Distributive Justice Application in India

Chapter ± 1

Introduction ³The rules of distributive justice cannot be rules for the conduct towards equals, but must be rules for the conduct of superiors towards their subordinates.´ -

F.A.Hayek 

Distributive justice is concerned with what is right with respect to t he allocat allocation ion of goods in a society. Allocation of goods goo ds takes into thought the total amount of goods to be handed out, the process on how they in the civilization are going to dispense, and the  pattern of division. Civilizations have a narrow amount of resources and capital. The main problem which arises from these is how t he goods are to be all a llocated ocated or o r how they are to be distributed. The simple answer to this question is that the people get a fair share. It is often contrasted with the Procedural Procedura l Justice, which is concerned with the processes such as in the administration of law. Distributive Justice is concerned in giving all the members of the soc iety a fair share in the resources available. The main criteria of o f distribution of the resources are Equity, Equality and the Need. Equity means that ones rewards are to be given equal to ones contribution to a society. Equality means that every member of the society gets the t he same amount of resources regardless of the input given. Distribution on the basis of need means that those people who need less will be given less and those who are in need of  more resources will be given more. Distributive D istributive justice justice is a very crucial element to the stability stability of a society and for the well-being of its its members in that society. society. When the issues of Distributive Justice are being inadequately addressed and also if the item which is to be distributed are being highly valued, then it results in frequent co nflicts. nflicts. Why should people have more than enough resources within their hands wh ile some others are struggling to meet theirs? This question has motivated a very large number of   political activists. Its quite evident that this question had come to o nes own mind but just dismissed the question by giving an answer like´. like´. Its just the way they are, and you cant

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help it´. Perhaps, there aren¶t enough eno ugh resources to go around and if only things were different, then everyone could have that many resources that they wanted. Karl Marx believed believed that the revolution would free up man¶s true potential and then, scarcity would never be a pro blem to man. Nowadays, resources are in plent y and is distributed to ones own need and everyone¶s need is met. Living together in societies benefits for the members o f the society but also creates  burdens. Benefits include increased production that so cial cooperation makes possible, greater security, companionship and also access to the legal and political po litical institutions. institutions. Coming to Burdens, they include limiting limiting our ou r actions so that we don¶t impinge unjustly un justly on fellow citizens and obligations to the t he society. The questions about Distributive Justice are questions how we should distribute the  benefits and burdens of social co-operation acro ss the society. Theorist John Rawls  believed that currently the poor have more than their fair share of the burdens while the rich have the Lions share of benefits. Theorist Robert Nozick, who was the student of  John Rawls, claimed that there is nothing unjust u njust in the case of Poverty while redistribution redistribution to combat that poverty would place illegitimate burdens o n the wealthy. 3 political theorists had a major role in the stu dy of distributive justice. They are: 1) Aristotle 2) John Rawls 3) Robert Nozick 

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1.1Aristotle According to Aristotle, Justice was divided into 2 part s. 1) Complete Justice Complete Justice is identifiable with the Moral Values and is responsible for  regulating public and social soc ial relations. It was laid on Law abidingness and th is form of  Justice exists only in an Ideal state. 2) Particular Justice Particular Justice is mainly concerned with the distribution of offices and observance of proportionate equa lity. lity. It also co ncerns with the equal distribution of  wealth and honour. This Particular Justice is divided into 2 Parts 1. Distributive Justice According to him, Distributive Justice is laid in proper allocation of o ffices according to ones own o wn social contribution. It was primarily concerned with the  political privileges. Each type has got its own corresponding Distributive Justice. The rights are measured in terms of the duties performed. 2. Corrective Justice Mainly, the commercial matters are being dealt. It is mainly negat ive in character and it aims at restoring back what o ne had lost due to the social soc ial injustice. It prevents one from the encroachment of rights.

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1

1.2 John Rawls

According to John Rawls, Justice is divided into 3 parts: 1) Justice as Fairness Here no arbitrary distinctions are made between p ersons by important political, social, and economic econo mic institutions. institutions. Together, they t hey make up the basic structures of the society. 2) Principles of Justice According to him, a well ordered society is one which these social institutions are generally regulated by the principles of Justice and where anyone accepts those  principles 3) The Veil of Ignorance Every person is living in a veil of ignorance and our knowledge is limited. So, we watch only our self interest. A person has to plan and mostly implements those tho se plans which are of his self interest. A person doesn¶t know his social status, talent and knowledge.

1.3Robert Nozick   Nozicks argument begins with the individual r ights. 1) It¶s a theory about how ho w a society ought to be and also how to regulate the distribution of goods. 2)  No citizen cant be sacrificed for another because all the citizens have separate lives.

2

1

Peri Roberts _Peter,  An I ntroduction ntroduction to P olitical Th olitical  Thoug  oug ht,Atlantic t,Atlantic Publishers and Distributers, Edinburg University Press, Edinburg, 1996

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3) This theory is historical and didn¶t emerge from any formula. 4) It¶s the task of the justice to protect the individual rights 5) Any type of interference in the r ights of the individual is unjust. 6) Whatever arises from just situation by just steps is always just. 7) The state should promise the security to the t he individuals and private institutions should take care of other services like education, health etc.

Both Rawls and Nozick were American American political theorist. The main criticism criticism was that they only supported the t he rich. They said that the t he government is imposing taxes to the people who work hard. Rawls tell about the distribution of justice. But Nozick tells about the rights based on 3

 justice.

2 3

Id. Santosh Bakaya, The P olitical Th olitical  Tho oery of  Robe obert N  rt  N ozick,Kapaz ozick, Kapaz Publications, New Delhi , p.109

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Chapter - 2

History of Distributive Justice ³God could have made all men rich, but He wanted there to be poor people in this world, that the rich might be able to redeem their sins.´ -St. Eligius

The theory of distributive justice, how a society should allocate its scarce resources amongst individuals with competing needs and c laims, goes back at least two millennia. Aristotle and Plato wrote on the question, and t he Talmud recommends solutions to the distribution of an estate the deceased¶s creditors. Aristotle did write about something he called ³distributive justice,´ Plato d id write on how property should be allocated in an ideal society, and the Talmud, like other ancient legal texts, contains discussions of competing claims to property.

People do not generally realize that the meaning of ³distributive justice´ has changed or  that for most of human history practically no o ne had written or talked, even as an ideal, the view that everyone shou ld have their basic needs satisfied.4

A time was there when decent but religiously befuddled leaders such as Amos, Isaiah, and Jesus taught the equali equa lity ty of o f all people and the r ight of all people, consequently, to life without suffering. Their teachings were distorted and suppressed by opp ressive powers in a variety of class struggles, but they were at least held up as an ideal until the eighteenth century. Then came modern economics, with its notions wrapped with superstition how economies work. It also brought about abo ut the valorization of selfishness that drove out the old respect for the poor. The T he bourgeoisie now did not pretend to have morals that had hidden the class struggle in feudal times. t imes. The workers came to understand their true situation but as a disadvantage in that the suffering of workers increased enormously. Finally,

scientific socialism appeared which provided a synthesis between the prophetic

and the modern attitudes, uniting the norms of pre-modern religious teachings with a

4

S. Fleischacker, A leischacker, A Short  Short H  H istory istory of  Distributive istributive J ustice ustice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 2005

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science stripped of the confusions and fatalism that had made it impossible to translate concern for the poor into practice.

Distributive justice, in modern sense, calls on the society to guarantee that property is distributed throughout the society so that everyone is supplied with a certain level of  material means. But the debate still goes on the amount of means to be guaranteed and on the degree to which state intervention is necessary for those means to be d istributed. These are related issues. If the level of goods everyone ought to have is low enough, it may be that the market can guarantee an adequate distribution; if everyone ought to have an ample means of welfare protection, prot ection, the state may need to redistribute goods to correct market imperfections; if what everyone ought to have is an equal share of all goods,  private property and the market will probably have to be replaced altogether by a state system for distributing goods. Distributive justice is thus understood to be necessary for  any justification of property rights, and such that it may even entail a rejection re jection of private  property.5 There is neither universal agreement to what distributive justice justice means nor t here is a  proper timeline laid to which one can ca n refer so as to say when the t he premises of modern  justice came. Modern distributive justice came one by one into wide acceptance.

Tiberius Gracchus had a view that poor soldiers deserved a greater share of and suggested that state should redistribute land accordingly. Thomas Mor e suggested that hard work of   poor in general entitled them to greater wealth. To make use again o f Wittgensteinian idea, one might say that t hat modern distributive justice is constituted by a fiber of threads interwoven with one other, that some of these threads, but nothing strongly resembling the entire fiber, have appeared here and there in the past, and the ancient distributive  justice, even if it shared some threads with the modern notion, as a whole constituted a clearly different fiber.

5

Id.

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2.1Indian Context To go over again on the glaring inequalities of different types but most importantly that  based on caste and sex that prevailed in Indian society until the pre-independence days, despite continuous efforts of state, reforms and missionaries to eradicate them.

Chousalkar (1986) very systematically described the evolution of Indian context of   justice in spiritual and philosophical context of Dhar ma. Based on his studies of Vedas and Mahabharata, and compared the concept of justice in traditional Indian views with that described in Plato¶s Republic. He highlited highlited the social and political implications of the concept of justice, analyzing how philosophical ideas such as trigonas, namely, satvas, rajas and tamas, societal characteristics such as the caste hierarchy, and historical factors have shaped the Indian concept co ncept of justice not only t heoretically but also at the applied levels in political and legal spheres. The latter have direct implication for social justice in 6

traditional as well as contemporary Indian society.

Both Gandhi and Nehru stoo d for economic justice. During the struggle for freedom, both of them were pained to see the economic disparity in the country. Gandhi¶s words: The possession of inordinate wealth by individuals should be be held as a crime against Indian 7

humanitry«

The villagers then were not only o nly exploited by foreign government but also by cunning city dwellers. He said: The contrast between rich and poor today is a painful sight. The poor villagers are exploited by the foreign government and also by their own countrymen. They produce the food and go hungary. They produce milk and their children go without it. it is disgraceful«

8

According to him, this condition should not have been lasted even for one day in free India. For them, the improvement of o f poor and disadvantaged class c lass was the only criterion of any program envisaged by t he social welfare organization or the government. 6

Janak Pandey, P  Pandey, P  sych  sychology in I ndia ndia Revisit  Revisit ed -Dev -Developme lopments in t he he Disciplin Discipline: e: Appli  Applieed S  d  S ocial and  ocial  and  Organizational P  rganizational P   sych  sychology, Sage publications, New Delhi, 2004. 7 O.P. Misra,  E conomic conomic t houg ht of   t  of  Gand hi and Neh and  Nehru ru::  A C omparative omparativ e  Analysis,  Analysis, M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 1995. 8 Ibid.

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Also, in the Preamble of constitution, it was declared that, ³We, The People Peo ple of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular  Democratic Republic and to secure all its its citizens: c itizens: Justice, Justice, Social, So cial, Economic and Political; Liberty of thought, Expression, Expression, Belief, Faith and Worship; Equality of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all Fraternity assuring the dignity of  individual and the unity and integrity of the nation. In addition, the Directive Principle of  State Policy, Articles 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 46, 164, 275, 330, 332, 334, 335, 339 and others laid down rules and provisi prov isions ons for both equality and social justice with more emphasis on special care, protection and rights to weaker class. As a consequence, a number of  reformative laws were also enacted in consonance to the Preamble and ot her provisions provisions of constitution in the post-independence era. Bot h constitutional provisions, reformative and other legislations, owe their origin to Indian social po licy of growth with social  justice but more particularly p articularly distributive social justice. The institutional redistribution model is based on the moral concept or social justice and thus recognizes the r ights of the individuals to obtain the basic basic social and welfare service irrespective irrespective of whether he is able to pay for them t hem or not. Thus one of the most important aspects of those services under this are universally provided irrespective of income, education and caste status of  the recipients. Under this model, services are a lso provided on a selective basis,  particularly to the groups which need spec ial care. Since these services are provided without any social or economic eco nomic criteria defining eligibility, eligibility, they do not carry any stigma against the beneficiaries. Also, as these services are available to weaker and disadvantaged section of the population po pulation as well, they tend to work as a counter-measure against the disruptive forces of change and t hus tend to contribute towards stability stability and 9

equilibrium In the social soc ial systems.

It thus becomes very explicit that various co nstitutional provisions provisions and rules have been framed and reformative legislations have been e nacted for eradicating at least reducing reduc ing deep- rooted operation and discriminative d iscriminative practices based o birth and sexton which t he

9

K.B. Gobind, Re Gobind, Re formative  formative law and  social j  social justice ustice in I ndian soci ndian  socieety: ty: a  sociological  study  study wit h  spe  special  r e f  er ence nce to weak er class r  classee s of  Bhagalpur  Bhagalpur D District, Daya Books, Delhi, 1995.

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women and harijans for centuries and had rendered them deprived, powerless po werless and dependant category of individuals.

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Chapter - 3

Application of Distributive Justice in India India Until pre-independence days there was glaring inequality of different types but especially on caste and sex prevailed in Indian society despite of constant effort made by the state, reformers and missioners to control and eradicate them. Therefore the Indian people and the constitution makers made the preamble which mentions about Sovereign, Socialist, Secular and Democratic republic and of securing social, economic and political justice. Our preamble also mentions about liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. It also assures Equality of status and opportunity and to promote among them all Fraternity

assuring dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation. The

directive principle principle of State Policy, Policy, Articles 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 335and 339 lays down rules and provision for both equality and social justice with more emphasis on special 10

care, protection and rights to the weaker class.

As a consequence a number of 

reformative laws were also enacted in consonance to the preamble and other provision of  the constitution in the post-independence era. Both constitutional provisions, reformative and other legislations, owe their origin to the Indian social policy of growth with social  justice but more particularly p articularly distributive social justice. Women and Harijans along with tribal and other backward classes constitute the weaker  classes in Indian society. Both women and Harijans remained the subjugated, exploited 11

and deprived section and virtually lived like semi-human species for centuries together.

They did not have any social, political, economic and cultural rights and privileges, which is only available only to the dominant classes which consist of the men and the

10

K. B. Gobind , Gobind , Re formative  formative law and  social j  social  justice ustice in I ndian soci ndian socieety Regency publication: Delhi , 1995. ,

11

C. N. Shankar Rau, Sociology of Indian Society , S.Chand publishers, Delhi,

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2004

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superior caste people. Thus various constitutional provision and rules has been laid down for eradicating this discrimination which is very deep rooted in our Indian society.

3.1WEAKER CLASS It is difficult, but it is not rare, to come across a precise definition of the term weaker  class. In common parlance, class refers to a group of people having the same social status while weaker denotes any person or object which is comparatively less strong and wanting in strength. Obviously in person or group who is weaker than the other on account of any factor is a member of a weaker class or section. However, difficulty arises in regard to the criteria of measuring the weakness of any person or group as they are diverse, such as physical or biological, psychological, political, economic and social  position. If we take all these into account we may forward the definition of weaker class as ³a group of person who are weaker than others in terms of the aforesaid criterion.´ But when we take into consideration the term weaker class in sociological perspective our  attention is directed toward weakness, backwardness, deprivation, exploitation and oppression of any group of people in the matters related to societal living. In every society it is found that a group of individuals has more benefits, privileges, rights and opportunities in comparison to others in matters of food, education, employment, social status, etc. This later group of people, therefore, composes the weaker section which leads the life of various disabilities and represents the weaker class. Obviously we can define the weaker class as ³a group of people who are incapable of fulfilling their needs, do not have equal chance of participation in different spheres of society, are powerless with lower status and bear exploitation and disabilities imposed by community or  12

society.

Within the purview of this definition are included a number of social

groupings, who are economically, politically and socially weaker than the privileged or 

12

K. B. Gobind , Re formative  formative law and  social j  social  justice ustice in I ndian soci ndian socieety Regency publication: Delhi , 1995. ,

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dominant class of people but are excluded those who are physically weak. In accordance to the criteria of this definition weaker class can be considered equivalent to the term depressed or oppressed class, which does not include the comparative blessed human  beings hordes of whom are still definitely standing o utside the pale of civilization in India and are partaking with beast and birds in the romance of o f natural life. In most of the meanings attached to the weaker class are included three groups of people, namely, the backward class, the scheduled caste and the tribes where women have been left. But in reality women too compose a distinct part of the weaker c lass in India because their condition very much resembles the former three categories of people. If we take into consideration the social system in India we cannot deny the women along with Sudras, Antyaj and Janjati for for centuries remained deprived of their chance of , sharing equally in their opportunity and fruits of the society by the deep rooted social regulation, regulation, customs, 13

oppression and discriminatory practices in social relation.

Such deprivation and

oppression have rendered them relatively powerless and weak. In words, birth or caste and sex have strongly determined the general condition which includes rights, opportunities and privileges of the Indian people as the consequence of which the women and the Harijans along with other backward class and scheduled caste and scheduled tribes come to be reckoned as weaker class in post independence era. The constitution of  India has included women within the category cat egory of weaker section

.

3.2HARIJAN The term µ Harijan¶ which now has received wide acceptance and is used throughout the country for the scheduled caste has been known by legion of terms at different times or  14

  by different terms at same time by different people.

In the Puranas they are called

Asprusyas, Avarnas, Chandals, Svapachas, Antyajas, Jambhawans, Varishals, Antyawasi,

13

Id.

14

Tsachi Keren-Paz, Torts,  E  galitarianism and distributiv and  distributivee justic justicee, oxford book publishers: Lucknow, 2007

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Antya, Bhangi, Panchama, Achchut, etc. and till past or even today they are designated as untouchables, outcaste, atisudras, oppressed Hindu and Scheduled Castes, etc. However  the term untouchable or Asprusya has remained in use since remote paste. The Webster  dictionary describes the untouchables as a member of large hereditary group in India having in traditional Hindu belief the quality of defiling by contact the person, food or  drink of a member of higher caste and formally being strictly segregated and restricted to menial work. This term Scheduled Caste was first used by the British Government from 1935 onwards and has been standardized in the Indian constitution and since then it has been used as a synonyms of untouchable castes. To repeat, the term Harijan, however, was used for the Scheduled Caste or untouchables and was popularized by Mahatma Gandhi. For many years Gandhiji himself used, ³untouchables´ Panchama, Antyaja and Bhamgi. But in early 1930¶s Gandhi began to use the term Harijans instead of untouchables. He called them Harijans, the man of God or the children of God. In justification of adopting the term, Gandhiji explained that other expression were abusive in contexts and were not liked by his untouchable correspondents. But Ambedkar and number of others resented 15

the term Harijans.

But when challenged by congress to suggest a better name Ambedkar 

failed to do so. Therefore, since the forties, the term Harijans has been constantly used for  the Scheduled Caste people in India. According to article 341 (i) of the constitution of  India the following sub caste come within the purview Scheduled Caste (Harijans) in Bihar. They are Bantar, Bauri Bhogta, Bhuiya, Bhumij (excluding North Chotanagpur  and South Chotanagpur Division and Santhal Parganas District), Chamar, Mocha, Chaupal, Dhabgar, Dhobi, Dom, Dhangad, Dusadh and Dhari. Equality before law, removal of Untouchability Act, Minimum Agricultural Wage Act, Bonded Labour Act, and other Reformative Legislation have been enacted in post independence era and are operating in the country in order to make Harijans capable of 

15

C N Shankar Rau, Sociology of Indian Society, S.Chand publishers , Delhi 2004

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  participating equal to others in different realms of the society and get relieved of  traditional taboos and restriction. restriction.16

3.3WOMEN Women represent and form the part of the weaker class in contemporary India even though their condition is better than their counterparts of their past. It is owing to the fact that the women are yet to secure equality of status with men and secondly, they still suffer from various disabilities. Venkatarayappa rightly observed ³women are a 17

representative of weaker sex.

We find down the ages the so called weaker sex has

suffered and survived a load of inequality for which it is impossible to find a parallel in any part of the creation. Virtually, it has been on account of degraded status, exploitation, deprivation and denial of social justice that the women were considered weaker, th

oppressed and exploited class by the social reformers of the 19 and even in the present century. Thus keeping in view the social, economic, political and cultural status of  women they have been reckoned and accorded the status of weaker section in the constitution of India The reasons for which women are included in the category of weaker section, however, lead a discussion in historical perspective. But since the space here is limited we present a  brief account in this context. All historical facts and evidences reveal that there have been distinct stages of rise and 18

fall in status of women. Women in Vedic time enjoyed a very high status.

She had as

much rights to enjoy as men have. But in sutra period position of women were not as high as it was in the Vedic time. Decline in the status of women, however, started form the Smritis period and after about 300 B.C. Constant degradation occurred in the position of 

16

17

K.

B. Gobind, Reformative Law and Social Justice in Indian Society, Regency Publication: India, 1995.

K. B. Gobind, Re Gobind, Re formative  formative law and  social j  social justice ustice in I ndian soci ndian socieety Regency publication: Delhi, 1995. ,

18

C N Shankar Rau, S ociology ociology of  I  Indian  ndian S ocie ociety, ty, S.Chand publishers, Delhi, 2004.

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women in various injunctions, taboos, customs and restrictions appeared in regard to women¶s familial and societal living. Customs of Sati, child marriage, polygamy, female infanticide, dowry, ban or widow remarriage, purdha, denial of access to education and employment outside home, deprivation from right of inheritance and participation in religious activities and number of others cropped up after the aforesaid and by the eighteenth century the women¶s position in Indian Society reached to its bottom. Virtually, women were considered as a plaything and slave of man. Therefore, satisfaction of sexual thirst of man, producing and bearing of children and discharging domestic chores by leaving outside o utside the home became the do main of women¶s role.

As said by Irene Kahn, Secretary Secret ary General of Amnesty International:

Disparaging a woman's sexuality and destroying her physical integrity have become a means by which to terrorize, demean and 'defeat' entire communities, as well as to punish, intimidate and humiliate women. Women¶s lives and their bodies have been the unacknowledged casualties of  war for too long.

Many steps have been taken towards preventing Sexual Violence against Women in War   but none have yet to be fully successful. Sexual violence against women has become as common tool of war as a rifle or a knife.

19

Girls as young as 5 have been raped, mentally

and physically abused, and sexually tortured for the sick pleasure of the perpetrators and as a means of demonstrating the do minating power of their attackers. In fact owing to various evil customs and practices, Indian women suffered greatly and their condition become so degraded and pitiable that the reformers took up the cause of  their emancipation and delivery of social justice to them. But for this there arouse the need of laws and legislation. The first law in this regard was t he Abolition of Sati Act and

19

Marilyn

French, the War Against Women,

Macmillan

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Company: New York, 1993.

Page 16

after that a few others were enacted during the pre-independence day. But even then their  improvement or emancipation remained unfulfilled.

20

Therefore, concern for women¶s

social justice was natural under India¶s independence and as a consequence women in the constitution was included within the category of weaker section and various rules and  provisions were inserted for providing equality of status, opportunity between men and women as well as certain special concessions co ncessions to women along with other weaker sections. In addition a number of reformative laws and legislations have been enacted especially for Indian women including Hindu women with a view to extricate them from traditional constraints and deliver social justice. They include Hindu Marriage Act, Dowry Prohibition Act, Women¶s Right to Property Act, Women¶s Succession Act, Child Marriage Restraint Act, Inter Caste and Inter Community Marriage Act, etc. These Act virtually were needed to equip women with legal rights so that they could secure their  appropriate place in home and society as well as for the progress and development Indian society in general. Therefore it cannot be denied that a new era has ushered in the life og millions of Indians Women in which the era as free and independent as are the men to  participate in different realms of o f society.

20

Raymond F. Gregory, Women and Workplace Discrimination: Overcoming Barriers to Gender Equality,

New York Publication, New York,

2003.

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CONCLUSION Justice is action in accordance with the requirements of some law. Whether these rules be grounded in human consensus or societal norms, they are supposed to ensure that all members of society receive fair treatment. Issues of justice arise in several different spheres and play a major role in causing, perpetuating, and addressing conflict. Just institutions tend to inculcate a sense of stability, well-being, and satisfaction among society members, while perceived injustices can lead to dissatisfaction, rebellion, or revolution. Distribution of Justice does not only revolve around the economic aspects only but also the gender, caste and class do matter a lot. It is linked to the concepts of Human dignity, Human Rights and the common good. More specifically it refers to what civilization owes its individual members in a pro portion to Distributive Justice is linked to the concepts o f Human rights, human dignity, and the common good. Distributive Justice Justice refers to what civilization civilization owes its individual individual members in a proportion: y

Resources that is available to the t he civilization. This includes financial and market considerations.

y

Everyone on the civilization c ivilization will receive equitable access to basic health care needs for living.

The principle of distributive justice means that c ivilizations ivilizations has a duty d uty to individuals in need and that all individuals have duties to help others in need. Many governments are known for dealing with issues of Distributive justice, especially countries with ethnic tensions and geographically distinctive minorities. Post-apartheid South Africa is an example of a country that deals with issues of re-allocating resources with respect to the Distributive justice framework 

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