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INFORMATION SECURITY
Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals Sixth Edition
Mark Ciampa Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
CompTIA Security+ SY0-501 Exam Objectives Security+ Exam Domain/Objectives
Chapter Bloom’s Taxonomy
1.0: Threats, Attacks, and Vulnerabilities 1.1 G iven a scenario, analyze indicators of compromise and determine the type of malware.
2
Analyze
1.2 C ompare and contrast types of attacks.
2 3 5 8
Understand Analyze Understand Apply/Understand
11 15 1.3 E xplain threat actor types and attributes.
1
Create Apply Analyze/Apply
1.4 E xplain penetration testing concepts.
13
Apply
1.5 E xplain vulnerability scanning concepts.
13
Apply
1.6 E xplain the impact associated with types of vulnerabilities.
1 3 4 5 9 10
Understand Understand Understand Understand Understand Understand
2.0: Technologies and Tools 2.1 Install and configure network components, both hardware- and software-based, to support organizational security.
4 6 7 8
Apply Analyze Apply Analyze/Evaluate
2.2 G iven a scenario, use appropriate software tools to assess the security posture of an organization.
8 13 14
Evaluate Analyze/Evaluate Evaluate
2.3 G iven a scenario, troubleshoot common security issues.
15
Analyze
6 7 9
Analyze Analyze Analyze
2.4 G iven a scenario, analyze and interpret output from security technologies.
2.5 G iven a scenario, deploy mobile devices securely.
2.6 G iven a scenario, implement secure protocols.
8 10 11 4 5
Apply/Evaluate Analyze/Create Analyze Apply Analyze
3.0: Architecture and Design 3.1 E xplain use cases and purpose for frameworks, best practices and secure configuration guides.
1 15
Analyze Understand
3.2 Given a scenario, implement secure network architecture concepts.
6 7 8 13
Analyze Apply Apply/Evaluate Apply
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Sixth Edition
INFORMATION SECURITY
CompTIA ®
SECURITY+ GUIDE TO NETWORK SECURITY FUNDAMENTALS
Mark Ciampa, Ph.D.
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition Mark Ciampa
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Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Brief Contents INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................xv PART 1
SECURITY AND ITS THREATS��������������������������������������������������������������������������1 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Security��������������������������������������������������������������������������������3 CHAPTER 2
Malware and Social Engineering Attacks������������������������������������������������� 51 PART 2
CRYPTOGRAPHY������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 97 CHAPTER 3
Basic Cryptography������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99 CHAPTER 4
Advanced Cryptography and PKI������������������������������������������������������������ 145 PART 3
NETWORK ATTACKS AND DEFENSES������������������������������������������������������� 189 CHAPTER 5
Networking and Server Attacks�������������������������������������������������������������� 191 CHAPTER 6
Network Security Devices, Design, and Technology����������������������������� 233 CHAPTER 7
Administering a Secure Network������������������������������������������������������������ 281 CHAPTER 8
Wireless Network Security����������������������������������������������������������������������� 321 PART 4
DEVICE SECURITY�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 371 CHAPTER 9
Client and Application Security��������������������������������������������������������������� 373
iii Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Brief Contents
CHAPTER 10
Mobile and Embedded Device Security���������������������������������������������������421 PART 5
IDENTITY AND ACCESS MANAGEMENT����������������������������������������������������469 CHAPTER 11
Authentication and Account Management��������������������������������������������471 CHAPTER 12
Access Management����������������������������������������������������������������������������������521 PART 6
RISK MANAGEMENT�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������563 CHAPTER 13
Vulnerability Assessment and Data Security�����������������������������������������565 CHAPTER 14
Business Continuity�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������607 CHAPTER 15
Risk Mitigation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������651 APPENDIX A
CompTIA SY0-501 Certification Exam Objectives�����������������������������������691 GLOSSARY��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 713
INDEX�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������741
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Table of Contents INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................xv PART 1
SECURITY AND ITS THREATS�����������������������������������������������������1 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Security............................................................3 Challenges of Securing Information................................................................... 8 Today’s Security Attacks.....................................................................................8 Reasons for Successful Attacks.........................................................................12 Difficulties in Defending Against Attacks........................................................ 14
What Is Information Security?........................................................................... 17 Understanding Security.....................................................................................18 Defining Information Security..........................................................................18 Information Security Terminology...................................................................21 Understanding the Importance of Information Security................................. 24
Who Are the Threat Actors?............................................................................... 28 Script Kiddies.................................................................................................... 29 Hactivists.......................................................................................................... 29 Nation State Actors...........................................................................................30 Insiders.............................................................................................................30 Other Threat Actors...........................................................................................31
Defending Against Attacks................................................................................ 32 Fundamental Security Principles..................................................................... 32 Frameworks and Reference Architectures....................................................... 35
Chapter Summary............................................................................................... 35 Key Terms ............................................................................................................ 37 Review Questions............................................................................................... 37 Case Projects....................................................................................................... 46 CHAPTER 2
Malware and Social Engineering Attacks..............................51 Attacks Using Malware....................................................................................... 53 Circulation........................................................................................................ 55 Infection............................................................................................................ 61
v Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Table of Contents
Concealment..................................................................................................... 65 Payload Capabilities..........................................................................................66
Social Engineering Attacks................................................................................. 73 Psychological Approaches................................................................................ 74 Physical Procedures..........................................................................................80
Chapter Summary............................................................................................... 82 Key Terms ............................................................................................................ 84 Review Questions ............................................................................................... 84 Case Projects....................................................................................................... 92 PART 2
CRYPTOGRAPHY����������������������������������������������������������������������97 CHAPTER 3
Basic Cryptography..................................................................99 Defining Cryptography..................................................................................... 101 What Is Cryptography?....................................................................................101 Cryptography and Security............................................................................. 105 Cryptography Constraints................................................................................107
Cryptographic Algorithms................................................................................ 108 Hash Algorithms..............................................................................................110 Symmetric Cryptographic Algorithms............................................................ 113 Asymmetric Cryptographic Algorithms��������������������������������������������������������� 116
Cryptographic Attacks...................................................................................... 123 Algorithm Attacks............................................................................................ 123 Collision Attacks.............................................................................................. 125
Using Cryptography.......................................................................................... 126 Encryption through Software.......................................................................... 127 Hardware Encryption......................................................................................128
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 130 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 132 Review Questions............................................................................................. 133 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 142 CHAPTER 4
Advanced Cryptography and PKI.........................................145 Implementing Cryptography........................................................................... 147 Key Strength.....................................................................................................147 Secret Algorithms............................................................................................148 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Block Cipher Modes of Operation.................................................................. 149 Crypto Service Providers................................................................................ 150 Algorithm Input Values................................................................................... 151
Digital Certificates............................................................................................ 152 Defining Digital Certificates............................................................................. 152 Managing Digital Certificates..........................................................................154 Types of Digital Certificates.............................................................................158
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)........................................................................ 165 What Is Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)?........................................................ 166 Trust Models................................................................................................... 166 Managing PKI...................................................................................................168 Key Management............................................................................................. 171
Cryptographic Transport Protocols................................................................ 174 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)............................................................................... 174 Transport Layer Security (TLS)........................................................................ 175 Secure Shell (SSH)............................................................................................176 Hypertext Transport Protocol Secure (HTTPS)................................................176 Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME)............................. 177 Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP)................................................... 177 IP Security (IPsec)............................................................................................ 177
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 179 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 181 Review Questions............................................................................................. 181 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 187 PART 3
NETWORK ATTACKS AND DEFENSES������������������������������������189 CHAPTER 5
Networking and Server Attacks...........................................191 Networking-Based Attacks.............................................................................. 193 Interception.....................................................................................................194 Poisoning........................................................................................................ 196
Server Attacks................................................................................................... 201 Denial of Service (DoS)....................................................................................201 Web Server Application Attacks..................................................................... 203 Hijacking.........................................................................................................209 Overflow Attacks............................................................................................. 213 Advertising Attacks.......................................................................................... 215 Browser Vulnerabilities...................................................................................218
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 222 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 223 Review Questions............................................................................................. 223 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 229 CHAPTER 6
Network Security Devices, Design, and Technology..........233 Security Through Network Devices................................................................ 235 Standard Network Devices............................................................................. 236 Network Security Hardware........................................................................... 246
Security Through Network Architecture........................................................ 260 Security Zones................................................................................................260 Network Segregation...................................................................................... 263
Security Through Network Technologies....................................................... 265 Network Access Control (NAC)....................................................................... 265 Data Loss Prevention (DLP)............................................................................ 267
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 269 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 271 Review Questions............................................................................................. 271 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 279 CHAPTER 7
Administering a Secure Network.........................................281 Secure Network Protocols............................................................................... 283 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)............................................ 285 Domain Name System (DNS)......................................................................... 286 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)............................................................................ 288 Secure Email Protocols...................................................................................290 Using Secure Network Protocols.....................................................................291
Placement of Security Devices and Technologies......................................... 292 Analyzing Security Data................................................................................... 295 Data from Security Devices............................................................................ 296 Data from Security Software.......................................................................... 297 Data from Security Tools................................................................................ 298 Issues in Analyzing Security Data.................................................................. 298
Managing and Securing Network Platforms................................................. 300 Virtualization..................................................................................................300 Cloud Computing............................................................................................ 304 Software Defined Network (SDN)...................................................................306
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 309 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 310 Review Questions............................................................................................. 311 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 318 CHAPTER 8
Wireless Network Security...................................................321 Wireless Attacks................................................................................................ 324 Bluetooth Attacks........................................................................................... 324 Near Field Communication (NFC) Attacks......................................................327 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Attacks.............................................. 330 Wireless Local Area Network Attacks..............................................................332
Vulnerabilities of IEEE Wireless Security........................................................ 341 Wired Equivalent Privacy............................................................................... 342 Wi-Fi Protected Setup..................................................................................... 343 MAC Address Filtering.................................................................................... 344 SSID Broadcasting........................................................................................... 345
Wireless Security Solutions............................................................................. 346 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)........................................................................ 347 Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2).................................................................... 349 Additional Wireless Security Protections........................................................352
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 356 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 359 Review Questions............................................................................................. 359 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 368 PART 4
DEVICE SECURITY�������������������������������������������������������������������371 CHAPTER 9
Client and Application Security............................................373 Client Security................................................................................................... 375 Hardware System Security..............................................................................375 Securing the Operating System Software....................................................... 379 Peripheral Device Security.............................................................................. 388
Physical Security............................................................................................... 392 External Perimeter Defenses.......................................................................... 393 Internal Physical Access Security................................................................... 395 Computer Hardware Security........................................................................ 400
Application Security.......................................................................................... 401 Application Development Concepts............................................................... 402 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Table of Contents
Secure Coding Techniques..............................................................................404 Code Testing.................................................................................................... 405
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 406 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 409 Review Questions............................................................................................. 410 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 417 CHAPTER 10
Mobile and Embedded Device Security...............................421 Mobile Device Types and Deployment........................................................... 423 Types of Mobile Devices................................................................................. 424
Mobile Device Risks.......................................................................................... 432 Mobile Device Vulnerabilities........................................................................ 432 Connection Vulnerabilities............................................................................. 436 Accessing Untrusted Content......................................................................... 436 Deployment Model Risks................................................................................ 438
Securing Mobile Devices.................................................................................. 439 Device Configuration...................................................................................... 439 Mobile Management Tools.............................................................................446 Mobile Device App Security........................................................................... 448
Embedded Systems and the Internet of Things............................................ 449 Embedded Systems........................................................................................449 Internet of Things............................................................................................451 Security Implications...................................................................................... 452
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 455 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 457 Review Questions............................................................................................. 457 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 465 PART 5
IDENTITY AND ACCESS MANAGEMENT��������������������������������469 CHAPTER 11
Authentication and Account Management........................471 Authentication Credentials............................................................................. 473 What You Know: Passwords........................................................................... 475 What You Have: Tokens, Cards, and Cell Phones........................................... 489 What You Are: Biometrics.............................................................................. 492 What You Do: Behavioral Biometrics............................................................. 498 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Where You Are: Geolocation.......................................................................... 499
Single Sign-on.................................................................................................... 500 Account Management...................................................................................... 502 Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 505 Key Terms........................................................................................................... 506 Review Questions............................................................................................. 507 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 517 CHAPTER 12
Access Management..............................................................521 What Is Access Control?................................................................................... 523 Access Control Terminology........................................................................... 524 Access Control Models.....................................................................................527
Managing Access Through Account Management....................................... 533 Account Setup..................................................................................................533 Account Auditing............................................................................................ 539
Best Practices for Access Control.................................................................... 540 Separation of Duties....................................................................................... 540 Job Rotation.................................................................................................... 540 Mandatory Vacations......................................................................................541 Clean Desk Policy.............................................................................................541
Implementing Access Control......................................................................... 542 Access Control Lists (ACLs)............................................................................. 542 Group-Based Access Control.......................................................................... 543
Identity and Access Services........................................................................... 544 RADIUS............................................................................................................ 545 Kerberos.......................................................................................................... 547 Terminal Access Control Access Control System+ (TACACS+)....................... 548 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)............................................... 549 Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML)................................................ 550 Authentication Framework Protocols............................................................. 551
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 552 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 554 Review Questions............................................................................................. 554 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 561
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Table of Contents
PART 6
RISK MANAGEMENT��������������������������������������������������������������563 CHAPTER 13
Vulnerability Assessment and Data Security.....................565 Assessing the Security Posture....................................................................... 567 What Is Vulnerability Assessment?................................................................ 567 Vulnerability Assessment Tools......................................................................573
Vulnerability Scanning..................................................................................... 584 Penetration Testing.......................................................................................... 586 Practicing Data Privacy and Security.............................................................. 588 What Is Privacy?.............................................................................................. 589 Risks Associated with Private Data................................................................590 Maintaining Data Privacy and Security.......................................................... 592
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 596 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 598 Review Questions............................................................................................. 598 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 604 CHAPTER 14
Business Continuity��������������������������������������������������������������607 What Is Business Continuity?.......................................................................... 609 Business Continuity Planning (BCP)..............................................................609 Business Impact Analysis (BIA)....................................................................... 611 Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP)..........................................................................612
Fault Tolerance Through Redundancy........................................................... 615 Servers............................................................................................................ 616 Storage.............................................................................................................617 Networks..........................................................................................................621 Power.............................................................................................................. 622 Recovery Sites................................................................................................. 622 Data................................................................................................................. 623
Environmental Controls................................................................................... 628 Fire Suppression............................................................................................. 628 Electromagnetic Disruption Protection...........................................................631 HVAC................................................................................................................631
Incident Response............................................................................................ 633 What Is Forensics?.......................................................................................... 633
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Incident Response Plan.................................................................................. 633 Forensics Procedures...................................................................................... 634
Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 640 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 642 Review Questions............................................................................................. 643 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 649 CHAPTER 15
Risk Mitigation.......................................................................651 Managing Risk................................................................................................... 653 Threat Assessment......................................................................................... 654 Risk Assessment............................................................................................. 656
Strategies for Reducing Risk............................................................................ 664 Using Control Types....................................................................................... 664 Distributing Allocation...................................................................................666 Implementing Technology.............................................................................666
Practices for Reducing Risk............................................................................. 668 Security Policies..............................................................................................669 Awareness and Training................................................................................. 675 Agreements..................................................................................................... 677 Personnel Management.................................................................................. 679
Troubleshooting Common Security Issues.................................................... 679 Chapter Summary............................................................................................. 680 Key Terms .......................................................................................................... 682 Review Questions............................................................................................. 682 Case Projects..................................................................................................... 688 APPENDIX A
CompTIA SY0-501 Certification Exam Objectives��������������691 GLOSSARY��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 713 INDEX����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 741
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
INTRODUCTION The number one concern of computer professionals today continues to be information security, and with good reason. Consider the evidence: over 1.5 billion Yahoo user accounts were compromised in just two separate attacks.1 A ransom of $1 million dollars was paid to unlock files that had been encrypted by ransomware.2 A global payment system used to transfer money between countries was compromised by attackers who stole $81 billion from the central bank of Bangladesh.3 It is estimated that global spending on products and services to prevent these attacks will exceed $1 trillion cumulatively between 2017 and 2021. But despite the huge sum spent on protection, cybercrime will still cost businesses over $6 trillion by 2021.4 As attacks continue to escalate, the need for trained security personnel also increases. It is estimated that there are currently over 1.5 million unfilled security jobs worldwide and this will grow by 20 percent to 1.8 million by the year 2022.5 According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) “Occupational Outlook Handbook,” the job outlook for information security analysts through 2024 is expected to grow by 18 percent, faster than the average growth rate.6 To verify security competency, most organizations use the Computing Technology Industry Association (CompTIA) Security+ certification, a vendor-neutral credential. Security+ is one of the most widely recognized security certifications and has become the security foundation for today’s IT professionals. It is internationally recognized as validating a foundation level of security skills and knowledge. A successful Security+ candidate has the knowledge and skills required to identify threats, attacks and vulnerabilities; use security technologies and tools; understand security architecture and design; perform identity and access management; know about risk management; and use cryptography. Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition is designed to equip learners with the knowledge and skills needed to be information security professionals. Yet it is more than an “exam prep” book. While teaching the fundamentals of information security by using the CompTIA Security+ exam objectives as its framework, it takes a comprehensive view of security by examining in-depth the attacks against networks and computer systems and the necessary defense mechanisms. Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition is a valuable tool for those who want to learn about security and who desire to enter the field of information security. It also provides the foundation that will help prepare for the CompTIA Security+ certification exam.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Introduction
Intended Audience This book is designed to meet the needs of students and professionals who want to master basic information security. A fundamental knowledge of computers and networks is all that is required to use this book. Those seeking to pass the CompTIA Security+ certification exam will find the text’s approach and content especially helpful; all Security+ SY0-501 exam objectives are covered in the text (see Appendix A). Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition covers all aspects of network and computer security while satisfying the Security+ objectives. The book’s pedagogical features are designed to provide a truly interactive learning experience to help prepare you for the challenges of network and computer security. In addition to the information presented in the text, each chapter includes Hands-On Projects that guide you through implementing practical hardware, software, network, and Internet security configurations step by step. Each chapter also contains case studies that place you in the role of problem solver, requiring you to apply concepts presented in the chapter to achieve successful solutions.
Chapter Descriptions Here is a summary of the topics covered in each chapter of this book: Chapter 1, “Introduction to Security,” introduces the network security fundamentals that form the basis of the Security+ certification. It begins by examining the current challenges in computer security and why security is so difficult to achieve. It then defines information security in detail and explores why it is important. Finally, the chapter looks at the fundamental attacks, including who is responsible for them, and defenses. Chapter 2, “Malware and Social Engineering Attacks,” examines attacks that use different types of malware, such as viruses, worms, Trojans, and botnets. It also looks at the different types of social engineering attacks. Chapter 3, “Basic Cryptography,” explores how encryption can be used to protect data. It covers what cryptography is and how it can be used for protection, and then examines how to protect data using three common types of encryption algorithms: hashing, symmetric encryption, and asymmetric encryption. It also covers how to use cryptography on files and disks to keep data secure. Chapter 4, “Advanced Cryptography and PKI,” examines how to implement cryptography and use digital certificates. It also looks at public key infrastructure and key management. This chapter covers different transport cryptographic algorithms to see how cryptography is used on data that is being transported. Chapter 5, “Networking and Server Attacks,” explores the different attacks that are directed at enterprises. It includes networking-based attacks as well as server attacks.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Introduction
Chapter 6, “Network Security Devices, Design, and Technology,” examines how to protect networks through standard network devices and network security hardware. It also covers implementing security through network architectures and network technologies. Chapter 7, “Administering a Secure Network,” looks at the techniques for administering a network. This includes understanding common network protocols and the proper placement of security devices and technologies. It also looks at analyzing security data and securing network platforms such as virtualization, cloud computing, and software defined networks. Chapter 8, “Wireless Network Security,” investigates the attacks on wireless devices that are common today and explores different wireless security mechanisms that have proven to be vulnerable. It also covers several secure wireless protections. Chapter 9, “Client and Application Security,” examines securing the client through hardware and peripherals through hardware and the operating system. It also looks at physical security to create external perimeter defenses and internal physical access security. This chapter also covers application security vulnerabilities and the development of secure apps. Chapter 10, “Mobile and Embedded Device Security,” looks at the different types of mobile devices and the risks associated with these devices. It also explores how to secure these devices and the applications running on them. Finally, it examines how embedded systems and the Internet of Things devices can be secured. Chapter 11, “Authentication and Account Management,” looks at authentication and the secure management of user accounts to enforce authentication. It covers the different types of authentication credentials that can be used to verify a user’s identity and how a single sign-on might be used. It also examines the techniques and technology used to manage user accounts in a secure fashion. Chapter 12, “Access Management,” introduces the principles and practices of access control by examining access control terminology, the standard control models, and managing access through account management. It also covers best practices, implementing access control, and identity and access services. Chapter 13, “Vulnerability Assessment and Data Security,” explains what vulnerability assessment is and examines the tools and techniques associated with it. It also explores the differences between vulnerability scanning and penetration testing. The chapter concludes with an examination of data privacy. Chapter 14, “Business Continuity,” covers the importance of keeping business processes and communications operating normally in the face of threats and disruptions. It explores business continuity, fault tolerance, environmental controls, and incident response. Chapter 15, “Risk Mitigation,” looks at how organizations can establish and maintain security in the face of risk. It defines risk and the strategies to control it. This chapter also covers practices for reducing risk and troubleshooting common security issues.
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Appendix A, “CompTIA SY0-501 Certification Examination Objectives,” provides a complete listing of the latest CompTIA Security+ certification exam objectives and shows the chapters and headings in the book that cover material associated with each objective, as well as the Bloom’s Taxonomy level of that coverage.
Features To aid you in fully understanding computer and network security, this book includes many features designed to enhance your learning experience. • Maps to CompTIA Objectives. The material in this text covers all the CompTIA Security+ SY0-501 exam objectives. • Chapter Objectives. Each chapter begins with a detailed list of the concepts to be mastered in that chapter. This list provides you with both a quick reference to the chapter’s contents and a useful study aid. • Today’s Attacks and Defenses. Each chapter opens with a vignette of an actual security attack or defense mechanism that helps to introduce the material covered in that chapter. • Illustrations and Tables. Numerous illustrations of security vulnerabilities, attacks, and defenses help you visualize security elements, theories, and concepts. In addition, the many tables provide details and comparisons of practical and theoretical information. • Chapter Summaries. Each chapter’s text is followed by a summary of the concepts introduced in that chapter. These summaries provide a helpful way to review the ideas covered in each chapter. • Key Terms. All the terms in each chapter that were introduced with bold text are gathered in a Key Terms list, providing additional review and highlighting key concepts. Key Term definitions are included in the Glossary at the end of the text. • Review Questions. The end-of-chapter assessment begins with a set of review questions that reinforce the ideas introduced in each chapter. These questions help you evaluate and apply the material you have learned. Answering these questions will ensure that you have mastered the important concepts and provide valuable practice for taking CompTIA’s Security+ exam. • Hands-On Projects. Although it is important to understand the theory behind network security, nothing can improve on real-world experience. To this end, each chapter provides several Hands-On Projects aimed at providing you with practical security software and hardware implementation experience. These projects use the Windows 10 operating system, as well as software downloaded from the Internet. • Case Projects. Located at the end of each chapter are several Case Projects. In these extensive exercises, you implement the skills and knowledge gained in the chapter through real design and implementation scenarios.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Introduction
New to This Edition • Maps fully to the latest CompTIA Security+ exam SY0-501 • Completely revised and updated with expanded coverage on attacks and defenses • New chapter units: Security and Its Threats, Cryptography, Network Attacks and Defenses, Device Security, Identity and Access Management, and Risk Management • Earlier coverage of cryptography and advanced cryptography • All new “Today’s Attacks and Defenses” opener in each chapter • New and updated Hands-On Projects in each chapter covering some of the latest security software • More Case Projects in each chapter • Expanded Information Security Community Site activity in each chapter allows learners to interact with other learners and security professionals from around the world • All SY0-501 exam topics fully defined • Linking of each exam sub-domain to Bloom’s Taxonomy (see Appendix A)
Text and Graphic Conventions Wherever appropriate, additional information and exercises have been added to this book to help you better understand the topic at hand. Icons throughout the text alert you to additional materials. The following icons are0 used in this textbook: Note
Tip
The Note icon draws your attention to additional helpful material related to the subject being described. Tips based on the author’s experience provide extra information about how to attack a problem or what to do in real-world situations.
Caution
The Caution icons warn you about potential mistakes or problems, and explain how to avoid them.
Hands-On Projects
Hands-On Projects help you understand the theory behind network security with activities using the latest security software and hardware.
Case Projects
Certification
The Case Projects icon marks Case Projects, which are scenariobased assignments. In these extensive case examples, you are asked to implement independently what you have learned. ertification icons indicate CompTIA Security+ objectives covered C under major chapter headings.
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Instructor’s Materials Everything you need for your course in one place. This collection of book-specific lecture and class tools is available online. Please visit login.cengage.com and log in to access instructor-specific resources on the Instructor Companion Site, which includes the Instructor’s Manual, Solutions Manual, test creation tools, PowerPoint Presentations, Syllabus, and figure files. • Electronic Instructor’s Manual. The Instructor’s Manual that accompanies this textbook includes the following items: additional instructional material to assist in class preparation, including suggestions for lecture topics. • Solutions Manual. The instructor’s resources include solutions to all end-of- chapter material, including review questions and case projects. • Cengage Testing Powered by Cognero. This flexible, online system allows you to do the following: • Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage solutions. • Create multiple test versions in an instant. • Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want. • PowerPoint Presentations. This book comes with a set of Microsoft PowerPoint slides for each chapter. These slides are meant to be used as a teaching aid for classroom presentations, to be made available to students on the network for chapter review, or to be printed for classroom distribution. Instructors are also at liberty to add their own slides for other topics introduced. • Figure Files. All the figures and tables in the book are reproduced. Similar to PowerPoint presentations, these are included as a teaching aid for classroom presentation, to make available to students for review, or to be printed for classroom distribution.
Total Solutions For Security To access additional course materials, please visit www.cengagebrain.com. At the cengagebrain.com home page, search for the ISBN of your title (from the back cover of your book) using the search box at the top of the page. This will take you to the product page where these resources can be found.
MindTap MindTap for Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition is a personalized, fully online digital learning platform of content, assignments, and services that engages students and encourages them to think critically, while allowing you to easily set your course through simple customization options. MindTap is designed to help students master the skills they need in today’s workforce. Research shows employers need critical thinkers, troubleshooters, and creative problem solvers to stay relevant in our fast paced, technology-driven world. MindTap helps you achieve this with assignments and activities that provide hands-on practice, real-life relevance, and certification test prep. Students are guided through assignments that help them master basic knowledge and understanding before moving on to more challenging problems. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Introduction
The live virtual machine labs provide real-life application and practice as well as more advanced learning. Students work in a live environment via the Cloud with real servers and networks that they can explore. The IQ certification test preparation engine allows students to quiz themselves on specific exam domains, and the pre- and post-course assessments measure exactly how much they have learned. Readings, lab simulations, capstone projects, and videos support the lecture, while “In the News” assignments encourage students to stay current. MindTap is designed around learning objectives and provides the analytics and reporting to easily see where the class stands in terms of progress, engagement, and completion rates. Students can access eBook content in the MindTap Reader, which offers highlighting, note-taking, search and audio, as well as mobile access. Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap/. Instant Access Code: (ISBN: 9781337289306) Printed Access Code: (ISBN: 9781337289313)
Lab Manual Hands-on learning is necessary to master the security skills needed for both CompTIA’s Security+ Exam and for a career in network security. Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals Lab Manual, 6th Edition contains hands-on exercises that use fundamental networking security concepts as they are applied in the real world. Each chapter offers review questions to reinforce your mastery of network security topics and to sharpen your critical thinking and problem-solving skills. (ISBN: 9781337288798)
Bloom’s Taxonomy Bloom’s Taxonomy is an industry-standard classification system used to help identify the level of ability that learners need to demonstrate proficiency. It is often used to classify educational learning objectives into different levels of complexity. Bloom’s Taxonomy reflects the “cognitive process dimension.” This represents a continuum of increasing cognitive complexity, from remember (lowest level) to create (highest level). There are six categories in Bloom’s Taxonomy as seen in Figure A. In all instances, the level of coverage the domains in Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals, Sixth Edition meets or exceeds the Bloom’s Taxonomy level indicated by CompTIA for that objective. See Appendix A for more detail.
Information Security Community Site Stay secure with the Information Security Community Site. Connect with students, professors, and professionals from around the world, and stay on top of this ever-changing field. Visit http://community.cengage.com/Infosec2/ to: • Download resources such as instructional videos and labs. • Ask authors, professors, and students the questions that are on your mind in the Discussion Forums. • See up-to-date news, videos, and articles. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Bloom’s Taxonomy create
Produce new or original work Design, assemble, construct, conjecture, develop, formulate, author, investigate
evaluate
Justify a stand or decision appraise, argue, defend, judge, select, support, value, critique, weigh
Draw connections among ideas
analyze apply
differentiate, organize, relate, compare, contrast, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test
Use information in new situations execute, implement, solve, use, demonstrate, interpret, operate, schedule, sketch
Explain ideas or concepts
understand
classify, describe, discuss, explain, identify, locate, recognize, report, select, translate
remember
Recall facts and basic concepts define, duplicate, list, memorize, repeat, state
Figure A Bloom’s taxonomy • Read regular blogs from author Mark Ciampa. • Listen to podcasts on the latest Information Security topics. • Review textbook updates and errata. Each chapter’s Case Projects include information on a current security topic and ask the learner to post reactions and comments to the Information Security Community Site. This allows users from around the world to interact and learn from other users as well as security professionals and researchers.
What’s New With Comptia Security+ Certification The CompTIA Security+ SY0-501 exam was updated in October 2017. Several significant changes have been made to the exam objectives. The exam objectives have been significantly expanded to more accurately reflect current security issues and knowledge requirements. These exam objectives place importance on knowing “how to” rather than just knowing or recognizing security concepts. Here are the domains covered on the new Security+ exam: Domain
% of Examination
1.0 Threats, Attacks & Vulnerabilities
21%
2.0 Technologies & Tools
22%
3.0 Architecture & Design
15%
4.0 Identity & Access Management
16%
5.0 Risk Management
14%
6.0 Cryptography & PKI
12% Total
100%
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Introduction
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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About The Author Dr. Mark Ciampa is an Associate Professor of Information Systems in the Gordon Ford College of Business at Western Kentucky University in Bowling Green, Kentucky. Prior to this, he was an Associate Professor and served as the Director of Academic Computing at Volunteer State Community College in Gallatin, Tennessee for 20 years. Mark has worked in the IT industry as a computer consultant for businesses, government agencies, and educational institutions. He has published over 20 articles in peer-reviewed journals and is also the author of 25 technology textbooks, including Security+ Guide to Network Security Fundamentals 6e, CWNA Guide to Wireless LANs 3e, Guide to Wireless Communications, Security Awareness: Applying Practical Security in Your World 5e, and Networking BASICS. Dr. Ciampa holds a PhD in technology management with a specialization in digital communication systems from Indiana State University and has certifications in Security+ and HIT.
Acknowledgments A large team of dedicated professionals all contributed to the creation of this book. I am honored to be part of such an outstanding group of professionals. First, thanks go to Product Manager Kristin McNary for giving me the opportunity to work on this project and for providing her continual support, and to Associate Product Manager Amy Savino for answering all my questions. Also thanks to Senior Content Developer Michelle Ruelos Cannistraci who was very supportive, to Senior Content Product Manager Brooke Greenhouse who helped keep this fast-moving project on track, and to Dr. Andy Hurd who performed the technical reviews. To everyone on the team I extend my sincere thanks. Special recognition again goes to the very best developmental editor, Deb Kaufmann, who is a true professional in every sense of the word. She made many helpful suggestions, found all my errors, watched every small detail, and even took on additional responsibilities so that this project could accelerate to be completed even before its deadlines. Without question, Deb is simply the very best there is. And finally, I want to thank my wonderful wife, Susan. Her love, interest, support, and patience gave me what I needed to complete this project. I could not have written this book without her.
Dedication To Braden, Mia, Abby, Gabe, Cora, and Will.
To The User This book should be read in sequence, from beginning to end. Each chapter builds on those that precede it to provide a solid understanding of networking security fundamentals. The book may also be used to prepare for CompTIA’s Security+ certification exam. Appendix A pinpoints the chapters and sections in which specific Security+ exam objectives are covered.
Hardware and Software Requirements Following are the hardware and software requirements needed to perform the end-ofchapter Hands-On Projects. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Introduction
• Microsoft Windows 10 • An Internet connection and web browser • Microsoft Office
Free Downloadable Software Requirements Free, downloadable software is required for the Hands-On Projects in the following chapters. Chapter 1: • Microsoft Safety Scanner • Oracle VirtualBox Chapter 2: • Irongeek Thumbscrew • Refog Keylogger Chapter 3: • OpenPuff Steganography • HashCalc • Jetico BestCrypt Chapter 4: • Comodo Secure Email Certificate Chapter 5: • Qualys Browser Check • GRC Securable Chapter 6: • GlassWire • K9 Web Protection Chapter 7: • VMware vCenter Converter • VMware Workstation Player Chapter 8: • Xirrus Wi-Fi Inspector • Vistumbler Chapter 9: • EICAR AntiVirus Test File Chapter 10: • Prey Project • Bluestacks • Andy Android emulator • Lookout Security & Antivirus Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
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Chapter 11: • Hashcat • HashcatGUI • BioID Facial Recognition Authenticator • GreyC-Keystroke • KeePass Chapter 13: • Flexera Personal Software Inspector • Macrium Reflect • Nmap Chapter 14: • Directory Snoop • Nmap Chapter 15: • Browzar • UNetbootin • Linux Mint
References 1. Newman, Lilly, “Hack brief: Hackers breach a billion Yahoo accounts,” Wired, Dec. 14, 2016, retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, https://www.wired.com/2016/12/yahoo-hack-billion-users/. 2. Chang, Ziv, Sison, Gilbert, Jocson, Jeanne, “Erebus resurfaces as Linux ransomware,” TrendLabs Security Intelligence Blog, Jun. 19, 2017, retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, http://blog.trendmicro .com/trendlabs-security-intelligence/erebus-resurfaces-as-linux-ransomware/. 3. Corkery, Michael, and Goldstein, Matthew, “North Korea said to be target of inquiry over $81 million cyberheist,” New York Times, Mar. 22, 2017, retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, https://www. nytimes.com/2017/03/22/business/dealbook/north-korea-said-to-be-target-of-inquiry -over-81-million-cyberheist.html. 4. “Cybersecurity market report,” Cybersecurity Ventures, Q2 2017, retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, http://cybersecurityventures.com/cybersecurity-market-report/. 5. Nash, Kim, “Firms vie in hiring of cyber experts,” Wall Street Journal, May 15, 2017, retrieved Jul. 10, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/for-many-companies-agood-cyber-chief-is-hard-to-find-1494849600. 6. “Information security analysts: Occupational outlook handbook,” Bureau of Labor Statistics, Dec. 17, 2015, retrieved Jul. 3, 2017, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information -technology/information-security-analysts.htm.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
PART
I
SECURITY AND ITS THREATS Chapter 1 Introduction to Security Chapter 2 Malware and Social Engineering Attacks The security of the data and information contained on computers and digital devices today is threatened more than ever before, and the attacks are escalating every day. The chapters in this part introduce security and outline many of these threats. The chapters in later parts will give you the understanding and tools you need to defend against these attacks.
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Andes the petroleum is of high grade. Samples of oil from Espejos Spring, 12 leagues from Santa Cruz, indicate the quality expected north to the Madre de Dios. This has 78 per cent kerosene, 17 lubricating oil, and 4 per cent coke. From indications it is believed that gushers would come by boring to proper depth. It is said that deposits of good quality are indicated at Calacoto on the Arica Railway, a continuation of the Titicaca fields of Peru. These are obviously much more accessible but less assured. Mining properties of various kinds may be acquired and worked to good advantage, some with a moderate outlay of capital; with larger returns, naturally, from greater expenditure for the best equipment and more extensive properties. There is work for centuries. Industries Other than mining industries are slightly developed, being local in character for lack of proper transportation. There is therefore opportunity for their introduction, the needs meanwhile being supplied by importation. Weaving. The weaving industry is one for which the natives are peculiarly adapted; the Indians and the mestizos now produce with crude equipment goods of excellent quality for strength and often for color. In certain Provinces good strong cotton cloth is made which, used for sheeting, clothing, etc., lasts indefinitely. The natives make also heavy woolen stuff from llama wool, and fine soft material from vicuña, alpaca, and silk. But not half enough is woven to supply the demand, so that much coarse cotton cloth and a woolen called bayeta are imported for the use of the Indians, as well as fine goods for the white population. The llamas, estimated as numbering 500,000, are worth from $4 to $10 each; the alpacas, about half as many, are valued at $50-75 each. There are also 500,000 goats. Rugs and skins are exported in small quantities, the animals from which these are taken growing rarer and liable to become extinct. Rugs of vicuña skin have at least doubled in price since 1906 (their export is forbidden), as is the case also with the chinchilla. Of the
latter there are two varieties, the blue and the white. They are hunted by the Indians as are also the vicuñas. The former are now crossed with the viscacha, a rodent resembling a hare, the resulting animal being capable of domestication. Though the skins are inferior to genuine chinchilla they serve the purpose. It would be a most valuable enterprise if the vicuña could be domesticated. At present the animals are wild like the guanaco, but the breeding of herds ought to be possible if the greatest care were exercised. The vicuña wool is probably the finest existing, and if the animals could be saved from destruction and their numbers increased, a highly profitable business would result. These animals, like the guanacos, wander in small groups in remote places at high altitudes, 14,000 to 16,000 feet, often difficult of access among the mountains. These with the llamas and alpacas are ruminants, the two latter domesticated and living in large herds. The alpaca wool is much superior to that of the llama and better than that of the sheep; if the animals were rationally bred on a large scale the business should be extremely profitable. The animal has shorter legs than the llama which it resembles; it is never used as a burden bearer. The alpaca flourishes on the Titicaca Plateau and in higher, cold and solitary mountain sections, among seed bearing grasses where snow falls instead of rain. It requires better forage than the llama. Pure water is an absolute essential. Their long fleece, sheared once in two years, is always in great demand; a fleece weighs 10-15 pounds. The alpacas, numbering probably 200,000, are tended by Indians whose patient endurance qualify them in a measure, but who need instruction to supervise them with more intelligent care. There are vast lands suitable for their breeding and culture, and regions where sheep, donkeys, goats, and cattle may be raised. None of these industries is practised except in a small way, though land, suitable fodder, and climate are all of the best. Stock raising is carried on to a limited extent only, though conditions for raising horned cattle are said to be ideal on the llanos of the southeast, where vast natural prairies alternate with forests, and many wild cattle exist. The large possibilities of this region will
undoubtedly be utilized before many years. Difficulty in reaching markets is the great present drawback, but Argentine capitalists have looked over the eastern lowlands and may find early means for their exploitation. On the higher lands also are sections where the business may be carried on to advantage. As at present only ordinary stock is raised with no care in breeding, merely to supply local needs for meat, there is need of imported cattle and better methods, as is the case with sheep. Figures given for cattle are 800,000 head, of sheep 1¹⁄₂ million. Many more of the latter should be raised in some sections of the plateau region. Mutton is more of a staple food, largely used, dried and salted, by the Indians. Thus prepared it is called chalona; dried-beef is called charque. The cultivation of Siberian grasses on the plateau is suggested. Few hogs are raised, although many districts are well adapted to them. Agriculture In agriculture Bolivia has enormous possibilities, but at present small production. About 5,000,000 acres are under cultivation. With the varying altitude and climate the vegetable products are similar to those of the preceding countries, many of these spontaneous, a few cultivated. The latter are almost solely for internal consumption. On the plateau grow barley, quinua, and potatoes, the last, when frozen called chuño, are the basis of the Indians’ diet; barley is much used for fodder; quinua, a very nutritious millet, easy to cultivate and hardy, in the form of meal among the plateau Indians takes the place of wheat and corn, which do not grow at this altitude. In the valleys below there is plenty of corn, from which is made the Indians’ favorite drink, chicha, though they will readily drink plain alcohol of poor quality when they can get it. Wheat and rice are raised in eastern Cochabamba, admirable coffee in the yungas, cacao, and coca; none in sufficient quantity to supply the home market except coca. Some coffee is exported but more is imported from Brazil and Peru. All needful supplies could be provided in one or another part of the country if population and means of transport existed.
Other Products. Cacao is less cultivated than coffee, though raised in two departments. Trees are growing untended in the Rio Madidi and Madre de Dios sections. Sugar cane is cultivated in Santa Cruz and elsewhere, but most of it is used for making aguardiente, and molasses or other syrup. More than 200,000 gallons of alcohol come annually from Santa Cruz. Rice also is grown in this Department giving two harvests a year. It might be cultivated in other sections. Tobacco of excellent quality thrives in many places, but not enough is raised for home consumption. Viticulture is slightly practised with primitive methods. Fruits of many varieties as in Peru are raised, including especially fine oranges. Various vegetables are grown but in these lines the development is slight and poor. Coca alone is exported among agricultural products, chiefly to Chile and Argentina. Cultivated also in Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, the chief centre is in the yungas of La Paz. The leaf is richer in alkaloid than the Peruvian, as I myself noted, but as yet it has not been so much exported to Europe on account of its higher price. The plantations are in terraces on the mountain slopes between 5000 and 7000 feet altitude. In the yungas the bushes are usually three or four feet high, but may grow to seven or eight. A small crop may be gathered 18 months after planting, but only in four or five years are they in full leaf. Three times a year the leaves are gathered, and with good care the plantations will last half a century. The leaves are picked by hand, dried, and stored in a dry place, later packed in bales and pressed. Properly used the chewing of coca in the highlands may be a blessing. Carried to the excess usual among the Indians it is a curse, as it is where here used in drinks sold at the soda counter, creating a habit as vicious as that of alcohol or opium. For the cultivation of cotton on the lowlands there is much suitable soil and climate. Forestry Of forestal products Bolivia contains all those found in the other sections of the Amazon basin, varieties of timber, medicinal plants,
etc.; but none at present is of commercial value for export except quinine, manufactured from cinchona bark, and rubber. Rubber. The rubber industry of Bolivia is second to that of minerals. In amount of this export the country is believed to be second in South America to Brazil, though little has been touched of the vast territory capable of its production. Sir Martin Conway estimated the rubber trees of the Beni district as 50,000,000. There are four zones of rubber producing country, one in the extreme north near the Acre Territory of Brazil, with outlet from the port and custom house of Cobija; second, the greater part of Colonias exporting through the national custom house of Villa Bella, by Villa Rica at the confluence of the Abuna and the Madeira, or by lesser ports; third, the Department of La Paz, the rubber going out by Lake Titicaca and Mollendo; fourth, Beni, Santa Cruz, and Cochabamba, the rubber from the north going out by Guajará Merím or Villa Bella, that farther south by Puerto Suarez on the Paraguay or by Yacuiba, and from the west by Oruro and Antofagasta. The rubber of the region is chiefly that called fine Pará, most of it exported through that port and being of the best quality. The latex of the hevea is the source; sernamby is second quality made of the residue of the finer quality mixed with bark. The caucho from the castilloa elastica is little exploited on account of few laborers and expensive transport. With the opening of the Madeira-Mamoré Railway in 1912 better facilities were secured, this railway having been built a distance of 207 miles along the Brazilian shore to avoid the bad rapids on the two rivers. The flooding of the market with Malay and Ceylon rubber seriously affected Bolivian production and export, but these have recently increased. With the forming of plantations in this section, a work which an American company has undertaken, the rubber should be better able to compete with that of Ceylon, as its superior quality is known. The fact that the Bolivian export tax is lower than that of Brazil gives the former an advantage. In the Department of Cochabamba are great quantities of maniçoba trees producing rubber known as ceará, of good quality but not the best. It might be cultivated in hilly regions and on banks of streams of the Yungas and other valleys in the Department of La
Paz. The lot of the seringueiros, the rubber workers, is bad; it may and must be bettered if the industry is to continue. The establishing of plantations will be a great improvement, but some amenities of life might be made available even in the ordinary forest. Investments From the description of Bolivia, it is apparent that mining presents the most attractive field for the large capitalist. Mining experts with less money may be tempted to investigate gold prospects or to search for rich veins of other metals, later organizing companies for their development or selling at a handsome profit their acquired claims, as some persons have done hitherto. However sales are not always easily made. Petroleum is numbered among the mining possibilities, although the most favorably located fields may be preempted already, chiefly by American Companies, the Braden and the Richmond Levering, in spite of the difficulties of access and development. The petroleum procured would find its market in Bolivia and in the neighboring countries of the East and West Coasts where it is greatly needed. The oil with a paraffin base is of high grade running to 45.8 Baumé. Stock raising of various kinds would be profitable in certain localities, and some forms of agriculture and small industries. Railway construction, the development of electric power, the installation of sanitary and other public works will afford many openings for engineers.
CHAPTER XXVIII
CHILE: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.
The country of Chile, the seventh in size of the South American Republics, is frequently ranked with the two largest, Brazil and Argentina, owing to the enterprise of its inhabitants: a natural result of their location in the temperate zone, from 17° 57′ to 55° 59′ South Latitude; increased perhaps by their long struggle with the Araucanian Indians. Area, Population, Boundary Area. Chile, with an extent of 290,000 square miles, is ribbon like in shape, having a length of nearly 2700 miles, a trifle more than Argentina; in a direct line 2140 miles, with a width of 70-248, miles averaging about 85. Population. The country with approximately 4,000,000 inhabitants is fifth in this respect. Boundary. The boundary of Chile is simple. At the north is Peru, on the east are Bolivia and Argentina, at the south and west the Pacific Ocean. History The bold Spanish invaders of Peru might reasonably have been contented for a time with the conquest of that vast territory. But Diego de Almagro, incited by the grant of 200 leagues south of those bestowed upon Pizarro, and enticed by the tales of a region richer still in gold and silver, set forth to gain possession of the allotted lands, not long after the founding of Lima in 1535. Over the great Bolivian Plateau and a high mountain pass into Chile, Almagro marched with his followers, only to return disappointed after enduring untold hardships and suffering.
A few years later a second expedition was undertaken by Pedro de Valdivia, this one along the shore. From Arica proceeding by sea, having landed at the mouth of the Rio Maipo, in February, 1541, Valdivia founded the city of Santiago. Still unsatisfied he continued south, in spite of much opposition, making settlements at Concepción, Imperial, Villa Rica, and Valdivia; but in 1553 he was himself slain by the warlike Araucanians, who long disputed with the invaders the occupation of their country. For 250 years the contest continued intermittently, with some diminution and amalgamation of the Indians, till the Chilians rose against Spain, when a more friendly feeling was established. The Chilians, who convoked a national congress in 1810, regard this event as the inauguration of their independence; though not until 1818 was it secured with the aid of San Martín and his army from Argentina. Chile subsequently experienced many internal difficulties, but after 1861 the Government became more liberal, and since that period, except for the revolution against Balmaceda in 1890, the country has been free from serious internal strife. Government The government is that of a centralized republic with the usual three branches. The President, elected for a term of five years and not eligible at once for a second term, appoints the Intendentes and Gobernadores who respectively administer the 23 Provinces, and their subdivisions, the 82 Departments. There is one Territory, Magallanes, which includes the southern mainland and the coastal islands. The police force is national in organization. In the Provinces no legislative bodies exist save municipal councils with certain local duties. The franchise is so restricted (the voters must have property and be able to read and write) that as 25 per cent of the population is illiterate and most of the laboring class landless, the Government is said to be practically in the hands of a few leading families. Senators, 37 in number, must have an income of $2000 and Deputies, 118, one of $500. The President must not leave the country while in office.
Chile has 23 Provinces, all but five of which border on the Pacific, and one Territory. Beginning at the north the names of the Provinces follow with their approximate areas and population, and with the names and population of their capitals: Provinces
Tacna
Area, in Population Capitals square miles
Population
9,000
40,000 Tacna
8,000
Tarapacá
17,000
134,000 Iquique
45,000
Antofagasta
46,500
220,000 Antofagasta
66,000
Atacama
31,000
67,000 Copiapó
13,000
Coquimbo
14,000
191,000 La Serena
16,000
Aconcagua
5,400
140,000 San Felipe
12,000
Valparaiso
1,775
347,000 Valparaiso
212,000
Santiago
5,900
627,000 Santiago
450,000
O’Higgins
2,168
125,000 Rancagua
13,000
Colchagua
3,900
163,000 San Fernando
10,000
Curicó
3,045
115,000 Curicó
23,000
Talca
3,900
135,000 Talca
42,000
Maule
2,800
125,000 Cauquenes
12,000
Linares
4,000
120,000 Linares
3,000
Nuble
3,500
199,000 Chillán
40,000
Concepción
3,300
271,000 Concepción
72,700
Arauco
2,200
74,000 Arauco
3,500
Bio-Bio
5,400
106,000 Los Angeles
14,000
Malleco
3,300
136,000 Angol
10,000
Cautín
6,400
175,000 Temuco
31,000
Valdivia Llanquihue Chiloé
9,000
187,000 Valdivia
26,000
35,000
150,000 Puerto Montt
8,000
7,000
100,000 Ancud
4,000
Territory Magallanes
65,000
32,000 Punta Arenas
20,000
Population The population of Chile is little if any below 4,000,000, which gives it an average of 12 or more to the square mile, the highest rate of all the North and West Coast countries. There is considerable variation in the different Provinces, but less than in the other Republics, if the Territory is omitted. The most thickly inhabited region is from Valparaiso south to Valdivia; the Province of Santiago having the largest population and that of Valparaiso the densest. As to the character of the population it is estimated that 40 per cent are of white extraction, with at least 50-60 per cent mestizos; probably 50,000 Indians, including possibly 5000 in the far south, uncivilized and dying out. The educated class as in other countries forms a small minority of the inhabitants, but in recent years greater attention has been paid to the diffusion of knowledge among the common people. Education The middle and upper classes pay much attention to education. In Santiago there are two universities, the larger the University of Chile, open also to women, and the Catholic University, each with various departments; a National Institute or high school, a School of Mines, a Normal School, a School of Arts and Trades. In La Serena and Copiapó at the north are other Mining Schools, and in cities at the south Schools of Agriculture; also Normal Schools. An Industrial College is to be opened in Valparaiso. All towns have elementary
schools; in all State schools including universities education is free, and in primary grades from 1921 compulsory. There are various private schools, in Santiago a large and excellent one for boys (managed for years by American Methodists), where the sons of many prominent families have been educated, as in La Paz, Bolivia. Press, Religion, etc. Press. The Press is free, influential, and of high character, the Mercurio of Valparaiso and Santiago having a world wide reputation, and ranking with the best of any country. There are about 700 newspapers and journals. Religion. The Roman Catholic religion is recognized as that of the State, but freedom is permitted to others. The women generally are very devout, though as in the other countries the men of the governing classes are inclined to agnosticism. Telegraph. Chile possesses 30,000 miles of telegraph lines and 46,000 of telephone. There are 32 wireless stations at intervals from Arica down to Punta Arenas, with one on Juan Fernandez Island. Money. A gold peso (there are no such coins) may be regarded as worth 36 cents, but the paper money which is in general use fluctuates in value, a peso varying from 14 to 25 cents, usually 1822. There are silver coins of 10, 20, 40 centavos, and copper of smaller value. The Metric System of weights and measures is obligatory, all others being excluded by law.
CHAPTER XXIX
CHILE: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The country of Chile has an extraordinary shape, very long and narrow. Unlike the other Republics of the West Coast, Chile has no trans-Andine region, as the watershed of the Andes constitutes the eastern boundary line. Thus confined between the sea and the mountain tops, while the coast line of the country is nearly 2700 miles, as far as from Labrador to Guiana, the width is scanty, mostly varying from 100 to 225 miles, though at one point in the south the western boundary of Argentina is but 26 miles from the Pacific Ocean. Although so narrow for most of the distance, Chile has three sections longitudinally: a very narrow coastal strip, a plateau, or a central valley, and the mountain region. Its remarkable length from 18° S. Lat., several degrees in the torrid zone, to 56°, well towards the Antarctic Circle, gives it a wide range in climate arising from the latitude, as well as the variation from the altitude which it shares with the countries previously mentioned. From north to south also, the Republic has three zones: the hot arid land at the north, 18°-32°, followed by the temperate agricultural section in the centre to 42°, and the cool, rainy, forested lands at the south; sometimes four sections are spoken of, in which case the first is regarded as two, dividing at 27° into the nitrate section north and a mineral, south. Of these two the former has a plateau section between the Andes and the sea, the latter some transverse ridges. The country has 25 per cent in woods and forests, 7¹⁄₂ per cent in pastures, 5 irrigable land and 12¹⁄₂ per cent arable. As already noted, the Pacific Coast south of Ecuador is a practically rainless desert for a distance of 1600 miles along the shore of Peru and Chile, about as far as Coquimbo. Here begins the agricultural centre of Chile, including the rich longitudinal valley (with soil 330 feet deep), in which the capital, Santiago, is situated; the valley extends from the Aconcagua River to the Gulf of Ancud, 620
miles. Many populous towns and ports are in this section, among them Valparaiso. The forest country farther south is but sparsely settled. Mountains. The Cordillera of the Andes, which extends throughout the entire length of the country, and is continued at the north by the Cordillera of Peru, is recognized from its geological formation as belonging to a recent epoch. It contains many volcanoes, mostly extinct or inactive except in the south. Aconcagua, of volcanic origin, the highest peak of the Andes and of all America so far as is yet known, is a little north of the centre. Its summit is just over the border in Argentina, as the watershed forming the boundary here runs west of the line of greatest altitude. The height of Aconcagua is variously stated, but 22,817 feet has perhaps the best authority. Other lofty peaks are near, Mercedario and Tupungato, each over 22,000 feet. There are 24 passes across the range at a height of 10,000 feet more or less. Farther south the mountains diminish rapidly in height with few summits above 10,000 feet. The range ends in Tierra del Fuego with Mt. Sarmiento, 7000 feet. A cordillera of the coast, geologically older, is much lower, disappearing altogether at the north. In general quite steep towards the sea, it slopes gradually towards the central valley or plateau. This range continues at the south in islands, which in great numbers fringe the coast. Here the shore is much indented with straits and bays, resembling the fjords of Norway. Nearly all of the narrowing point of the continent, the entire Strait of Magellan, and most of Tierra del Fuego belong to Chile. Rivers The rivers of the country are numerous except in the north, where but two reach the ocean. Farther south to 35° they are torrential in character, but important both for irrigation and as a potential source of hydro-electric power; their descent from so great a height indicating large future possibilities. Beyond 35° a number of streams are navigable for some distance for boats of light draught, 500 miles in all, the Bio-Bio for 100 miles, the Maule for 75. South of these
rivers are many picturesque and important lakes close to the Cordillera where they serve as great reservoirs for the excessive precipitation of rain and snow on the west side of the mountains. The largest are Lakes Rauco and Llanquihue, with estimated areas respectively of 200 and 250 square miles. Lake Todos los Santos, 40 square miles, described as of marvelous beauty, is northeast of Puerto Montt among the Andean foothills, at a height of 500 feet. The seaboard at the north, with few indentations, has in consequence poor harbors, where landing in small boats may occasionally be dangerous or impossible. In the far south are sheltered harbors, but few cities requiring them. Climate The climate of the country naturally is extremely varied. In the northern section the immediate coast like that of Peru is preserved from intense heat by the Antarctic current. A little way back on the arid plateau the temperature is excessive by day but cool at night. Going south from the arid section the rainfall gradually increases until in the far south there is too much. The central regions have a fair supply with an excellent climate, mean annual temperatures of 50°-60°. Farther south with rain 150-170 days in the year, in some places 80-100 inches, the climate is less agreeable. The winds are generally west, either a little north or south. While the mean temperatures are fairly low, the extremes are much less than at the same latitudes in most parts of North America or on the East Coast of Argentina. Even at the farthest south, at Punta Arenas, the most southern city of the globe, the weather is never so cold as often in the usual winters of New York or Boston. Until recently suitable sanitation has been lacking in many cities and the death rate has been high. Now the authorities are alive to these matters and with the installation of proper sewerage, already accomplished in Santiago and in progress in other cities, the death rate is lower. In no cities from Guayaquil south need any tourist be apprehensive of danger.
CHAPTER XXX
CHILE: CAPITAL, INDIVIDUAL PROVINCES, CITIES
Capital Santiago, the capital, with 450,000 inhabitants, is the fourth in population of the cities of South America, the first three being Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo. The city is finely located in the fertile Central Valley, on the Mapocho River. Important as the Government and social centre, it has much commercial activity. A little off the direct Trans-Andine line between Valparaiso and Buenos Aires, it is equally a terminus, as special cars run to each city from Los Andes where they connect with the narrower mountain railway. Santiago is the centre of the north and south railway systems which traverse the country almost from end to end. A lack of first class hotels has been partially remedied by the construction of a large one on modern lines, but it may be said that in all of the capital cities and chief ports of the West Coast additional accommodations of a higher class are desirable. In Santiago important improvements recently accomplished include the installment of a sewerage system and the repavement of the principal streets. Electric lights have long been enjoyed and an excellent system of electric cars, one feature of which New York might imitate to advantage, the numbering of the cars to indicate the various routes. Santiago in addition to its delightful location may well boast of its fine buildings, especially its Capitol, the handsome opera house, and many fine residences; still more of its parks, the far famed Santa Lucía, Parque Cousiño, and the Quinta Normal; also of the Palace of Fine Arts, and the Cemetery, especially beautiful in rose time. Most of the streets are narrow, but there is one splendid broad avenue, the Alameda or Avenida de Delicias with a central parkway ornamented with statuary.
CHILE, ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY Provinces A brief review of the Provinces follows, beginning at the north. Unless otherwise stated, the Provinces extend from the coast back to the mountains, bordering at the east on Bolivia or Argentina. Tacna, formerly a part of Peru, is still claimed by that country, though in the possession of Chile. It is separated by the Sama River from the Peruvian Province, Moquegua. Largely mountainous, Tacna has many peaks above 18,000 feet; the two passes to Bolivia are about 14,000 feet. Of 500,000 acres of possible agricultural land about one tenth is irrigated, the rest is desert. Alfalfa is the chief production; beans and maize are important with other vegetables and fruit. The leading export is sulphur. The capital, Tacna, is a pleasant town, connected by rail with the port of Arica, though it is not on the road to La Paz. Arica, with a better harbor than most of the others, is an important primary port where all steamers call, as it is the terminus of the Arica-La Paz Railway; one of the three Pacific outlets for Bolivia. New docks are to be constructed. Tarapacá follows on the south, this Province containing with other minerals, extensive, hot, arid plains with nitrate fields. The sloping coastal section has two important ports, Pisagua and Iquique, besides smaller ones exclusively for the export of nitrates, in which the two named are chiefly engaged. Iquique, the capital and principal port, is of great commercial importance for such export, and has very large imports from the fact that these include all eatables as formerly all drinkables, even water. Now the water comes in pipes 150 miles from the mountains. The soil too was imported for the few plazas and gardens existing, as nothing will grow in the native soil. It is an enterprising community
with a good proportion of pleasant British homes, clubs, theatres, etc. Antofagasta comes next, separated from Tarapacá by the River Loa. On the east it has both Bolivia and a piece of northern Argentina. The surface descends from the Andes in a series of plateaus. Vegetation is scanty. This Province, with Atacama on the south, shares in the activities of the nitrate industry. The capital city, Antofagasta, is 200 miles south of Iquique, both ports having very poor harbors, though with enormous commerce for places of their size. Antofagasta, the terminus of a third railway from La Paz, the second in Chile, has much Bolivian trade besides export of nitrates, and lately from Chuquicamata of copper. The Province contains other ports and cities of consequence, Taltal, Tocopilla, Mejillones, etc. Atacama on the south borders exclusively at the east on Argentina, which from here down forms the eastern boundary of Chile. The surface of the Province is uneven, with mountains, plateaus, and ravines; in the valleys of Huasco and Copiapó there is some agriculture. Minerals, as gold, silver, and copper receive attention. Copiapó, the capital, is an important railway junction. Coquimbo, following, is a narrower Province, the mountains and the Argentine boundary coming nearer the shore. There are many lofty peaks at the east; and between spurs running down to the coast are fertile, well watered valleys, as we now come to the central section where with a mild climate there is moderate rainfall. Cereals, fruit, wine, and livestock are exported. La Serena, the capital, is a pretty town, which has tramway connection with Coquimbo, a first class port, and a busy city. Aconcagua is next, with the great peak of that name in the range at the east. Some 15 miles south of the peak is the Uspallata Pass, for many years the main commercial highway between Chile and Argentina. By this Pass came Almagro, and later a division of the army of San Martín; another division by the pass of Los Patos, a little
lower and farther north, by which cattle are often driven into Chile. The Province is chiefly agricultural and pastoral, with crops of cereals, fruits, hemp, and tobacco. The finest wine is produced; there are large herds of cattle; and copper has some exploitation. Valparaiso, one of the two Provinces bordering on Aconcagua at the south, is next to the smallest in the Republic, and the first coming from the north which does not extend across the country. With Aconcagua on the north it has Santiago on the east and south. The surface is mountainous with extensive valleys, the Coast Range here reaching a height of 7000 feet. Several rivers and a number of bays are among its favorable features. With a mild climate and sufficient rain agriculture is the principal industry aside from the commercial interests of the chief port of the West Coast, Valparaiso. Santiago, south of Aconcagua and east of Valparaiso, extends from Argentina on the east, south of Valparaiso to the sea, and has the two Provinces of O’Higgins and Colchagua on the south. The Central Valley, which occupies a great part of its area, is here a broad plain, part of which is well watered and fertile but with some sections arid; the foothills and valleys are well wooded. The Central Valley slopes towards the west, having an altitude of nearly 3000 feet at the foot of the Andes, and about 1000 feet near the hills of the Coast Range. The highest point of the Andes, here south of Mt. Aconcagua, is less than 20,000 feet while the Coast Range approaches 8000. Cereals, vegetables, fruit, and wine are the chief products. Among other towns in the Province is the port of San Antonio. O’Higgins, a very small Province, occupies what may be called a jog at the southeast corner of Santiago, which is therefore on the west and north, while Argentina is east and Colchagua south. Although a rugged district, irrigation is developed and large crops of cereals and fruit are grown. Rich in mineral deposits, copper alone is exploited. Colchagua, south of Santiago and O’Higgins, extends across the country from the sea to the mountains, which have three easy passes into Argentina. The plains of the Central Valley have a rich
soil and good rainfall, but as the summers are dry, as in Santiago, irrigation is needful. Crops of wheat, beans, alfalfa, etc., are important, and also the cattle industry. Curicó follows across the south with similar features and productions. Talca is next, also extending from the coast to Argentina. With a temperate climate, there are greater extremes of heat and cold on the plain. Besides the agricultural and cattle industries, the dense forests here afford opportunity for exploitation. Two Provinces are on the south. Linares, the more eastern, has Argentina on the east, Nuble south, and Maule west. With considerable agricultural land, along the lower slopes of the Andes it has dense woods. Maule, the coast Province south of Talca, has both Linares and Nuble on the east, and Concepción south. The valleys of the Coast Cordillera, which are fertile, afford opportunity for increased agriculture, but unwise deforestation has been injurious. Nuble, again an Andean Province, between Argentina and Maule, is south of Linares and north of Concepción. Easy passes lead into Argentina, forests are extensive, and vines and cereals are grown on a large scale. Concepción, south of Maule and Nuble, extends from the Pacific to Argentina. Mountainous at the east, it is rather arid in the centre, but extremely fertile near the coast. The fine crops include grapes and excellent wine. Large forests and extensive coal deposits are a source of wealth. Arauco and Bio-Bio are on the south; Arauco along the coast, with important agriculture and large herds of cattle, has also extensive forests and mineral deposits, coal mines actively worked, and gold, both alluvial and quartz. Bio-Bio at the east is mountainous and well watered, as is this region in general. Cereals are largely grown and viticulture is practised. The cattle industry is important and the forests are exploited.
