Disaster+Management+(Role+of+Social+Workers)+1

Community Resilience and Disaster Risk Reduction: The role of social workers in community based disaster programmes

Maripe, K Lecturer, Social Work Department University of Botswana Email: [email protected] Abstract Communities in Botswana continue to be afflicted by disasters such as droughts, floods, windstorms, heavy rains, and wildland fires. These hazards seem to affect the same individuals, families and communities repeatedly with no recovery mechanisms put in place. Although the impact of disasters could be mitigated and prevented, there is little or no effort made towards disaster risk reduction. There could be several reasons for the in-action either by individuals, groups and communities affected and / or government. One such, reason may be limited knowledge, skill, and technical ability in disaster management science by those working with communities, particularly social workers. Social work is a profession that aims at improving the social functioning of individuals, groups, and communities in their environment. The improvement must address threats posed by disaster hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks within communities. In most cases, the vulnerable are the poor who are ill-prepared due to a weak socioeconomic base and difficulty in bouncing back to normal functioning. As such, social work profession which drives community development must equip practitioners to introduce and implement community based disaster programmes in line with the Hyogo Framework of Action 2015. The intention of this paper is to appraise the issues of disaster and the role of social workers in risk reduction at individual, household, group, and or community level. Furthermore, to suggest how social work education could prepare graduates to build community safety and resilience against disasters.

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Introduction Communities in Botswana continue to be plagued by disasters such as droughts, windstorms, heavy rains, and floods. The past two years (2008 and 2009) have shown serious effects of floods in Gweta, Kasane, Pandamatenga, Maun, and Okavango areas on the western side of Botswana. The residents who are subsistence and commercial farmers were seriously affected much more than in the past. Farms were flooded and crops damaged. It was not possible to drain or guide the water away from the fields. This is a demonstration of serious and destructive floods due to climate change or variations (Dailynews, 2009:2). Ms Margaret Nasha, Minister for Presidential Affairs and Public Administration, was quoted, as saying normally in Kasane floods come around April, and there was high possibility of more water coming, so people must be ready not to fall prey to floods. Some months later, in June, 2009, Botswana received heavy rains of more than 100 mm in Dukwi, Sua, Mmatshumu, Lephephe, and Mosetse that caused floods in some areas, and increased the need for community and individual preparedness (Sundaystandard, June 21-27, 2009:4). The Department of Meteorological Services weather prognosis stated in June 2009 that the country would be hit by severe winter rains and that the rain will occur between 7-10 June, and might cause damage to crops and endanger livestock (Monitor, 2009). Crops and livestock are core to the livelihoods and basic survival of the people. If these are damaged, it means an increase in food insecurity for the entire country and heavy reliance on food imports. Food imports complicated by the global economic recession will impact heavily on poor members of the community. These challenge the availability or nonexistent mechanisms and strategies of community based disaster programmes that address all phases of risk management. The social work profession aims at improving the functionality of individuals and communities to resolve their problems (Rwomire and Raditlhokwa, 1996). The problems that affect individuals and communities vary by nature and magnitude. In this case, social work not only assists even those who are afflicted by disasters but must lead in the mediation of factors that make people vulnerable to disasters. Rwomire and Raditlhokwa (1996:6) state that the “overriding aim of social work is to promote people’s well-being and to help them realize their capabilities to the fullest, so that they may live reasonably satisfying lives, comfortable within themselves and in society”. The intention of this paper is to appraise the issues of disaster and the role of social workers in risk reduction at individual and / or community level. Furthermore, the paper suggests how social work education could prepare social workers to build communities safety and resilience. 2

1. Disasters and related consequences (a) Impact of disasters on individuals and communities Disasters worldwide cause mass destruction to infrastructure, loss of human lives, economic downturn, and environmental degradation (Kadi, 2006). United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2008) asserts that the recorded economic costs of disasters have been increasing over decades. According to Cayman Institute (2008) global disaster economic losses in 2008 were US$178 billion double the annual average for 2000-2007 US $85 billion. In terms of global human loss as indicator of impact 235,816 people three times more than the annual averages of 66,812 for 2000-2007 were killed by natural disasters in 2008. The two fatal disasters were cyclone Nargis which killed 138,366 and Sichuan earthquake that killed 87,476 people in the same year. According to Muianga (2006) in 2001 floods affected 500, 000 people and caused 115 deaths in Mozambique. Desjarlais et al (1995, 19) states that “about 15 million people die each year of hunger and malnutrition which affects the lives of almost 24% of the global population each day”. Elliot (1994) states that children are amongst the poorest groups in all societies and of the 12 million child deaths per year in developing countries, 3 million die of diarrheal diseases from poor quality water and standards of sanitation. Botswana, like other countries, experiences both natural and human induced disasters in the past. The natural disasters comprise mainly droughts, floods, veldt fires, animal diseases, earthquake and tremors, pest infestations, epidemics and HIV and AIDS. Drought is experienced country-wide, floods occurs during rainy season that is from October to March, and veldt fires are regular occurrences during the dry month of April to November with a peak in July (UNDP, 2009). In 1999/2000, the country experienced the worst floods in 23 administrative districts / cities, towns/ villages. The floods caused loss of life; extensive damage to 17000 structures (both public and private assets), environment, crops, and displaced thousands of people. Animal diseases like the contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP), caused the eradication of 30000 cattle at the cost of 270 million Pula (Botswana Country Report, 2004). In addition, the humanitarian response costs government and donor agencies thousands of Pula’s but the relief exercise does not reduce the vulnerability of the affected groups (Victoria, 2008). Other costs including relief and damages of current and past disaster events have not been found in the records. Table I show disaster risk for floods in Botswana from 1980-2000 (http://www.undp.org):

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Table I: Botswana flood risks Average number of events per year

Number of people killed per year

Event per year

Killed per year

0.14

1.48

Average number of people killed per million Killed per million 1.07

Average physical exposure per year

Physical Relative exposure in vulnerability % of population

People per year

percentage

21,187

1.54

Density of GDP per population capita PPP living in watershed exposed to floods

Killed per Inhab per k million exposed 69.67 4.24 4734

In 2006, Botswana floods damaged roads, railway lines, killed four in Ramotswa and negatively affected the vulnerable people living along the Ngotwane River (Botswana Red Cross Society Report, 2006). While others lost shelter and livelihood, there was an outbreak of waterborne disease, increased child mortality rates, and environmental degradation. The 2009 floods affected Kasane, Parakarungu, Satau, Nxamasere, and Sepopa. In Satau a man drowned, 20 families were relocated to higher grounds, tourists had to walk in water to escape to safety, and the village could not be accessed by road because of severe floods (MIDWEEK SUN, 2009). In Kazungula, 38 ploughing fields were affected and 480 people displaced (Monitor, 2009). Floods caused erosion of the top soil, crops and grassing areas for livestock. The soil erosion led to the development of gullies, valleys and waterways that were not part of the environment before. This tends to worsen when floods follow a long period of drought and overgrazing of cattle in communal lands. UNDP (2006) asserts that in Panama, during the rainy season, the rivers rapidly erode local acidic and clay soils used for livestock and subsistence farming. Hu Angang, a Chinese Government spokesperson, is quoted as saying that the most poverty stricken parts of China are often the most vulnerable to changing weather patterns and farmers in those areas are already “feeling the pinch” from floods and droughts (Dailynews No. 114, 2009:2). He further cautioned that environmental degradation caused by drought has already forced 34000 people in China to leave their homes and left thousands with limited drinking water. It has increased disaster risk and incidence which translates into more and more people falling back into poverty. The experience is not unique to China but similar to Botswana where disaster affects individuals, communities and /or farmers 4

without hope of full recovery afterward. The poor are vulnerable to suffering, loss, injury or death during floods and droughts. The vulnerability increases greatly after each event. The increase in vulnerability is not limited to people but also villages and areas becoming more prone to floods in Botswana in 2009 (MIDWEEK SUN, 2009). Desjarlais et al (1995) argue that, as is the case with famine, poverty is a vital ingredient of vulnerability. The poor are the most vulnerable to the effects of disasters because they live in the most precarious environment, possess the most limited resources, and have the least access to health services. Elliot (1994) argues that the environment offers immediate survival assistance such as fuel, access to clean water, sanitation, and securing productive lands but poverty restricts the options people have in terms of resource management. The effects of floods are not limited to individuals, communities, and tourists but also extended to the economy of the country. In Botswana, tourism comes second to diamonds and beef as a foreign income earner. The recent floods caused the closure of a number of lodges, hence a reduction in the number of tourists. According to a media report, the Botswana-Zambia-Namibia-Zimbabwe crossing point at Kazungula was impassable for two days and two lodges were submerged by floods. In the Okavango Delta Trotsky and Sepopa lodges were also submerged and Shakawe lodge finally had to close as well (Monitor, 2009:3). Survivors of disasters are traumatized by impending threats, losses, injuries from incidents and experience different psychological crises. The crisis arises from the loss of property, fear of further harm, subsequent life threatening incidents, and continued threat from impending disasters. It has been established by psychologists that the combination of stress factors predisposes a person to a major life crisis (Morris, 1990: Atkinson et al, 1996). This can be compounded by disaster events suffered by individuals, groups, and communities. As such, responders who only provide food and other items but do not address psychological needs of the affected may do more harm than good. Desjarlais et al (1995) argue that roughly 36 percent of people affected by disasters suffer some form of mental distress. They assert that the lack of satisfaction of basic health needs, such as nutrition and environmental sanitation, cause significant damage to the central nervous system, with impairments in cognition and psychological functioning.

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(b) Disasters and human vulnerability Disasters and human vulnerability are the major cause of suffering amongst the poor people globally. Therefore, social work which addresses poverty, crime, juvenile delinquency, drug and substance abuse and other social ills must address factors that increase poor people vulnerability to disasters (Morales and Sheafor, 1995). Poverty is a major factor that makes people more vulnerable to disasters because of limited economic and technological ability to cope (Rwomire and Raditlhokwa, 1996). Keoreng (2009) argues that the incidence of poverty is still high among half of female-headed household in Botswana. Konopo (2006/7) shows that 47 percent of the population lives below poverty line of one US dollar per day. Ditshwanelo (2005) asserts that by September 2000 the income value of the poverty datum line basket of goods was about P120 per month and by 1993/94, 30 percent of the population lived in extreme poverty. Desjarlais et al (1995) argue that while urban poverty is growing, the rural poor still account for over 80 percent of the total number of poor people in the world. The groups most vulnerable to rural poverty are smallholder farmers, the landless, nomadic pastoralists, ethnic populations, small scale fishermen, displaced and refugee populations, and households headed by women Disasters exacerbate vulnerability of poor communities to various hazardous risks like environmental pollution and water contamination. The structures they build are not durable and resistant to storms and rains, motivation for self development is low, and orientation towards the future is imprecise. Chamber et al (1989) argue that vulnerability refers to exposure of poor people to contingencies and stress, and difficulty in coping with them. Vulnerability thus has two sides: external risk, shocks and stress to which an individual or household is subject, and an internal defenselessness or a lack of means to cope. Vulnerability is about understanding how a person manages during a shock given the resources and capital to cope. Desjarlais et al (1995) asserts that the rural poor face problems of reduced access to fuel, weak infrastructure, seasonal unemployment, lack of education and training, and isolation. They are vulnerable to exploitation, disease, natural calamities, drought, acute regional food shortage, and famine. International Federation Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC, 2000) identified seven factors that make a population vulnerable. These are poverty, increased population density, rapid urbanization, changes in a way of life, environmental degradation, lack of awareness and information, and war and civil strife. These are hazards not disasters, but are harmful natural or man-made events that pose a serious threat to human life and progress (Victoria, 2008). Desjarlais et al (1995) argue that the poor lack productive assets and suffer from physical weakness and 6

illness, population pressure, and powerlessness (poor people like poor countries, almost always stay poor). In Botswana, the rate of poverty has fallen from 47% in 1994, to as far as 30%, according to a 2008 OECD country review (BIDPA, 2005). The greatest challenge is not relief (in terms of providing tents, food, and evacuation), but reconstruction and rehabilitation of affected structures. These measures are necessary to reduce individual and communities’ vulnerability to future disasters. In addition, how the losses are remediated either by government or donors enables (or disables) communities to build resilience to disasters (UNDP, 2006). International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (2007) asserts that before a disaster strikes minorities are often already vulnerable in terms of their struggle for political, social, cultural, and economic rights. The occurrence of disasters escalates the level of suffering and increases a sense of individual helplessness within the community. Guo Qisheng et al (1999) argue that every disaster causes great losses to the country and people’s lives and possessions. Thus one cannot underestimate the negative impact on a country’s economy and its sustainable development. A big disaster has a severe influence on whole national economies, and even more direct and severe influence on the area where it occurred. Turner (1995) argues that disasters by nature involve a magnitude of impact and a large number of victims and survivors. Therefore, response to this unique order of magnitude is in itself an element of interventions and research. 2. The current role of social work in disaster risk reduction (a) Role of social workers in disaster management The current role of social workers serving in the local government structures in Botswana is limited to assisting as temporary destitute those affected by natural disasters (drought, earthquake, floods, windstorms, lightening, fire, ill health, death of a breadwinner, and any other emergency or natural disaster) (Revised National Policy on Destitute Persons, 2002). The assistance is in the form of food rations and cash packages is between P550 – P700 depending on the locality per month. This includes a cash amount of P81 for personal items. Besides the rehabilitation of the adult destitute person, the policy is quiet about disaster risk and hazard management. The provisions are relief oriented rather than preventive, mitigation, and / or preparedness. It implies that the role of social workers is more visible during disasters and wanes immediately the emergency period is over. The relief does not assist the beneficiaries to recover from the effects but leaves the survivors more vulnerable to similar hazard. The skill development component of the policy for low income groups is a positive move 7

towards improving livelihoods but is selective and not considerate for disaster hazards (Revised Destitute Policy, 2002). The home economics unit, in local authorities which works to equip families with practical skills in home management and child care in order to improve living standards and quality of life, must target the entire community for improving family livelihoods (Directorate of Public Service Management, 2000). In addition, the Directorate of Public Service Management (DPSM)(2000, 10) objective is to “mobilize individual, families and communities to carry out projects and programmes directed toward improving quality of life and contributing to national development”. It is paramount to recognize that disaster risk reduction at individual and community level is a key to improving the livelihoods of families, as beneficiaries. Therefore, social workers who focus on livelihood improvement but do not play a role in disaster risk reduction and building of community resilience towards disasters are fighting a losing battle. The destructive nature of disasters has a tendency to increase the number of beneficiaries of safety net programmes like destitute support. Each time there is a disaster, the numbers of people who receive assistance increases and a few are able to recover. World Conference for Disaster Reduction (WCFDR, 2005) asserts that the poverty gap is accentuated by natural disasters. Thus, it is important to determine potential hazards and risk management approaches when designing poverty reduction strategies. Morales and Sheafor (1995) identified disasters and disaster aid as an arena for social work practice. The founder of the crisis response organization Eye of the Storm, states that while the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics mandates that social workers deliver appropriate professional services in public emergencies, too many are unprepared. Nevertheless, this does not deter helping professionals from overcrowding crisis scenes only to impede or paralyze relief efforts, creating a situation Mitchell describes as “helpers helping helpers rather than victims” (Robb, 2003). As change agents, social workers should have knowledge and skills to assist individuals and families to identify hazards and implement mitigation measures to cushion against the impact. According to WCFDR (2005) the United Nations declared the 1990’s as the international decade for natural disaster reduction and in 1994 adopted the Yokohama strategy and plan of action for a safer world. The UN further resolved that all governments, Botswana included, should give more resources to preventing and reducing risk based on the five UN priorities for action. So the role of social work should be to:

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 Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation

Formatted: Normal, Left, No bullets or numbering

 Identify, assess, and monitor disaster risks and enhance community and individual early warning systems  Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at community and individual levels  Reducing the underlying risk factors and  Strengthen district disaster preparedness for effective response (b) The basis of community social work and disaster risk reduction Social work is defined by Payne (1996:28) “ as an art, a science, a profession that helps people to solve personal, group (especially family), and community problems and to attain satisfying personal, group, and community relationship through social work practice, including case work, group work, community organization, administration and research”. Victoria (2008:271) defines community as a group of individuals and households living in the same location and having the same hazard exposure, and who can share the same objectives and goals in disaster risk reduction. As such, this group of individuals and households working with the social worker can systematically address disaster risk management issues. The purpose is to guarantee sustainable development of communities through hazard and risk management compatible with social work practice. Community development in Botswana from (its origins) focused on mass education, mass literacy, and general social work. Social work was focused on rehabilitative case –work, investigating individual cases of indigence or other forms of hardship such as physical handicaps or recreational youth activities (Hedenquist, 1992). Current community development practices emphasizes three objectives which are: (i) to mobilize communities towards self help projects thereby promoting the national principles of self reliance; (ii) to assist communities through village development committees by funding their development projects through, for example, LG 1109 and European Union, and (iii) to educate communities on social services and assist them to identify and prioritize their needs (DPSM, 2000). 9

approach which seeks to appreciate and promote local initiatives in development. Victoria (2008) argues that the top-down approach in Asia and world over fails to address local needs, ignores the potential of indigenous resources and capacities, and may even increase people’s vulnerability. Elliot (1994) argues that outside intervention have to build on Africa’s internal dynamics and institutions that already serve the continent’s people. It has been realized that dependency on external players does not build resilience of communities but rather increases vulnerability. Local people know the hazards they are prone to, areas of high risk, and have knowledge on what has to be done. However, they might need technical assistance to plan and use locally available resources to mitigate against disasters (Hutton, 1992). This is where social workers knowledgeable in disaster risk reduction are volatile to communities. Victoria (2008) states that a disaster risk reduction framework aims at:  Reducing vulnerability and increasing capacities of vulnerable groups and communities to cope with, prevent or minimize loss and damage to life, property and the environment  Minimizing human suffering, and  Hastening recovery. Through Community Based Disaster Management, social workers will transform vulnerable groups and communities to disaster resilient communities. Key indicators are increases in safety, livelihood, security and sustainable economic, social and physical development. This result from shifts of paradigms from reactive emergency management (relief) to disaster risk reduction that emphasizes proactive pre-disaster interventions which are, as previously stated (Twigg et al, 2000: IFRC, 2008). The integration of disaster risk management in community development by social workers will develop locally appropriate strategies by Social workers to mitigate the impact of disasters and reduce community vulnerability. The community will reduce vulnerability by identifying and mapping hazard risks, vulnerability to hazards, and strengthening available capacities to cope with th The exercise is possible with the technical assistance of community development social workers equipped with knowledge to identify and map hazards, analyze associated risk, and establish initiatives or preventive measures. The technical knowledge derived from social work education at the University of Botswana, 10

research, and experiences of Social work practitioners should equip them to undertake community disaster problems. They will use their knowledge to build community capacity in many streams of disaster risk reduction. Community capacity building is in symphony with the community based human services approach which focuses on skill sharing and helping community members to develop skills and to use existing skills and wisdom to provide services to others. It is further attested that social workers should provide consultancy for specific problems, disasters, and skills to local community members to deal effectively with particular situations (Tesoriero, 2006). According to Victoria (2008:276), a comprehensive community based disaster management programme must be characterized by the following which community social work must promote:  People’s participation: community members must be the main actors and propellers; they also directly share in the benefits of disaster risk reduction and development.  Priority for the most vulnerable groups, families, and people in the community: in urban areas the vulnerable sectors are generally the urban poor and informal sector while, in rural areas, these are the subsistence farmers, the fisherfolk and indigenous people, the elderly, the differently abled, children, and women (because of their care giving and social function roles).  Risk reduction measures are community specific and are identified after an analysis of the community’s disaster risk (hazards, vulnerabilities and capacities, and perceptions of disaster risks).  Existing capacities and coping mechanisms should be recognized: Community Based Disaster Management builds upon and strengthens existing capacities and coping strategies  The aim is to reduce vulnerabilities by strengthening capacities: the goal is building disaster resilient communities  Disaster risk reduction links with development and addresses vulnerable conditions and causes of vulnerabilities  Outsiders have supporting and facilitating roles Therefore the community social worker must establish mitigation measures to reduce and limit the destructive and disruptive effects of hazards on the elements at risk. The measures should include risk assessment, risk reduction planning, 11

public awareness, food security, and land use zoning. As such, the community must strengthen its preparedness strategies for appropriate and effective actions before, during, and after emergencies. The actions should include setting up early warning systems, coordination and institutional arrangements, evacuation and emergency operation management, public awareness, disaster evacuation drills, and stock piling (Heijman and Victoria, 2001). This has been observed in vulnerable communities in China, Panama, Mozambique, and Malawi among others. China is amongst the most disaster prone countries in the world with poor rural sanitation, and unsafe and unprotected water supplies that present enormous health hazards particularly during flooding (IFRC 2008:2). The situation of the poor in China is compounded by combined forces of disaster, poverty, and threats to health. The China Red Cross Society in 2008 developed a community vulnerability reduction programme for the most flood-prone and flood-affected villages. The aim was to increase communities’ capacity to prepare for disasters by training, awareness of disaster risk, and implementation of mitigation measures promoting resilience to natural disasters (IFRC 2008: 2). The approach worked for China and Cambodia under the administration and supervision of the Red Cross Society. Thus in Botswana, social workers could work with other stakeholders to engage communities to: a) Establish disaster action teams b) Conduct vulnerability community assessments (VCA) to identify hazards, risks, vulnerabilities, and capacities within the community. c) Draw community maps: displaying high, moderate, and low risk areas for community disaster education and awareness program. d) Design a community specific disaster risk reduction educational program e) Design and train Disaster Action Teams and community volunteers for disaster related activities f) Design monitoring and evaluation systems, and g) Develop community related early warning systems (World Disaster Report, 2007) In addition, social workers must work with communities to prepare for disasters which are more prone to their locality. The preparedness must address response, relief, evacuation of people and their property, safety, recovery, and reconstruction of damaged infrastructure (IFRC, 2005).

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(b)

The envisioned role of social work education in disaster risk management

Social work education should assume a central role in facilitating the alleviation of human suffering and poverty. The process must include equipping social workers to undertake disaster risk reduction as enablers, brokers, advocates, educators, and researchers in the field of practice. The roles are well articulated in social work literature but not in relation to disaster risk management (Robb, 2003). If social workers are not professionally equipped with knowledge, techniques, and skills to work with at risk communities they may become ignorant or negligent. Negligence by social workers may seriously jeopardize professional goals of social work. Turner (1995) states that focus in social work research on disasters should relate to their impact, management, and recovery stages. Morales and Sheafor (1995) accept that disasters are problematic but do not state whether social workers require any skills and knowledge to prevent, prepare, and respond. Social work education should embrace community-based disaster approaches to address poverty following the ecological model. Kemp et al (1997: 42) argue that “intervention may be addressed to the person, to the environment, or to the transactions between the two, and is concerned with restoring adaptive balance (the fit between person and environment), reducing stress, enhancing coping, or promoting stability”. It should enhance the growth, development, and adaptive capacities of people by removing environmental obstacles; and increase the responsiveness and nutritive properties of the social and physical environment (Kemp et al, 1997). The environmental obstacles are hazards that pose serious risks to the community. If hazard risks are identified, communities must be assisted by well equipped social workers to design appropriate strategies for prevention, mitigation, and response. Social work education should equip practitioners to implement the United Nations five priorities for action known as the Hyogo Framework of Action 2000-2015 by: a) Integrate risk reduction, as appropriate, into the university social work curriculum b) Promote community participation in disaster risk reduction through the adoption of specific policies, the promotion of networks’, the strategic 13

management of volunteer resources, the attribution of roles and responsibilities, and the delegation and provision of necessary authority and resources c) Develop early warning systems that are people centered, which take into account gender, cultural and livelihood characteristics of the target audience. d) Establish periodic review and maintain information systems as part of early warning with a view to ensuring that rapid and coordinated action is taken in cases of emergency. e) Establish and strengthen the capacity to record, analyze, summarize, disseminate, and exchange statistical information and data on hazard mapping, disaster risks, impacts and losses and support the development of common methodologies for risk assessment and monitoring. f) Promote and improve dialogue and cooperation among scientific communities and practitioners working on disaster risk reduction, and encourage partnerships among stakeholders, including those working on the socioeconomic dimensions of disaster risk reduction (International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, 2005).

© Relevance of social work in disaster management The current role of social workers is limited to assessment of loss of property and provision of food ration. During disasters they assess beneficiaries for temporary relief in line with the destitute policy (Revised National Policy on Destitute Persons, 2002). Thereafter, their actions ignores the aftermaths of reality that the affected may not recover from the impact of disaster for many years. Good and Molutsi (1998) argue that government efforts in the 1970s were based on the recognition that people who relied largely on crop production and livestock rearing were, on the whole, poverty stricken. These are the ones badly affected by different hazards like floods, heavy rains, wildland fires, droughts, and windstorms. Brearley (1982) asserts that social workers must address physical, psychological, and social vulnerability of their clients. The physically vulnerable are at risk of physical injury; the psychologically vulnerable are at risk of emotionally damaging influences; and the socially vulnerable are facing increased 14

risk of social dysfunction that derives from factors like poverty, bad housing, poor educational facilities, unemployment, and a decaying social environment. In turn the survivors become an added burden to the destitute program by increasing the number of beneficiaries when disaster re-occurs. The poor become vulnerable to loss of shelter, increased cost of living, unstable economic base, and emotional distress (Germain and Gitterman, 1995). If the reactive approach to disasters continues, it should be expected that the numbers of destitute persons will increase with the recurrence of floods and other hazards. It is therefore crucial that disaster risk reduction should be mainstreamed into policies that seek to reduce poverty or destitution. The question is whether social workers are technically equipped to conduct disaster related assessments and training or they are ignorant of the expectations? In the event that social workers are ignorant on how they are expected to function; there will be need to build their capacity through training, and acquisition of appropriate knowledge and skills (Twigg, 2007). Social works positive contribution to risk reduction strategy will strengthen Botswana’s commitment to the millennium development goals of poverty reduction by 2015. The millennium development goals are in harmony with the Botswana national vision 2016 that envisions a healthy and a secure nation by the year 2016 (Presidential Task Group, 1997). Millennium goal 1 Eradicating poverty; goal 4 Reducing child mortality; goal 6 Combating HIV/AIDs, malaria and other diseases; and goal 7 Ensuring environmental sustainability are critical to risk reduction and social work professional practice (www.un.org/millenniumgoals, 2/9/2009). Social workers involved in community development and individual or group work are better placed to address disaster risk reduction at that level. They are confronted and respond daily to situations that contribute to human vulnerability like poverty and increased population density. As such, it is fundamental for social workers to have knowledge, techniques, and skills in disaster risk reduction in addition to community mobilization (UN, 2009). These will enable social workers to interact effectively with communities in hazard identification, mapping and determining strategies for risk reduction. The purpose of social work, through its very definition as a profession is premised in the context of risk reduction.

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Conclusion It has been established that social work and disaster risk reduction cannot be divorced one from the other. Social work seeks to promote the good of vulnerable communities, groups, and individuals who are vulnerable to poverty and disasters. Therefore, to keep social workers ignorant on how to map hazards and risks in communities will render the profession irrelevant in its bid to build effective and efficient communities globally. Disasters, loss of lives, cost of damages, and vulnerability have been increasing every ten years and are expected to replicate due to climate change or variation in the coming years. There is need for strategies and incorporation of risk reduction in all developmental work for sustainability and community resilience. The essay identified ways by which communities and social work education could be improved to address the challenges. Lessons must be drawn from nations that have suffered from massive disasters and social workers could not provide services because of unpreparedness or ignorance. It must not be assumed that situations will take care of themselves but a deliberate effort must be made to change the status quo of being reactive but proactive.

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