Diktat Teori Dan Apresiasi Sastra

1

BAB I PENDAHULUAN

A. DEFINISI TENTANG SASTRA

Apakah Apakah sastra sastra itu? itu? Menga Mengapa pa sastra sastra itu ada? ada? Dari Dari mana mana muncul munculny nyaa kesusasa kesusasastra straan? an? Untuk apa kita mempelaja mempelajari ri sastra? sastra? Untuk apa teori-teo teori-teori ri sastra sastra dipelaja dipelajari? ri? Tentunya Tentunya cukup banyak usaha usaha yang dilakukan sepanjang sepanjang masa untuk memberi batasan yang tegas atau pertanyaan itu, dari berbagai  pihak dan dengan pendekatan yang berbeda-beda. Tetapi, batasan manapun jua yang yang pern pernah ah dibe diberi rika kan n oleh oleh ilmu ilmuwa wan n tern ternya yata ta dise disera rang ng,, dite ditent ntan ang, g, dan dan disangsik disangsikan an atau terbukti terbukti tidak kesampaia kesampaian.kar n.karena ena hanya menekanka menekankan n satu atau beberapa aspek saja, atau ternyata hanya berlaku untuk sastra tertentu. Atau yang sebalikny sebaliknyaa terjadi, terjadi, adakalany adakalanyaa batasan batasan ternyata ternyata terlalu terlalu luas dan longgar, sehingga melingkupi banyak hal yang jelas bukan sastra. Masalahnya: secara intuisi sedikit banyaknya tahu segala apakah yang hendak disebut sastra, tetapi begitu kita mencoba membatasinya segala itu luput dari tangkapan kita. Memang seringkali secara umum dapat dilakukan bahwa definisi sebuah gejala gejala dapat dapat kita kita dekati dekati dari dari namany namanya. a. Sudah Sudah tentu tentu defini definisi si semaca semacam m itu  biasanya tidak sempurna, harus diperhalus atau diperketat kalau gejala tersebut mau dibicarakan secara ilmiah, meskipun begitu manfaat tinjauan dari segi  pemakaian bahasa sehari-hari sebagai titik tolak. Seringkali cukup baik. Dalam

 TEORI DAN APRESIASI SASTRA

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2

  bah bahas asaa-ba baha hasa sa Bara Barat, t, geja gejala la yang yang ingi ingin n kita kita peri perika kan n dan dan bata batasi si dise disebu butt literature (Inggris), literature (Jerman), litterature (Perancis (Perancis), ), semuany semuanyaa  berasal dari bahasa Latin  Litteratura.  Litteratura. Kata  Litteratura sebetulnya diciptakan sebagai terjemahan dari kata Yunani grammatika; literatura dan grammatical  dan  grammatical  masing-ma masing-masing sing berdasark berdasarkan an kata littera dan  gramma yang berarti “huruf” “huruf” (tulisan, letter ). ). Menurut asalnya  Litteratura dipakai untuk tata bahasa dan  puisi; literature dan seterusnya, umumnya berarti dalam bahasa Barat Modern: segala sesuatu yang tertulis, pemakaian bahasa dalam bentuk tulis. Sebagai bahan banding, kata sastra dalam bahasa Indonesia berasal dari  sas-, dal   bah bahas asaa Sans Sansek eker erta ta;; akar akar kata kata  sas-, dalam kat kata kerj kerjaa tur turunan unan bera berart rtii ‘menga ‘mengarah rahkan kan,, mengaj mengajar, ar, member memberii petunj petunjuk uk atau atau instru instruksi ksi’. ’. Akhira Akhiran n – tra tra   biasanya biasanya menunjukk menunjukkan an alat, alat, sarana. sarana. Maka, Maka,  sastra dapat dapat berarti berarti ‘alat untuk   su- berarti mengajar, buku petunjuk, buku instruksi atau pengajaran’. Awalan  su‘baik,

indah’

perlu

dikenakan

kepada

karya-karya

sastra

untuk 

memb membed edak akan anny nyaa dari dari bent bentuk uk pema pemaka kaia ian n baha bahasa sa lain lainny nya. a. Kata Kata  susastra nampaknya tidak terdapat dalam bahasa Sansekerta dan Jawa Kuno (Gonda 1952; Zoetmulder 1982), jadi susastra jadi susastra adalah ciptaan Jawa dan/atau Melayu. Pandangan-pandangan ini didasarkan pada suatu anggapan bahwa ciri

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3

 bahasa yang indah dan berbunga-bunga. Foucalt menyebutkan bahwa sastra modern lahir dan bertumbuh di dalam kemapanan bahasa dan kungkungan  pola-pola linguistik yang kaku. Oleh karena itu, sastra modern berlomba-lomba mentransgresikan dirinya pada suatu ruang abnormal. Sastra modern justru menawarkan suatu dunia dan bahasa yang aneh dalam kesadaran masyarakat. Benarlah bahwa definisi mengenai ‘sastra’ dan upaya merumuskan ‘ciri khas sastra” sudah banyak dilakukan orang, tetapi sampai sekarang agaknya   bel belum um

memu memuas aska kan n

semu semuaa

kala kalang ngan an..

Luxe Luxemb mbur urg, g,

et

al

(198 (1986: 6:33-13 13))

menyebutkan alasan mengapa definisi-definisi mengenai sastra tidak pernah memuaskan. Alasan-alasan itu adalah: 1) orang ingin mendefinisikan terlalu  banyak sekaligus tanpa membedakan definisi deskriptif (yang menerangkan apak apakah ah sast sastra ra itu) itu) dari dari defi defini nisi si eval evalua uati tiff (yan (yang g meni menila laii suat suatu u teks teks yang yang termasuk sastra atau tidak); 2) sering orang mencari sebuah definisi ontologi yang normatif mengenai sastra yakni definisi yang mengungkapkan hakikat sebuah sebuah karya karya sastr sastra. a. Defini Definisi si semaca semacam m ini cende cenderun rung g mengab mengabaik aikan an fakta fakta  bahwa karya tertentu bagi sebagian orang merupakan sastra, tetapi bagi orang yang lain bukan sastra; 3) orang cenderung mendefinisikan sastra menurut standar sastra sastra Barat, dan 4) definisi yang yang cukup memuaskan memuaskan hanya berkaitan

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4

Luxemburg, et al (1986) mengatakan bahwa bukanlah hal yang mudah dapat dapat dilaku dilakukan kan dalam dalam member memberii defini definisi si sastra sastra secar secaraa univer universal sal.. Sastr Sastraa   bukanlah sebuah benda yang kita jumpai, tetapi sastra adalah sebuah nama yang dengan alasan tertentu diberikan kepada sejumlah hasil tertentu dalam suatu lingkungan kebudayaan. 1. Sastra Sastra dihubun dihubungka gkan n dengan dengan teks-te teks-teks ks yang tidak melulu melulu disusun disusun atau atau dipa dipaka kaii untu untuk k suat suatu u tuju tujuan an komu komuni nika kati tiff yang yang prak prakti tiss dan dan hany hanyaa  berlangsung untuk sementara waktu saja. 2. Dala Dalam m sast sastra ra baha bahann nnya ya diol diolah ah seca secara ra isti istime mewa wa.. Berl Berlak aku u bagi bagi puis puisii maupun prosa. 3. Sebu Sebuah ah kary karyaa sast sastra ra dapa dapatt kita kita baa baa menu menuru rutt taha tahapp-ta taha hap p arti arti yang yang  berbeda-beda. 4. KaryaKarya-kar karya ya yang yang bersif bersifat at biogra biografi, fi, atau atau karya karya-ka -kary ryaa yang yang menon menonjol jol karena bentuk dan gayanya juga seringkali digolongkan sastra. Lebih lanjut, lanjut, Luxemburg Luxemburg juga mengemuka mengemukakan kan pandangann pandangannya ya dalam dalam menilai sastra itu sendiri, yakni 1.

Karena sifat rekaannya, sastra secara langsung tidak  mengat mengataka akan n sesuat sesuatu u menge mengenai nai kenya kenyataa taan n dan juga juga

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5

memperhatikan dunia-dunia lain, kenyataan-kenyataan yang hanya hanya hidup dalam angan-angan, angan-angan, sistem-si sistem-sistem stem nila nilaii yang ang tida tidak k dike dikena nall atau atau bahk bahkan an yang yang tida tidak  k  dihargai. 2.

Sambil me membaca ka karya sa sastra, ki kita da dapat me mengadakan identifikasi dengan seorang tokoh, dengan orang-orang lain.

3.

Bahasa sas sastra dan dan pen pengolahan bah bahannya lew lewat sas sastra dapat

membuka

batin

kita

bagi

pengalaman-

 pengalaman baru atau mengajak kita untuk mengatur   pengalaman tersebut dengan suatu cara baru. 4.

Sastra

merupakan

sebuah

sarana

yang

sering

dipergunak dipergunakan an untuk mencetusk mencetuskan an pendapat-p pendapat-pendap endapat at yang yang hidup hidup dalam dalam masya masyarak rakat at kita kita atau atau lingku lingkunga ngan n kebudayaan kita. Hal ini tidak berarti bahwa pendapat pendapat tersebut selalu bermutu. B. PENGERTIAN DAN RUANG LINGKUP TEORI SASTRA

Secara Secara umum, umum, yang yang dimaks dimaksud ud teori teori adalah adalah suatu suatu siste sistem m ilmu ilmu atau atau

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6

untuk suatu objek ilmu pengetahuan dari suatu titik pandang tertentu. Suatu teori dapat dideduksi secara logis dan dicek kebenarannya dan diverifikasi atau dibant dibantah ah kesahi kesahihan hannya nya (diver (diversif sifika ikasi) si) pada pada objek objek atau atau gejal gejala-g a-geja ejala la yang yang diamati tersebut. Pertama-tama yang diperlukan adalah bahwa istilah yang tepat untuk  menyebut teori sastra, baik bahasa Indonesia atau Inggris, belum ditemukan. Akibat Akibatnya nya defini definisi si mengen mengenai ai hakika hakikat, t, fungsi fungsi dan teori teori sastr sastraa tidak tidak mudah mudah dirumu dirumuska skan. n. Bahkan Bahkan istil istilahah-is istil tilah ah yang yang diguna digunakan kan utnuk utnuk menyeb menyebutk utkan an konsep-konsep yang paling mendasar pun berbeda-beda. Antara teori dan ilmu sastr sastraa belum belum ada pembat pembatasa asan n yang yang jelas. jelas. Demiki Demikianl anlah ah pergel pergeluta utan n sastra sastra menjadi ilmu menjadi hambatan-hambatan yang cukup banyak. Juga dalam hal konsep-konsep keilmuannya (Kuntara Wiryamartana, 1992) Menuru Menurutt Wellek Wellek dan Warren Warren (1993) (1993),, sastra sastra adalah adalah suatu suatu kegia kegiatan tan kreati kreatif, f, sedere sederetan tan karya karya seni. seni. Sedang Sedangkan kan teori teori sastra sastra adala adalah h studi studi prinsi prinsip, p, kategori, dan kriteria yang dapat diacu dan dijadikan titik tolak dalam telaah di  bidang sastra. Sedangkan studi terhadap karya sastra disebut kritik sastra dan sejarah sastra. sastra. Ketiga bidang ilmu ilmu tersebut saling mempengaruhi mempengaruhi dan berkaitan secar secaraa erat. erat. Teori Teori sastra sastra hanya hanya dapat dapat disusu disusun n berdas berdasark arkan an studi studi langsu langsung ng

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7

  pul pula, a, teor teorii sast sastra ra buka bukan n hany hanyaa seka sekada darr alat alat bant bantu u untu untuk k mend menduk ukun ung g   pemah pemahama aman n dan apresi apresiasi asi perora peroranga ngan n terhad terhadap ap karya karya sastr sastraa (karen (karenaa ini  bukanlah tujuan sebuah ilmu sistematis). Teori sastra justru diperlukan untuk  mengembangkan ilmu sastra itu sendiri. Luxemb Luxemburg urg,, et.al et.al (1986) (1986) menggu menggunak nakan an istila istilah h ilmu ilmu sastra sastra dengan dengan   pengertian yang mirip dengan teori sastra Wellek dan Warren. Ilmu sastra adalah ilmu yang mempelajari teks-teks sastra secara sistematis sesuai dengan fung fungsi siny nyaa di dala dalam m masy masyar arak akat at.. Tuga Tugass ilmu ilmu sast sastra ra adal adalah ah mene meneli liti ti dan dan merumuskan sastra (sifat-sifat atau ciri-ciri khas kesastraan daan fungsi sastra dalam masyarakat) masyarakat) secara secara umum dan sistemat sistematis. is. Teori sastra merumuska merumuskan n kaidah-kaidah atau konvensi-konvensi kesusastraan umum. Menu Menuru rutt

Lefe Lefeve vere re

(199 (1997) 7),,

sast sastra ra

adal adalah ah desk deskri rips psii

peng pengal alam aman an

kemanu kemanusia siaan an yang yang memili memiliki ki dimens dimensii person personal al dan sosial sosial sekal sekaligu iguss serta serta  pengetahuan kemanusiaan yang sejajar dengan bentuk hidup itu sendiri. Sastra

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8

observasi, kita ikut terlibat secara aktif dan perhatian kita dapat kita arahkan kepada aspek-aspek tertentu yang menarik perhatian kita.

C. HAKIKAT DAN STRATEGI PENGEMBANGAN TEORI SASTRA

Abrams dalam bukunya The Mirror and The Lamp: Romantic Theory and  Critical Tradition membandingkan model-model teori sastra sepanjang masa dan menyimpulkan bahwa teori-teori itu sangat beeraneka ragam dan terkadang mengacaukan. Untuk dapat mempelajarinya dalam kerangka yang lebih lebih siste sistemat matis is,, Abrams Abrams mengus mengusulk ulkan an perlun perlunya ya mempe memperha rhatik tikan an ‘situa ‘situasi si keselu keseluruh ruhan an karya karya sastr sastra’ a’ sebaga sebagaii patoka patokan n untuk untuk membed membedaka akan n orient orientasi asi  berbagai teori pendekatan sastra. Ditinjau dari sudut situasi karya sastra itu, Abrams memberikan sebuah bagan sederhana, namun cukup efektif sebagai  berikut.

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9

Dalam bagan tersebut, terlihat adanya empat komponen utama, yakni: real realit itas as,, kary karyaa sast sastra ra,, penc pencip ipta ta,, dan dan pemb pembac aca. a. Abra Abrams ms memb membua uatt empa empatt klasifikasi atau pendekatan utama terhadap karya sastra berdasarkan empat aspek karya sastra tersebut. Keempat pendekatan itu adalah : 1) pendekatan objekt objektif if (yang (yang teruta terutama ma memper memperhat hatik ikan an aspek aspek karya karya sastra sastra itu sendir sendiri; i; 2)   pendekatan ekspresif (yang menitikberatkan aspek pengarang atau pencipta karya sastra); 3) pendekatan mimetik (yang mengutamakan aspek semesta); dan pendekatan pragmatik (yakni mengutamakan aspek pembaca). Gambaran singkat ini menunjukkan konsep pemikiran teori sastra dari sisi lain. Dari pencipta yang mula-mula dipandang ‘memiliki gaung jiwa yang agung’ (Wimmsatt & Beardsley, 1987:106) kemudian disingkirkan mengenai keti ketida dakm kmam ampu puan an baha bahasa sa sast sastra ra dala dalam m meny menyaj ajik ikan an impi impian an dan dan hara harapa pan, n,   pen penga gala lama man n dan dan keke kekece cewa waan an manu manusi sia. a. Orie Orient ntas asii lalu lalu berg berger erak ak ke arah arah

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10

didasarkan pandangan Lefevere (1977) dan Jauss. 1. Dalam lam sas sastra tra haru haruss menggu ngguna nak kan pros prosed edur ur dan kons konsep ep-k -kon onssep repertoir. Repertoir-repertoir sastra berfungsi mengidentifikasi gejalageja gejala la sast sastra ra,, peru peruba baha han n dan dan perg perges eser eran an core (int (inti, i, pusa pusat) t),, dan dan  periphery (pingg (pinggira iran). n). Juga Juga bersif bersifat at  polyssystem  —flek —fleksib sibel el yang yang menunjukkan pusat tertentu yang dapat berubah-ubah. 2. Sast Sastra ra tida tidak k dapa dapatt digo digolo long ngka kan n seba sebaga gaii masa masala lah h ilmi ilmiah ah yang yang dapa dapatt ditafsirk ditafsirkan an secara secara tepat atau secara secara tertutup; tertutup; sastra sastra adalah adalah deskripsi deskripsi  pengalaman dan pengetahuan kemanusiaan dalam cita rasa (taste ( taste)) seni. 3. Teori sastr sastraa dapat mengem mengembanga bangakan kan disipli disiplinnya nnya dengan dengan reperto repertoir ir sastra sastra yang menunjukkan kontinuitas dan konteks genetik kultural. 4. Makn Maknaa sebu sebuah ah kary karyaa sast sastra ra bers bersif ifat at hipo hipote tesi siss bers bersam ama, a, jadi jadi perl perlu u menghindari subjektivitas. Berdasarkan penjelasan di atas, dapat disimpulkan bahwa wilayah teori

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11

releva relevansi nsinya nya sebaga sebagaii pemicu pemicu prose prosess pengem pengemban bangan gan citara citarasa sa sastr sastra, a, yang yang semakin cemerlang.

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12

BAB II KARYA SASTRA DAN SISTEM SASTRA

A. BAHASA SASTRA SEBAGAI BAHASA KHAS

Pada Bab sebelumnya, agak sulit untuk menemukan definisi yang jelas mengenai istilah sastra. Hal ini disebabkan oleh banyaknya pandangan yang  beragam tentang istilah sastra. Oleh karena itu, dalam pembahasan kali ini, Wellek dan Warren menawarkan cara yang paling mudah untuk memecahkan masalah ini adalah penggunaan bahasa yang khas sastra.

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13

kelamin dalam tata bahasa). Bahasa sastra juga memiliki fungsi ekspresif yang menunjukkan nada (tone (tone)) dan sikap pembicara atau penulisnya. Bahasa sastra   berus berusaha aha mempen mempengar garuhi uhi,, membuj membujuk uk dan pada pada akhirn akhirnya ya mengub mengubah ah sikap sikap   pembaca, yang dipentingkan dalam bahasa sastra adalah tanda, simbolisme suara dari kata-kata. Berbagai macam teknik untuk menarik perhatian pembaca kepada kata-kata dalam karya sastra. Bahasa sastra memiliki segi ekspresif dan  pragmatis yang dihindari sejauh mungkin oleh bahasa ilmiah. Kedua, Kedua, membed membedak akan an bahas bahasaa sastra sastra dan bahas bahasaa sehari sehari-ha -hari. ri. Hal ini sangat sulit dilakukan, dikarenakan bahasa sehari-hari bukanlah konsep yang seragam. seragam. Lagipula, Lagipula, ciri bahasa bahasa sastra sastra yang memiliki memiliki fungsi fungsi ekspresif ekspresif juga

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14

dan secara sistematik disusun dalam sistem retorika yang amat luas dan halus. Retorika seringkali menjadi sistem normatif atau preskriptif, yaitu menentukan norma-norma yang harus diterapkan dalam pemakaian bahasa yang baik dan indah. B. BAHASA SEBAGAI SISTEM SEMIOTIK PRIMER 

Dikatakan bahwa bahasa sastra adalah bahasa yang khas; paling sering digunakan dalam puisi yang hanya dimanfaatkan sang penyair atau penulis semata. Seorang pencipta atau pembaca karya sastra tidak mencipta atau pun menanggapinya dalam situasi vakum, kehampaan mutlak. Mereka terikat oleh

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15

konseptua konseptuall yang sukar sekali sekali dihindari dihindari,, sebab sebab perlengkap perlengkapan an itu merupakan merupakan dasar dasar pemahaman pemahaman dunia nyata nyata dan sekaligu sekaliguss merupakan merupakan dasar komunikas komunikasii antara anggota masyarakat yang terpenting. Sebuah bahasa memiliki sistem kemaknaan yang bersifat lincah, luwes, longgar, malahan licin dan licik dan penuh dinamika sehingga memberi segala kemung kemungkin kinan an untuk untuk pemanf pemanfaat aatan an yang yang kreati kreatiff dan orisin orisinal, al, juga juga dari dari segi segi konsep konseptu tual. al. Jadi, Jadi, kita kita semua semua mempu mempunya nyaii siste sistem m bahas bahasaa yang yang antara antara lain lain merupakan merupakan sistem sistem kemaknaan kemaknaan yang yang berbeda-be berbeda-beda da menurut menurut menurut menurut bahasa bahasa yang kita pakai sebagai anggota sebuah masyarakat tertentu. Contohnya, kita tahu tahu bahw bahwaa seca secara ra fisi fisik k spek spektr trum um warna arna meru merupa paka kan n kont kontin inum um

tida tidak  k 

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16

ein prim primar ares es oleh oleh pene peneli liti ti Rusi Rusiaa Lotm Lotman an (197 (1972) 2),, baha bahasa sa dise disebu butn tnya ya ein modellbildendes sistem, sistem tanda yang secara primer membentuk model duni duniaa baag baagii pema pemaka kain inya ya;; mode modell itul itulah ah pada pada prin prinsi sipn pnya ya mewu mewuju judk dkan an  perlengkapan konseptual manusia untuk penafsiran segala sesuatunya di dalam dan di luar dirinya. Sistem inilah yang tersedia untuk dan sekaligus mengikat   juga seorang sastrawan dan penikmat sastra. Lotman juga menyebut sastra sebagai ein sekundares modellbildendes sistem, sistem tanda sekunder yang membentuk model, yaitu yang tergantung pada sistem primer yang diadakan oleh oleh baha bahasa sa dan dan yang yang hany hanyaa dapa dapatt dipa dipaha hami mi dala dalam m hubu hubung ngan anny nyaa dan dan seringkali dalam pertentangannya dengan sistem bahasa (Teeuw, 1984).

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17

malahan tidak boleh dipatuhi secara mutlak. Dalam batas tertentu (yang mung mungki kin n berb berbed edaa keta ketatt long longga garn rnya ya untu untuk k sast sastra ra yang yang berl berlai aina nan) n)  penyimpangan dari aturan termasuk sistem itu sendiri; tanpa variasi dan kebeba kebebasan san untuk untuk menyi menyimpa mpang, ng, sastr sastraa sebaga sebagaii cipta ciptaan an kreati kreatiff tidak  tidak  mung mungki kin n ada. ada. Kete Ketega gang ngan an anta antara ra norm normaa sast sastra ra yang yang kole kolekt ktif if dan dan

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18

BAB III KARYA SASTRA DAN KENYATAAN

A. TEORI TENTANG MIMESIS

Dalam Bab ini akan dibahas mengenai hubungan antara karya sastra dan

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19

empiri empirik k tidak tidak mewaki mewakili li kenya kenyataa taan n yang yang sunggu sungguh-s h-sung ungguh guh,, hanya hanya dapat dapat mend mendek ekat atin inya ya lewa lewatt mime mimesi sis, s, pene penela lada dana nan n atau atau pemb pembay ayan anga gan n atau ataupu pun n  peniruan (sebab terjemahan kata mimesis tidak mudah) (Luxemburg, et al : 1986). Jadi Jadi,,

bagi agi

Plato ato,

mime mimessis

terik erikaat

pad pada

ide ide pend pendeekata katan n,

tid tidak 

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20

menciptkan kembali kenyataan. Berdasarkan pendapatnya tersebut, Aristoteles tidak lagi memandang sastra sastra sebagai sebagai copy atau jiplakan jiplakan mengenai mengenai kenyaataan kenyaataan,, melainkan melainkan sebagai sebagai universalia” (konsepsebuah sebuah suatu suatu ungkap ungkapan an atau atau perwuj perwujuda udan n menge mengenai nai “universalia” (konsepkons konsep ep umum umum). ). Jika Jika Plat Plato o meny menyeb ebut utny nyaa duni duniaa Ide, Ide, teta tetapi pi Aris Aristo tote tele less

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21

Teeuw Teeuw (1984) (1984) menge mengemuk mukaka akan n tentan tentang g kedua kedua teori teori terseb tersebut ut,, bahwa bahwa creation, kary menuru menurutt pengan penganut ut teori teori creation, karyaa seni seni adal adalah ah sesu sesuat atu u yang yang pada pada hakika hakikatny tnyaa baru, baru, asli, asli, ciptaa ciptaan n dalam dalam arti arti yang yang sunggu sungguh-s h-sung ungguh guh.. Sastra Sastra heterokosmos, sesuatu yang otonom dianggap sebagai dunia dalam kata atau heterokosmos, (taat (taat pada pada hukum hukum sendir sendiri) i) terha terhadap dap kenya kenyataa taan. n. Sedang Sedangkan kan pengan penganut ut teori teori

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22

lingkungan lingkungan khayalan, khayalan, namun namun tetap ada kaitan-kai kaitan-kaitan tan tertentu tertentu antara antara tokohtokoh-

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23

C. SASTR SASTRA A DAN DAN MASY MASYAR ARAK AKAT AT:: PENE PENELA LADA DANA NAN N DAN DAN SEK SEKAL ALIG IGUS US

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24

warga masyarakat tersebut. ia dihargai atau kurang dihargai oleh para pembaca

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25

BAB IV

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26

langsung menunjang kehadiran teks sastra itu sendiri.

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62

4. Alur

Alur dalam karya fiksi merupakan rangkaian cerita yang dibentuk oleh tahapan-tahapan peristiwa sehingga menjalin suatu cerita yang dihadirkan oleh  para pelaku dalam suatu cerita. Istilah alur sering disebut plot. Lebih lanjut, dengan mengutip pendapat Forster dalam (Tang. 2007)  bahwa untuk memahami alur dengan baik, dibutuhkan intelegensi dan daya ingat/memori (intelligency and memory) yang kuat. Hal ini berdasarkan pada konsep, bahwa dalam sebuah cerita yang bersifat narasi, terdapat kejadian atau fakta yang terorganisir dan bersiifat korespondensi, tetapi ada juga unsur yang  bersifat surprise atau bersifat misteri dalam sebuah alur dan hal ini tetntunya menginginkan sebuah intelegensi yang tinggi. Secara khusus, dengan mengutip pendapat Scholes dalam (Tang : 2007) menjelaskan bahwa terdapat tiga elemen penting dalam sebuah alur, yakni : alur aksi/tindakan, alur karakter, dan alur pikiran. Ketiganya dapat dijelaskan sebagai berikut: a. Alur aksi/tindakan, merupakan prinsip perpaduan (sintesis) yakni perubahan sempurna, berangsur-angsur atau mendadak dalam suatu situasi oleh pelaku utama (protagonist), yang ditentukan atau dipengaruhi oleh karakter dan

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63

dalam karakter moral protagonist, dengan cepat atau lambat dalam tindakan dan ia menunjukkannya dalam dua sisi yaitu dalam pikiran serta perasaan; c. Alur Alur pikira pikiran n merupa merupakan kan sebuah sebuah prose prosess sempur sempurna na dari dari peruba perubahan han dalam dalam  pikiran protagonist sebagai akibat dari perasaannya, yang secara langsung dijelmakan ke dalam tindakan atau karakternya sebagai suatu kebiasaan. Lebih lanjut, Tang (2007) mengemukakan bahwa unsur yang terpenting dalam suatu aluir adalah munculnya konflik dan klimaks dalam cerita narasi tersebut. konflik dalam karya fiksi terdiri atas: 1) konflik internal, pertentangan dua keinginan dalam diri seorang tokoh; 2) konflik sentral, yaitu konflik antara satu satu toko tokoh h deng dengan an toko tokoh h lain lain,, atau atauka kah h konf konfli lik k ant antara ara toko tokoh h deng dengan an lingkungannya; dan 3) konflik sentral, merupakan jenis konflik kecil. Artinya,  bahwa mungkin saja konflik yang terjadi dapat berupa konflik internal ataukah konflik eksternal yang kuat, mungkin pula gabungan dari keduanya. Konflik  sentra sentrall inilah inilah yang yang merupa merupakan kan inti inti dari dari strukt struktur ur cerit cerita, a, dan secara secara umum umum merupakan pusat pertumbuhan alur.

5. Titik Pandang atau point atau point of view 

Titik pandang adalah cara pengarang menampilkan para pelaku dalam cerita yang dipaparkannya. Ada empat titik pandang yang dikemukakan oleh

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64

Narrator omniscient  omniscient  a.   Narrator , adal adalah ah nara narato torr atau atau pela pelaku ku kisa kisah h yang ang juga juga  berfungsi sebagai pelaku cerita. Dalam hal ini dia mampu memaparkan sejumlah peran pelaku tentang apa yang ada dalam benak pelaku uatama maupun pelaku lainnya, baik secara fisik maupun psikologis; pengarang sering menyebut dirinya dengan aku, saya, nama pengarang sendiri;  b.   Narrator Narrator observer  observer  , adal adalah ah bila bila peng pengis isah ah hany hanyaa berf berfun ungs gsii seba sebaga gaii   pengamat terhadap pemunculan para pelaku serta hanya tahu dalam   bat batas as tert terten entu tu tent tentan ang g peri perila laku ku bati batini niah ah para para pela pelaku ku;; peng pengar aran ang g menyebutkan nama pelakunya dengan ia, dia, nama-nama lain, lain , dan mereka. mereka. c.   Narrat Narrator or observe observerr omnisc omniscien ient  ,t  iala ialah h mesk meskip ipun un peng pengar aran ang g hany hanyaa menjadi pengamat dari pelaku, juga merupakan pengisah atau penutur  yang serba tahu, meskipun menyebut nama pelaku dengan is, mereka, dan dia. Hal ini mungkin saja terjadi karena pengarang prosa fiksi adalah juga merupakan pencipta dari para pelakunya. d.   Narrator the third person omniscient , ialah pengarang mungkin saja hadir di dalam cerita yang diciptakannya sebagai pelaku ketiga yang serba serba tahu. tahu. Dalam Dalam hal ini, ini, sebaga sebagaii pelaku pelaku ketiga ketiga pengar pengarang ang masih masih

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65

secara berturut-turut menampilkan berbagai pencerita atau pengisah. Perkataan seorang dengan yang lain saling bergantian sehingga keseluruhan penuturan mereka membentuk cerita besarnya. Dalam hal ini kedudukan semua pencerita sederajat. Sehingga tepatlah kalau Luxemburg, et al mengatakan bahwa setiap cerita

mana

pun,

pastilah

ada

penceritanya.

Kadang-kadang

ia

memperkenalkan diri, kadang-kadang kehadirannya harus kita simpulkan saja dari kenyataan bahwa cerita iru diceritakan. Oleh karena itu, dapat disimpulkan   bahwa titik pandang oleh seorang pengarang dapat berganti sesuai dengan  penceritaan yang dikisahkan oleh pengarang itu sendiri.

6. Tema

Scharbach dalam (Aminuddin, (Aminuddin, 2002) menjelaskan menjelaskan tema sebagai sebagai sebuah ide yang mendasari suatu cerita sehingga berperanan juga sebagai pangkal tolak pengarang dalam memaparkan karya fiksi yang diciptakannya. Sebelum melaksanakan proses kreatif penciptaan, seorang pengarang harus memahami tema cerita yang akan dipaparkannya sehingga pembaca mudah memahami tema pada saat membaca atau selesai membacanya. Pradotokusumo (1992) mengemukakan pengertian tema dipandang dari sudut cerita narasi (Novel/cerpen) dalam dua makna, yakni: 1) tema adalah

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66

  pesa pesan n atau atau nilai nilai moral moral yang yang terdap terdapat at secara secara implic implicit it di dalam dalam karya karya seni. seni. Batasan yang kedua ini lebih mengacu pada batasan amanat. Untu Untuk k dapa dapatt mema memaha hami mi tema tema dala dalam m suat suatu u ceri cerita ta seca secara ra muda mudah, h,  pembaca perlu memperhatikan beberapa langkah berikut ini.  setting dalam cerita fiksi yang dibacanya; a. Memahami setting dalam  b. memahami memahami penokoh penokohan an dan perwatakan perwatakan para pelaku; pelaku; c. mema memaha hami mi satu satuan an peri perist stiw iwa, a, poko pokok k piki pikira ran n sert sertaa taha tahapa pan n peri perist stiw iwaa dalam karya fiksi yang dibacanya; d. memahami memahami plot plot atau atau alur alur cerita cerita yang yang dibacany dibacanya; a; e. menghu menghubun bungka gkan n pokokpokok-pok pokok ok pikiran pikiran yang yang satu dengan dengan lainny lainnyaa yang yang disimpulka disimpulkan n dari satuan-sa satuan-satuan tuan peristiwa peristiwa yang terpapar terpapar dalam dalam suatu suatu cerita; f. mene menent ntuk ukan an sikap ikap peny enyair air

terha erhada dap p poko pokokk-po poko kok k

piki pikirran yang

ditampilkannya; g. meng mengid iden enti tifi fika kasi si tuju tujuan an peng pengar aran ang g mema memapa park rkan an ceri cerita tany nyaa deng dengan an  bertolak dari satuan pokok pikiran serta sikap penyair terhadap pokok   pikiran yang ditampilkannya; h. menafs menafsirk irkan an tema tema dalam dalam cerita cerita yang dibaca dibaca serta serta menyim menyimpul pulkan kannya nya

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68

BAB VIII KONSEP APRESIASI PUISI

A. APA APA ITU ITU PUI PUISI SI? ?

Di banyak kalangan, mendefinisikan puisi secara terbuka merupakan hal yang yang masih masih sulit sulit dilaku dilakukan kan.. Hal ini diseba disebabka bkan n oleh oleh banyak banyakny nyaa pendap pendapat at tentan tentang g puisi. puisi. Akan Akan tetapi tetapi,, perumu perumusan san tentan tentang g puisi puisi tidak tidak begitu begitu pentin penting, g, karena yang paling penting adalah pembaca dapat memahami dan menikmati  puisi yang ada. Secara Secara etimo etimolog logi, i, istila istilah h puisi puisi berasa berasall dari dari bahas bahasaa Yunani Yunani  pocima ‘membuat’ atau  poeisis ‘pembuatan’, dan dalam bahasa Inggris disebut  poem  poetry. Puisi diartikan ‘membuat’ dan ‘pembuatan’, karena lewat puisi atau  poetry.  pada dasarnya seorang telah menciptakan suatu dunia tersendiri, yang mungkin   beris berisii pesan pesan,, atau atau gambar gambaran an suasan suasana-s a-suas uasana ana terten tertentu tu,, baik baik fisik fisik maupun maupun  batiniah.

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Jadi, menurutnya bahwa bahasa puisi itu merupakan bahasa yang berperasaan dan subjektif. Anggapan ini muncul pada zaman Romawi yang menganggap  bahasa puisi lahir dari perasaan yang ada dalam penyairnya. Sehingga perasaan  pada zaman tersebut menjadi pusat perhatian. Puisi mengungkapkan keadaan hati. Akan tetapi, di sisi lain, terutama dalam perkembangan puisi saat ini, terdap terdapat at jenis jenis puisi puisi yang yang tidak tidak memper memperhit hitung ungkan kan perasa perasaan an,, dalam dalam hal ini  bahasa yang digunakan sangat lugas dan mudah dipahami oleh pembacanya. Biasanya disebut puisi prosa. Wordsworth Wordsworth (dalam Pradopo, Pradopo, 1995:6) 1995:6) mengemuka mengemukakan kan bahwa bahwa puisi adalah pernyataan perasaan yang imajinatif, yaitu perasaan yang direkakan atau atau dianga dianganka nkan. n. Selai Selain n pandan pandangan gan terseb tersebut, ut, pandan pandangan gan lain lain menjel menjelask askan an   bahwa puisi adalah seni peniruan atau simbol bicara yang bertujuan untuk  mengajar atau kesenangan. Puisi berupa luapan perasaan secara spontan yang  bersumber dari perasaan yang berkumpul dalam ketenangan. Puisi dianggap

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Adapun batasan puisi menurut Waluyo (1987:25) menyatakan bahwa  puisi adalah bentuk karya sastra yang mengungkapkan pikiran dan perasaan   peny penyair air secar secaraa imaji imajinat natif if dan dan disusu disusun n dengan dengan mengko mengkonse nsentr ntrasi asikan kan semua semua kekuatan bahasa dengan pengkonsentrasian struktur fisik dan struktur batin. B. MACAM-MACAM PUISI

Melengkapi pengertian puisi di atas, pada bagian ini akan diuraikan tentang macam-macam puisi. Waluyo (1987) membagi puisi menjadi sepuluh macam, untuk lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat pada uraian berikut.

1. Puisi naratif, lirik, dan deskriptif 

Pembagian puisi ini didasarkan atas cara penyair mengungkapkan isi atau gagasan yang hendak disampaikan.  , yaitu puisi yang mengungkapkan cerita atau a. Puisi uisi nara narati tif  f    penjelas penjelasan an penyair. penyair. Puisi-pui Puisi-puisi si naratif, naratif, misalnya misalnya:: epik,

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71

dan petualangan yang menambah percintaan mereka lebih mempesonakan. b. Puisi

lirik   , yait yaitu u

peny penyai airr

meng mengun ungk gkap apka kan n

gaga gagasa san n

elegi, ode, ode, dan   pribadiny pribadinya. a. Jenis Jenis puisi puisi lirik lirik misalnya misalnya,, elegi,   serenada. Serenada ialah sajak yang dapat dinyanyikan. Kata ”serenada” berarti nyanyian yang tepat dinyanyikan   pada waktu senja. Ode adalah puisi yang berisi pujaan terhadap seseorang, sesuatu hal, atau keadaan. c. Puisi Puisi deskrip deskriptif tif,, yaitu yaitu jenis jenis puisi puisi yang mengung mengungkap kapkan kan tind tindak akan an

peny penyai airr

seba sebaga gaii

pemb pember erii

kesa kesan n

terh terhad adap ap

keadaan/p keadaan/perist eristiwa, iwa, benda, benda, atau suasana suasana yang dipandang dipandang menarik perhatian penyair. Jenis puisi ini misalnya, puisi puisi impresionostik, satire, dan kritik sosial. Satire adalah  puisi yang mengungkapkan perasaan tidak puas  penyair 

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2. Puisi kamar dan puisi auditorium

Puis Puisii-pu puis isii

audi audito tori rium um

dise disebu butt

juga juga   pui puisi si

Hukl Hukla a (pui (puisi si

yang yang

mementingkan suatu atau serangkaian suatu).  Puisi kamar  ialah puisi yang cocok dibaca sendirian atau dengan satu atau dua pendengar saja dalam kamar. Sedangkan   puisi puisi auditorium auditorium adal adalah ah puis puisii yang yang coco cocok k untu untuk k pemb pembac acaa di auditorium, di mimbar yang jumlah pendengarnya dapat ratusan orang. Puisi auditorium disebut juga puisi juga puisi oral karena oral karena cocok untuk dioralkan.

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4. Puisi subyektif dan puisi obyektif 

Puisi  subyektif  (puisi (puisi personal) personal) adalah adalah puisi yang mengungkap mengungkapkan kan gagasan, pikiran, perasaan, dan suasana dalam diri penyair sendiri. Adapun  puisi obyektif  adalah puisi yang mengungkapkan hal-hal di luar diri penyair itu sendiri. 5. Puisi konkret

 Puisi konkret adalah puisi yang bersifat visual, yang dapat dihayati keindahan bentuk dari sudut penglihatan. Bentuk konkret tersebut dapat berupa  bentuk grafis, kaligrafi, ideogramatik, atau puisi-puisi Sutardji Calzoum Bachri

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 puisi itu. Namun, makna itu bagaikan sinar yang keluar dari prisma.

8. Puisi parnasian dan puisi inspiratif 

Puisi parnasian diciptakan dengan pertimbangan ilmu atau pengetahuan dan bukan didasarkan oleh inspirasi karena adanya mood dalam jiwa penyair. Adapun Adapun puisi inspirat inspiratif if diciptaka diciptakan n berdasarka berdasarkan n mood. Penyair Penyair benar-bena benar-benar  r  masuk ke dalam suasana yang hendak dilukiskan. Suasana batin penyair benar benar terlibat ke dalam puisi.

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  bersi bersifat fat kekita kekitaan, an, artiny artinyaa meluk melukisk iskan an perasa perasaan an kelomp kelompok ok bukan bukan perasa perasaan an individu. Puis Puisii pamf pamfle lett adal adalah ah puis puisii yang yang baha bahasa sany nyaa meng menggu guna naka kan n baha bahasa sa  pamflet. Puisi ini juga mengungkapkan protes sosial. Kata-kata dalam puisi ini mengun mengungka gkapka pkan n rasa rasa tidak tidak puas puas pada pada keadaa keadaan. n. Kata-k Kata-kata ata terseb tersebut ut muncul muncul tanpa melalui proses pemikiran atau perenungan yang mendalam.

11. Alegori

Puisi yang mengungkapkan cerita dengan maksud untuk memberikan nasihat tentang budi pekerti dan agama. Jenis alegori yang terkenal adalah

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76

melainkan menikmati. Terkai Terkaitt dengan dengan hal terseb tersebut, ut, Aftaru Aftaruddi ddin n (dalam (dalam Endasw Endaswara ara,, 2005) 2005) meny menyat atak akan an bahw bahwaa ’per ’peris isti tiwa wa besa besar’ r’ meni menikm kmat atii puis puisii pada pada haki hakika katn tnya ya intens, secara mendalam. Pembelajaran menghayati suatu pengalaman secara intens, tidak sekadar membaca huruf-huruf, tapi menempatkan diri sebagai pencipta sehingga antara penikmat dengan penyair seakan-akan tidak ada jarak. Konteks itu menghendaki pembelajaran yang sungguh-sungguh ada keterlibatan jiwa, tetapi tetapi tetap tidak membuat membuat jiwa tegang. Bahkan, Bahkan, diharapka diharapkan n pembelaja pembelajaran ran tersebut menjadi sebuah momen refreshing . Suatu istilah yang sering rancu dalam pembelajaran puisi adalah ihwal

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77

  per perny nyat ataa aan n yang yang memb member erik ikan an peni penila laia ian n terh terhad adap ap puis puisi. i. Oleh Oleh seba sebab b itu, itu, Atmazaki (1993) memberikan penegasan bahwa apresiasi adalah kegiatan: (1) untuk merespon suatu (puisi), melakukan kontak sehingga ada efek, resepsi,  persepsi, dan (2) membe dan  persepsi, memberik rikan an pertim pertimban bangan gan terhad terhadap ap sesua sesuatu tu untuk  untuk  memberikan penilaian.

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78

2) indeks, yakni bila lambang itu masih mengasosiasikan adanya hubungan dengan lambang yang lain, misalnya rokok dengan api, 3) simbol, yakni bila secar secaraa arbitr arbitrer er maupun maupun konven konvensio sional nal,, lamba lambang ng itu masih masih menunj menunjuk uk pada pada referen tertentu dengan acuan makna yang berlainan. E. PEMAHAMAN LAPIS MAKNA PUISI

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79

a. Tema

Tema adalah gagasan pokok yang dikemukakan oleh penyair. Pokok    pikiran pikiran tersebut tersebut menguasai menguasai jiwa penyair penyair sehingga sehingga menjadi menjadi landasan landasan utama  pengucapannya. Tema harus dihubungkan dengan penyairnya, dengan konsep-

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80

Sikap penyair kepada pembaca pembaca inilah yang disebut disebut nada puisi. Adapun yang dimaksud dengan suasana dalam puisi adalah keadaan  jiwa pembaca setelah membaca puisi atau akibat psikologis yang ditimbulkan  puisi itu terhadap pembaca. Nada dan suasana puisi saling berhubungan karena nada menimbulkan puisi menimbulkan suasana terhadap pembacanya.

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81

dan irama, kedudukan kata itu di tengah konteks kata lainnya, dan kedudukan kata dalam keseluruhan puisi itu. b. Peng Pengim imaj ajia ian n

Ada hubungan erat antara diksi, pengimajian, dan kata konkret. Diksi yang dipilih harus menghasilkan pengimajian dan karena itu kata-kata menjadi

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82

  jika dibaca. Ritma dibaca.  Ritma sangat berhubungan dengan bunyi dan juga berhubungan

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83

deng dengan an kese keselu lurh rhan an jiwa jiwa dise disert rtai ai iram iramaa tanp tanpaa nada nada dan dan beru berusa saha ha lebi lebih h

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84

itu pada pendengarnya. Berhasil tidaknya usaha

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85

dengan cepat memberi petunjuk, apakah seseorang cocok untuk berdeklamasi

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86

Pada Pada saat saat mendek mendeklam lamas asika ikan n puisi puisi akan akan muncul muncul rasa rasa emosio emosionil nil – 

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