matsouka (Maçka), Galiana (Konaklar), Sourmena (Sürmene), Imera (Olucak), Rizounta (Rize), Mouzena, Kotoiora (Ordu), Livera, Platana, Kel Kit,

Pontic Greeks

7

Nikopolis, Kakatsis, Merzifounta, Tokat, Oinoe (Ünye), Neokaisareia (Niksar), Fatsa, Tripolis (Tirebolu), Thermi (Terme), Gümüşhacıköy, Komana, Hopa, Athina (Pazar), Koloneia, Gemoura (Yomra), Akdağmadeni. Outside Pontus Kars Oblast, Balya, Sevasteia (Sivas), Çorum, Bayburt, Adapazarı. In Crimea and the northern Azov Sea Chersonesos, Kerkinitida, Panticapaeum, Soughdaia, Tanais, Theodosia. On the Taman peninsula, Krasnodar Krai and the Colchian coast Batis, Dioscurias, Germonassa, Gorgippa, Heraclea Pontica, Phanagoria, Phasis, Pitsunda, Sebastopolis. On the southwestern coast of Ukraine and the Eastern Balkans Mariupol, Antiphilos, Apollonia (Sozopol), Germonakris, Mesembria, Nikonis, Odessos (Varna), Olbia, Tira.

Culture The culture of Pontus has been strongly influenced by the topography of its different regions. In commercial cities like Trebizond, Samsunda, Kerasounda and Sinopi upper level education and arts flourished under the protection of a cosmopolitan middle class. In the inland cities such as Argyroupolis, the economy was based upon agriculture and mining, thus creating an economic and cultural gap between the developed urban ports and the rural centers which lay upon the valleys and plains extending from the base of the Pontic alps.

Language Pontic's linguistic lineage stems from Ionic Greek via Koine and Byzantine Greek with many archaisms and contains loanwords from Turkish and to a lesser extent, Persian and various Caucasian languages.

Education The rich cultural activity of Pontian Greeks is witnessed by the number of educational institutions, churches, and monasteries in the region. These include the Phrontisterion of Trapezous that operated from 1682/3 to 1921 and provided a major impetus for the rapid expansion of Greek education throughout the region.[10] The building of this institution still remains the most impressive Pontic Greek monument in the city.[11]

Close-up view of Sümela Monastery.

Another well known institution was the one of and Argyroupolis, built in 1682 and 1722 respectively, 38 highschools in the Sinopi region, 39 highschools in the Kerasounda region, a plethora of churches and monasteries, most notable of which are the St. Eugenios and Agia Sophia churches of Trapezeus, the monasteries of St. George and St. Ioannes Vazelonos, and arguably the most famous and highly regarded of all, the monastery of Panagia Soumela.

Pontic Greeks

8

Music Pontian music retains elements of the musical traditions of Ancient Greece, Byzantium, and the Caucasus (especially from the region of Kars). Possibly there is an underlying influence from the native peoples who lived in the area before the Greeks as well, but this is not clearly established. Musical styles, like language patterns and other cultural traits, were influenced by the topography of Pontos. The mountains and rivers of The Phrontisterion of Trapezous, early 20th the area impeded communication between Pontian Greek communities century. and caused them to develop in different ways. Also significant in the shaping of Pontian music was the proximity of various non-Greek peoples on the fringes of the Pontic area. For this reason we see that musical style of the east Pontos has significant differences from the that of the west or south-west Pontos. The Pontian music of Kars, for example, shows a clear influence from the music of the Caucasus and elements from other parts of Anatolia. The music and dances of Turks from Black Sea region are very similar to Greek Pontic and some songs and melodies are common. Except for certain laments and ballads, this music is played primarily to be danced to. An important part of Pontic music is the Acritic songs, heroic or epic poetry set to music that emerged in the Byzantine Empire, probably in the 9th century. These songs celebrated the exploits of the Akritai, the frontier guards defending the eastern borders of the Byzantine Empire. The most popular instrument in the Pontian musical collection is the kemenche or lyra, which has origins in Byzantine times and it is related closely with the Byzantine lyra and other bowed musical instruments of the medieval West, like the Kit violin and Rebec. Also important are other instruments such as the Angion or Tulum (a type of Bagpipe), the davul, a type of drum, the Shiliavrin, and the Kaval or Ghaval (a flute-like pipe). The zurna existed in several versions which varied from region to region, with the style from Bafra sounding differently due to its bigger size. The Violin was very popular in the Bafra region and all throughout west Pontos. The Kemane, an instrument closely related to the one of Cappadocia, was highly popular in south-west Pontos and with the Pontian Greeks who lived in Cappadocia. Finally worth mentioning are the Defi (a type of tambourine), Outi and in the region of Kars, the clarinet. Traditional Pontian musical instruments; Kemençe, davul, zurna. Photo from 1950s in Matzouka, Trabzon, Turkey.

Dance Pontian dance retains aspects of Persian and Greek dance styles. The dances called Horoi (Greek: Χοροί), singular Horos (Greek: Χορός), meaning literally "Dance" in both Ancient Pontian and Modern Greek languages, are circular in nature and each is characterized by distinct short steps. A unique aspect of Pontian dance is the tremoulo (Greek: Τρέμουλο), which is a fast shaking of the upper torso by a turning of Folk dances in Turkey. Horon in blue. the back on its axis. Like other Greek dances, they are danced in a line and the dancers form a circle. Pontian dances also resemble Persian and Middle Eastern dances because they are not led by a single dancer. The most renowned Pontian dances are Tik, Serra, Maheria or Pyrecheios, Kotsari and Omal.

Pontic Greeks

9

In popular culture • In the 1984 movie Voyage to Cythera (Ταξίδι στα Κύθηρα),[12] directed by Theodoros Angelopoulos, the protagonist is a Pontian Greek who was deported to the Soviet Union after the Greek civil war. He returns to Greece after 32 years. • In his 1998 movie From the Edge of the City (Από την άκρη της πόλης), [13] the film director Constantinos Giannaris describes the life of a young "Russian Pontian" from Kazakhstan in the prostitution underworld of Athens. • In the 1999 movie Soil and Water (Χώμα και νερό),[14] one of the characters is a Pontian Greek from Georgia who works as a woman's trafficker for a strip club. • In the 2000 movie The Very Poor, Inc. (Πάμπτωχοι Α.Ε.),[15] one of the characters is a Pontian Greek from the Soviet Union named Thymios Hloridis. A mathematician with a specialty in Chaos theory, Hloridis is forced to make a living selling illegal cigars in front of the stock-market. • In the 2003 Turkish movie Waiting for the Clouds (Bulutlari Beklerken, Περιμένοντας τα σύννεφα),[16] one Pontian Greek woman, who didn't leave as a child with her brother during the general expulsion of Pontian Greeks to the Greek Peloponnese after the first world war and the Treaty of Lausanne's mandated Population transfer, meets Thanasis, a Pontian Greek man from the Soviet Union, who helps her to find her brother in Greece. The movie makes some references to the pontian genocide. • In the 2008 short movie Pontos,[17] written, produced, and directed by Peter Stefanidis, he aims to capture a small part of the genocide from the perspective of its two central characters, played by Lee Mason (Kemal) and Ross Black (Pantzo).

Notable Pontian Greeks •

Diogenes of Sinope

•

George Gurdjieff

•

Yevhen Khacheridi

•

Bion of Borysthenes

•

Dimitris Psathas

•

Vasilis N. Triantafillidis

•

Heraclides Ponticus

•

Markos Vafiadis

•

Fyodor Yurchikhin

•

Strabo

•

Ioannis Passalidis

•

Theodoros Papaloukas

•

Mithridates the VI of Pontus

•

Dimitrios Partsalidis

•

Lazaros Papadopoulos

•

Memnon of Heraclea

•

Iovan Tsaous

•

Antonios Nikopolidis

•

Marcion of Sinope

•

Pamphylia Tanailidi

•

Demis Nikolaidis

•

Aquila of Sinope

•

Odysseas Dimitriadis

•

Mike Zambidis

•

Evagrius Ponticus

•

A.I. Bezzerides

•

Stan Longinidis

•

Athanasius the Athonite

•

Viktor Sarianidi

•

Michael Katsidis

•

Ecumenical Patriarch John VIII

•

Stelios Kazantzidis

•

Matthaios Tsahouridis

•

Ecumenical Patriarch Maximus V

•

Takis Loukanidis

•

Ioannis Melissanidis

•

Michael Panaretos

•

Kostas Nestoridis

•

Dimitris Diamantidis

•

George Amiroutzes

•

Apostolos Nikolaidis

•

Peter Andrikidis

•

Gregory Choniades

•

Mimis Papaioannou

•

Alex Dimitriades

•

George of Trebizond

•

Antonis Antoniadis

•

Alexandros Nikolaidis

•

Basilios Bessarion

•

Nikos Xanthopoulos

•

Voula Patoulidou

•

Alexander Ypsilantis

•

Ivan Savvidi

•

Nikolaos Siranidis

•

Demetrios Ypsilantis

•

Dimitris Melissanidis

Pontic Greeks

References [1] Pontian Diaspora, 2000 [2] [3] [4] [5]

(Russian) Этнический Атлас Узбекистана / Ethnic Atlas of Uzbekistan (http://www.library.cjes.ru/files/pdf/ethno-atlas-uzb.pdf)

2001 Armenian Census (http:/ / docs. armstat. am/ census/ pdfs/ 51. pdf) Who are the Pontians? (http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ folk/ pontian_net/ News/ who. html). Angelfire.com. Retrieved on 2011-02-12. Bunson, Matthew (2004). OSV's encyclopedia of Catholic history. Our Sunday Visitor Publishing. p. 141. ISBN 1592760260. "BESSARION, JOHN (c. 1395–1472) + Greek scholar, cardinal, and statesman. One of the foremost figures in the rise of the intellectual Renaissance" [6] A Short History of Modern Greece, 1821-1940, Edward Seymour Forster, 1941, p. 66. [7] Dimitri Kitsikis, Propagande et pressions en politique internationale, 1919-1920 (Paris, 1963) pp. 417-422. [8] Library Journal Review of Not Even My Name by Thea Halo. (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ product/ product-description/ 0312262116/ ) [9] Ascherson, Neal (1996). Black Sea. p. 184. ISBN 978-0809015931. [10] Özdalga, Elisabeth (2005). Late Ottoman society: the intellectual legacy (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=sRtTyyGIgXsC& pg=PA259& dq=frontistirion+ ottoman& hl=el& ei=VWq3TLrQF4OD4AacounwCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=In 1683, a teachers' college (Frontistirio) was opened in Trabzon, which provided a major impetus for the development of the so-called 'Pontus Renaissance', ie, the rapid expansion of Greek education throughout the region. & f=false). Routledge. p. 259. ISBN 9780415341646. . [11] Bryer, Anthony; Winfield, David (2006). The post-Byzantine monuments of Pontos (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?ei=l6qwTP_PJpDG4gaDjYClBg& ct=result& id=gmfqAAAAMAAJ& dq=Trebizond+ greek+ phrontisterion& q=phrontisterion#search_anchor). Ashgate. p. xxxiii. ISBN 9780860788645. . [12] Taxidi sta Kythira (1984) (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0088241/ ), imdb.com [13] Apo Tin Akri Tis Polis (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0181547/ ), imdb.com [14] [15] [16] [17]

kai nero (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0230167/ Homa), imdb.com The Very Poor, Inc. (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0273937/ ), imdb.com Waiting for the Clouds (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0418309/ ), imdb.com Pontos (2008) (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt1553201/ ), imdb.com

Bibliography • Halo, Thea. Not Even My Name. Picador. 2000. ISBN 978-0-312-26211-2. • Hofmann, Tessa, ed. Verfolgung, Vertreibung und Vernichtung der Christen im Osmanischen Reich 1912–1922. Münster: LIT, 2004. ISBN 978-3-8258-7823-8

External links • Michel Bruneau (ed.), Grecs pontiques: Diaspora, identité, territoires, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (Cnrs) Éditions, Paris, 1998 (http://barthes.ens.fr/clio/revues/AHI/livres/pontiq.html) ( recension and presentation (http://www.cnrs.fr/Cnrspresse/Archives/n362a6.htm)) • Nikos Doukas, The Pontian muslims at the target of Turkey (http://www.e-grammes.gr/2002/02/pontos_en. htm) • About Pontic Culture of Anatolia (http://www.karalahana.com/) • The official web site of the Pontian Federation of Greece (http://www.pontos.gr/) • Web site of everything Pontian (http://www.pontian.info/) • World wide Pontian Forum (http://www.pontosworld.com/) • Pontian Federation of Australia (http://www.pontos.org.au/) • Pontian Association in Stuttgart, Germany (http://www.pontos-stuttgart.de/) • Pontian Association in South Russia (http://www.hyos.nostos.gr/) • Pontian web site catalogue (http://www.angelfire.com/folk/pontian_net/links.html) • Pontian Association in Frankfurt, Germany / Verein der Griechen aus Pontos in Frankfurt (http://www. pontos-ffm.de/) • Pontian International site (http://www.pontos.org/) • Internet Radio "Akrites tou Pontou" (http://sc5.audiorealm.com:11128/listen.pls) • Pontian folk music (http://www.dunav.org.il/balkan_music_greece.html) • Tsiambasin, traditional Pontian song (http://ru.youtube.com/watch?v=fDKNpceVU_g&feature=related)

10

Pontic Greeks • Trebizond Greek: A language without a tongue (http://lahana.org/index.php?topic=74.0) • All about Pontian culture (http://www.karalahana.com/english.html) • Website with map showing colonization of the Black Sea by Greek (http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/ Articles/bondyrev.html#*) • The Incredible Odyssey of the Black Sea Greeks (http://www.karalahana.com/english/pontians.htm) • Greek Penetration of the Black Sea (http://www.karalahana.com/english/greeks_black_sea.htm) • Matthaios Tsahouridis, A great Pontian Lyra player (http://www.tsahouridis.com)

11

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Pontic Greeks  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479982695  Contributors: 3centsoap, 3rdAlcove, Aivazovsky, Alex earlier account, Alexikoua, Altenmann, Angel ivanov angelov, Arjayay, ArnoldPettybone, Asteraki, Athenistan, Avienath, Awiseman, Baristarim, Bebek101, Behemoth, Bishzilla, Briaboru, Briangotts, Caerwine, Chapterprimdown, CommonsDelinker, Cplakidas, Cretanforever, Cryptic, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, DStoykov, DaTraveller, DandyDan2007, Delirium, Denizz, Desi Erasmus, Dimadick, Dimitrii, Dipa1965, Domitius, Don Alessandro, Drobba, DuncanHill, El Greco, Erp, Euclidq, FiachraByrne, Fisenko, Future Perfect at Sunrise, GRBerry, Gaius Cornelius, Gaius Octavius Princeps, Geogreek, Gilgamesh, Giwrgos1122, Glacialfox, GnatsFriend, Greco22, Hardscarf, Hectorian, Henbacl, Hibernian, Igrek, Ioannes Tzimiskes, Iridescent, J04n, JaGa, JorisvS, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kalambaki2, Kamikazi2, Ken Gallager, Khatru2, Khoikhoi, Kintetsubuffalo, Kirk, Kober, Kritikos99, Kwacka, Laertes d, Lambiam, Macedonian, Macrakis, Macukali, Makalp, Mallaccaos, Materialscientist, Mato, Mdebets, Merovingian, Mostacciano, Myrmidon7, Narsil, NikoSilver, Nostham, Nscheffey, Nuttah, Oceolcspsms, Ohconfucius, PMK1, Panagos1, Parishan, Pavassiliadis, Peibiao1, Peripitus, Ploutarchos, Pontiakos, PontianEllinas, ReubenB, Rich Farmbrough, RivGuySC, Rjecina, Rjwilmsi, RumPontos, Sardanaphalus, Scarian, Scythian1, Secleinteer, Seksen iki yüz kırk beş, Sephia karta, Shilkanni, Skywriter, Smith2006, SpectacularMisfit, Stergiosaurus, Sthenel, Storkk, Stravon, Suhardian, Takabeg, Tekleni, Telex, The Myotis, Thulium, TimBentley, TopoCode, Torontz, Tot12, Vanished1234, Varlaam, Vkritis, Whytecypress, Woohookitty, Yarovit, Yerevanci, Zeusdeus, Zundark, ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟΣ, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, 265 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:Pontic Greek man from Trebizond in traditional clothes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pontic_Greek_man_from_Trebizond_in_traditional_clothes.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Vlassis Agtzides ([email protected]) File:Pontus.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pontus.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Avron, Semolo75 File:Flag of Greece.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Greece.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk) File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Russia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Ukraine.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Created by: Jon Harald Søby, colors by Zscout370 File:Flag of Australia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie, Mifter File:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Cyprus.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Cyprus.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Vzb83 File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: special commission (of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. Colors according to Appendix No. 3 of czech legal Act 3/1993. cs:Zirland. File:Flag of Georgia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: -xfiFile:Flag of Uzbekistan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zscout370 File:Flag of Armenia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp File:Mithridates VI Louvre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mithridates_VI_Louvre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Sting, User:Sting File:Dioecesis Pontica 400 AD.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dioecesis_Pontica_400_AD.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cplakidas File:Chrysobull of Alexius III of Trebizond.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chrysobull_of_Alexius_III_of_Trebizond.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cirt, Cplakidas, Geagea, Kintetsubuffalo, Ras67, Shakko, Μυρμηγκάκι Image:Bessarion 1476.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bessarion_1476.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Batraqote, Miniwark, Sailko, Vincent Steenberg, Zolo Image:Ethnicturkey1911.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ethnicturkey1911.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andros64, Beao, Geagea, Kintetsubuffalo, Mladifilozof, WordLived, Yarovit, Молох, 1 anonymous edits Image:Tr ponto2.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tr_ponto2.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Cplakidas, Jolle, Moto53 Image:Group of workers harvesting tea Chakva Prokudin-Gorsky.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Group_of_workers_harvesting_tea_Chakva_Prokudin-Gorsky.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: digital rendering for the Library of Congress by Walter Frankhauser / WalterStudio Image:Evler2b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Evler2b.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Macukali at en.wikipedia File:Sumela From Across Valley.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sumela_From_Across_Valley.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Bjørn Christian Tørrissen File:Phrontisterion of Trapezous.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phrontisterion_of_Trapezous.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown/άγνωστος Image:Matzouka macukali.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Matzouka_macukali.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Macukali at en.wikipedia File:Verbreitungskarte der türkischen Volkstänze.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Verbreitungskarte_der_türkischen_Volkstänze.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Maximilian Dörrbecker (Chumwa)

License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

12

Pontic Greek

1

Pontic Greek Pontic Greek Ποντιακά/Pontiaká Spoken in

Greece, Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkey, Germany, Netherlands

Region

Southeastern Europe

Native speakers

324,535  (date missing)

Language family Indo-European •

Hellenic •

Ionic–Attic •

Writing system

Pontic Greek

Greek alphabet, Latin, Cyrillic Language codes

ISO 639-3

pnt

History of the Greek language (see also: Greek alphabet)

Proto-Greek (c. 3000–1600 BC) Mycenaean (c. 1600–1100 BC) Ancient Greek (c. 800–330 BC) Dialects: Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, Attic-Ionic, Doric, Locrian, Pamphylian, Homeric Greek, Macedonian Koine Greek (c. 330 BC–330) Medieval Greek (330–1453) Modern Greek (from 1453) Dialects: Calabrian, Cappadocian, Cheimarriotika, Cretan, Cypriot, Demotic, Griko, Katharevousa, Pontic, Tsakonian, Maniot, Yevanic *

Dates (beginning with Ancient Greek) from Wallace, D. B. (1996). Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. p. 12. ISBN 0310218950.

Pontic Greek

Pontic Greek (Greek: Ποντιακή διάλεκτος or Ποντιακά) is a form of the Greek language originally spoken in the Pontus area on the southern shores of the Black Sea, northeastern Anatolia, Eastern Turkish/Caucasus province of Kars, southern Georgia, and today mainly in northern Greece. Its speakers are referred to as Pontic Greeks or Pontian Greeks, although many Greeks mistakenly refer to some Pontic Greek speakers from Georgia as Russo-Ponti. The linguistic lineage of Pontic Greek stems from Ionic Greek via Koine and Byzantine Greek and contains influences from Georgian, Russian, Turkish and to a lesser extent, Persian (via Ottoman Turkish) and various Caucasian languages. Pontic is most closely related to Cappadocian Greek, and the Greek spoken in Mariupolis (and formerly in Crimea, Ukraine) (see Mariupolitan Greek). The language is called Rumca in Turkish, derived form the Turkish word Rum denoting ethnic Greeks living in Turkey in general; however, this term comprises other Greek speakers in Turkey such as those from Istanbul or Smyrna who speak a language close to Standard Modern Greek.

Dialects Greek linguist Manolis Triantafyllides has divided Pontic into two groups: • Western group (Oinountiac/Niotika) around Oenoe/Ünye. • Eastern group • Coastal subgroup (Trapezountiac) around Trebizond/Trapezus, • Inland subgroup (Chaldiot) in Chaldia (around Argyroupolis/Gümüşhane — Kanin in Pontic), in its vicinity (Kelkit, Baibourt/Bayburt, etc.), and around Kotyora/Ordu. Speakers of Chaldiot were the most numerous. In phonology, some varieties of Pontic are reported to demonstrate vowel harmony, a well-known feature of Turkish (Mirambel 1965).

Romeyka The inhabitants of the Of valley, who had converted to Islam in the 17th century, remained in Turkey and have partly retained the Pontic language until today.[1] Their dialect is called "Ophitic" by linguists, but speakers generally call it Romeyka, (Romeika, Greek: Ρωμαίικα) which in a more general sense is an historical and colloquial term for the modern Greek language as a whole. As few as 5,000 people speak this dialect.[2][3] Romeyka has retained the infinitive, which is present in Ancient Greek but has been lost in other variants of Modern Greek; it has therefore been characterized as "archaic" and as the living language that is closest to Ancient Greek.[2][3] In his 1996 book entitled Pontos Kültürü, Ömer Asan gives further details about the current Pontic-speaking community of the Of valley.[4] A very similar dialect is spoken by descendants of Christians from the Of valley now living in Greece in the village of Nea Trapezounta (part of Kalamaria, Central Macedonia), with about 400 speakers.[5]

Geographic distribution Though Pontic was originally spoken on the southern shores of the Black Sea, substantial numbers migrated into the northern and eastern shores (into the Russian Empire of the 18th and 19th century); Pontic is still spoken by large numbers of people in Ukraine, Russia (around Stavropol'), and Georgia, and the language enjoyed some use as a literary medium in the 1930s, including a school grammar (Topkhara 1998 [1932]). After the massacres of the 1910s, the majority of speakers remaining in Asia Minor were subject to the Treaty of Lausanne population exchange, and were resettled in Greece (mainly northern Greece). A second wave of migration occurred in the early 1990s, this time from the former Soviet Union.[6]

2

Pontic Greek

3

In Greece, Pontic is now used mainly emblematically rather than as a medium of communication. • Greece: 200,000 speakers (2001) mostly in Macedonia (East, Central and West) • Turkey: ~4000 speakers • • • • • • • • •

Çaykara: Multiple villages Dernekpazarı: (13 villages) Kars: Multiple villages and provincial capital. Of: multiple villages Maçka: No information Rize İkizdere: (21 villages) Sürmene: (6 villages) Tonya: (17 villages) Torul-ardasa, Yağlıdere-kromni, Santa, Imera: (no village)

Official status Pontic has no official status. During the late 1910s, it was destined to become the official language of the proposed Republic of Pontus. Historically, it was the de facto language of the Greek minority in the USSR, despite the fact that in the Πανσυνδεσμιακή Σύσκεψη (All-Union Conference) of 1926, organized by the Greek-Russian intelligentsia, it was decided that demotic should be the official language of the community.[7]

Culture The language has a rich oral tradition and folklore and Pontic songs are particularly popular in Greece. There is also some limited production of modern literature in Pontic, including poetry collections (among the most renowned writers is Kostas Diamantidis), novels, and translated Asterix comic albums.

Pontic alphabets Pontic in Greece is written in historical Greek orthography, with diacritics: σ̌ ζ̌ ξ̌ ψ̌ for /ʃ ʒ kʃ pʃ/, α̈ ο̈ for [æ ø] (phonological /ia io/). Pontic in Turkey is written in Latin script following Turkish conventions, and Pontic in Russia is written in Cyrillic. In early Soviet times, Pontic was written in the Greek script phonetically, as shown below, using digraphs instead of diacritics; [æ ø] were written out as ια, ιο. The Pontic Wikipedia uses a Greek script: it has adopted εα, εο for these vowels, to avoid clashes with Modern Greek ια, ιο, and uses digraphs from the Soviet system instead of diacritics, but otherwise follows historical orthography. Greek alphabet

Turkish alphabet

Russian alphabet

Αα

Aa

Аа

Ββ

Vv

Вв

Γγ

Ğğ

Гг

Δδ

DH dh

Дд

Εε

Ee

Ее

Ζζ

Zz

Зз

ΖΖ ζζ

Jj

Жж

Θθ

TH th

С с, Ф ф, Т т

Ιι

İi

Ии

IPA

[ä] [v] [ɣ] [ʝ] [ð] [e̞] [z] [ʒ] [θ] [i]

Example

ρομεικα, romeyika, ромейика κατιβενο, kativeno, кативено γανεβο, ğanevo, ганево δοντι, dhonti, донти εγαπεςα, eğapesa, егапеса ζαντος, zantos, зантос πυρζζυας, burjuvas, буржуас θεκο, theko, теко τοςπιτοπον, tospitopon, тоспитопон

Pontic Greek

4 Κκ

Kk

Кк

Λλ

Ll

Лл

Μμ

Mm

Мм

Νν

Nn

Нн

Οο

Oo

Оо

Ππ

Pp

Пп

Ρρ

Rr

Рр

Σς

Ss

Сс

ΣΣ ςς

Şş

Шш

Ττ

Tt

Тт

ΤΖ τζ

Cc

Чч

ΤΣ τς

Çç

Цц

Υυ

Uu

Уу

Φφ

Ff

Фф

Χχ

H, KH (sert H) Х х

[k] [l] [m] [n] [o̞] [p] [ɾ] [s] [ʃ] [t] [d͡ʒ]

καλατζεμαν, kalaceman, калачеман

[t͡ʃ] [u] [f] [x]

μανιτςα, maniça, маница

λαλια, lalia, лалиа μανα, mana, мана ολιγον, oliğоn, олигон τεμετερον, temeteron, теметерон εγαπεςα, eğapesa, егапеса ρομεικα, romeyika, ромейка καλατζεπςον, kalacepson, калачепсон ςςερι, şeri, шери νοςτιμεςα, nostimesa, ностимеса καλατζεμαν, kalaceman, калачеман

νυς, nus, нус εμορφα, emorfa, эморфа χαςον, hason, хасон

Archaisms • Preservation of the ancient pronunciation of 'η' as 'ε' (κέπιν = κήπιον, κλέφτες = κλέπτης, συνέλικος = συνήλικος, νύφε = νύ(μ)φη, έγκα = ἤνεγκον, έτον = ἦτον, έκουσα = ἤκουσα etc). • Preservation of the ancient pronunciation 'ω' as 'o' where Koine Greek received it as 'ου' (ζωμίν = ζουμί, καρβώνι, ρωθώνι etc). • Preservation of the ancient nominative suffix of neuter diminutive nouns in 'ιον' (παιδίον, χωρίον). • Preservation of the Ionic consonant pair 'σπ' instead of Koine 'σφ' (σποντύλιν, σπἰγγω, σπιντόνα). • Preservation of the termination of feminine compound adjectives in -ος (ή άλαλος, ή άνοστος, ή έμορφος). • The declension of male nouns from singular, nominative termination '-on' to genitive '-ος' (ο νέον -> τη νέονος, ο πάππον -> τη πάππονος, ο λύκον -> τη λύκονος, ο Τούρκον -> τη Τούρκονος etc). • The aorist ordering form in -ον (ανάμνον, μείνον, κόψον, πίσον, ράψον, σβήσον). • The middle voice verb termination in -ούμαι (ανακατούμαι, σκοτούμαι, στεφανούμαι). • The passive voice aorist termination in -θα (anc. -θην): εγαπέθα, εκοιμέθα, εστάθα etc. • The imperative form of passive aorist in -θετε (anc -θητι): εγαπέθετε, εκοιμέθετε, εστάθετε. • The sporadic use of infinitives (εποθανείναι, μαθείναι, κόψ'ναι, ράψ'ναι, χαρίσ'ναι, αγαπέθειν, κοιμεθείν). • The ancient accenting of nouns in vocative form: άδελφε, Νίκολα, Μάρια. • The sporadic use of 'ας' in the place of 'να': δός με ας φάγω.

Comparison with Ancient Greek • • • •

Example 1: Pontic en (is), Ancient Greek esti, Koine idiomatic form enesti, Biblical form eni, Modern Greek ine Example 2: Pontic temeteron (ours), Ancient Greek to(n) hemeteron, Modern Greek to(n) * mas Example 3: Pontic pedhin (child), Ancient Greek paidion, Standard Greek pedhi Example 4 (combining 2 and 3): Pontic temeteron to pedin (our child), Ancient Greek/Koine to hemeteron paidion, Modern Greek to pedi mas

Pontic Greek

5

• 1. Attachment of the /e/ sound to the ancient infinitive suffix –ειν (in Trapezountiac Pontic) PONTIC

ANCIENT

ipíne

εἰπεῖν

pathíne

παθεῖν

apothaníne ἀποθανεῖν piíne

πιεῖν

iδíne

εἰδεῖν

fiíne

φυγεῖν

evríne

εὑρεῖν

kamíne

καμεῖν

faíne

φαγεῖν

mathíne

μαθεῖν

erthéane

ἐλθεῖν

meníne

μένειν

• 2. Similar infinitive suffix -ηναι PONTIC

ANCIENT

anevίne

ἀναβῆναι

katevine

καταβῆναι

embine

ἐμβῆναι

evjine

ἐκβῆναι

epiδeavine ἀποδιαβῆναι kimethine

κοιμηθῆναι

xtipethine

κτυπηθῆναι

evrethine

εὑρεθῆναι

vrasine

βραχῆναι

raine

ῥαγῆναι

• 3. Ancient first aorist infinitive suffix -αι has been replaced by second aorist suffix -ῆναι PONTIC ANCIENT κράξειν

κράξαι

μεθύσειν μεθύσαι

• 4. Attachment of the /e/ sound to the ancient aorist infinitive suffix –σειν ράψεινε, κράξεινε, μεθύσεινε, καλέσεινε, λαλήσεινε, κτυπήσεινε, καθίσεινε • 5. Same aorist suffix –ka (–ka was also the regular perfect suffix)

Pontic Greek

6

PONTIC ANCIENT eδoka

ἔδωκα

enδoka

ἐνέδωκα

epika

ἐποίηκα

efika

ἀφῆκα

ethika

ἔθηκα

• 6. Ancient Greek –ein (-εῖν) infinitive > Pontic Greek –eane (-έανε) infinitive PONTIC ANCIENT erthéane

ἐλθεῖν

Notes [1] Mackridge 1987. [2] Against all odds: archaic Greek in a modern world (http:/ / www. research-horizons. cam. ac. uk/ features/ -p-against-all-odds--archaic-greek-in-a-modern-world--p-. aspx), University of Cambridge [3] Jason and the argot: land where Greek's ancient language survives (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ life-style/ history/ jason-and-the-argot-land-where-greeks-ancient-language-survives-2174669. html), The Independent, Monday, 3 January 2011 [4] Ömer Asan, Pontos Kültürü 'Pontos Culture', Belge Yayınları of Ragip Zarakolu, 1996. Second edition, 2000 (ISBN 975-344-220-3). [5] "www.latsis-foundation.org" (http:/ / www. latsis-foundation. org/ files/ Meletes2009/ 11. report. pdf). . Retrieved 2011-10-29. [6] Selm, Joanne van (2003). The Refugee Convention at fifty: a view from forced migration studies. Lexington, Mass: Lexington Books. p. 72. ISBN 0-7391-0565-5. (http:/ / books. google. gr/ books?id=CLqlP77RUpUC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA72#v=onepage& q& f=false) [7] "ΟΨΕΙΣ ΤΗΣ ΕΚΠΑΙΔΕΥΣΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΤΗΣ ΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΑΣ ΤΩΝ ΕΛΛΗΝΩΝ" (http:/ / www. elemedu. upatras. gr/ eriande/ synedria/ synedrio3/ praltika 11/ malkidis-karatzas. htm). . Retrieved 2011-01-15.(Greek)

Bibliography • Georges Drettas, Aspects pontiques, ARP, 1997, ISBN 2-9510349-0-3. "... marks the beginning of a new era in Greek dialectology. Not only is it the first comprehensive grammar of Pontic not written in Greek, but it is also the first self-contained grammar of any Greek “dialect” written, in the words of Bloomfield, “in terms of its own structure”." (Janse) • Özhan Öztürk, Karadeniz: Ansiklopedik Sözlük. 2 Cilt. Heyamola Yayıncılık. İstanbul, 2005. ISBN 975-6121-00-9 • Mackridge, P. 1987. Greek-Speaking Moslems of North-East Turkey: Prolegomena to Study of the Ophitic Sub-Dialect of Pontic. Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 11: 115–137. • Τομπαΐδης, Δ.Ε. 1988. Η Ποντιακή Διάλεκτος. Αθήνα: Αρχείον Πόντου. (Tompaidis, D.E. 1988. The Pontic Dialect. Athens: Archeion Pontou.) • Τομπαΐδης, Δ.Ε. ϗ Συμεωνίδης, Χ.Π. 2002. Συμπλήρωμα στο Ιστορικόν Λεξικόν της Ποντικής Διαλέκτου του Α.Α. Παπαδόπουλου. Αθήνα: Αρχείον Πόντου. (Tompaidis, D.E. and Simeonidis, C.P. 2002. Additions to the Historical Lexicon of the Pontic Dialect of A.A. Papadopoulos. Athens: Archeion Pontou.) • Παπαδόπουλος, Α.Α. 1955. Ιστορική Γραμματική της Ποντικής Διαλέκτου. Αθήνα: Επιτροπή Ποντιακών Μελετών. (Papadopoulos, A.A. 1955. Historical Grammar of the Pontic Dialect. Athens: Committee for Pontian Studies.) • Παπαδόπουλος, Α.Α. 1958–61. Ιστορικόν Λεξικόν της Ποντικής Διαλέκτου. 2 τόμ. Αθήνα: Μυρτίδης. (Papadopoulos, A.A. 1958–61. Historical Lexicon of the Pontic Dialect. 2 volumes. Athens: Mirtidis.) • Οικονομίδης, Δ.Η. 1958. Γραμματική της Ελληνικής Διαλέκτου του Πόντου. Αθήνα: Ακαδημία Αθηνών. (Oikonomidis, D.I. 1958. Grammar of the Greek Dialect of Pontos. Athens: Athens Academy.)

Pontic Greek • Τοπχαράς, Κονσταντίνος. 1998 [1932]. Η Γραμματική της Ποντιακής: Ι Γραματικι τι Ρομεικυ τι Ποντεικυ τι Γλοςας. Θεσσαλονίκη: Αφοί Κυριακίδη. (Topcharas, K. 1998 [1932]. The Grammar of Pontic. Thessaloniki: Afoi Kiriakidi.)

External links • Mark Janse, " Aspects of Pontic grammar (http://www.benjamins.com/jbp/series/JGL/3/art/0008a.pdf)", a Review Article of Drettas (1997). The paper summarizes the high points of the book. • Ethnologue report for Pontic (http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pnt) • Committee for Pontian Studies (Επιτροπή Ποντιακών Μελετών) (http://www.epm.gr/) • Trebizond Greek: A language without a tongue (http://www.karalahana.com/english/omer_asan.htm) • Info about Pontians (http://www.pontian.info) • Pontic Greek: A cost of a language (http://www.karalahana.com/english/cost-of-language.htm) • The Pontic Dialect (http://pontosworld.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=776& Itemid=75) • Argonautai Komninoi Association (http://www.argonautai-komninoi.gr) • Pontic Greek - English Dictionary (http://pontosworld.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view& id=53&Itemid=72) • Development of the Pontic Greek Dialect (http://www.karalahana.com/english/ development-of-the-pontic-greek-dialect.html) • Archaic Greek in a modern world (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UcAYP4irSyQ) video from Cambridge University, on You Tube

7

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Pontic Greek  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479853128  Contributors: Aeusoes1, Alex '05, Alexander Domanda, Alexikoua, Andreas Kaganov, AndreasJS, ArnoLagrange, Asteraki, Austin Hair, Avicennasis, Barticus88, Behemoth, Bogdangiusca, Bomac, Briangotts, Caeruleancentaur, Chapterprimdown, Chris the speller, Chronographos, Coskuneruz, Cplakidas, Deipnosophista, Delirium, Dryazan, Duja, Ecemaml, Embryomystic, Etz Haim, Euxine, Fiet Nam, Fratrep, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gaius Cornelius, Gidonb, Gilgamesh, Historiographer, Hottentot, Illexsquid, Ioannes Tzimiskes, JW1805, Jon Harald Søby, JorisvS, Khoikhoi, Konstantinos, Kwamikagami, Ling.Nut, Macedonian, Macrakis, Macukali, Mahmudmasri, Makedonier, Melenc, Meursault2004, Mikenassau, Miskin, NeoRetro, Notesenses, Omicronpersei8, Omnipaedista, Opoudjis, Orkh, Parishan, Patroklis, Prsephone1674, Qoan, Raayen, Rexhep Bojaxhiu, Roleplayer, SPQRobin, Saravask, Sephia karta, Spacepotato, Steinbach, Sysin, Telex, Teofteo, Titoxd, Uocila, Yangula, ZaDiak, ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟΣ, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, ΣΠΑΡΤΙΑΤΗΣ, 66 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:P46.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P46.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Dsmdgold, Foroa, Heycos, Kersti Nebelsiek, Neithsabes, Saiht, Sscotts, Unicorn, Wst, 1 anonymous edits

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8

Karamanlides

1

Karamanlides Karamanlides Καραμανλήδες Karamanlılar

Karamanlides Orthodox wedding ceremony at Malakopi (Cappadocia, now Derinkuyu) ca. 1910 Regions with significant populations Greece Religion Orthodox Christianity

The Karamanlides (Greek: Καραμανλήδες; Turkish: Karamanlılar), or simply Karamanlis (Also referred to as Cappadocian Greeks or Greeks of Cappadocia), are a Greek Orthodox, Turkish-speaking people native to the Karaman and Cappadocia regions of Anatolia. Today, a majority of the population live within Greece, though there is a notable diaspora in Western Europe and North America.

Etymology

Karamanlidika inscription found on the door of a house in İncesu, Turkey.

Karamanlides is an umbrella term used to describe all Greek Orthodox Christians in Central Anatolia who had adopted Turkish as their primary language. It is derived from the 13th century Beylik of Karaman. They were the first Turkish kingdom to adopt Turkish as its official language and originally the term would only describe the inhabitants of the town of Karaman or from the region of Karaman. Since there is no significant presence of established Christians in the area, the title is now most often used as a label for the local Muslim inhabitants.

Karamanlides

2

Language Historically, the Karamanlides adopted and spoke a dialect of the Turkish language. Its vocabulary drew overwhelmingly from Turkic words with only minimal Greek loan words. The language should not be confused with Cappadocian Greek, which was spoken in the same region during the same timeframe, but is derived from the Greek language. It should be noted while their spoken language was Turkish, they employed the Greek alphabet to write it.

The range of the ancestral homeland of the Karamanlides.

Origins Academic disputes over the origins of the Karamanlides have led to the formation of two major theories. According to the first theory the Karamanlides descended from (religiously converted) Turkish soldiers-Turcopoles that Byzantine emperors settled in Anatolia.[1] The second theory states that Karamanlides are the direct descendants of Greek-speaking Byzantines. Despite their linguistic Turkification, they maintained their Greek Orthodox faith. This theory is also likely as 19th century linguists were able to travel through Karamanli-speaking regions of Cappadocia and document the few remaining Greek words that mostly elderly residents could remember. Hence the process of Turkification was documented. Nonetheless, in the age of nationalism in the 19th century, most Karamanlides identified with a sense of Greekness as distinct from their fellow Turco-phone neighbours; largely resulting from their adherence to the Greek Orthodox Church. Many Karamanlides were forced to leave their homes during the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Early estimates placed the number of Orthodox Christians expelled from central and southern Anatolia at around 100,000.[2] However, the Karamanlides were numbered at around 400,000 at the time of the exchange.[3]

Culture The distinct culture that developed among the Karamanlides blended elements of Orthodox Christianity with an Ottoman-Turkish flavor that characterized their willingness to accept and immerse themselves in foreign customs. From the 14th to the 19th centuries, they enjoyed an explosion in literary refinement. Karamanli authors were especially productive in philosophy, religious writings, novels, and historical texts. Lyrical poetry in the late 19th century describes their indifference to both Greek and Turkish governments, and the confusion they felt as a Turkish-speaking people with a Greek ethos.

Karamanlides

References [1] Vryonis, Speros. Studies on Byzantium, Seljuks, and Ottomans: Reprinted Studies. Undena Publications, 1981, ISBN 0890030715, p. 305. "The origins of the Karamanlides have long been disputed, there being two basic theories on the subject. According to one, they are the remnants of the Greek-speaking Byzantine population which, though it remained Orthodox, was linguistically Turkified. The second theory holds that they were originally Turkish soldiers which the Byzantine emperors had settled in Anatolia in large numbers and who retained their language and Christian religion after the Turkish conquests..." [2] Blanchard, Raoul. "The Exchange of Populations Between Greece and Turkey." Geographical Review, 15.3 (1925): 449-56. [3] Pavlowitch, Stevan K. A History of the Balkans, 1804-1945. Longman, 1999, ISBN 0582045851, p. 36. "The karamanlides were Turkish-speaking Greeks or Turkish-speaking Orthodox Christians who lived mainly in Asia Minor. They numbered some 400,000 at the time of the 1923 exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey."

External links • • • •

Kappadokes.com (http://www.kappadokes.com/english/home_en.htm) From Cappadocia (http://www.megarevma.net/Karamanlides.htm) Centre for Cappadocian Studies (http://www.stegi-karvalis.gr/English/stegi.htm) Civilization History of Guzelyurt (http://www.guzelyurt.gov.tr/eng/)

3

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Karamanlides  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=471005815  Contributors: Aaron Schulz, Absar, Aldux, Andreas Kaganov, Anicetus61, Aramgar, Arjayay, AtilimGunesBaydin, Avraham, Behemoth, BishkekRocks, Boatstak8, Bogdangiusca, Catalographer, Choster, Cplakidas, Cretanforever, Csilofagos, Delirium, Denisarona, Deucalionite, Dipa1965, Domitius, FilipeS, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gilgamesh, Good Olfactory, Greco22, Grey Shadow, HarHar, Hectorian, Jingiby, Kachik, Kalambaki2, Kansas Bear, Khoikhoi, Kimon, Kober, LapisExCoelis, Leewonbum, Li4kata, Lister7, Mallaccaos, Markie, Matia.gr, Miskin, NonvocalScream, Nozdref, Olegwiki, Preost, Psylophag, Pylambert, RHaworth, Ratemonth, Rjwilmsi, Saraki, Sardanaphalus, Sarrazip, Sassisch, Sean WI, Selenay Aytac, SiobhanHansa, Takabeg, Te5, Tekleni, Trigaranus, YellowMonkey, Yesitwill, Yolgnu, Zylophag, Δρακόλακκος, ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟΣ, 55 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors Image:Karamanli wedding ceremony.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karamanli_wedding_ceremony.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown Photograph Image:Karamanlidika.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karamanlidika.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: tr:kullanıcı:katpatuka Image:Karamanlides homeland.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karamanlides_homeland.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Sean WI at en.wikipedia

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4

Karamanlides The tribe Karamanlides lived in the region of Karaman of The Ottoman Empire. The region is well known as Cappadocia. Also there were many Karamanlides living in Constantinople (Istanbul) and other provinces of the Empire. Karamanlides were a Christian Orthodox people, monolingual with Turkish. They were writing Turkish with Greek alphabets. Today, only a 80-100 people group remaining from this tribe live in Constantinople. All of the Karamanlides were sent to Greece after the exchange of populations. Karamanlides used Turkish as the church language and translated the bible into Karamanlidika. Also the first novel written in the Ottoman Empire was Temasha-e Dounia by a Karamanlis Evangelinos Missailidis(1872). In this novel, Ottoman Empire is characterized through the eyes of a Greek living in Constantinople. Also many religious, law, philosophy, medical books were written or translated in Karamanlidika language. One of such books is named Anadolu Türküleri(The Songs of Anatolia), by Stauros Stauridis(1896). A lyric from the book: BIRER BIRER SAYDIM DA YEDI YIL OLDU DIKTIĞIN FIDANLAR MEYVAYA DURDU SENINLE GIDENLER SILAYA DONDU ISTANBUL YOLUNA DIKTIM GOZUMU I counted the years one by one and it made up of seven The saplings you planted now give fruit Those who had gone with you returned to homeland I still have my eyes on the roads from Istanbul Also there were newspapers published in Karamanlidika as Anatoli, which was established by Evangelinos Missailidis in 1851 and continued to circulate till 1914. By the exchange treaty both Greece and Turkey solved their ethnic minority problems. In a radical and bitter way. The Muslims in Greece and The Orthodox Greeks in Turkey were exchanged. In 1924, all the Karamanlides started the immigration to Greece. When they were transported to the harbour of Mersin, neither of them had an idea about the place they're going, besides most of them were seeing the sight of the sea for the first time. The Karamanlides were regarded as foreigners also in Greece.

Urums

Urums Urums, singular Urum (Greek: Ουρούμ Urúm, Turkish and Crimean Tatar: Urum, IPA: [uˈɾum]) is a broad historical term that was used by some Turkic-speaking peoples (Turks, Crimean Tatars) to define Greeks who lived in Muslim states, particularly in the Ottoman Empire and Crimea. In contemporary ethnography, the term Urum (or Urum Greek) applies only to Turk population.

Ethnonym The term Urum is derived from the Arabic word ُ‫( ﺭُّﻭﻡ‬rūm), meaning Roman and subsequently Byzantine and Greek (see: Rûm). Since words beginning in [r] were not typical for Turkic languages, earlier speakers would add an extra vowel in order to facilitate the pronunciation. In modern Turkish, the Urum spelling, despite being still used by some, is considered obsolete and is replaced by the spelling Rum. The term is presently used by the following sub-ethnic groups of Greeks as a way of ethnic self-identification: • Crimean-Tatarophone Greeks of North Azov (Ukraine)(Descended from Pontic Greeks) • Turcophone Greeks of Tsalka (Georgia) (see Pontic Greeks) • Cappadocian Greeks of Cappadocia (see Karamanlides)

North Azovian Urums Historically, the Greeks of Crimea (and later of the adjacent Azovian region; present-day Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine) were represented by two groups: the Hellenic-speaking Romaioi and the Turkic-speaking Urums (also called Graeco-Tatars). These Byzantine Greeks of Crimea are descended from Pontic Greeks. Both groups populated the region for many centuries (they consisted of both the descendants of the 4th century BC – 4th century AD colonizers and those who immigrated from Anatolia specifically Pontus at various times). However, the latter underwent social and cultural processes, which led to them adopting the Crimean Tatar language as a mother tongue. In 1777, after the annexation of Crimea by Russia, Catherine the Great ordered all Greeks from the peninsula to settle in North Azov, and they have been known as the North Azovian Greeks (приазовские греки / priazovskie greki) henceforth. Some linguists believe that the dialect spoken by the North Azovian Urums differs from the common Crimean Tatar language on a more than just dialectical level and therefore constitutes a separate language unit within the Kypchak language sub-group (see Urum language). Urums practice Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Throughout history, they represented an isolated cultural group and rarely settled in towns populated by the Romaioi, despite sharing Greek heritage with them.[1] Unlike Greek, Urum has never been a language of secondary education in Ukraine. Turkologist Nikolai Baskakov estimated that by 1969, 60,000 people spoke Urum as a native language. According to the All-Ukrainian Population Census of 2001, only 112 of the Donetsk Oblast's 77,516 Greeks listed languages other than Greek, Ukrainian and Russian as their mother tongue.[2]

1

Urums

Tsalka Urums Little is known about this ethnic subgroup. They are sometimes referred to as the Trialeti Greeks or the Transcaucasian Turcophone Greeks. Pontian Greeks call them Τσαλκαλίδες (Tsalkalides); a name that refers to the Georgian town of Tsalka, where Urums once made up the largest ethnic community. From the 18th to the early 20th century, the Caucasus experienced mass migrations of Greeks from the Ottoman Empire, mainly from the region of Pontus. Many Pontian Greeks spoke Turkish either as part of their Greek-Turkish bilingua, or as a mother tongue due to linguistic assimilation processes that isolated groups of the Anatolian Greeks were exposed to. According to Andrei Popov, throughout the 19th century hundreds of Turkish-speaking Greek Orthodox families from Erzurum, Gümüşhane and Artvin moved to Southern Russia and settled on the Tsalka Plateau, in present-day Georgia.[3] During the Soviet era they populated over 20 villages in Georgia's Tsalka, Dmanisi, Tetritsq'aro, Marneuli, and Akhaltsikhe regions. In 1926, there were 24,000 Greeks living in Tiflis and the neighbouring area with 20,000 them being Turcophone.[4] The dialect spoken by the Tsalka Urums is similar to many other Central Anatolian dialects of Turkish. However some linguists, like Nikolai Baksakov, classify it as a separate Oghuz language due to differences in phonetics, vocabulary and grammar.[5] Present-day Urum Turkish is also thought by some to be phonetically closer to Azeri than to the literary Turkish, which leads them to believe that it is rather a dialect of Azeri.[6] Late Soviet censuses also showed Azeri as the mother tongue of the Tsalka Urums, however this may have been done simply due to the Soviets' somewhat unfavourable attitude towards Turkish culture. No secondary education in Urum Turkish has been available; its speakers attend schools where subjects are taught in Russian or Azeri. The Tsalka Urums themselves call their language bizim dilja (Turkish: our language/talk). With the popularization of the Russian language, many experienced linguistic assimilation and adapted to Russian. Also starting from the 1980s, some sense of a cultural revival has been observed among the Turcophone Greeks. Historian Airat Aklaev's research showed that 36% of them considered Greek their mother tongue despite their lack of knowledge of that language. 96% expressed their desire to learn Greek.[7] A documentation project on the language of Caucasian Urum people compiled a basic lexicon, a sample of translations for the study of grammar, and a text collection. The website of the project contains further information about the language and the language community.[8] In comparison with the Hellenophone Greeks of Georgia, the Tsalka Urums were less exposed to emigration after the fall of the Soviet Union, hence nowadays they constitute the majority of the country's Greek population. Nevertheless, some migration did take place, which is why Greeks are no longer the largest ethnic group in Tsalka. Between 1989 and 2002, their numbers within the region went down from 35,000 to 3,000. Many emigrated to Greece and to the Krasnodar Krai, Russia (cities of Krasnodar, Abinsk, Sochi, and Gelendzhik).

References [1] Ethnolinguistic Situation (http:/ / www. genling. nw. ru/ Ethnolin/ ethnosite/ situation. htm) by Elena Perekhvalskaya (in Russian). Retrieved 2 October 2006 [2] The All-Ukrainian Population Census of 2001: The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue (http:/ / www. ukrcensus. gov. ua/ rus/ results/ nationality_population/ nationality_popul1/ select_51/ ?botton=cens_db& box=5. 1W& k_t=14& p=25& rz=1_1& rz_b=2_1 & n_page=2). Retrieved 2 October 2006 [3] Popov, Andrei. Pontian Greeks. Krasnodar: Studia Pontocaucasica, 1997. Retrieved 17 July 2005 [4] Volkova, Natalya. The Greeks of the Caucasus. Krasnodar: Studia Pontocaucasica, 1997. Retrieved 2 October 2005 [5] Turkic Languages (http:/ / etheo. h10. ru/ turk01. htm). Classification by Nikolai Baksakov. 1969. Retrieved 2 October 2006 [6] Azerbaijanis in Georgia (http:/ / www. geogen. ge/ indexen. php?lang=en& id_menu=22& id_menu_up=4& abc=0& fr=& srch=). Retrieved 2 October 2006 [7] Aklaev, Airat. Ethnolinguistic Situation and Ethnic Self-Identification Features of the Georgian Greeks. Soviet Ethnography, #5, 1988. Retrieved 2 October 2006 [8] See Urum documentation project at http:/ / urum. lili. uni-bielefeld. de/

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Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Urums  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481204312  Contributors: 3210, Amire80, Andreas Kaganov, Behemoth, Biruitorul, Cyfal, DOSGuy, Deucalionite, Domitius, Elsanaturk, Elysonius, Epolk, Estlandia, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gilgamesh, Giwrgos1122, GregorB, Hectorian, Hmains, Informationskampagne, Karnesky, Khoikhoi, Kwamikagami, Leandrod, Liontooth, Omnipaedista, Parishan, R'n'B, Riwnodennyk, Sardanaphalus, Tekleni, TimBentley, Tot12, Withevenoff, 20 anonymous edits

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3

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

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Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia Total population Greece: 200,000+ Diaspora: 150,000+ Regions with significant populations [1]

Florina, Edessa, Kastoria, Thessaloniki, Serres, Drama

50,000 - 250,000 (est.) [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

Greece Bulgaria Australia

descendants of 92,000 to 120,000(est.) refugees from Greece [11][12] [13] (1913-1950) 81,745 (2006 census) - 90,000 (est.) descendants of migrants from the [14][15] region of Macedonia.

 Macedonia

50,000 (incl. descendants) - 70,000 (est.) [16]

 Canada

26,000 (est.) [17]

 United States

30,000 (est.) [17][18] 7,500 (est.)

Vojvodina (Serbia) Languages Slavic dialects of Greece Religion Eastern Orthodox Church

Slavic speakers are a linguistic minority population in the northern Greek region of Macedonia who are mostly concentrated in certain parts of the peripheries of West and Central Macedonia, adjacent to the territory of the Republic of Macedonia. A smaller group exists in East Macedonia adjacent to the territory of Bulgaria. Some members have formed their own emigrant communities in the neighbouring countries, as well as further abroad.

Ethnic and linguistic affiliations Members of this group have had a number of conflicting ethnic identifications. Predominantly identified as Macedonian Bulgarians until the early 1940s,[19][20] since the formation of a Macedonian nation state, many of the migrant population in the diaspora (Australia, America and Canada) have a strong Macedonian identity and have followed the consolidation of the Macedonian ethnicity.[21] However, those who remain in Greece, now mainly identify nationally as ethnic Greeks,[22][23] although, it should be noted, that though the Macedonian region is overwhelmingly inhabited by Greeks including descendants of Pontians, it is ethnically diverse (including Albanians, Aromanians and Slavs). The second group in today's Greece is made up of those who seem to reject any national identity, but have distinct regional ethnic identity, which they may call “indigenous” - dopia -, Slavomacedonian, or Macedonian,[24] and the smallest group is made up of those who have a clear ethnic Macedonian national identity.[25] They speak East South Slavic dialects that can be linguistically classified as either Macedonian or Bulgarian,[26] but which are locally often

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

2

referred to simply as "Slavic" or "'the local language". Today all speakers are also bilingual in Greek. A crucial element of that controversy is the very name Macedonian, as it is also used by a much more numerous group of people with a Greek national identity to indicate their regional identity. The term "Aegean Macedonians" (Macedonian: Егејски Македонци, Egejski Makedonci) is associated with those parts of the population that have an ethnic Macedonian identity. Speakers who identify as Greeks or have distinct regional ethnic identity, often speak of themselves simply as "locals" (Greek: Dopii), to distinguish themselves from native Greek speakers from the rest of Greece and Greek refugees from Asia Minor who entered the area in the 1920s and after. Slavic speakers will also use the term "Macedonians" or "Slavomacedonians", though in a regional rather than an ethnic sense. People of Greek persuasion are sometimes called by the pejorative term "Grecomans" by the other side. Greek sources, which usually avoid the identification of the group with the nation of the Republic of Macedonia, and also reject the use of the name "Macedonian" for the latter, will most often refer only to so called "Slavophones" or "Slavophone Greeks". "Slavic-speakers" or "Slavophones" is also used as a cover term for people across the different ethnic orientations. The exact number of the linguistic minority remaining in Greece today, together with its members' choice of ethnic identification, is difficult to ascertain; most maximum estimates range around 180,000-200,000 with those of an ethnic Macedonian national consciousness numbering possibly 10,000 to 30,000.[27] However, as per leading experts on this issue, the number of this people has decreased in the last decades, because of the intermeriages and the urbanization and they number nowadays between 50,000 and 70,000 people with around 10,000 of them identifying as Macedonians.[28][29][30][31][32]

History The Slavs took advantage of the desolation left by the nomadic tribes and in the 6th century settled the Balkan Peninsula. Aided by the Avars and the Bulgars, the Slavic tribes started in the 6th century a gradual invasion into the Byzantine lands. They invaded Macedonia and reached as far south as Thessaly and the Peloponnese, settling in isolated regions that were called by the Byzantines Sclavinias, until they were gradually pacified. At the beginning of the 9th century, the Slavic Bulgarian Empire conquered Northern Byzantine lands, including most of Macedonia. Those regions remained under Bulgarian rule for two centuries, until conquest of Bulgaria by the Byzantine Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty Basil II in 1018. In the 13th and the 14th century, Macedonia was contested by the Byzantine Empire, the Latin Empire, Bulgaria and Serbia but the frequent shift of borders did not result in any major population changes. In 1338, it was conquered by the Serbian Empire, but after the Battle of Maritsa in 1371 most of the Macedonian Serbian lords would accept supreme Ottoman rule. Principal areas with presence of Slavic speakers in Greece (pink and purple), along with other minority language communities. Greek is [33] today spoken as the dominant language throughout the country.

During the Middle Ages Slavs in South Macedonia were mostly defined as Bulgarians,[34][35] and this continued also during 16th and 17th centuries by Ottoman historians and travellers like Hoca Sadeddin Efendi, Mustafa Selaniki, Hadji Khalfa and Evliya Celebi. Nevertheless, most of the Slavic-speakers had not formed a national identity in

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia modern sense and were instead identified through its religious affiliations. Some Slavic-speakers have also converted to Islam. This conversion appears to have been a gradual and voluntary process. Economic and social gain was an incentive to become a Muslim. Muslims also enjoyed some legal privileges. Nevertheless the rise of European nationalism in the 18th century led to the expansion of the Hellenic idea in Macedonia and under the influence of the Greek schools and the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and part from the urban Christian population of Slavic origin started to view itself more as Greek. In the Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid the Slavonic liturgy was preserved on the lower levels until its abolition in 1767. This led to the first literary work in vernacular modern Bulgarian, History of Slav-Bulgarians in 1762. Its author was a Macedonia-born monk Paisius of Hilendar, who wrote it in the Bulgarian Orthodox Zograf Monastery, on Mount Athos. Nevertheless it took almost a century for the Bulgarian idea to regain ascendancy in the region. Paisius was the first ardent call for a national awakening and urged his compatriots to throw off the subjugation to the Greek language and culture. The example of Paissiy was followed also by other Bulgarian awakeners in 18th century Macedonia. The Macedonian Bulgarians took active part in the long struggle for independent Bulgarian Patriarchate and Bulgarian schools during the 19th century. The foundation of the Bulgarian Exarchate (1870) aimed specifically at differentiating the Bulgarian from the Greek population on an ethnic and linguistic basis, hence providing the conditions for the open assertion of a Bulgarian national identity.[36] On the other hand the Internal Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization (IMARO) was founded in 1893 in Ottoman Thessaloniki by several Bulgarian Exarchate teachers and professionals who sought to create a militant movement dedicated to the autonomy of Macedonia and Thrace within the Ottoman Empire. Many Bulgarian exarchists participated in the Ilinden Uprising in 1903 with hope of liberation from the Porte. From 1900 onwards, the danger of Bulgarian control had upset the Greeks. The Bishop of Kastoria, Germanos Karavangelis, realised that it was time to act in a more efficient way and started organising Greek opposition. Germanos animated the Greek population against the IMORO and formed committees to promote the Greek interests. Taking advantage of the internal political and personal disputes in IMORO, Karavangelis succeeded to organize guerrilla groups. Fierce conflicts between the Greeks and Bulgarians started in the area of Kastoria, in the Giannitsa Lake and elsewhere; both parties committed cruel crimes. Both guerrilla groups had also to confront the Turkish army. These conflicts ended after the revolution of "Young Turks" in 1908, as they promised to respect all ethnicities and religions and generally to provide a constitution. After the Balkan Wars in 1913, Greece took control of southern Macedonia and began an official policy of forced assimilation which included the settlement of Greeks from other provinces into southern Macedonia, as well as the linguistic and cultural Hellenization of Slav speakers.[37] which continued even after World War I.[38] The Greeks expelled Exarchist churchmen and teachers and closed Bulgarian schools and churches. Bulgarian language (including the Macedonian dialects) was prohibited, and its surreptitious use, whenever detected, was ridiculed or punished.[39] Bulgaria's entry into World War I on the side of the Central Powers signified a dramatic shift in the way European public opinion viewed the Bulgarian population of Macedonia. The ultimate victory of the Allies in 1918 led to the victory of the vision of the Slavic population of Macedonia as an amorphous mass, without a developed national consciousness. Within Greece, the ejection of the Bulgarian church, the closure of Bulgarian schools, and the banning of publication in Bulgarian language, together with the expulsion or flight to Bulgaria of a large proportion of the Macedonian Bulgarian intelligentsia, served as the prelude to campaigns of forcible cultural and linguistic assimilation.

3

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

4

The remaining Macedonian Bulgarians were classified as "Slavophones".[40] After the Ilinden Uprising, the Balkan Wars and especially after the First World War more than 100,000 Bulgarians from Aegean Macedonia moved to Bulgaria. There was agreement in 1919 between Bulgaria and Greece which provided opportunities to expatriate the Bulgarians from Greece.[41] Until the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) and the Population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923 there were also some Pomak communities in the region.[42]

French ethnographic map of the Balkans from Ami Boue, 1847.

The nationalities of Southeastern Europe in the late 19th century represented in Pallas Nagy Lexikona, 1897.

The regions of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by ethnic Bulgarians in 1912, according to the Bulgarian point of view.

Greek ethnographic map from 1918, showing the Macedonian Slavs as a separate people.

Bulgarian Exarchate seal of the Solun (Thessaloniki) municipality from early 20th century.

Bulgarian Exarchate seal of the Voden (Edessa) municipality, 1870.

Bulgarian Girl's Boarding School in Thessaloniki, 1882.

Bulgarian Men's High School of Thessaloniki celebrating Sts. Cyril & Methodius Day, c. 1900.

Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) During the Balkan Wars IMRO members joined the Macedonian-Adrianopolitan Volunteer Corps and fought with the Bulgarian Army. Others with their bands assisted the Bulgarian army with its advance and still others penetrated as far as the region of Kastoria, southwestern Macedonia.

IMRO revolutionaries from Kastoria

irredentism and urging a renewed war.

In the Second Balkan War IMRO bands fought the Greeks behind the front lines but were subsequently routed and driven out. The result of the Balkan Wars was that the Macedonian region was partitioned between Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia. IMARO maintained its existence in Bulgaria, where it played a role in politics by playing upon Bulgarian

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

5 During the First World War in Macedonia (1915–1918) the organization supported Bulgarian army and joined to Bulgarian war-time authorities. Bulgarian army, supported by the organization's forces, was successful in the first stages of this conflict, came into positions on the line of the pre-war Greek-Serbian border.

Refugee children from Gorno Brodi, Serres resettled in Peshtera after the Second Balkan War, 1913

The Bulgarian advance into Greek held Eastern Macedonia, precipitated internal Greek crisis. The government ordered its troops in the area not to resist, and most of the Corps was forced to surrender. However the post-war Treaty of Neuilly again denied Bulgaria what it felt was its share of Macedonia. From 1913 to 1926 there were large-scale changes in the population structure due to ethnic

migrations. During and after the Balkan Wars about 15,000 Slavs left the new Greek territories for Bulgaria but more significant was the Greek–Bulgarian convention 1919 in which some 72,000 Slavs-speakers left Greece for Bulgaria, mostly from Eastern Macedonia, which from then remained almost Slav free. IMRO began sending armed bands into Greek Macedonia to assassinate officials. In 1920s in the region of Greek Macedonia 24 chetas and 10 local reconnaissance detachments were active. Many locals were repressed by the Greek authorities on suspicions of contacts with the revolutionary movement. In this period the combined Macedonian-Adrianopolitan revolutionary movement separated into Internal Thracian Revolutionary Organization and Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization. ITRO was a revolutionary organization active in the Greek regions of Thrace and Eastern Macedonia to the river Strymon. The reason for the establishment of ITRO was the transfer of the region from Bulgaria to Greece in May 1920. At the end of 1922, the Greek government started to expel large numbers of Thracian Bulgarians into Bulgaria and the activity of ITRO grew into an open rebellion. Meanwhile, the left-wing did form the new organisation called IMRO (United) in 1925 in Vienna. However, it did not have real popular support and remained based abroad with, closely linked to the Comintern and the Balkan Communist Federation. IMRO's and ITRO's constant fratricidal killings and assassinations abroad provoked some within Bulgarian military after the coup of 19 May 1934 to take control and break the power of the organizations, which had come to be seen as a gangster organizations inside Bulgaria and a band of assassins outside it.

Interwar period The Tarlis and Petrich incidents triggered heavy protests in Bulgaria and international outcry against Greece. The Common Greco-Bulgarian committee for emigration investigated the incident and presented its conclusions to League of Nations in Geneva. As a result a bilateral Bulgarian-Greek agreement was signed in Geneva on September 29, 1925 known as Politis-Kalfov protocol after the demand of the League of Nations, recognizing Greek slavopho-a preview in Google Books]}} |region7 = Vojvodina (Serbia) |pop7 = 7,500 (est.) |languages = Slavic dialects of Greece |religions = Eastern Orthodox Church }} Slavic speakers are a linguistic minority population in the northern Greek region of Macedonia who are mostly concentrated in certain parts of the peripheries of West and Central Macedonia, adjacent to the territory of the Republic of Macedonia. A smaller group exists in East Macedonia adjacent to the territory of Bulgaria. Some members have formed their own emigrant communities in the neighbouring countries, as well as further abroad.

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

6

Ethnic and linguistic affiliations Members of this group have had a number of conflicting ethnic identifications. Predominantly identified as Macedonian Bulgarians until the early 1940s,[43][44] This decision was supported by the Greek Communist Party. The Situation for Slav-speakers became unbearable when the Metaxas regime took power in 1936.[17] Metaxas was firmly opposed to the irredentist factions of the Slavophones of northern Greece mainly in Macedonia and Thrace, some of whom underwent political persecution due to advocacy of irredentism with regard to neighboring countries. Place names and surnames were officially Hellenized and the native Slavic dialects were banned even in personal use.[17] It was during this time that many Slavic-speakers fled their homes and immigrated to the United States, Canada and Australia. The name changes took place across other neighbouring states, according to the predominant language.

Ohrana and the Bulgarian annexation during WWII Ohrana were armed detachments organized by the Bulgarian army, composed of pro-Bulgarian oriented part of the Slavic population in occupied Greek Macedonia during World War II, led by Bulgarian officers.[45] In 1941 Greek Macedonia was occupied by German, Italian and Bulgarian troops. The Bulgarian troops occupied the whole of Eastern Macedonia and Western Thrace, where it was greeted from the greater part of a Slav-speakers as liberators.[46] At the beginning of the occupation in Greece most of the Slavic-speakers in the area felt themselves to be Bulgarians.[47] Only a small part espoused a pro-Hellenic feelings.

Triple occupation of Greece. Bulgarian occupation zone in 1941 is shown in green. Additional Bulgarian occupation zone in 1943 is shown in red surrounded by green band.

Unlike Germany and Italy, Bulgaria officially annexed the occupied territories, which had long been a target of Bulgarian irridentism.[48] A massive campaign of "Bulgarisation" was launched, which saw all Greek officials deported. This campaign was successful especially in Eastern and later in Central Macedonia, when Bulgarians entered the area in 1943, after Italian

withdrawal from Greece. All Slav-speakers there were regarded as Bulgarians and not so effective in German-occupied Western Macedonia. A ban was placed on the use of the Greek language, the names of towns and places changed to the forms traditional in Bulgarian. In addition, the Bulgarian government tried to alter the ethnic composition of the region, by expropriating land and houses from Greeks in favour of Bulgarian settlers. The same year, the German High Command approved the foundation of a Bulgarian military club in Thessaloníki. The Bulgarians organized supplying of food and provisions for the Slavic population in Central and Western Macedonia, aiming to gain the local population that was in the German and Italian occupied zones. The Bulgarian clubs soon started to gain support among parts of the population. Many Communist political prisoners were released with the intercession of Bulgarian Club in Thessaloniki, which had made representations to the German occupation authorities. They all declared Bulgarian ethnicity.[49][50] In 1942, the Bulgarian club asked assistance from the High command in organizing armed units among the Slavic-speaking population in northern Greece. For this purpose, the Bulgarian army, under the approval of the

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia German forces in the Balkans sent a handful of officers from the Bulgarian army, to the zones occupied by the Italian and German troops to be attached to the German occupying forces as "liaison officers". All the Bulgarian officers brought into service were locally born Macedonians who had immigrated to Bulgaria with their families during the 1920s and 1930s as part of the Greek-Bulgarian Treaty of Neuilly which saw 90,000 Bulgarians migrating to Bulgaria from Greece. These officers were given the objective to form armed Bulgarian militias. Bulgaria was interested in acquiring the zones under Italian and German occupation and hopped to sway the allegiance of the 80,000 Slavs who lived there at the time.[45] The appearance of Greek partisans in those areas persuaded the Italians to allow the formation of these collaborationist detachments.[45] Following the defeat of the Axis powers and the evacuation of the Nazi occupation forces many members of the Ohrana joined the SNOF where they could still pursue their goal of secession. The advance of the Red Army into Bulgaria in September 1944, the withdrawal of the German armed forces from Greece in October, meant that the Bulgarian Army had to withdraw from Greek Macedonia and Thrace. There was a rapprochement between the Greek Communist Party and the Ohrana collaborationist units.[51] Further collaboration between the Bulgarian-controlled Ohrana and the EAM controlled SNOF followed when it was agreed that Greek Macedonia would be allowed to secede.[52][53] Finally it is estimated that entire Ohrana units had joined the SNOF which began to press the ELAS leadership to allow it autonomous action in Greek Macedonia.[54] There had been also a larger flow of refugees into Bulgaria as the Bulgarian Army pulled out of the Drama-Serres region in late 1944. A large proportion of Bulgarians and Slavic speakers emigrated there. In 1944 the declarations of Bulgarian nationality were estimated by the Greek authorities, on the basis of monthly returns, to have reached 16,000 in the districts of German-occupied Greek Macedonia,[55] but according to British sources, declarations of Bulgarian nationality throughout Western Macedonia reached 23,000.[56]

Greek Civil War During the beginning of the Second World War, Greek Slavic-speaking citizens fought within the Greek army until the country was overrun in 1941. The Greek communists had already been influenced by the Comintern and it was the only political party in Greece to recognize Macedonian national identity.[57] As result many Slavic-speakers joined the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and participated in partisan activities. The KKE expressed its intent to "fight for the national self-determination of the repressed Macedonians".[58] In 1943, the Slavic-Macedonian National Liberation Front (SNOF) was set up by ethnic Macedonian members of the KKE. The main aim of the SNOF was to obtain the entire support of the local population and to mobilize it, through SNOF, for the aims of the National Liberation Front (EAM).[59] Another major aim was to fight against the Bulgarian organisation Ohrana and Bulgarian authorities.[60] During this time, the ethnic Macedonians in Greece were permitted to publish newspapers in the Macedonian language and run schools.[61] In late 1944 after the German and Bulgarian withdrawal from Greece, the Josip Broz Tito's Partisans movement hardly concealed its intention of expanding. It was from this period that Slav-speakers in Greece who had previously referred to themselves as "Bulgarians" increasingly began to identify as "Macedonians".[62] By 1945 World War II had ended and Greece was in open civil war. It has been estimated that after the end of the Second World War over 20,000 people fled from Greece to Bulgaria. To an extent the collaboration of the peasants with the Germans, Italians, Bulgarians or ELAS was determined by the geopolitical position of each village. Depending upon whether their village was vulnerable to attack by the Greek communist guerrillas or the occupation forces, the peasants would opt to support the side in relation to which they were most vulnerable. In both cases, the attempt was to promise "freedom" (autonomy or independence) to the formerly persecuted Slavic minority as a means of gaining its support.[63]

7

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia National Liberation Front The National Liberation Front (NOF) was organized by the political and military groups of the Slavic minority in Greece, active from 1945-1949. The interbellum was the time when part of them came to the conclusion that they are Macedonians. Greek hostility to the Slavic minority produced tensions that rose to separatism. After the recognition in 1934 from the Comintern of the Macedonian ethnicity, the Greek communists also recognized Macedonian national identity. That separatism was reinforced by Communist Yugoslavia's support, since Yugoslavia's new authorities after 1944 encouraged the growth of Macedonian national consciousness. Following World War II, the population of Yugoslav Macedonia did begin to feel themselves to be Macedonian, assisted and pushed by a government policy.[64] Communist Bulgaria also began a policy of making Macedonia connecting link for the establishment of new Balkan Federative Republic and stimulating in Bulgarian Macedonia a development of distinct Slav Macedonian consciousness.[65] This inconsistent Bulgarian policy has thrown most independent observers ever since into a state of confusion as to the real origin of the population in Bulgarian Macedonia. At first, the NOF organized meetings, street and factory protests and published illegal underground newspapers. Soon after it founding, members began forming armed partisan detachments. In 1945, 12 such groups were formed in Kastoria, 7 in Florina, and 11 in Edessa and the Gianitsa region.[66] Many Aromanians also joined the Macedonians in NOF, especially in the Kastoria region. The NOF merged with the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) which was the main armed unit supporting the Communist Party. Owing to the KKE's equal treatment of ethnic Macedonians and Greeks, many ethnic Macedonians enlisted as volunteers in the DSE (60% of the DSE was composed of Slavic Macedonians).[67] It was during this time that books written in the Macedonian dialect (the official language was in process of codifying) were published and Macedonians cultural organizations theatres were opened.[68] According to information announced by Paskal Mitrovski on the I plenum of NOF on August 1948, about 85% of the Slavic-speaking population in Greek Macedonia had an ethnic Macedonian self-identity. It has been estimated that out of DSE's 20,000 fighters, 14,000 were Slavic Macedonians from Greek Macedonia.[68][69] Given their important role in the battle,[70] the KKE changed its policy towards them. At the fifth Plenum of KKE on January 31, 1949, a resolution was passed declaring that after KKE's victory, the Slavic Macedonians would find their national restoration as they wish[71]

Refugee children Further information: Child Refugees The DSE was slowly driven back and eventually defeated. Thousands of Slavic-speakers were expelled and fled to the newly established Socialist Republic of Macedonia, while thousands more children took refuge in other Eastern Bloc countries.[68] They are known as Децата бегалци/Decata begalci. Many of them made their way to the US, Canada and Australia. Other estimates claim that 5,000 were sent to Romania, 3,000 to Czechoslovakia, 2,500 to Bulgaria, Poland and Hungary and a further 700 to East Germany. There are also estimations that 52,000 - 72,000 people in total (incl. Greeks) were evacuated from Greece,[68] whereas Macedonian sources claim up to 213,000 Slavic speakers fled Greece at the end of the Civil War. However a 1951 document from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia states the total number of ethnic Macedonian and Greeks arriving from Greece between the years 1941–1951 is 28,595. From 1941 until 1944 500 found refuge in the People's Republic of Macedonia, in 1944 4,000 people, in 1945 5,000, in 1946 8,000, in 1947 6,000, in 1948 3,000, in 1949 2,000, in 1950 80, and in 1951 15 people. About 4,000 left Yugoslavia and moved to other Socialist countries (and very few went also to western countries).

8

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

9

So in 1951 at Yugoslavia were 24,595 refuges from Greek Macedonia. 19,000 lived in Yugoslav Macedonia, 4,000 in Serbia (mainly in Gakovo-Krusevlje) and 1595 in other Yugoslav republics.[72] This data is confirmed by the KKE, which claims that the total number of political refugees from Greece (incl. Greeks) was 55,881.[73]

Post War Period Since the end of the Greek Civil War many ethnic Macedonians have attempted to return to their homes in Greece. A 1982 amnesty law which stated "all Greek by descent who during the civil war of 1946-1949 and because of it have fled abroad as political refugees"[74] had the right to return, thus excluding all those who did not identify as ethnic Greeks.[75] This was brought to a forefront shortly after the independence of the Republic of Macedonia in 1991. Many ethnic Macedonians have been refused entry to Greece because their documentation listed the Slavic names of the places of birth as opposed to the now-official new Greek names, despite the child refugees, now elderly, only knowing their village by the local Macedonian name.[75] These measures were even extended to Australian and Canadian citizens. Despite this, there have been sporadic periods of free entry most of which have only ever lasted a few days. Despite the removal of official recognition to those identifying as ethnic Macedonians after the end of the Greek Civil War, a 1954 letter from the Prefect of Florina, K. Tousildis, reported that people were still affirming that the language they spoke was Macedonian in forms relating to personal documents, birth and marriage registries, etc.[76]

Recent history Since the late 1980s there has been a Macedonian ethnic revival in much of Northern Greece,[77] especially where Macedonian speakers have not been minoritised.[78] In 1984 the "Movement for Human and National Rights for the Macedonians of Aegean Macedonia" was founded,[79] and was followed by the creation of the "Central Comittee for Macedonian Human Rights" in Salonika in 1989.[80] In 1990 a manifesto by this group was presented to the Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe on behalf of the ethnic Macedonians.[79] Following this the "Macedonian Movement for Balkan Prosperity" (MAKIVE) was formed, and in 1993 this group held the first "All Macedonian Congress" in Greece.[81] The bilingual Macedonian and Greek languages, "Ta Moglena" newspaper was first put into print in 1989, and although restricted to the Moglena region had a readership of 3,000.[82] In 1989 the first attempts at establishing a "House of Macedonian Culture" in Florina first began.[83] MAKIVE participated in the 1993 local elections and received 14 percent of the vote in the Florina Prefecture.[84] According to a study by anthropologist Ricki van Boeschoten, 64% of the inhabitants of 43 villages in the Florina area were Macedonian-language speakers.[85]

Distribution of the Macedonian language in the Florina Prefecture and Aridaia regions (1993)

"Makedoniko" magazine also began to be published.

In January 1994, Rainbow (Macedonian: Виножито, Vinožito, Greek: Ουράνιο Τόξο, Ouránio Tóxo) was founded as the political party to represent the ethnic Macedonian minority. At the 1994 European Parliament election the party received 7,263 votes and polled 5.7% in the Florina district. The party opened its offices in Florina on September 6, 1995. The opening of the office faced strong hostility and that night the offices had been ransacked.[86] In 1997 the "Zora" (Macedonian: Зора, lit. Dawn) first began to published and the following year,[87] the Second All-Macedonian congress was held in Florina. Soon after the

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

In 2001 the first Macedonian Orthodox Church in Greece was founded in the Aridaia region, which was followed in 2002 with the election of Rainbow Candidate, Petros Dimtsis, to office in the Florina prefecture. The year also saw the "Loza" (Macedonian: Лоза, lit. Vine) magazine go into print. In the following years several Macedonian-language radio stations were established, however many including "Makedonski Glas" (Macedonian: Македонски Глас, lit. Macedonian Voice), were shut down by Greek authorities.[88] During this period ethnic Macedonians such as Kostas Novakis, began to record and distribute music in the native Macedonian dialects.[89] Ethnic Macedonian activists reprinted the language primer Abecedar (Macedonian: Абецедар), in attempt to encourage further use of the Macedonian language.[90] However, the lack of Macedonian-language literature has left many young ethnic Macedonian students dependant on textbooks from the Republic of Macedonia.[91] In 2008 hundreds of ethnic Macedonians from the villages of Lofoi, Meliti, Kella and Vevi protested against the presence of the Greek military in the Florina region.[92][93]

10

Distribution of the Macedonian language according to the Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1980)

Another ethnic Macedonian organisation, the Educational and Cultural Movement of Edessa (Macedonian: Образовното и културно движење на Воден, Obrazovnoto i kulturnoto dviženje na Voden), was formed in 2009. Based in Edessa, the group focuses on promoting ethnic Macedonian culture, through the publication of books and CD's, whilst also running Macedonian-language courses and teaching the Macedonian Cyrillic alphabet.[94] Since then Macedonian-language courses have been extended to include Florina and Salonika.[95] Later that year Rainbow officially opened its second office in the town of Edessa.[96] In early 2010 several Macedonian-language newspapers were put into print for the first time. In early 2010 the Zadruga (Macedonian: Задруга, Greek: Koinothta) newspapers was first published,[97] This was shortly followed by the publication of the "Nova Zora" newspaper in May 2010. The estimated readership of Nova Zora is 20,000, whilst that of Zadrgua is considerably smaller.[97] The "Krste Petkov Misirkov Foundation" was established in 2009, which aims to establish a museum dedicated to ethnic Macedonians of Greece, whilst also cooperating with other Macedonian minorities in neighbouring countries. The foundations aims at catalouging ethnic Macedonian culture in Greece along with promoting the Macedonian language.[98][99] In 2010 another group of ethnic Macedonians were elected to office, including the outspoken mayor of Meliti, Pando Ašlakov.[100] Ethnic Macedonians have also been elected as mayors in the towns of Vevi, Pappagiannis, Neochoraki and Achlada.[100] Later that year the first Macedonian-Greek dictionary was launched by ethnic Macedonian activits in both Brussels and Athens.[101]

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

11

Past discrimination After the conclusion of the First World War a widespread policy of Hellenisation was implemented in the Greek region of Macedonia[102][103][104] with personal and topographic names forcibly changed to Greek versions [105] and Cyrillic inscriptions across Northern Greece being removed from gravestones and churches.[105][106] Under the regime of Ioannis Metaxas the situation for Slavic speakers became intolerable, causing many to emigrate. A law was passed banning local Macedonian language.[107][108] Many people who broke the rule were deported to the islands of Thasos and Cephalonia.[109] Others were arrested, fined, beaten and forced to drink castor oil.,[103] or even deported to the border regions in Yugoslavia[68] following a staunch government policy of chasing minorities.[110] During the Greek Civil War, areas under Communist control freely taught the newly codified Macedonian language. Throughout this period it is claimed that the ethnic Macedonian culture and language flourished.[111] Over 10,000 children went to 87 schools, Macedonian-language newspapers were printed and theatres opened. As the National forces approached, these facilities were either shut down or destroyed. People feared oppression and the loss of their rights under the rule of the National government, which in turn caused many people to flee Greece.[17][112] However, the Greek Communists were defeated in the civil war, their Provisional Government was exiled, and tens of thousands of Slavic-speakers were expelled from Greece.[113][114] Many fled in order to avoid persecution from the ensuing National army.[115][116] Those who fled during the Greek Civil War were stripped of their Greek Citizenship and property.[117] Although these refugees have been classed as political refugees, there have been claims that they were also targeted due to their ethnic and cultural identities. During the Cold War cases of discrimination against people who identified as ethnic Macedonians and the Macedonian language had been reported by Human Rights Watch/Helsinki.[118] In 1959 it was reported that the inhabitants of three villages adopted a 'language oath', renouncing their Slavic dialect.[118] According to Riki Van Boeschoten, this "peculiar ritual" took place "probably on the initiative of local government officials."[119]

Culture Regardless of political orientation, Macedonian speakers in Greece share a common culture with ethnic Macedonians.[120][121][122] The commonalities include religious festivals, dances, music, language, folklore and national dress. Despite these commonalities however, there are regional folk dances which are specific to persons living in Greece. However, waves of refugees and emigration have had the effect of spreading this culture far beyond the borders of Greece.[123] Greece has blocked attempts by ethnic Macedonians to establish a Home of Macedonian Culture despite being convicted for a violation of freedom of association by the European Court of Human Rights.[124]

Villagers of Trikala celebrating the ancient Slavic winter ritual of Koleda (2010)

Traditions Koleda, an ancient Slavic winter ritual, is widely celebrated across northern Greece by Slavic speakers, in areas from Florina to Thessaloniki, where it is called Koleda (Κόλεντε, Κόλιαντα) or Koleda Babo (Κόλιντα Μπάμπω) which means "Koleda Grandmother" in Slavic. It is celebrated around Christmas by gathering in the village square and

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia lighting a bonfire, followed by local Macedonian music and dancing. Other winter traditions that are characteristic to both Slavic speakers in Greece and the Republic of Macedonia include Babaria (Μπαμπάρια, Бабари) in the Florina area, Ezarki (Ежкари, Εζζκάρι) in the Ptolemaida area, Rogochari (Рогочари, Ρογκοτσσάρι) in the Kastoria area, and Dzamalari (Џамалари, Τζζαμαλάρι) in the Edessa area[125].

Music Many regional folk songs are performed in both the local Macedonian dialects and Standard Macedonian language, depending on the origin of the song. However, this was not always the case an in 1993 the Greek Helsink Monitor found that the Greek government refused in "the recent past to permit the performance of [ethnic] Macedonian songs and dances".[126] In recent years however these restrictions have been lifted and once again Macedonian songs are performed freely at festivals and gatherings across Greece.[127][128] Many songs originating Greek Macedonia such as Ethnic Macedonian dancing group from Greece, Belomorci, "Filka Moma" (Macedonian: Филка Мома, lit. Filka performing the song "Egejska Maka". Girl) have become popular in the neighbouring Republic of Macedonia. Whilst likewise many songs composed by artists from the Republic of Macedonia such as "Egejska Maka" by Suzana Spasovska, "Makedonsko devojče" by Jonče Hristovski,[129] and "Kade ste Makedončinja?" are also widely sung in Greece.[130] In recent years many ethnic Macedonian performers including Elena Velevska, Suzana Spasovska, Ferus Mustafov, Group Synthesis and Vaska Ilieva, have all been invited to perform in amongst ethnic Macedonians in Greece.[131][132] Likewise ethnic Macedonian performers from Greece such as Kostas Novakis also perform in the Republic of Macedonia.[133] Many performers who live in the diaspora often return to Greece to perform Macedonian songs, including Marija Dimkova.[134]

Dances The Lerinsko oro/lerin dance, with origins in the region of Florina, is also popular amongst Slavic speakers. Other dances popularized by the Boys from Buf include the Bufsko Pušteno and Armensko Oro.

Media The first Macedonian-language media in Greece emerged in the 1940s. The "Crvena Zvezda" newspaper first published in 1942 in the local Solun-Voden dialect, is often credited as the first Macedonian-language newspaper to be published in Greece.[135] This was soon followed by the publication of many others including, "Edinstvo" (Unity), "Sloveno-Makedonski Glas", "Nova Makedonka", "Freedom" (Freedom), "Pobeda" (Victory), "Prespanski Glas", "Iskra" (Spark), "Stražar" and others.[135] Most of these newspapers were written in the codified Macedonian language or the local Macedonian dialects. The Nepokoren (Macedonian: Непокорен) newspaper was issued from May 1, 1947 until August 1949, and served as a later example of Macedonian-language media in Greece. It was affiliated with the National Liberation Front, which was the military organisation of the Ethnic Macedonian minority in Greece. The Bilten magazine (Macedonian: Билтен), is another example of Greek Civil War era Macedonian media.[136]

12

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

13

After the Greek Civil War a ban was placed on public use of the Macedonian language, and this was reflect in the decline of all Macedonian-language media. The 1990s saw a resurgence of Macedonian-language print including the publication of the "Ta Moglena", Loza, Zora (Macedonian: Зора) and Makedoniko newspapers. This was followed with the publication of the Zadruga magazine (Macedonian: Задруга) in early 2010.[137] Soon afterwards in May 2010 the monthly newspaper Nova Zora (Macedonian: Нова Зора) in May 2010,[138] went to print. Both Zadruga and Nova Zora are published in both Macedonian and Greek, and it estimated that over 20,000 copies of Nova Zora are printed every issue.[139] Several Macedonian-language radio stations have recently been set up in Greek Macedonia to cater for the Macedonian speaking population.[140] These stations however, like other Macedonian-language institutions in Greece have faced fierce opposition from the authorities, with one of these radio stations, "Macedonian Voice" (Macedonian: Македонски Глас), being shut down by authorities.[141]

Education and language Further information: Slavic dialects of Greece Various dialects linguistically considered to be dialects of Macedonian are spoken across Northern Greece. These dialects include the Upper and Lower Prespa dialects, the Kostur, Nestram-Kostenar, and Solun-Voden dialects. The Prilep-Bitola dialect is widely spoken in the Florina region, and forms the basis of the Standard Macedonian language. The Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect dialect is considered to be transitional between Macedonian and Bulgarian. The majority of the speakers also speak Greek, this trend is more prounounced amongst younger persons.

[142]

Dialectic divisions of the Macedonian language within Greece.

Speakers employ various terms to refer to the language which they speak. These terms include Makedonski (Macedonian: Македонски), Slavomakedonika (Greek: Σλαβομακεδονικά, "Slavomacedonian"), Entopia (Greek: Εντόπια, "local" language), Naše (Macedonian: Наше, "our own" language), Starski (Macedonian: Старски, "the old" language) and Slavika (Greek: Σλαβικά, "Slavic"). According to Peter Trudgill, There is, of course, the very interesting Ausbau sociolinguistic question as to whether the language they speak is Bulgarian or Macedonian, given that both these languages have developed out of the South Slavonic dialect continuum...In former Yugoslav Macedonia and Bulgaria there is no problem, of course. Bulgarians are considered to speak Bulgarian and Macedonians Macedonian. The Slavonic dialects of Greece, however, are "roofless" dialects whose speakers have no access to education in the standard languages. Greek non-linguists, when they acknowledge the existence of these dialects at all, frequently refer to them by the label Slavika, which has the implication of denying that they have any connection with the languages of the neighboring countries. It seems most sensible, in fact, to refer to the language of the Christian Slavonic-speakers in Greek Macedonia as Macedonian.[143]

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia During the late 19th and early 20th century Bulgarian was taught in the Bulgarian Exarchate's schools. The Abecedar language primer originally printed in 1925 was designed for speakers in using the Prilep-Bitola dialect in the Florina area. Although the book used a Latin script, it was printed in the locally Prilep-Bitola dialect. In the 1930s the Metaxas regime banned the use of the Slavomacedonian language in public and private use. Laws were enacted banning the language,[107][108] and speakers faced harsh penalties including being arrested, fined, beaten and forced to drink castor oil.[103] During the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II however these penalties were lifted. The Macedonian language was employed in widespread use, with Macedonian-language newspapers appearing from 1942.[144] During the period 1941-1944 within the The Bulgarian occupation zone the Bulgarian language was taught. During the Greek Civil War, the codified Macedonian language was taught in 87 schools with 10,000 students in areas of northern Greece under the control of Communist-led forces, until their defeat by the National Army in 1949.[145] After the war, all of these Macedonian-language schools were closed down.[146] More recently there have been attempts to once again begin education in Macedonian. In 2009 the Educational and Cultural Movement of Edessa began to run Macedonian-language courses, teaching the Macedonian Cyrillic alphabet.[94] Macedonian-language courses have also begun in Salonika, as a way of further encouraging use of the Macedonian language.[147] These courses have since been extended to include Macedonian speakers in Florina and Edessa.[148] In 2006 the Macedonian-language primer Abecedar was reprinted in an informal attempt to reintroduce Macedonian-language education[90] The Abecedar primer was reprinted in 2006 by the Rainbow, Political Party, it was printed in Macedonian, Greek and English. In the absence of greater Macedonian-language books printed in Greece, young ethnic Macedonians living in Greece use books originating from the Republic of Macedonia[91] Today Macedonian dialects are freely spoken in Greece however there are serious fears for the loss the language among the younger generations due to the lack of exposure to their native language. It appears however that reports of the demise of the use of the Macedonian language in Greece have been premature, with linguists such as Christian Voss asserting that the language has a "stable future" in Greece, and that the language is undergoing a "revival" amongst younger speakers.[149] The Rainbow Party has called for the introduction of the language in schools and for official purposes. They have been joined by others such as Pande Ašlakov, mayor of Meliti, in calling for the language to be officially introduced into the education system.[150] Certain characteristics of the these dialects, along with most varieties of Spoken Macedonian, include the changing of the suffix ovi to oj creating the words лебови> лебој (lebovi> leboj/ bread).[151] Often the intervocalic consonants of /v/, /g/ and /d/ are lost, changing words from polovina > polojna (a half) and sega > sea (now), which also features strongly in dialects spoken in the neighbouring Republic of Macedonia.[152] In other phonological and morphological characteristics, they remain similar to the other South-Eastern dialects spoken in the Republic of Macedonia and Albania.[153]

14

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

Diaspora Outside of Greece there is a large diaspora to be found in the Republic of Macedonia, former Eastern Bloc countries such as Bulgaria, as well as in other European and overseas countries.

Bulgaria The most numerous Slavic diaspora from Greece lives in Bulgaria.

Republic of Macedonia The Republic of Macedonia is home to thousands of people who self-identify as "Aegean Macedonians". Sources put the number of Aegean Macedonians living in the Republic of Macedonia at somewhere between 50,000 to 70,000.[16] The majority of these people are descended from World War II and Greek Civil War refugees who fled to the then People's Republic of Macedonia. The years following the conflict saw the repatration of many refugees mainly from Eastern Bloc countries. The refugees were primarily settled in deserted villages and areas across the Republic of Macedonia. A large proportion went to the Tetovo and Gostivar areas. Another large group was to settle in Bitola and the surrounding areas, while refugee camps were established in Kumanovo and Strumica. Large enclaves of Greek refugees and their descendants can be found in the suburbs of Topansko Pole and Avtokamanda in Skopje. Many Aegean Macedonians hold prominent positions in the Republic of Macedonia, including prime minister Nikola Gruevski and Dimitar Dimitrov, the former Minister of Education.

Australia Further information: Macedonian Australian A large self-identifying Aegean Macedonian population also lives in Australia, many of which arrived during the early 1900s. Charles Price estimates that by 1940 there were 670 Ethnic Macedonians from Florina and 370 from Kastoria resident in Australia. The group was a key supporter of the Macedonian-Australian People's League, and since then has formed numerous emigrant organisations.[154] There are Aegean Macedonian communities in Richmond, Melbourne, Manjimup,[155] Shepparton, Wanneroo and Queanbeyan.[156] These immigrants have established numerous cultural and social groups including the The Church of St George and the Lerin Community Centre in Shepparton and the Aegean Macedonian hall - Kotori built in Richmond along with other churches and halls being built in Queanbeyan in Manjimup.[17] The "Macedonian Aegean Association of Australia" is the uniting body for this community in Australia.[17] It has been estimated by scholar Peter Hill that over 50,000 Aegean Macedonians and their descendants can be found in Australia.[157]

Canada Large populations of Macedonians emigrated to Canada in the wake of the failed Ilinden Uprising and as Pečalbari (lit. Seasonal Workers) in the early 1900s. An internal census revealed that by 1910 the majority of these people were from the Florina (Lerin) and Kastoria (Kostur) regions.[158] By 1940 this number had grown to over 1,200 families, primarily concentrated in the Toronto region.[158] A further 6,000 ethnic Macedonians are estimated to have arrived as refugees, following the aftermath of the Greek Civil War.[159] One of the many cultural and benevolent societies established included the "The Association of Refugee Children from Aegean Macedonia" (ARCAM) founded in 1979. The association aimed to unite former child refugees from all over the world, with branches soon established in Toronto, Melbourne, Perth, the Republic of Macedonia, Slovakia, Czech Republic and Poland.[160]

15

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

Romania In the aftermath of the Greek Civil War thousands of ethnic Macedonian refugees were displaced to Romania. Between 1948-1949 an estimated 5,200 child refugees, both ethnic Macedonian and Greek were sent to Romania. The largest of the evacuation camps was set up in the town of Tulgheş, and here all the refugees were schooled in Greek and the ethnic Macedonian also in Macedonian; other languages were Romanian and Russian.[3]

Notable persons • • • • • • • • •

Atanas Dalchev Dimitar Dimitrov Kostadin Hristov Andon Kalchev Risto Kirjazovski Stojan Kočov Jagnula Kunovska Paskal Mitrevski Kostas Novakis

• • • • • • • • • • •

Kroum Pindoff Lyubka Rondova Andrew Rossos Blagoj Shklifov Steve Stavro Georgi Traykov Nikodim Tsarknias Andreas Tsipas Pavlos Voskopoulos Anton Yugov Lazar Temelkov

External links • • • • •

Website of Rainbow, Political Party [161] Website of the Educative and Cultural Movement of Edessa [162] Human Rights Watch document: Denying Ethnic Identity - The Macedonians of Greece, April 1994 [163] OSCE-HDIM,WARSHAV 2006 [164] Dialectial dictionary of the Oščima speech of the Lerin dialect [165]

16

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_language. asp?code=mkd Jacques Bacid, Ph.D. Macedonia Through the Ages. Columbia University, 1983. L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press http:/ / www. britannica. com/ new-multimedia/ pdf/ wordat077. pdf UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile (http:/ / www. lmp. ucla. edu/ Profile. aspx?LangID=42& menu=004) UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile (http:/ / www. lmp. ucla. edu/ Profile. aspx?LangID=37& menu=004) Greek Helsinki Monitor March 18, 2002 Report (http:/ / www. greekhelsinki. gr/ bhr/ english/ organizations/ ghm/ ghm_18_03_02. rtf) NATIONAL CONFLICT IN A TRANSNATIONAL WORLD: GREEKS AND MACEDONIANS AT THE CONFERENCE FOR SECURITY AND COOPERATION IN EUROPE (http:/ / www. gate. net/ ~mango/ Danforth_National_Conflict. htm) by Loring Danforth [9] Poulton, Hugh (1995). Who are the Macedonians?. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 167. ISBN 1850652384., abstract from page 125 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=InyEqBVhH-EC& pg=PA6& dq=Shea,+ John+ (1992). + The+ Real+ Macedonians& client=firefox-a& sig=ACfU3U2cUU_AGM8ZpmUwRk32rSvECdi7ow#PPA125,M1) [10] 2001 Country Report on Human Rights Practices published by the United States Department of State (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ 2001/ eur/ 8261. htm) [11] Loring M. Danforth (1997). The Macedonian Conflict. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691043566, 9780691043562., Pg.69, preview in Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC& pg=PA119& lpg=PA119& dq="The+ situation+ of+ the+ Macedonian+ language+ in+ Greece"& source=bl& ots=EcZbAGHySR& sig=uxqJyAgGjf4R_fefOBTSoq8bpYo& hl=en& ei=Yz0BSqGRCoSqsAaauO3yDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4#PPA69,M1) [12] Howard Jones (1997). A new kind of war. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195113853, 9780195113853., Pg.69, preview in Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=NVO_V14VdsgC& pg=PA69& lpg=PA69& dq=bulgarians+ fled+ from+ greece+ civil+ war& source=bl& ots=hP5_QDKHSG& sig=nQ8uonPzzDBAj8ZTFPGFzr1xWtI& hl=en& ei=pj8BSpX_Gp65jAfD5oiPDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3#PPA69,M1) [13] Plundered loyalties: Axis occupation and civil strife in Greek West Macedonia, 1941-1949, John S. Koliopoulos, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1999, ISBN 185065381X, p. 35. (http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=3hFahiZflJoC& pg=PA36& lpg=PA36& dq=bulgarophiles+ slavophone+ greeks& source=bl& ots=wuXhCQsfdW& sig=_ux-VfIgIpoVoEuUkvpa5t4Vpko& hl=bg& ei=IwghSr6ADMiOsAaqnuC5Bg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=9#PPA35,M1) [14] 2006 Australian census, question on ancestry (http:/ / www. censusdata. abs. gov. au/ ABSNavigation/ prenav/ ViewData?action=404& documentproductno=0& documenttype=Details& order=1& tabname=Details& areacode=0& issue=2006& producttype=Census Tables& javascript=true& textversion=false& navmapdisplayed=true& breadcrumb=LPTD& & collection=Census& period=2006& productlabel=Ancestry by Country of Birth of Parents - Time Series Statistics (2001, 2006 Census Years)& producttype=Census Tables& method=Place of Usual Residence& topic=Ancestry& ) [15] The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, 1988, James Jupp(Editor), Angus and Roberston, Sydney. [16] Simpson, Neil (1994). Macedonia Its Disputed History. Victoria: Aristoc Press. pp. 92. ISBN 0646204629. [17] Peter,Hill. (1989) The Macedonians in Australia, Hesperian Press, Carlisle [18] Stephan Thernstrom, Ann Orlov, Oscar Handlin (1980). Harvard encyclopedia of American ethnic groups. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674375122, 9780674375123., Pg 691 preview in Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=npQ6Hd3G4kgC& pg=PA691& dq=Macedonians+ in+ United+ States& client=firefox-a) [19] Who are the Macedonians? Hugh Poulton. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1995, ISBN 1850652384,p. 109 (http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=j_NbmSoRsRcC& dq=who+ are+ the+ macedonians& pg=PP1& ots=0Koghj-huR& source=bn& sig=EO5JjWd8XqDxMuwjEsjYx2dFY7w& hl=bg& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=4& ct=result#PPA109,M1). [20] Population exchange in Greek Macedonia: the rural settlement of refugees 1922-1930, Elisabeth Kontogiorgi, Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0199278962, p. 200. (http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=rsa9Ek7HfMEC& pg=PA200& lpg=PA200& dq=bulgarophile+ slavophone+ greeks& source=bl& ots=ktUomVHv7X& sig=mPt9C9bzdFQIyhssM9CfXxTv7zU& hl=bg& ei=6AMhSsziOcaPsAadx8HSBg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1#PPA200,M1) [21] Plundered loyalties: Axis occupation and civil strife in Greek West Macedonia, 1941-1949, John S. Koliopoulos, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1999, ISBN 185065381X, p. 108. (http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=3hFahiZflJoC& pg=PA36& lpg=PA36& dq=bulgarophiles+ slavophone+ greeks& source=bl& ots=wuXhCQsfdW& sig=_ux-VfIgIpoVoEuUkvpa5t4Vpko& hl=bg& ei=IwghSr6ADMiOsAaqnuC5Bg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=9#PPA108,M1) [22] Minorities in Greece: aspects of a plural society, Richard Clogg, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2002, ISBN 1850657068, p.142, (http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=231XALxmFFsC& pg=PA122& lpg=PA122& dq=the+ slavo+ macedonian+ + minority+ karakasidou& source=bl& ots=ud_OIKaF6r& sig=i8PkctRuCkZgqyTrems852tzMHo& hl=bg& ei=Ze0gSrPTOoWxsAawsJmqBg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1#PPA142,M1) [23] The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World, Loring M. Danforth, Princeton University Press, 1997, ISBN 0691043566, p. 116. (http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC& pg=PA28& lpg=PA28& dq=Nationalism+ and+ Identity+ Politics+ in+ the+ Balkans:+ Greece+ and+ the+ Macedonian+ Question& source=bl& ots=EcZdBDHzUS& sig=5nYf8uH7i04UB49WMPiJZtJOFoU& hl=bg& ei=-tMgSp2kIZW1sga-2OXIBg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3#PPA116,M1)

17

Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia [24] ...The matter is certainly more complex here, as the majority of the Greek citizens who grew up in what is usually called “Slavophone” or “bilingual” families have today a Greek national identity, as a result of either conscientious choice or coercion of their ancestors, in the first half of the twentieth century. A second group is made up of those who seem to reject any national identity (Greek or Macedonian) but have distinct ethnic identity, which they may call “indigenous” -dopia-, Slavomacedonian, or Macedonian. The smallest group is made up of those who have a clear Macedonian national identity and consider themselves as part of the same nation with the dominant one in the neighboring Republic of Macedonia. ... See: Greek Helsinki Monitor, Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (along guidelines for state reports according to Article 25.1 of the Convention), 18 September 1999, Part I, (http:/ / www. minelres. lv/ reports/ greece/ greece_NGO. htm) [25] Macedonia: the politics of identity and difference, Jane K. Cowan, Pluto Press, 2000, ISBN 0745315895, pp. 102-102. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=bg& lr=& id=SXGd04cB59EC& oi=fnd& pg=PR8& dq=greeks+ slavophone+ macedonians+ greeks+ + human+ rights& ots=56Xz8lupD0& sig=qEtRee6TNAUCQnwzBHmhblwIcvA#PPA101,M1) [26] ...Apart from certain peripheral areas in the far east of Greek Macedonia, which in our opinion must be considered as part of the Bulgarian linguistic area, the dialects of the Slav minority in Greece belong to Macedonia diasystem..., see: Trudgill P., 2000, "Greece and European Turkey: From Religious to Linguistic Identity". In: Stephen Barbour and Cathie Carmichael (eds.), Language and Nationalism in Europe, Oxford : Oxford University Press, p.259. [27] "Greece – Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (along guidelines for state reports according to Article 25.1 of the Convention)" (http:/ / dev. eurac. edu:8085/ mugs2/ do/ blob. html?type=html& serial=1044526702223). Greek Helsinki Monitor (GHM) & Minority Rights Group – Greece (MRG-G). 1999-09-18. . Retrieved 2009-01-12. [28] Culture and rights: anthropological perspectives, Jane K. Cowan, Marie-Bénédicte Dembour, Richard Wilson, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0521797357, pp. 167-173. (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?hl=bg& lr=& id=tD3TZJy5HagC& oi=fnd& pg=PA152& dq=number+ of+ macedonians+ in+ greece& ots=ycPjKUjoO5& sig=vSxZXStYu-_vQ7QFBRFD1Vy3Ae8#v=onepage& q=number of macedonians & f=false) [29] The Macedonian conflict: ethnic nationalism in a transnational world, Loring M. Danforth, Princeton University Press, 1997, ISBN 0691043566, p. 78. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC& pg=PA74& dq=number+ of+ slav+ macedonians+ in+ greece& hl=bg& ei=e1taToTNJMKgOouZlZQM& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q=number of slav macedonians in greece& f=false) [30] Denying ethnic identity: the Macedonians of Greece, Human Rights Watch/Helsinki (Organization: U.S.); Human Rights Watch, 1994, ISBN 1564321320, p. 13. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JxCnAHCCuxYC& pg=PA11& dq=number+ of+ slav+ macedonians+ in+ greece& hl=bg& ei=al5aTqOwMIaVOuvTqKIM& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CD4Q6AEwBDgK#v=onepage& q=number of slav macedonians in greece& f=false) [31] Historical dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, Dimitar Bechev, Scarecrow Press, 2009, ISBN 0810855658,p. 4.Reliable source added Historical dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1jSg3lxgSy8C& pg=PR47& dq=number+ of+ slav+ macedonians+ in+ greece& hl=bg& ei=PGhaTri2D8WAOqOzzIcM& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCkQ6AEwADhQ#v=onepage& q=number aegean greece& f=false) [32] Politics, power, and the struggle for democracy in South-East Europe, Karen Dawisha, Bruce Parrott, Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0521597331, pp. 268-269. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bNvbHCUs3tUC& pg=PA269& dq=number+ of+ slavophones+ greece& hl=bg& ei=AHRaTsfdLoucOoLuuNoH& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCkQ6AEwADge#v=onepage& q=number of slavophones greece& f=false) [33] See Ethnologue ( (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ show_map. asp?name=GR& seq=10)); Euromosaic, Le (slavo)macédonien / bulgare en Grèce, L'arvanite / albanais en Grèce, Le valaque/aromoune-aroumane en Grèce, and Mercator-Education: European Network for Regional or Minority Languages and Education, The Turkish language in education in Greece. cf. also P. Trudgill, "Greece and European Turkey: From Religious to Linguistic Identity", in S Barbour, C Carmichael (eds.), Language and nationalism in Europe, Oxford University Press 2000. [34] A charter of Romanus II, 960 Pulcherius (http:/ / www. promacedonia. org/ en/ ban/ ma1. html#6) (Slav-Bulgarian population in Chalcidice Peninsula is mentioned), Receuil des historiens des Croisades. Historiens orientaux. III, p. 331 – a passage in English (http:/ / www. promacedonia. org/ en/ ban/ ma1. html#13) Georgii Cedreni compendium, op. cit, pp. 449-456 - a passage in English (http:/ / www. promacedonia. org/ en/ ban/ ma1. html#17) (Bulgarian population in Servia is mentioned) In the so-called Legend of Thessalonica (12th c.) it is said that the Bulgarian language was also spoken hi the market place of Thessalonica (http:/ / www. promacedonia. org/ en/ ban/ ma2. html#31), Documents of the notary Manoli Braschiano concerning the sale and liberation of slaves of Bulgarian nationality from Macedonia (Kastoria, Seres, region of Thesalonica etc) (http:/ / www. promacedonia. org/ en/ ban/ ma2. html#52), From the Third Zograf Beadroll, containing the names of donors to the Zograf Monastery at Mt. Athos from settlements and regions indicated as Bulgarian lands (http:/ / www. promacedonia. org/ en/ ban/ ma2. html#58), Evidence from the Venetian Ambassador Lorenzo Bernardo on the Bulgarian character of the settlements in Macedonia (http:/ / www. promacedonia. org/ en/ ban/ ma2. html#60) [35] Венециански документи за историята на България и българите от ХІІ-ХV век, София 2001, с. 150, 188/Documenta Veneta historiam Bulgariae et Bulgarorum illustrantia saeculis XII-XV, p. 150, 188, edidit Vassil Gjuzelev (Venetian documents for the history of Bulgaria and Bulgarians, p. 150, 188 - Venetian documents from 14-15th century about Slaves from South Macedonia with Bulgarian belonging/origin) [36] Journal of Modern Greek Studies 14.2 (1996) 253-301 Nationalism and Identity Politics in the Balkans: Greece and the Macedonian Question by Victor Roudometof. [37] The Balkans: From Constantinople to Communism. Dennis Hupchik [38] http:/ / www. hrw. org/ reports/ pdfs/ g/ greece/ greece945. pdf

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Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia [39] Ivo Banac, "The Macedoine" (http:/ / promacedonia. org/ en/ ib/ i_banac. html) in "The National Question in Yugoslavia. Origins, History, Politics", pp. 307-328, Cornell University Press, 1984, retrieved on September 8, 2007. [40] Nationality on the Balkans. The case of the Macedonians, by F. A. K. Yasamee. (Balkans: A Mirror of the New World Order, Istanbul: EREN, 1995; pp. 121-132. [41] Даскалов, Георги. Българите в Егейска Македония. Rсторико-демографско изследване /1900-1990/, София, Македонски научен институт, 1996, с. 165 (Daskalov, Georgi. The Bulgarians in Aegean Macedonia. Historical-Demographic research /1900-1990/, Sofia, published by Macedonian Scientific Institute, 1996, p. 165.) [42] Capidan, Theodor. Meglenoromânii, istoria şi graiul lor, vol. I, Bucureşti, 1925, p.5, 19, 21-22. (Capidan, Theodor. Megleno-Romanians their history and dialect, Bucurest 1925, vol 1, p.5, 19, 21-22.) (http:/ / www. unibuc. ro/ CLASSICA/ megleno1/ introducere. pdf) [43] Who are the Macedonians? Hugh Poulton. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1995, ISBN 1850652384,p. 109 (http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=j_NbmSoRsRcC& dq=who+ are+ the+ macedonians& pg=PP1& ots=0Koghj-huR& source=bn& sig=EO5JjWd8XqDxMuwjEsjYx2dFY7w& hl=bg& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=4& ct=result#PPA109,M1). [44] as Bulgarians and guaranteeing their protection. Next month a Slavic language primer textbook in Latin known as [[Abecedar (http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=rsa9Ek7HfMEC& pg=PA200& lpg=PA200& dq=bulgarophile+ slavophone+ greeks& source=blnes) published by the Greek ministry for education, was introduced to Greek schools of Aegean Macedonia. On February 2, 1925, the Greek parliament, under pressure from Serbia, rejected ratification of the 1913 Greek-Serbian Coalition Treaty. Agreement lasted 9 months until June 10, 1925 when League of Nations annulled it.

During the 1920s the Comintern developed a new policy for the Balkans, about collaboration between the communists and the Macedonian movement. The idea for a new unified organization was supported by the Soviet Union, which saw a chance for using this well developed revolutionary movement to spread revolution in the Balkans. In the so-called May Manifesto of 6 May 1924, for first time the objectives of the unified Slav Macedonian liberation movement were presented: "independence and unification of partitioned Macedonia, fighting all the neighbouring Balkan monarchies, forming a Balkan Communist Federation". In 1934 the Comintern issued also a resolution about the recognition of the Slav Macedonian ethnicity. In this period Slavic Macedonian nationalism began to arise."Резолюция о македонской нации (принятой Балканском секретариате Коминтерна" Февраль 1934 г, Москва [45] Miller, Marshall Lee (1975). Bulgaria During the Second World War. Stanford University Press. p. 129. ISBN 0804708703. "In Greece the Bulgarians reacquired their former territory, extending along the Aegean coast from the Struma (Strymon) River east of Salonika to Dedeagach (Alexandroupolis) on the Turkish border.

Bulgaria looked longingly toward Salonika and western Macedonia, which were under German and Italian control, and established propaganda centres to secure the allegiance of the approximately 80,000 Slavs in these regions. The Bulgarian plan was to organize these Slavs militarily in the hope that Bulgaria would eventually assume the administration there. The appearance of Greek partisans in western Macedonia persuaded the Italian and German authorities to allow the formation of Slav security battalions (Ohrana) led by Bulgarian officers." [46] Loring M. Danforth. The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-691-04357-9.p. 73. [47] The struggle for Greece, 1941-1949, Christopher Montague Woodhouse, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2002, ISBN 1850654921, p. 67. (http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=qYAwZFwyYdwC& pg=PR25& lpg=PR25& dq=Chris+ Woodhouse+ Struggle+ for+ Greece+ 1941-1949& source=bl& ots=J5ici_BiG8& sig=XNvw0-nu6u5wBkwo63CbxMxkPKI& hl=bg& ei=GIXlSci1OouQsAb58PWdCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5#PPA67,M1) [48] Mazower (2000), p. 276 [49] Uranros, 103-4. [50] Makedonia newapaper, 11 May 1948. [51] Cowan, Jane K. (2000). Macedonia: the politics of identity and difference. Sydney: Pluto Press. pp. 73. ISBN 0-7453-1589-5. "He also played a leading part in effecting a rapprochement between the GCP (Greek Communist Party) and Ohrana" [52] Fritz August Voigt (1949). Pax Britannica. Constable. pp. 94. "Collaboration between the Ohrana, under Bulgarian control, and SNOF, under the control of EAM, and, therefore, of the Greek Communist Party" [53] The Twentieth Century. Nineteenth Century and After: A. D. Caratzas. 1946. pp. 12. ISBN 1391401946. "Collaboration between the Bulgarian-controlled Ohrana and the EAM -controlled SNOF followed upon an agreement that Macedonia should become autonomous" [54] Kophos, Euangelos; Kōphos, Euangelos (1993). Nationalism and communism in Macedonia: civil conflict, politics of mutation, national identity. New Rochelle, N.Y: A. D. Caratzas. pp. 125. ISBN 0-89241-540-1. "By September, entire Ohrana units had joined the SNOF which, in turn, began to press the ELAS leadership to allow it to raise the SNOF battalion to division" [55] Plundered loyalties: Axis occupation and civil strife in Greek, 1941-1949 by Giannēs S Koliopoulos, London, Hurst & Co.,1999, ISBN 9781850653813, p. 53. [56] F0371/58615, Thessaloniki consular report of 24 Sep. 1946

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Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia [57] Incompatible Allies: Greek Communism and Macedonian Nationalism in the Civil War in Greece, 1943-1949, Andrew Rossos - The Journal of Modern History 69 (March 1997): 42 [58] KKE, Πέντε Χρόνια Αγώνες 1931-1936, Athens, 2nd ed., 1946. [59] "Славјано Македонски Глас", 15 Јануари 1944 с.1 [60] "АМ, Збирка: Егејска Македонија во НОБ 1941-1945 - (Повик на СНОФ до Македонците од Костурско 16 Мај 1944)" [61] "Народно Ослободителниот Фронт и други организации на Македонците од Егејскиот дел на Македонија. (Ристо Кирјазовски)", Скопје, 1985. [62] Watch 1320 Helsinki, Human Rights Watch/Helsinki (Organization : U.S.); Lois Whitman, Jeri Laber (1994). Denying Ethnic Identity: The Macedonians of Greece. Toronto: Human Rights Watch. pp. 9. ISBN 1564321320. [63] John S. Koliopoulos. Plundered Loyalties: World War II and Civil War in Greek West Macedonia. Foreword by C. M. Woodhouse. New York: New York University Press. 1999. p. 304. [64] Loring M. Danforth. The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. Reviewed by Nicholas Miller (Boise State University)Published on HABSBURG (January, 1996) (http:/ / www. h-net. msu. edu/ reviews/ showrev. php?id=264) [65] Europe since 1945. Encyclopedia by Bernard Anthony Cook. ISBN 0815340583, pg. 808. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hafLHZgZtt4C& pg=PA808& dq=Macedonia+ WWII+ bulgarian+ + + IMRO& sig=4Ewh_0ZI-OnSPTb3SaNmOHDOv7M#PPA808,M1) [66] "Les Archives de la Macedonine, Fond: Aegean Macedonia in NLW" - (Field report of Mihail Keramidzhiev to the Main Command of NOF), 8 July 1945 [67] "Η Τραγική αναμέτρηση, 1945-1949 – Ο μύθος και η αλήθεια. Ζαούσης Αλέξανδρος" (ISBN 9607213432). [68] Simpson, Neil (1994). Macedonia Its Disputed History. Victoria: Aristoc Press. pp. 101, 102 & 91. ISBN 0646204629. [69] Ζαούσης Αλέξανδρος. Η Τραγική αναμέτρηση, 1945-1949 – Ο μύθος και η αλήθεια (ISBN 9607213432). [70] Speech presented by Nikos Zachariadis at the Second Congress of the NOF (National Liberation Front of the ethnic Macedonians from Greek Macedonia) (http:/ / macedonian. atspace. com/ doc/ nz_govor. htm), published in Σαράντα Χρόνια του ΚΚΕ 1918-1958, Athens, 1958, p. 575. [71] An excerpt from the Resolution of the Fifth Plenary Session of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) (http:/ / macedonian. atspace. com/ doc/ 5_con_KKE. htm) [72] report of General consultant of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia addressed to foreign ministry of Greece Doc 47 15-7-1951 SMIR, ΡΑ, Grcka, 1951, f-30, d-21,410429, (έκθεση του γενικού προξενείου της Γιουγκοσλαβίας στη Θεσσαλονίκη SMIR, ΡΑ, Grcka, 1951, f-30, d-21,410429, Γενικό Προξενείο της Ομόσπονδης Λαϊκής Δημοκρατίας της Γιουγκοσλαβίας προς Υπουργείο Εξωτερικών, Αρ. Εγγρ. 47, Θεσσαλονίκη 15.7.1951. (translated and published by Spiros Sfetas . ΛΓ΄, Θεσσαλονίκη 2001-2002 by the Macedonian Studies ) [73] 3rd KKE congress 10–14 October 1950: Situation and problems of the political refuges in People’s Republics pages 263 - 311 (3η Συνδιάσκεψη του Κόμματος (10–14 October 1950. Βλέπε: "III Συνδιάσκεψη του ΚΚΕ, εισηγήσεις, λόγοι, αποφάσεις - Μόνο για εσωκομματική χρήση - Εισήγηση Β. Μπαρτζιώτα: Η κατάσταση και τα προβλήματα των πολιτικών προσφύγων στις Λαϊκές Δημοκρατίες", σελ. 263 – 311”) Quote: “Total number of political refuges : 55,881 (23,028 men, 14,956 women and 17,596 children, 368 unknown or not accounted)” [74] Macedonia - Jane K. Cowan, Pluto Press 2000, Google Books preview (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SXGd04cB59EC& pg=PA38& lpg=PA38& dq=law+ macedonian+ + "greeks+ by+ descent"& source=bl& ots=56Xx7lysJX& sig=yGUx7Oyq3oWWMg2eu-eXX5smSsA& hl=en& ei=2tIAStqZCMigjAe0z7iCBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1) [75] Human Rights Watch, Helsinki (1994). Denying Ethnic Identity; The Macedonians Of Greece. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1564321320. [76] Mother Language Macedonian (http:/ / novazora. gr/ arhivi/ 2033) [77] Voss, Christian (2007). "Language ideology between self-identification and ascription among the Slavic-speakers in Greek Macedonia and Thrace". In Steinke, K; Voß, Ch. The Pomaks in Greece and Bulgaria – a model case for borderland minorities in the Balkans. Munich. pp. 177–192. [78] Detrez, Raymond; Plas, Pieter (2005), Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence, Peter Lang, pp. 50, ISBN 9052012970 [79] Shea, John (1997). Macedonia and Greece: The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation. McFarland. pp. 147. ISBN 0786437677. [80] Bugajski, Janusz (1995). Ethnic politics in Eastern Europe: a guide to nationality policies, organizations, and parties. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 177. ISBN 1563242834. [81] Bugajski, Janusz (2002). Political parties of Eastern Europe: a guide to politics in the post-Communist era. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 769. [82] Human Rights Watch/Helsinki; Denying ethnic identity: the Macedonians of Greece (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JxCnAHCCuxYC& pg=PA39& dq=Macedonians+ ilanguage+ Greece& hl=en& ei=VkUtTuX9KPHxmAWcrfS5Dw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false) [83] Forward, Jean S. (2001). Endangered peoples of Europe: struggles to survive and thrive. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 95. [84] Poulton, Hugh. Who are the Macedonians?, pp. 166. C. Hurst & Co, 2000. ISBN 1-85065-534-0 [85] Riki Van Boeschoten (2001). Usage des langues minoritaires dans les départements de Florina et d'Aridea (Macédoine) (Use of minority languages in the districts of Florina and Aridea (Macedonia). Strates [online], Number 10. Villageois et citadins de Grèce (villagers and citizens of Greece), 11 January 2005 (http:/ / strates. revues. org/ document381. html)

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Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia [86] Greek Helsinki Monitor & Minority Rights Group- Greece; Greece against its Macedonian minority (http:/ / www. greekhelsinki. gr/ pdf/ rainbow-english. pdf) [87] Liotta, P. H. (2001). Dismembering the state: the death of Yugoslavia and why it matters. Lexington Books. pp. 293. ISBN 0739102125. [88] Greece shuts down Macedonian radio program (http:/ / www. a1. com. mk/ vesti/ default. aspx?VestID=33322) [89] "Tragoudia - epitelous - me logia!" Elefterotypia, 27 March 2004 (http:/ / archive. enet. gr/ online/ online_fpage_text/ dt=27. 03. 2004,id=84957764,92840900,79295684) [90] Reprinted Abecedar (http:/ / www. florina. org/ abecedar/ 003. asp) [91] The Macedonian language in Greece has a stable future (http:/ / www. mn. mk/ aktuelno/ 1411) [92] (http:/ / www. netpress. com. mk/ vest. asp?id=66272& kategorija=7) [93] The Macedonians in Ovcarani protest against the Greek tanks with Bells (http:/ / www. dnevnik. com. mk/ default. asp?ItemID=36AF51D4F746DD4CB18D14BFAF99E776) [94] http:/ / edessavoden. gr/ [95] Во Грција ќе никне училиште на македонски јазик (http:/ / radiolav. com. mk/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=198:2009-04-02-14-57-23& catid=50:2009-02-11-19-11-42& Itemid=95) [96] EFA - RAINBOW OPENS OFFICE IN EDESSA/VODEN (http:/ / www. florina. org/ news/ 2009/ november15_e. asp) [97] Весник на Македонците во Грција (http:/ / www. novamakedonija. com. mk/ NewsDetal. asp?vest=6110956302& id=9& prilog=0& setIzdanie=21996) [98] Македонците од Грција основаа фондација (http:/ / a1. com. mk/ vesti/ default. aspx?VestID=116445) [99] Основање На фондација „КРСТЕ ПЕТКОВ МИСИРКОВ“ во Грција (http:/ / florina. org/ news/ 2009/ november18_m. asp) [100] Нашиот збор ќе се слуша преку радио во Лерин (http:/ / www. time. mk/ read/ f6266be548/ 62d05df69a/ index. html) [101] Greece indirectly financed a Macedonian-Greek dictionary (http:/ / www. time. mk/ read/ 1480aacc5a/ 5f73810623/ index. html) [102] Denying Ethnic Identity: the Macedonians of Greece, Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, New York, 1994 [103] Nettle, Daniel; Suzanne Romaine (2000). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages. Oxford University Press US. pp. 175. ISBN 0195136241. [104] Pentzopoulos, Dimitri (2002). The Balkan exchange of minorities and its impact on Greece. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 132. ISBN 1850656746. [105] Forward, Jean S. (2001). Endangered peoples of Europe: struggles to survive and thrive. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 89. ISBN 0313310068. [106] Simpson, Neil (1994). Macedonia Its Disputed History. Aristoc Press. pp. 64. ISBN 0646204629. [107] Mackridge, Peter; Eleni Yannakakis (1997). Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity Since 1912. Berg Publishers. pp. 66. ISBN 0646209272. [108] Simpson, Neil (1994). Macedonia Its Disputed History. Aristoc Press. pp. 65. ISBN 0646204629. [109] The Rising Sun In the Balkans: The Republic of Macedonia, International Affairs Agency, Sydney, Pollitecon Publications, 1995; p.33 [110] Rossos, Andrew (2008). Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History. Hoover Press. pp. 145. ISBN 0817948821. [111] Simpson, Neil (1994). Macedonia Its Disputed History. Aristoc Press. pp. 90. ISBN 0646204629. [112] Rossos, Andrew (2007). Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History. Hoover Press. pp. 208. ISBN 0817948813. [113] Macridge, Peter A.; Eleni Yannakakis (1997). Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity Since 1912. Berg Publishers. pp. 148. ISBN 1859731384. [114] Multicultural Canada (http:/ / www. multiculturalcanada. ca/ Encyclopedia/ A-Z/ m1/ 2) [115] Danforth, Loring M. (1997). The Macedonian Conflict. Princeton University Press. pp. 54. ISBN 0691043566. [116] Kalyvas, Stathis N.; Eleni Yannakakis (2006). The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 312. ISBN 0521854091. [117] Decree LZ/1947; later by Law 2536/1953 & Decree M/1948, N/1948, and Law 2536/1953, Denying Ethnic Identity: the Macedonians of Greece: the Macedonians of Greece, Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, New York, 1994 [118] Denying Ethnic Identity: the Macedonians of Greece: the Macedonians of Greece, Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, New York, 1994 [119] Van Boeschoten, Riki (2006). "Code-switching, Linguistic Jokes and Ethnic Identity,Reading Hidden Transcripts in a Cross-Cultural Contex". Journal of Modern Greek Studies 25. [120] Forward, Jean S. (2001). Endangered peoples of Europe: struggles to survive and thrive. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 94. [121] Human Rights Watch document: Denying Ethnic Identity - The Macedonians of Greece, April 1994 p. 61 (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ reports/ pdfs/ g/ greece/ greece945. pdf) [122] L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press, p. 104 [123] Simpson, Neil (1994) Macedonia Its Disputed History. Victoria: Aristoc Press. pp. 88. [124] The BALKAN Human Rights Web Pages (http:/ / cm. greekhelsinki. gr/ index. php?sec=194& cid=508) [125] http:/ / novazora. gr/ arhivi/ 1960 [126] Human Rights Watch document: Denying Ethnic Identity - The Macedonians of Greece, April 1994 p. 2 (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ reports/ pdfs/ g/ greece/ greece945. pdf) [127] Human Rights Watch document: Denying Ethnic Identity - The Macedonians of Greece, April 1994 [128] Unextinguished song (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ macedonian/ specials/ 1317_mac_minority/ page2. shtml)

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Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia [129] Во Леринско ечи македонско оро, но песна се пее без глас! (http:/ / www. vreme. com. mk/ DesktopDefault. aspx?tabindex=2& tabid=1& EditionID=795& ArticleID=52315) [130] L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press, p. 106 [131] The Macedonians in Greece celebrate Ilinden in Ovcarani (http:/ / www. mn. mk/ iselenici-region/ 2227-Makedoncite-vo-Grcija-go-proslavija-Ilinden-vo-Ovcarani) [132] And this year in Ovcarani they celebrate Ilinden (http:/ / www. novamakedonija. com. mk/ NewsDetal. asp?vest=7219956223& id=9& setIzdanie=21743) [133] Makedonsko sonce magazine (http:/ / www. makedonskosonce. com/ broevis/ 2002/ sonce422/ Tekst20. htm) [134] She lives together in Stip with songs from Voden (http:/ / star. dnevnik. com. mk/ default. aspx?pbroj=2954& stID=70596) [135] Boro Mokrov and Tome Gruevski, Overview of Macedonian Print (1885 - 1992), Skopje, 1993, 150-151 [136] Mokrov, B. & Gruevski, T. (1993), Overview of Macedonian print, Skopje, p. 147 [137] Zadruga - Koinothta Magazine (http:/ / zadruga-koinotita. blogspot. com/ 2011/ 06/ efimerida-maios-function-var-scribd. html) [138] Finally Nova Zora, Macedonian Newspaper in Greece (http:/ / www. ohridon. com/ m-vesti/ 1656. html) [139] http:/ / www. novamakedonija. com. mk/ NewsDetal. asp?vest=322101019491& id=9& prilog=0& setIzdanie=21940 [140] Macedonian-language radio station and newspaper established in Greece (http:/ / www. a1. com. mk/ vesti/ default. aspx?VestID=121226) [141] Greece closes radio station emitting in the Macedonian language (http:/ / www. a1. com. mk/ vesti/ default. aspx?VestID=33322) [142] After Z. Topolińska and B. Vidoeski (1984), Polski-macedonski gramatyka konfrontatiwna, z.1, PAN. [143] Trudgill P., 2000, "Greece and European Turkey: From Religious to Linguistic Identity". In: Stephen Barbour and Cathie Carmichael (eds.), Language and Nationalism in Europe, Oxford : Oxford University Press, p.259. [144] 116. [145] Simpson, Neil (1994), Macedonia Its Disputed History, Victoria: Aristoc Press, pp. 101, 102 & 91, ISBN 0646204629 [146] In Greece there were Macedonian-language schools (http:/ / www. vecer. com. mk/ default-mk. asp?ItemID=B137D9327DABBC47841516019BDE76EC) [147] Македонскиот јазик во Грција се учи тајно како во турско (http:/ / www. novamakedonija. com. mk/ NewsDetal. asp?vest=32310108242& id=9& setIzdanie=21941) [148] Во Грција ќе никне училиште на македонски јазик (http:/ / www. australianmacedonianweekly. com/ edition/ 1068_07042009/ 021_aktuelno_k. html) [149] Macedonian Language in Greece has a stable future (http:/ / www. dw-world. de/ dw/ article/ 0,,5284045,00. html) [150] Our language will be heard on the radio in Lerin (http:/ / www. time. mk/ read/ f6266be548/ 62d05df69a/ index. html) [151] стр. 244 Македонски јазик за средното образование- Стојка Бојковска, Димитар Пандев, Лилјана Минова-Ѓуркова, Живко Цветковски- Просветно дело- Скопје 2001 [152] Friedman, V. (2001) Macedonian (SEELRC) [153] Poulton, Hugh. (1995). Who Are the Macedonians?, (London: C. Hurst & Co. Ltd:107–108.). [154] Hill (1989) p. 123 [155] 2001 Census QuickStats : Manjimup (http:/ / www. censusdata. abs. gov. au/ ABSNavigation/ prenav/ LocationSearch?locationLastSearchTerm=manjimup& locationSearchTerm=manjimup& newarea=UCL517000& submitbutton=View+ QuickStats+ >& mapdisplay=on& collection=Census& period=2001& areacode=UCL517000& geography=& method=Location+ on+ Census+ Night& productlabel=& producttype=QuickStats& topic=& navmapdisplayed=true& javascript=true& breadcrumb=PL& topholder=0& leftholder=0¤taction=104& action=401& textversion=false& subaction=1) [156] Hill (1989) pp. 91,86,48 [157] Peter,Hill. (1989) The Macedonians in Australia, Hesperian Press, Carlisle, p. 79 [158] Lillian Petroff (1920-05-07). "Macedonians" (http:/ / www. thecanadianencyclopedia. com/ index. cfm?PgNm=TCE& Params=A1SEC909236). The Canadian Encyclopedia. . Retrieved 2011-08-12. [159] John Powell, Encyclopedia of North American immigration, Infobase Publishing, 2005, p. 183 [160] Human Rights Violations Against Ethnic Macedonians-Report 1996, Macedonian Human Rights Movement of Canada, Toronto, 1996; p.111-112 [161] http:/ / www. florina. org [162] http:/ / www. edessavoden. gr/ page1. aspx [163] http:/ / www. hrw. org/ reports/ pdfs/ g/ greece/ greece945. pdf [164] http:/ / www. osce. org/ documents/ odihr/ 2006/ 10/ 21446_en. pdf [165] http:/ / www. oshchima. com/ DBOOK/ dictionary_-_text. pdf

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Article Sources and Contributors Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=475487610  Contributors: 1111tomica, 157.228.x.x, 3rdAlcove, AKeckarov, Aegeanhawk, Alekishere, Alexikoua, Alpha Quadrant, Angr, Angusmclellan, Apotetios, Athenean, Avg, Bakersdozen77, BalkanFever, Ben Ben, Billinghurst, Biruitorul, Bomac, Chorizo31, Chris the speller, Cometstyles, Coolnicko22, Ctjf83, Cukiger, CuteHappyBrute, Dexippus, Dimkoa, Dimorsitanos, Dr.K., Edward, ElinorD, EoGuy, Ev, Favonian, FlavrSavr, Fubre, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gligan, Gongshow, Gr8opinionater, Grievous Angel, Ground Zero, Hegumen, Hmains, INkubusse, Icaf, Icairns, Ireneusz A. Ślupkov, Iridescent, J.delanoy, J04n, JForget, JHunterJ, JdeJ, Jingiby, Kamikazi2, Klajdi2, Kostja, Kostolata, Kwamikagami, Köbra, Laveol, LilHelpa, Local hero, Lunch for Two, Macedonian, MacedonianBoy, Mactruth, Makedonij, Males, MaxisExis, Meliniki, Mendaliv, Mephistophelian, Michael IX the White, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mpb eu, Nick Number, NikoSilver, Nikolinnaaa, Olahus, PMK1, Parishan, Pel thal, Pensionero, Periptero, Polibiush, Politis, Pyraechmes, R'n'B, Raso mk, Revizionist, Rich Farmbrough, Shadowmorph, Signalhead, Ssschhh, Sthenel, Suriel1981, Tabletop, Te5, Tiptoety, TodorBozhinov, Tropylium, Ultraexactzz, Vanished user 03, Wavelength, Woohookitty, Yannismarou, Zakronian, Δρακόλακκος, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, 141 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Flag of Greece.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Greece.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk) File:Flag of Bulgaria.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: SKopp File:Flag of Australia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie, Mifter File:Flag of Macedonia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Macedonia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe File:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Serbia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Serbia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: sodipodi.com File:Greece linguistic minorities.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greece_linguistic_minorities.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Future Perfect at Sunrise File:Ethnographic map Ami Boue 1847.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ethnographic_map_Ami_Boue_1847.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ami Boue File:Balkan-nations.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Balkan-nations.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 3210, Codrinb, Cplakidas, Olahus, Pe-Jo, 2 anonymous edits File:Bulgarians in 1912.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bulgarians_in_1912.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: A.Irschikoff File:Hellenism in the Near East 1918.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hellenism_in_the_Near_East_1918.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beao, Collard, Dimkoa, Kintetsubuffalo, Mactruth, Magog the Ogre, Sreejithk2000, 1 anonymous edits File:SealSolun.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SealSolun.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jingiby File:Seal Edesa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_Edesa.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jingiby File:Tsarevna Miladinova's boarding-school in Thessaloniki.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tsarevna_Miladinova's_boarding-school_in_Thessaloniki.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jackanapes, Jingiby, 1 anonymous edits File:Solunska Gimnazija 11.maj.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Solunska_Gimnazija_11.maj.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Simin at bg.wikipedia File:Vrmo of Kastoria.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vrmo_of_Kastoria.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown File:Bezhanci3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bezhanci3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jingiby File:Triple Occupation of Greece.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Triple_Occupation_of_Greece.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Cplakidas File:Macedonianslavicinwestmacedonia.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Macedonianslavicinwestmacedonia.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PMK1 File:Mergedcopy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mergedcopy.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:PMK1 file:Koliada 2010 - Trikala Imathia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Koliada_2010_-_Trikala_Imathia.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Bakersdozen77 File:Belomorci.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Belomorci.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Own Work. Original uploader was Lunch for Two at en.wikipedia File:Macedonian Slavic dialects.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Macedonian_Slavic_dialects.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Fut.Perf.

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23

Romaniotes

1

Romaniotes Romaniotes

Members of the Romaniote Greek Jewish Community of Volos, Greece. Regions with significant populations  Greece

unknown

 Israel

unknown

 United States unknown  Turkey

unknown Languages Greek, Hebrew, Yevanic, local languages Religion Judaism Related ethnic groups Greeks · Jews

The Romaniotes or Romaniots (Greek: Ρωμανιῶτες, Rōmaniōtes) are a Jewish population who have lived in the territory of today's Greece and neighboring areas with large Greek populations for more than 2,000 years. Their languages were Yevanic, a Greek dialect, and Greek. They derived their name from the old name for the people of the Byzantine Empire, Romaioi. Large communities were located in Thebes, Ioannina, Chalcis, Corfu, Arta, Corinth and on the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos, Rhodes and Cyprus, among others. The Romaniotes are historically distinct from the Sephardim, who settled in Greece after the 1492 expulsion of the Jews from Spain. A majority of the Jewish population was killed in the Holocaust after Axis powers occupied Greece during World War II. They deported most of the Jews to concentration camps, where they were killed. After the war, a majority of the few surviving Jews emigrated to Israel, the United States and western Europe. Today a total of only 4,500 to 6,000 Jews, of both Romaniotes and Sephardic descent, remain in Greece.

Romaniotes

2

History The earliest reference to a Greek Jew is an inscription dated c. 300-250 BCE, found in Oropos, a small coastal town between Athens and Boeotia, which refers to "Moschos, son of Moschion the Jew", who may have been a slave.[1] The Romaniotes are Greek Jews, distinct from both Ashkenazim and Sephardim. Jews have lived in Greece possibly since the Babylonian exile. A Romaniote oral tradition tells that the first Jews arrived in Ioannina shortly after the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. In the 12th century, Benjamin of Tudela recorded details about communities of Jews in Corfu, Arta, Aphilon, Patras, Corinth, Thebes, Chalkis, Thessaloniki and Drama. The largest community in Greece was in Thebes, where he found c. 2000 Jews. They engaged mostly in cloth dyeing, weaving and making silk garments. At the time, they were known as "Romaniotes".

'Moses-Symeon Pesach', Chief Rabbi of the Romaniote Greek Jewish community of Larisa, central Greece in 1939.

The Romaniotes had distinct customs, very different from those of the Sephardic Jews, and closer to those of the Italian Jews: some of these are thought to be based on the Jerusalem Talmud instead of the Babylonian Talmud. Unlike the Sephardic Jews, they did not speak Ladino, but the Yevanic Greek dialect and Greek. Romaniote scholars translated the Tanakh into Greek. Early printed versions of the Bible in Thessalonica showed the Hebrew text in the middle of the page, with Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish) translation to one side and the Yevanic translation to the other.

Colonel Mordehai Frizis (1893-1940) who originated from the ancient Romaniote Greek [2] Jewish community of Chalkis with his wife Victoria.

Romaniotes

Waves of Sephardic Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492; many settled in Ottoman-ruled Greece. They were richer, and believed themselves more educated and cultivated than the Romaniotes, so they formed separate communities. They also spoke a separate language, Ladino. Thessaloniki had one of the largest (mostly Sephardic) Jewish communities in the world and a solid rabbinical tradition. On the island of Crete, the Jews historically played an important part in the transport trade. In the centuries following 1492 most of the Romaniote communitities were assimilated by the more numerous Sephardim.

3

Exterior view of the Romaniote Jewish synagogue of Veria.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Romaniote community of Ioannina numbered approximately 4000 people, mostly lower-class tradesmen and craftsmen. Economic emigration caused their numbers to dwindle and on the eve of World War II, there were approximately 1950 Romaniotes left in Ioannina. Centered around the old fortified part of the city (or Kastro), where the community had been living for centuries, they maintained two synagogues, one of which, the Kehila Kedosha Yashan Synagogue still remains today. A strong Romaniote community was present in Corfu until the late 19th century, when a pogrom instigated by blood libel forced most of the Jewish community to leave the island.

Holocaust During World War II, when Greece was occupied by the Axis powers, 86% of the Greek Jews, especially those in the areas occupied by Nazi Germany and Bulgaria, were murdered despite efforts by the Greek Orthodox Church and many Christian Greeks to shelter Jews. Although the Germans and Bulgarians deported numerous Greek Jews, many were hidden by their Greek neighbours. Roughly 49,000 Jews were deported from Thessaloniki alone and were exterminated. The Romaniotes were protected by the Greek government until the Nazi occupation. During the occupation, the Romaniotes could speak Greek better than the Sephardim, who spoke Ladino first and whose Greek had a distinct, "singing" accent. The Sephardim were more vulnerable targets, and their language was one of the factors leading to such great losses among Sephardic communities. In Ioannina 1,860 out of 1,950 Jews were deported to Auschwitz and Birkenau in April 1944. Most of them were exterminated by the Nazis. The creation of the state of Israel in 1948, combined with the violence and anarchy of the Greek Civil War, was the final episode in the history of the Romaniotes in Greece. The majority emigrated to Israel or the U.S.

Present day

A woman weeps during the deportation of the Jews of Ioannina on March 25, 1944. The deportation was enforced by the German Army. Almost all the people deported were murdered on or shortly after April 11, 1944, when their train [3][4] reached Auschwitz-Birkenau.

Romaniotes

4

Today a small number of Romaniotes live in Greece, approximately 4,500 to 6,000 Jews living in Greece today, both from the Romaniotes and the Sephardi subgroups; mainly in Thessaloniki, Ioannina and Athens. About 3,500 people live in Athens, while another 1,000 live in Thessaloniki.[5] There are alo many in Israel and the U.S. (mainly New York). These communities, though they identify as Romaniotes, now use the Sephardic rite: the distinctive Romaniote rite does not survive except in the form of certain hymns used by communities such as Corfu.

Ioannina In Ioannina, the remaining Romaniote community has withered to a number of 50 mostly elderly people. The Kehila Kedosha Yashan Synagogue remains locked, only opened for visitors on request. Immigrant Romaniotes return every summer and open the old synagogue. The last time a Bar Mitzvah (the Jewish ritual for celebrating the coming of age of a child) was held in the synagogue was in 2000, and was an exceptional event for the community.[6] The synagogue is located in the old fortified part of the city known as "Kastro", at 16 Ioustinianou street. Its name means "the Old Synagogue". It was constructed in 1829, most probably over the ruins of an older synagogue. Its architecture is typical of the Ottoman era, a large building made of stone. The interior of the synagogue is laid out in the Romaniote way: the Bimah (where the Torah scrolls are read out during service) is on a raised dais on the western wall, the Aron haKodesh (where the Torah scrolls are kept) is on the eastern wall and at the middle there is a wide interior aisle. The names of the Ioanniote Jews who were killed in the Holocaust are engraved in stone on the walls of the synagogue.

Athens The Ioanniotiki Synagogue, situated above the Jewish Community of Athens offices at #8 Melidoni St., is the only Romaniote synagogue in Athens. Built in 1906, it has services only during the High Holy Days, but is opened for visitors on request through the Jewish Community office. The Jewish identity of a building found in the excavations of the ancient Agora in Athens, is questionable. It is believed that the Metroon, found in 1930 at the foot of the hill Hephaestion (Thesion) was used as a synagogue during its construction at the end of the 4th century CE (396-400). This view was expressed by the archaeologist H. Thompson, from the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, but was not developed into a complete theory. The Jewish identity of the Metroon was based on the small piece of marble found near the Metroon, that had two Jewish symbols carved on one side, and the resemblance of the building to the synagogue of Sardis in Asia Minor.

Aegina

Floor plan of a Jewish Synagogue in Greece 300 CE, Aegina.

multi-colored

tesserae,

that

One hour boat ride from Piraeus, the port of Athens, one can visit the Romaniote synagogue of Aegina. The synagogue was discovered in 1829 in the city of Aegina, near the ancient military port. The synagogue was originally discovered by the German historian Ludwig Ross, from the royal court of Otto. The floor was covered in order to be protected and was studied again by Thiersch in 1901, Furtwängler in 1904, E. Sukenik in 1928, and finally by the German archaeologist Dr. G. Welter, in 1932. The studies were completed by the National Archaeological Service. Based on the quality of the floor's mosaic, the building is believed to have been constructed in the 4th century CE (300-350 CE) and was used until the 7th century CE. The mosaic floor of the synagogue still survives (see photo below) and is made up of create the impression of a carpet, in a

Romaniotes

5

geometric pattern of blue, gray, red and white. Two Greek inscriptions were found in front of the synagogue's entrance, on the western side of the building. Today, only part of the synagogue's mosaic floor is extant, and it has been moved from its original location to the courtyard of the island's Archaeological Museum.

Mosaic Floor of a Jewish Synagogue in Greece 300 CE, Aegina.

United States Only one Romaniote synagogue is in operation in the entire Western Hemisphere: Kehila Kedosha Janina, at 280 Broome Street, in the Lower East Side of Manhattan, where it is used by the Romaniote emigrant community.[7] While it maintains a mailing list of 3,000 persons, it often has difficulty meeting the minyan or quorum for worship on Shabbat and Jewish holidays.[7] It is open for guided tours to visitors on Sundays.[7]

Israel The Yanina Synagogue is located in the Ohel Moshe neighbourhood, in Nahlaot, Jerusalem.

Notable Romaniotes • Elijah Mizrachi, Hakham Bashi of the Ottoman Empire. • Mordehai Frizis, officer of the Greek Army during the Greco-Italian War. • Rae Dalven, a prominent Romaniotissa, particularly noted for her translation of modern Greek poetry.

Kehila Kedosha Janina, New York City.

• Amalia Vaka, a singer of Greek traditional and rembetiko songs with a successful career in the United States. • Gabrielle Carteris, actress. • Jack H. Jacobs, Vietnam War veteran. Medal of Honor recipient. • Albert Cohen, Swiss French-speaking writer.

Romaniotes

References [1] David M. Lewis (2002). Rhodes, P.J.. ed. Selected Papers in Greek and Near Eastern History (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN0521522110& id=V_w5AaqqiGAC& pg=PA381& lpg=PA381& vq=moschos& dq=lewis+ papers+ selected& num=100#v=onepage& q=moschos& f=false). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 381. ISBN 0521465648. . [2] Raymond Detrez, Pieter Plas (2005). Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence. Peter Lang. p. 159. ISBN 9052012970, 9789052012971. "…but the fact that the most prominent hero of Jewish origin, Colonel Mordechai Frizis (1893-1940), originated from the ancient Romaniote community of Chalkis, speaks for itself." [3] Kehila Kedosha Janina Synagogue and Museum, The Holocaust in Ioannina (http:/ / www. kkjsm. org/ holocaust/ holocaust_intro. html) URL accessed January 5, 2009 [4] Raptis, Alekos and Tzallas, Thumios, Deportation of Jews of Ioannina, Kehila Kedosha Janina Synagogue and Museum, July 28, 2005 (http:/ / www. kkjsm. org/ archives/ Deportation of Jews of Ioannina. pdf) URL accessed January 5, 2009 [5] "Holocaust and present-day situation" (http:/ / www. romaniotesjews. com/ 2008/ 02/ holocaust-and-present-day-situation. html). Romaniotes Jews. . Retrieved 9 June 2011. [6] http:/ / www. edwardvictor. com/ Ioannina. htm [7] Laura Silver, "Spreading little-known history of Romaniote Jews", Daily News (New York), June 18, 2008.

External links • Vincent Giordano, Before the Flame Goes Out: A Document of the Romaniote Jews of Ioannina and New York (http://www.RomanioteLegacy.org), sponsored by The International Survey of Jewish Monuments. • Kehila Kedosha Janina, Romaniote Synagogue in New York (http://www.kkjsm.org) (official site) • Edward Victor, Ioannina, Greece (http://www.edwardvictor.com/Ioannina.htm): account of the Kehila Kedosha Yashan Synagogue in Ioannina, with photos. (personal site) • Deborah S. Esquenazi, The pre-Ashkenazi and Sephardi Romaniote Jews (http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/ Satellite?apage=1&cid=1159193374317&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull), Jerusalem Post Magazine, October 5, 2006. • Isaac Dostis Farewell My Island (http://www.act1presentations.com/Farewell, My Island.asp) • Siddur Tefillot ha-Shanah le-minhag kehillot Romania, Venice 1523 (http://aleph500.huji.ac.il/nnl/dig/ books/bk001163513.html), Romaniote prayer book • French: Marie-Élisabeth Handman , « L’Autre des non-juifs …et des juifs : les romaniotes (http:// etudesbalkaniques.revues.org/index139.html) » (The Other for Non-Jews … and Jews: the Romaniots), Études balkaniques, 9 | 2002

Sources • Connerty, Mary C. Judeo-Greek: The Language, The Culture. Jay Street Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-889534-88-9 • Dalven, Rae. The Jews of Ioannina. Cadmus Press, 1989. ISBN 0-930685-03-2 • Fromm, Annette B. Folklore and Ethnic Identity of the Jewish Community of Ioannina, Greece. Lexington Books, 2008, ISBN 9780739120613 • Goldschmidt, Daniel, Meḥqare Tefillah u-Fiyyut (On Jewish Liturgy), Jerusalem 1978 (in Hebrew): one chapter sets out the Romaniote liturgy.

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Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors Romaniotes  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=468739053  Contributors: Adanag, Aldux, Alx bio, Amizzoni, Anclation, Angel ivanov angelov, Annettefromm, Arilius, Atlan, Bachrach44, Bearian, Biosketch, Bkissin, Bluemoose, Cardiffchestnut, Cedric Diggory, CharlesMartel, Chesdovi, Contributor175, Cplakidas, D6, Damac, DaveHM, David Kernow, Davshul, Delirium, Descanimde, Deucalionite, Deville, Dougweller, Dpr, Eclecticology, Eliyak, Error, Etz Haim, Euchiasmus, Fano Ksenaki, Flauto Dolce, Frescarosa, Gilgamesh, GooglePedia12, Grafen, Greco22, Green Giant, Grenavitar, Grubber, Hallmark, Hibernian, Hide&Reason, Hope&Act3!, Hottentot, IZAK, IanHerriott, IsaacBR, Izehar, Jayjg, Jmabel, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joy, Julian Diamond, Justinj, K1Bond007, KRBN, KakistocraticLaw, Khoikhoi, Logan, Mallaccaos, MarcoLittel, Marcus2, Megistias, Michalis Famelis, Mtsmallwood, Mursili, Nedrutland, Neutrality, Nick Number, Nigel Campbell, Ntsimp, Oren neu dag, Parkwells, Paxsimius, Prezbo, Pylambert, R'n'B, RK, Rich Farmbrough, Richard.krone, Ricky81682, Rjwilmsi, Ruhrjung, Saimdusan, Sannse, Sardanaphalus, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, Shoteh, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, SpaceFalcon2001, Steppenfox, Tantris, TimBentley, Triddle, Vicki Rosenzweig, Wetman, Xenovatis, Xfogus, Zoe, ΚΕΚΡΩΨ, 102 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Greek Romaniote Jews Volos Greece.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek_Romaniote_Jews_Volos_Greece.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown File:Flag of Greece.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Greece.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk) File:Flag of Israel.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Israel.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Bastique, Bobika, Brown spite, Captain Zizi, Cerveaugenie, Drork, Etams, Fred J, Fry1989, Geagea, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Humus sapiens, Klemen Kocjancic, Komando12, Kookaburra, Luispihormiguero, Madden, Neq00, NielsF, Nightstallion, Oren neu dag, Patstuart, PeeJay2K3, Pumbaa80, Ramiy, Reisio, Rodejong, SKopp, Sceptic, SomeDudeWithAUserName, Technion, Typhix, Valentinian, Yellow up, Zscout370, 31 anonymous edits File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Turkey.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: David Benbennick (original author) File:Rabbi Romaniote Greek Jew.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rabbi_Romaniote_Greek_Jew.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown Image:Mordechai Frizis Romaniote Greek Jew.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mordechai_Frizis_Romaniote_Greek_Jew.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown File:The Synagogue in Veria .jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Synagogue_in_Veria_.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: ‫בת שבע שיזף‬. Original uploader was Michael Shefa at he.wikipedia Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-179-1575-08, Ioannina, Deportation von Juden.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-179-1575-08,_Ioannina,_Deportation_von_Juden.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Germany  Contributors: Wetzel Image:Plan of the mosaic floor of a Jewish Synagogue in Greece - 300 CE (1).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plan_of_the_mosaic_floor_of_a_Jewish_Synagogue_in_Greece_-_300_CE_(1).JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arilius Image:Mosaic Floor of a Jewish Synagogue in Greece - 300 CE.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mosaic_Floor_of_a_Jewish_Synagogue_in_Greece_-_300_CE.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arilius, IZAK Image:Kehila Kedosha Janina.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kehila_Kedosha_Janina.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Harris Graber from New York City, United States

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7

Yevanic language

1

Yevanic language Yevanic Spoken in

Originally Greece, more recently Israel, Turkey, USA

Native speakers