David Loyd-Instructor's Manual to Physics Laboratory Manual-Cengage Learning (2013)
April 19, 2017 | Author: RainieNight | Category: N/A
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Laboratory 1. Measurement of Length Comments to the Instructor For this laboratory in particular it should be strongly emphasized that students read very carefully the General Laboratory Instructions section before reading the laboratory. Throughout this laboratory manual repeated measurements are called for whenever it is feasible. This demonstrates to students the statistical nature of the measurement process. The main goal of this first laboratory is to introduce the idea that the mean of a set of measurements is the most probable value of the measured quantity, and the standard error is a measure of the precision of the results. In addition the concept of propagation of errors is presented. A distinction is made between the approximation to error propagation represented by the concept of significant figures and the more exact approach using the standard error of the measured quantity when it is known. It is strongly recommended that students be encouraged to purchase a calculator which is pre‐programmed to calculate the mean and standard deviation. For use in later laboratories the calculator should also have pre‐programmed routines to perform linear least squares fits to two parameter data. For this particular laboratory it would be instructive to ask the students to perform the mean and standard deviation calculations both using the pre‐programmed routines and directly from the equations given. This will emphasize for the students exactly what operation is being performed by the pre‐programmed calculator routine. The point is for students to observe the statistical variation of random errors. If a mistake is made in reading the meter stick for one or more of the repeated measurements, the resulting error in a single measurement may be so large and non‐random that the whole process becomes meaningless. Caution students to be extremely careful and encourage them to check each other in these measurements in order to avoid such personal errors.
Post Laboratory Exam Questions Fill in the Blank 1. The three types of measurement errors are personal, systematic, and random. 2. The name given to a mistake made by the experimenter either in a measurement or a calculation is a personal error. 3. An error that tends to occur in the same direction giving results either consistently above or consistently below the true value is called a systematic error. 4. The error produced by unpredictable and unknown variation in the total experimental process is called a random error. 5. A voltmeter that is improperly calibrated leads to a systematic error. 6. In principle personal and systematic errors could be eliminated, but there always remains some random error. 7. For random errors the probability is 68.3 % that all repeated measurements will be in the range of σ n −1 from the mean, where σ n −1 is the standard deviation from the mean. 8. For a series of repeated measurements of a quantity, the mean of the measurements is the most probable value of that quantity. 9. The accuracy of a measurement can be determined only if the true value of the measured quantity is known, but the precision can be found from the reproducibility. 10. In this laboratory, if the meter stick had expanded since it was manufactured, the resulting error would be an example of a systematic error. Multiple Choice Questions 1. The type error often caused by faulty equipment is called a (a) random error (b) personal error (c) systematic error (d) calculation error. Answer (c) 2. For a normal distribution of random errors what percentage of measurements should fall within +3σ n −1 of the mean? (a) 50% (b) 68.3% (c) 95.5% (d) 99.7% Answer (d)
3. The number of significant figures in the number 0.02340 is (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 6 Answer (b) 4. If the number 46.70 is multiplied by the number 130 the correct answer with the proper number of significant figures is (a) 6100 (b) 6070 (c) 6071 (d) 6071.0. Answer (a) 5. The quantity that is a measure of the distribution of repeated measurements about the mean is (a) the standard deviation from the mean (b) the standard error (c) the percentage error (d) the least significant figure. Answer (a) 6. The quantity that is a measure of the uncertainty in the mean value of a series of repeated measurements is (a) the standard deviation from the mean (b) the standard error (c) the percentage error (d) the least significant figure Answer (b) 7. For a ruler with 1 mm as the smallest marked scale divisions, measurements should be estimated to the nearest (a) 0.01 mm (b) 0.1 mm (c) 1 mm (d) 10 mm. Answer (b) 8. A measurement with high precision but poor accuracy is often an indication of the presence of what type of error? (a) random (b) personal (c) systematic (d) statistical Answer (c) 9. Even if systematic errors are present the precision of the results are still indicated by the standard deviation from the mean. (a) true (b) false Answer (a) 10. Which type of error invalidates all statistical calculations? (a) random (b) personal (c) systematic (d) statistical Answer (b)
PreLaboratory Assignment 1. State the number of significant figures in each of the following numbers and explain your answer. (b)
37.60_____4______
(c)
0.0130____3_______
(d)
13000_____2______
(e)
1.3400____5_______
2. Perform the indicated operations to the correct number of significant figures using the rules for significant figures. (a) 37.60 x 1.23 46.2
(c) 3.765 + 1.2 + 37.21 42.2
(b) 1.3 6.7 8.975
Questions 3-6. Three students named Abe, Barb, and Cal make measurements (in m) of the length of a table. Lengths, means, σ n −1 , α are tabulated in the table below: Student
L1
L2
L3
L4
L
σ n −1
α
Abe
1.4717
1.4711
1.4722
1.4715
1.4716
0.00046
0.0002
Barb
1.4753
1.4759
1.4756
1.4749
1.4754
0.00043
0.0002
Cal
1.4719
1.4723
1.4727
1.4705
1.4719
0.00096
0.0005
Only one significant figure is kept in the standard error α , and this determines the number of significant figures in the mean. The actual length of the table is 1.4715 m. 3. Accuracy of a measurement is determined by its difference from the actual value of 1.4715 m. Based on that criterion Abe’s value of 1.4716 m is the most accurate. 4. L = (1 / 4)(1.4717 + 1.4711 + 1.4722 + 1.4715) = 1.471625 = 1.4716
σ n−1 = (1 / (4 − 1))(1.4717 − 1.1716)2 + (1.4711 − 1.4716)2 + (1.4722 − 1.4716)2 + (1.4715 + 1.4716)2 = (1 / 3)(0.00000001 + 0.00000025 + 0.00000036 + 0.00000001) = 0.00046
α = (σ n−1 ) /
( 4 ) = 0.00023 = 0.0002 (one significant figure)
5. One indication of a systematic error is a measurement with high precision but bad accuracy. Barb has a systematic error because her α = 0.0002 m (high precision),but her L = 1.4754 is different from the actual value of 1.4715 by 0.0039 m. 6. Abe clearly has the best measurement with a difference from the actual value of only 0.0001 m and high precision noted by α = 0.0002 m.
Laboratory Report Data and Calculations Table 1 (nearest 0.0001 m which is 0.1 mm) Trial
X 1 (cm)
X 1 (m)
X 2 (cm)
X 2 (m)
Li = X 2 − X 1 (m)
L i − L (m)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
33.41 28.65 36.20 34.74 26.23 28.49 24.36 31.05 27.36 33.17
0.3341 0.2865 0.3620 0.3474 0.2623 0.2849 0.2436 0.3105 0.2736 0.3317
170.58 165.76 173.32 171.91 163.40 165.65 161.57 168.22 164.50 170.32
1.7058 1.6576 1.7332 1.7191 1.6340 1.6565 1.6157 1.6822 1.6450 1.7032
1.3717 1.3711 1.3712 1.3717 1.3713 1.3716 1.3721 1.3717 1.3714 1.3715
0.0002 ‐0.0004 ‐0.0003 0.0002 ‐0.0002 0.0001 0.0006 0.0002 ‐0.0001 0.0000
( Li − L ) 2
(m2) 0.00000004 0.00000016 0.00000009 0.00000004 0.00000004 0.00000001 0.00000036 0.00000004 0.00000001 0.00000000
n
∑ ( L − L)
2
i
0.00000079
1
=
L = 1.37153 m_
L σn-1 =
0.00029 m L
L -σn-1 =
1.37124 m L
L +σn-1 =1.37182
m αL = 0.00009 m
Data and Calculations Table 2.(nearest 0.0001 m which is 0.1 mm)
Trial
Y1 (cm)
Y1 (m)
Y 2 (cm)
Y 2 (m)
Wi = Y2 − Y1 (m)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
39.61 38.09 40.63 47.39 66.17 80.15 91.49 41.73 64.69 74.27
0.3961 0.3809 0.4063 0.4739 0.6617 0.8015 0.9149 0.4173 0.6469 0.7427
116.01 114.49 117.02 123.78 142.58 156.51 170.86 118.11 141.07 150.63
1.1601 1.1449 1.1702 1.2378 1.4258 1.5651 1.7086 1.1811 1.4107 1.5063
0.7640 0.7640 0.7639 0.7639 0.7641 0.7636 0.7637 0.7638 0.7638 0.7636
Wi − W
(m)
0.0002 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0003 ‐0.0002 ‐0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 ‐0.0002
(W i − W ) 2
(m2) 0.00000004 0.00000004 0.00000001 0.00000001 0.00000009 0.00000004 0.00000001 0.00000000 0.00000000 0.00000004
n
∑ (W − W ) i
1
=
2
0.00000028
W W W W = 0.76384 m σn-1 = 0.00017 m W -σn-1 =0.76367 m W +σn-1 =0.76401 m αW = 0.00005 m
A =L × W = __1.0476 m2_____
2
αA = __0.0001 m _______
Questions 1. What is the range of these lengths for your data? From _1.37124_____m to _1.37182__m. How many of your 10 measurements of the length of the table fall in this range? ____7_____. This data agrees as nearly as possible given than 70% of the measurements fall in this range. Generally student data will not be that good but might show between 6 and 8 measurements in that range which would be excellent data. W W 2. Answer the same question for the width. Range of W -σn-1 to W +σn-1 is from
____0.76367____m to ___0.76401___m. The number of measurements that fall in that range is ______7______. Again this data agrees as nearly as possible with 70% of the measurements in the range. Student data will be excellent if 6 to 8 measurements are in the correct range. 3. Calculate the value of 3σn-1 . Do any of your measurements of length have a deviation L
from the mean greater than that value? If so calculate how many times larger than σn-1 it L
is. The value of 3σn-1 is 3(0.00029) = 0.00087 m. None of the length data have L
deviations from the mean of greater than this. Student answers should reflect their data. 4. The value of 3σn-1 is 3(0.00017) = 0.00051 m. None of the width data have deviations W
from the mean of greater. Student answers should reflect their data. 5. No statement can be made about the accuracy of these measurements because the actual value for the length and width of the table are unknown. The best statement of the precision of the measurement is that the percentage standard error of the length is 0.007% and the percentage standard error of the width is also 0.007%.
Laboratory 2. Measurement of Density Comments to the Instructor This laboratory is much like Laboratory 1 in that its purpose is to introduce the concepts of measurement. This laboratory introduces the students to the vernier caliper and to the laboratory balance. Because there are usually more laboratories to do in a semester than time permits, it may be necessary to choose between Laboratory 1 and Laboratory 2 or else do both of them in one period. It is important to note that the metal cylinders should not be perfectly machined or the variations in the measurements of length and diameter when using the vernier caliper will be so small that the point to the laboratory may be lost. In addition to the general ideas about the measurement process contained in this laboratory, the concept of density is introduced. The student is asked to compare his results with the known density of the material from which the cylinder is made. There is enough variation in the density of a given type of metal that the instructor really should make an accurate determination of the density of the actual cylinders used by the students if a really good test of the student's accuracy is desired. Most of the questions that were given for a post laboratory exam for Laboratory 1 are appropriate for a post laboratory exam for this laboratory also.
Post Laboratory Exam Questions 1. If an object of total mass M and total mass V has its mass distributed uniformly the density ρ is given by (a) MV (b) M/V (c) V/M (d) 1/2 M V 2 Answer (b) 2. The vernier calipers described in the laboratory are capable of measurements which are accurate to the nearest (a) 0.001 mm (b) 0.01 mm (c) 0.1 mm (d) 1 mm. Answer (c) 3. Any device that is used to determine thickness, the diameter of an object, or the distance between two surfaces, is called a (a) vernier (b) caliper (c) balance (d) rivet. Answer (b)
4. A scale used to interpolate between marked scale divisions is called a (a) vernier (b) caliper (c) balance (d) rivet. Answer (a) 5. The zero correction of a vernier caliper (a) is always positive (b) is always negative (c) is always zero (d) can be positive, negative, or zero. Answer (d) 6. A uniform sphere of iron (ρ = 7.85×103 kg/m3) has a radius of 0.0500 meters. Its mass is (a) 4.11 gm (b) 41.1 gm (c) 4.11 kg (d) 0.411 kg Answer (c) 7. When calculating the standard error this laboratory suggests one should keep in the result (a) always two decimal places (b) always two significant figures (c) only one significant figure (d) three significant figures Answer (c) A series of measurements of the mass, length, and diameter of a cylinder are made. The results of those measurements are: Mass‐‐46.9, 47.2, and 47.4 g Length‐‐3.15, 3.17, and 3.18 cm Diameter‐‐ 1.52, 1.49, and 1.50 cm Consider the measurements above in answering question 8 through 10. 8. Based on these three measurements of the mass, 68.3% of the measurements of the mass of the cylinder (in grams) should fall in the range (a) 47.17 ± 0.20 (b) 47.30 ± 0.10 (c) 47.17 ± 0.15 (d) 47.17 ± 0.25 Answer (d) 9. The standard error (in grams) for the mass measurements is (a) 0.20 (b) 0.10 (c) 0.15 (d) 0.25 Answer (c) 10. Use Equation 4 in Laboratory 2 to calculate the standard error αρ of the value of
ρ determined from these measurements. The result for αρ is (a) 0.20 (b) 0.10 (c) 0.15 (d) 0.25 Answer (b)
PreLaboratory Assignment 1. A cylinder has a length of 3.23 cm, a diameter of 1.75 cm, and a mass of 65.3 grams. What is the density of the cylinder? Based on its density, of what kind of material might it be made? Material is likely to be: _____Brass_____ (Show your work.)
ρ = (4M)/(pd2L) = =(4)(65.3)/(3.14)(1.75)2(3.23) = 8.41 g/cm3 2. Figure 2‐4 shows a vernier caliper scale set to a particular reading. What is the reading of the scale? Reading = 2.22 cm
2
3
Figure 2‐4. Example of a reading of a vernier caliper. 3. The caliper in Figure 2‐5 has its jaws closed. If the caliper has a zero error what is its value? Is it positive or negative? Error = −0.03 cm
0
1
Figure 2‐5. Vernier caliper with its jaws closed. Does it have a zero error? 4. A series of four measurements of the mass, length, and diameter are made of a cylinder. The results of these measurements are: Mass ‐ 20.6, 20.5, 20.6, and 20.4 grams Length ‐ 2.68, 2.67, 2.65, and 2.69 cm
Diameter ‐ 1.07, 1.05, 1.06, and 1.05 cm Find the mean, standard deviation, and standard error for each of the measured quantities and tabulate them below. Keep only one significant figure in each standard error and then keep decimal places in the mean to coincide with the standard error. M = ____20.53 g_____ σn‐1 = ___0.096 g______ α M = ____0.05 g________ L = ____2.673 cm____ σn‐1 = ___0.017 cm_____ α L = ___0.009 cm______
d = ____1.058 cm____ σn‐1 = ___0.0096 cm____ α d = ___0.005 cm______ Calculate the density and the standard error of the density using Equations 3 and 5. Keep only one significant figure in the standard error and then keep decimal places in the density to coincide with the standard error.
ρ = ____8.82 g/cm3__
αρ = ______0.09 g/cm3______
5. Since the second digit to the right of the decimal is the significant digit in the standard error it is the first uncertain digit. Thus there are three significant digits in the value of r.
Laboratory Report Mass Data and Calculations Table
M1 (g) M2 (g)
M3 (g)
M4 (g)
M (g)
63.99
63.96
64.15
64.11
64.05
Brass
68.31
68.40
68.46
68.47
68.41
Iron
63.74
63.73
63.87
63.89
63.81
Aluminu m
M (kg)
0.0640 5 0.0684 1 0.0638 1
Zero Reading of the calipers _______0.00 cm_____________
σ n −1 (kg)
α M (kg)
0.00092 0.00005
0.00073 0.00004
0.084
0.00004
Length Data and Calculations Table L3
L4
L
(cm) (cm)
(cm)
(cm)
(cm)
Aluminum 8.03 8.02
8.04
8.04
8.033
0.08033 0.000096
0.00005
Brass
4.14 4.13
4.14
4.13
4.135
0.04135 0.000058
0.00003
Iron
2.96 2.95
2.95
2.95
2.953
0.02953 0.000050
0.00003
L1
L2
L (m)
σ n −1 (m)
α L (cm)
Diameter Data and Calculations Table d1
d2
(cm)
(cm)
Aluminum 1.91
1.90
1.91
Brass
1.59
1.59
Iron
1.90
1.90
d3 c(m)
d4
σ n −1 (m)
α d (m)
d (cm)
d (m)
1.91
1.908
0.01908 0.000050 0.00003
1.58
1.57
1.583
0.01583 0.000096 0.00005
1.90
1.90
1.900
0.01900 0.000000 0.00000
(cm)
Density Data and Calculations Table 3
ρexp (kg/m3)
α ρ (kg/m )
Aluminum
2.790 x 103
0.009 x 103
Brass
8.41 x 103
Iron
7.625 x 103
ρknown
Err (kg/m3)
% Error
2.70 x 103
0.09 x 103
3 %
0.05 x 103
8.40 x 103
0.01 x 103
0.1 %
0.009 x 103
7.85 x 103
0.23 x 103
2.9 %
3
(g/cm )
Questions 1. In the standard deviations of aluminum and iron the significant figure is in the third place to the right of the decimal which means there are 4 significant figures for those measurements. For brass the significant digit in the standard deviation is in the second place to the right of the decimal which gives 3 significant figures for the density of brass. 2. The accuracy of each of the measurements is determined by the percentage error compared to the known values of the densities. For aluminum it is 3%, for brass 0.1%, and for iron 2.9%. 3. The percentage standard errors are: aluminum = (0.009)/(2.790)×100% = 0.3%, brass = (0.05)/(8.41)×100% = 0.6%, and for iron = (0.009)/(7.625)×100% = 0.1%. Only for brass is the percentage error compared to the known value within the percentage standard error. For aluminum the error is 10 times larger and for iron it is 29 times larger than the percentage standard error. 4. The errors far exceed the standard errors for aluminum and iron. This seems to be a systematic error and is very likely to be caused by samples that are alloys of mostly the assumed metal, but not pure samples of aluminum or iron. 5. (Hint: Consider the form of Equation 4.) Since the density depends upon the square of the diameter its percentage uncertainty is 4 times as important as the other uncertainties as shown by Equation 4.
Laboratory 3. Force Table and Vector Addition of Forces Comments to the Instructor Laboratory 3 will illustrate and give practice in using the vector addition process. Force is the vector chosen because it is a very easy vector quantity to produce in a controlled manner. The nature of forces is not the point of the laboratory except as they illustrate the vector addition process. Most likely this laboratory will be done before students have encountered the concept of equilibrium in the lecture portion of the course. Thus, students may have some difficulty with the concept of the resultant versus the equilibrant. Note that students are asked to compare both the magnitude and angle of the experimental results. For the magnitude the percentage error is requested, but for the angle only the absolute difference is considered, because a percentage difference is not very meaningful. Actually when two large magnitudes almost cancel in the vector addition process, a percentage error would not be very meaningful either, but these forces and directions have been chosen to give a significant magnitude for each resultant, so a percentage error is a reasonable comparison for the magnitudes. Although the laboratory instructions instruct the students to make sure that the strings on which the masses are held are directed toward the center of the ring, it is probably worthwhile to reiterate this point. Failure to pay attention to this detail is a common source of poor results.
Post Laboratory Exam Questions 1. A vector of magnitude 3 is directed to the east. A vector of magnitude 4 is directed north. The magnitude of the resultant from adding the vectors is (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 7. Answer (c) 2. The direction of the resultant vector in Question 1 is (a) 53.1 ° north of east (b) 36.9° north of east (c) 53.1° east of north (d) 36.9° south of east. Answer (a) 3. A vector of magnitude 6 and one of magnitude 12 are added. A possible result is a magnitude of (a) 0 (b) 5 (c) 10 (d) 20. Answer (c)
4. A vector of magnitude 4 is added to a vector of magnitude 6. The magnitude of the resultant CANNOT be (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 7. Answer (a) 5. A vector of magnitude 4 is added to a vector of magnitude 6 which makes an angle of 60° with respect to the first vector. The magnitude of the result is (a) 6 (b) 9 (c) 7.19 (d) 8.72. Answer (d) The following figure shows three vectors. Consider this figure in questions 6‐10. + y axis C = 10.0 30º
B = 7.07 45º A = 10.0
+x i
G G 6. What is the magnitude of A + B ? (a) 15.8 (b) 20.0 (c) 11.8 (d) 7.8 Answer (a) G G 7. What is the magnitude of A − B ? (a) 5.00 (3.87 (c) 7.07 (d) 10.00 Answer (c)
G G G 8. What is the magnitude of A + B + C ? (a) 10.00 (b) 11.8 (c) 15.8 (d) 7.8 Answer (b) G G 9. What is the direction of A + B with respect to the +x axis? (a) 10.9º (b) 45.0º (c) 18.4º
(d) 32.7º Answer (c) G G 10. What is the direction of A − B with respect to the +x axis? (a) 10.9º (b) 45.0º (c) 18.4º
(d) 32.7º Answer (d)
PreLaboratory Assignment 1. Scalars are physical quantities that can be completely specified by their _magnitude__. 2. A vector quantity is one that has both ___magnitude___ and ___direction___. 3. Classify each of the following physical quantities as vectors or scalars: (a) Volume _____scalar_____ (b) Force ______vector____ (c) Density ______scalar____ (d) Velocity _____vector_____ (e) Acceleration ___vector______
Answer Questions 4‐7 with reference to Figure 3‐6 below. y
F2
60° x F1
Figure 3‐6. Addition of two force vectors. 4. If F1 stands for a force vector of magnitude 30.0 N and F2 stands for a force vector of magnitude 40.0 N acting in the directions shown in Figure 3‐6, what are the magnitude and direction of the resultant obtained by the vector addition of these two vectors using the analytical method? Show your work. Fx = 30.0 + 40.0 cos (60º) = 30.0 + 40.0 (0.500) = 50.0 N Fy = 40.0 sin(60º) = 40.0 (0.866) = 34.64 N FR = (50.0) 2 + (34.64) 2 = 60.8 N Resultant force FR acts at angle q given by tan (q) = (34.64)/(50.0 = 0.6928 or q = 34.7º Magnitude = ___60.8____N Direction(relative to x axis) = __34.7º___ 5. What is the equilibrant force that would be needed to compensate for the resultant force of the vectors F1 and F2 that you calculated in Question 4? Magnitude = ____60.8____N Direction(relative to x axis) = __214.7º__ 6. Figure 3‐6 has been constructed to scale with 1.00 cm = 10.0 N. Use the parallelogram graphical method to construct (on Figure 3‐6) the resultant vector FR for the addition of F1 and F2. Measure the length of the resultant vector and record it below. State the force represented by this length. Measure with a protractor the angle that the result makes with the x axis.
Resultant vector length = _____6.08__cm Force represented by this length = ____60.8____N Direction of resultant relative to x axis = ___34.7º_____ y
3.00 cm
4.00 cm
6.08 cm 4.00 cm
x 3.00 cm
Figure 3‐6 Graphical Parallelogram Method 7. Use the polygon method of vector addition to construct on the axes below a graphical solution to the problem in Figure 3‐6. Use the scale 1.00 cm = 10.0 N. Resultant vector length = _____6.08_____cm Force represented by this length = ____60.8_____N Direction of resultant relative to x axis = ____34.7º_____ y
6.08 cm 4.00 cm
x 3.00 cm
Figure 3‐6 Graphical Polygon Method
Laboratory Report Data Table 1. Force
Mass (g)
Mass (kg)
Force (N)
Direction
F1
100
0.100
0.980
20.0 D
F2
200
0.200
1.96
90.0 D
Equilibrant FE1
251
0.251
2.46
249.0º
Resultant FR1
251
0.251
2.46
69.0º
Force
Mass (g)
Mass (kg)
Force (N)
Direction
F3
150
0.150
1.47
30.0 D
F4
200
0.200
1.96
100.0 D
F5
100
0.100
0.980
145.0 D
Equilibrant FE2
331
0.331
3.24
269.0º
Resultant FR2
331
0.331
3.24
89.0º
Data Table 2.
Calculations Table 1. Graphical Solution Force
Mass (g)
Mass (kg)
Force (N)
Direction
F1
100
0.100
0.980
20.0 D
F2
200
0.200
1.96
90.0 D
Resultant FR1
253
0.253
2.48
68.3º
Analytical Solution Force
Mass (g) Mass (kg)
Force (N) Direction x component y component
F1
100
0.100
0.980
20.0 D
0.921 N
0.335 N
F2
200
0.200
1.96
90.0 D
0.000 N
1.96 N
252
0.252
2.47
68.1º
0.921 N
2.30 N
Resultant FR1
Part 1. Error Calculations Percent Error magnitude Experimental compared to Analytical = ____0.4 %_____ Percent Error magnitude Graphical compared to Analytical = _______0.4 %_____ Absolute Error in angle Experimental compared to Analytical = ____0.9___degrees Absolute Error in angle Graphical compared to Analytical = ______0.2____degrees Calculations Table 2. Graphical Solution Force
Mass (g)
Mass (kg)
Force (N)
Direction
F3
150
0.150
1.47
30.0 D
F4
200
0.200
1.96
100.0 D
F5
100
0.100
0.980
145.0 D
Resultant FR2
333
0.333
3.26
87.5º
Analytical Solution Force
Mass (g)
Mass (kg)
Force (N)
Direction
x component
y component
F3
150
0.150
1.47
30.0 D
1.273 N
0.735 N
F4
200
0.200
1.96
100.0 D
‐0.340 N
1.930 N
F5
100
0.100
0.980
145.0 D
‐0.803 N
0.562 N
Resultant FR2 330
0.330
3.23
87.7 D
0.130 N
3.23 N
Part 2. Error Calculations Percent Error magnitude Experimental compared to Analytical = ____0.3 %_____ Percent Error magnitude Graphical compared to Analytical = ______0.9 %______ Absolute Error in angle Experimental compared to Analytical = ____1.3_____degrees Absolute Error in angle Graphical compared to Analytical = _____0.2___degrees
Graphical Vector Addition of Two Forces
2.4 2.2 2.0
FR1
1.8 1.6 1.4
Fy (N)
F2
1.2 1.0
Scale: 1.0 cm = 0.2 N 0.8 0.6
F1 0.4
68.3º
0.2
20º
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Fx (N)
Questions 1. To determine the force acting on each mass it was assumed that g = 9.80 m/s2. The value of g at the place where the experiment is performed may be slightly different from that value. State what effect (if any) it would have on the percentage error calculated for the comparisons. To test your answer to the question, leave g as a symbol in the calculation of the percentage error. Answer: The assumed value of g will not affect the percentage error because it is a common factor in the numerator and the denominator and will cancel from the calculation.
2. Two forces are applied to the ring of a force table, one at an angle of 20.0°, and the other at an angle of 80.0°. Regardless of the magnitudes of the forces, choose the correct response below. The equilibrant will be in the (a) first quadrant; (b) second quadrant; (c) third quadrant; (d) fourth quadrant; (e) cannot tell which quadrant from the available information. Answer (c) The resultant will be in the (a) first quadrant; (b) second quadrant; (c) third quadrant; (d) fourth quadrant; (e) cannot tell which quadrant from the available information. Answer (a) 3. Two forces, one of magnitude 2N and the other of 3 N, are applied to the ring of a force table. The directions of both forces are unknown. Which best describes the limitation on R, the resultant? Explain carefully the basis for your answer. (a) R ≤ 5N (b) 2N ≤ R ≤ 3N (c) R ≥ 3N (d) 1N ≤ R ≤ 5N (e) R≤ 2N Answer (d) For vector addition the resultant is from R = 3+2 = 5 to R=3‐2=1. 4. Suppose the same masses are used for a force table experiment as were used in Part 1, but each pulley is more 180° so that the 0.100 kg mass acts at 200°, and the 0.200 kg mass acts at 270°. What is the magnitude of the resultant in this case? How does it compare to the resultant in Part 1? Answer: If each vector direction is changed by the same amount the resultant will not change in magnitude but only in direction. In this case the resultant would be the same magnitude as in Part 1, but it would be in the opposite direction. 5. Pulleys introduce a possible source of error because of their possible friction. Given that they are a source of error, why are the pulleys used at all? What is the function of the pulleys? Answer: The only function of the pulley is to change the direction of the force. Using pulleys allows one to use the force of gravity on the masses, but the forces are applied in a horizontal direction instead of a vertical direction.
Graphical Vector Addition of Three Forces 3.4 3.2
Scale: 1.0 cm = 0.2 N
3.0
145º 2.8
F5
2.6 2.4 2.2
F4
2.0
FR2
1.8
Fy (N)
1.6
16.3 cm
1.4 1.2 1.0
100º
0.8 0.6
87.7º
0.4
F3
0.2
30º
0.0 0.0 0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Fx (N)
Laboratory 4. Uniformly Accelerated Motion on the Air Track Comments to the Instructor The investigation of the displacement of a cart on an inclined air track as a function of time is the subject of Laboratory 4. The air track is inclined to produce a uniform acceleration that is some component of g, the acceleration due to gravity. The measurements of time are done for a series of fixed displacements with the cart starting from rest each time. Note that the analysis for this laboratory is done directly on the distance and time data. In the next laboratory (Laboratory 5) essentially the same data is taken for motion of a puck on an air table, but the analysis includes a determination of the velocity as a function of time. In this laboratory the analysis is based solely on the fact that the displacement should be proportional to the square of the time. The laboratory is suggested as a group effort. It is suggested that five trials at each distance be performed, and different students measure the time for each trial. If enough timers are available the five students can measure the time on different timers for the same trial. Several practice runs should be made to emphasize the precision with which the timer must be started and stopped at the appropriate signal. This is the first laboratory in which a linear least squares fit to the data is required. As mentioned in Laboratory 1 it is recommended that students be strongly encouraged to purchase a calculator with pre‐programmable capability to perform these calculations. If this is the first laboratory in which they are to do a least squares fit, it would be beneficial for students to also calculate the slope and intercept from the equations given in the General Laboratory Information Section. The distances described in the experiment are for a 5 meter air track. If a smaller air track is used, the distance should be adjusted appropriately. The angle chosen should be at least as large as suggested in order to produce a large enough acceleration to minimize the effects of friction.
Post Laboratory Exam Questions 1. A 5.00 meter long air track is raised a distance 8.00 cm at one end. The angle of the inclined plane produced is (a) 9.21° (b) 38.7° (c) 0.917° (d) 8.00°. Answer (c) 2. The acceleration of a cart placed on the air track described in question 1 is (a) 0.157 m/s2 (b) 0.197 m/s2 (c) 0.800 m/s2 (d) 0.980 m/s2. Answer (a) 3. A cart is released from rest on an air track with an acceleration of 0.200 m/s2. What is the velocity of the cart 4.00 seconds after it is released? (a) 0.200 m/s (b) 0.400 m/s (c) 0.600 m/s (d) 0.800 m/s Answer (d) 4. How far did the cart in Question 3 travel in the 4.00 seconds after it was released? (a) 0.800 m (b) 1.60 m (c) 0.400 m (d) 1.20 m Answer (b) 5. For the cart in question 3 what was the average velocity during the time interval from its release at t = 0 until t = 2.00 s? (a) 0.200 m/s (b) 0.400 m/s (c) 0.600 m/s (d) 0.800 m/s Answer (a) 6. A cart on an air track has an acceleration of 0.150 m/s2. How long does it take the cart to travel 1.50 meters when released from rest? (a) 20.0 s (b) 6.70 s (c) 4.47 s (d) 8.97 s Answer (c) 7. How far does the cart in Question 6 travel in the time interval between t = 3.00 and t = 5.00 s after it is released? (a) 0.400 m (b) 0.800 m (c) 1.20 m (d) 1.60 m Answer (c) The following set of data were taken for the displacement x of a cart on an air track as a function of time t. Calculate t2 for each data point and then perform a linear least squares fit to x versus t2. Using that linear least squares fit, answer Questions 8‐10 below.
x (m)
0
0.500
0.750
1.000
1.500
2.000
3.000
t (s)
0
2.20
2.75
3.18
3.75
4.40
5.50
t2 (s2)
0
4.84
7.56
10.1
14.1
19.4
30.3
8. What is the acceleration, a, of the cart? a = 0.200 m/s2 9. What is the correlation coefficient for the fit, and what is the significance of this fit? Use the table in Appendix 1 to access the significance of the correlation coefficient. r = 0.9991
For N=7 there is a probability of 0.1% of getting r ≥ 0.951 for
uncorrelated data. Thus 0.9991 shows these data are definitely correlated. 10. What angle of inclination θ would produce this acceleration? Assume g = 9.80 m/s2. sin(θ ) = a/g = 0.200/9.80 = 0.204 thus θ = 1.17°
PreLaboratory Assignment (a) (b) (c) (d)
The carts pictured above are all moving in a straight line to the right. The pictures were taken 1.00 second apart. Choose which of the descriptions below match which pictures. 1. These pictures show a cart that is moving at constant velocity. Answer (b) 2. These pictures show a cart that has a positive acceleration. Answer (a) 3. These pictures show a cart that travels at a constant velocity and then has a positive acceleration. Answer (d) 4. These pictures show a cart that has a negative acceleration. Answer (c) 5. A cart on a linear air track has a uniform acceleration of 0.172 m/s2. Use Equation 1 to find the velocity of the cart 4.00 seconds after it is released from rest. Show your work. v = at so v = 0.172 (4.00) = 0.688 m/s
6. How far does the cart in Question 5 travel in 4.00 seconds? Calculate the distance in two ways, first using Equation 3 and then using Equation 4. Show your work Equation 3 x = v t =
at 2 vt =(0.688)(4.00)/2=1.38 m Equation 4 x = 2 2
=(0.172)(4.00)2/2=1.38 m 7. An air track like the one shown in Figure 4‐2 has a block with height 12.0 cm under one support. The other support is 3.50 m away. What is the angle of inclination θ ? According to Equation 5, the component of acceleration parallel to the track is a = g sinq, where g = 9.80 m/s2. For this value of θ what is a? Show your work. sin(θ ) = h/d = 12.0/350 = 0.0343 θ = 1.97° a = g sin(θ ) = (9.80)(0.343) = 0.336 m/sec2
Laboratory Report Data Table
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Trial 4
Trial 5
h(cm)
8.50
8.58
8.53
8.52
8.55
h(m)
0.0850
0.0858
0.0853
0.0852
0.0855
D(cm)
328.3
328.7
328.9
328.7
328.3
d(m)
3.283
3.287
3.289
3.287
3.283
x(m)
t1(s)
t2(s)
t3(s)
t4(s)
t5(s)
0.250
1.41
1.44
1.44
1.44
1.41
0.500
2.00
2.04
1.97
2.00
2.06
0.750
2.47
2.50
2.44
2.44
2.47
1.000
2.75
2.77
2.72
2.72
2.78
1.500
3.37
3.38
3.38
3.35
3.40
2.000
3.97
3.94
3.88
3.91
3.93
3.000
4.84
4.81
4.88
4.88
4.78
4.000
5.60
5.60
5.56
5.56
5.56
Calculations Tables h = 0.08536 m
σ n −1 = 0.00030 m
α h = 0.0001 m
d = 3.286 m
σ n −1 = 0.0027 m
α d = 0.001 m
sin θ = h d = 0.02598 x(m)
0.250
0.500
0.750
1.000
1.500
2.000
3.000
4.000
t (s)
1.428
2.01
2.46
2.75
3.376
3.93
4.84
5.58
σn‐1 (s)
0.016
0.036
0.025
0.028
0.018
0.034
0.044
0.022
α t (s)
0.007
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.008
0.02
0.02
0.01
t 2 (s2)
2.039
4.04
6.05
7.56
11.40
15.4
23.4
31.1
Slope = 0.1290
a = 0.2580 m/s2
gexp = 9.931 m/s2 %Err = 1.3 %
r =0.9999
Questions 1. The decimal place of the standard error coincides with the least significant digit and determines the number of significant figures in the values of h and d . Because these are used to calculate the experimental value of g, they determine the number of significant
figures in your value of g. How man significant figures are in your values of h and d , and how many are in your experimental value of g? According to these values there are four significant figures in the value of g. This might be questionable because it is questionable that four significant figures are justified in the slope which determines the acceleration a. 2. Would friction tend to cause your experimental value for g to be greater or less than 9.80 m/s2? In which direction is your error for the value of g? Could friction be the cause of your observed error? State your reasoning. Friction would tend to produce a value for g that is less than the actual value. Since these results give a value for g that is greater than 9.800 m/s2, friction could not account for this error. Student answer should reflect whether or not their results are less than or greater than 9.80 m/s2. 3. What was the instantaneous velocity of the cart at x = 4.00 m, assuming your value of the acceleration a is correct? Show your work. v = at and the value of t at 4.00 m is 5.58 sec so v = (0.2580)(5.58) = 1.44 m/sec 4. State how well the objectives of this laboratory were met. State your evidence for your opinion. The data are excellent. The data are linear, and the experimental value for g is in excellent agreement with the known value. The data definitely show the expected results. Student answer should reflect their data, and should be very good in most cases.
Displacement Versus Time Squared
5 4.5 4
Displacement (m)
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Time Squared (sec squared)
Laboratory 4A. Uniformly Accelerated Motion Using a Photogate Comments to the Instructor
This lab uses Pasco Science Workshop equipment to determine the acceleration of a cart on
an incline of variable angle. The measurements are made using a photogate and picket fence. For each angle of the incline the acceleration is determined from the velocity versus time data input to the computer from the photogate timer. Those data for the acceleration versus the sine of the incline angle give an experimental value for g, the acceleration due to gravity. Make sure each student group has adjusted the picket fence to pass through the photogate beam.
Post Laboratory Exam Questions 1. A 1.22 meter long air track is raised a distance 8.00 cm at one end. The angle of the inclined plane produced is (a) 5.21° (b) 2.59° (c) 3.76° (d) 8.00°. Answer (c) 2. The acceleration of a cart placed on the air track described in question 1 is (a) 0.643 m/s2 (b) 0.197 m/s2 (c) 0.800 m/s2 (d) 0.980 m/s2. Answer (a) 3. A cart is released from rest on an air track with an acceleration of 0.100 m/s2. What is the velocity of the cart 4.00 seconds after it is released? (a) 0.200 m/s (b) 0.400 m/s (c) 0.600 m/s (d) 0.800 m/s Answer (b) 4. How far did the cart in Question 3 travel in the 4.00 seconds after it was released? (a) 0.800 m (b) 1.60 m (c) 0.400 m (d) 1.20 m Answer (a) 5. For the cart in question 3 what was the average velocity during the time interval from its release at t = 0 until t = 2.00 s? (a) 0.200 m/s (b) 0.100 m/s (c) 0.300 m/s (d) 0.400 m/s Answer (b) 6. A cart on an air track has an acceleration of 0.150 m/s2. How long does it take the cart to travel 1.00 meters when released from rest? (a) 2.00 s (b) 2.70 s (c) 1.15 s (d) 3.97 s Answer (c)
7. How far does the cart in Question 6 travel in the time interval between t = 3.00 and t = 5.00 s after it is released? (a) 0.400 m (b) 0.800 m (c) 1.20 m (d) 1.60 m Answer (c)
PreLaboratory Assignment (a) (b) (c) (d) The carts pictured above are all moving in a straight line to the right. The pictures were taken 1.00 s apart. Choose which of the descriptions below matches which pictures. 1. These pictures show a cart that is moving at constant velocity. Answer (b) 2. These pictures show a cart that has a positive acceleration. Answer (a) 3. These pictures show a cart that travels at a constant velocity and then has a positive acceleration. Answer (d) 4. These pictures show a cart that has a negative acceleration. Answer (c) 5. The slope of the velocity versus time gives the acceleration and that is not changed by having a different initial velocity due to different release points. 6. Again as in question 5, the slope of the velocity versus time gives the acceleration, and a different initial velocity does not change the slope. 7. a = g sin(ࣂ) = 9.80 (0.105) = 1.03 m/s2 v = at = 1.03 (0.125) = 0.129 m/s
Laboratory Report Data and Calculations Table Length of the track L = 1.22 m H (m)
sin ࣂ = H/L
a (m/s2)
0.100
0.0820
0.756
0.090
0.0738
0.678
0.080
0.0656
0.597
0.070
0.0574
0.521
0.060
0.0492
0.435
0.050
0.0410
0.356
0.040
0.0328
0.281
Slope = 9.72
Describe how you arrived at the value for gexp that you have recorded below. A linear fit to the data is done with the acceleration a as the vertical axis and sin(ࣂ) as the horizontal axis. The slope of that fit is the value of gexp. gexp = 9.72 m/s2
% error = 0.8%
Questions 1. Would friction tend to cause your experimental value for g to be greater or less than 9.80 2
m/s ? In which direction is your error for the value for g? Could friction be the cause of your observed error? State your reasoning. Friction would tend to cause the experimental value for g to be less than 9.80 m/s2. The experimental value is less than 9.80 m/s2. Therefore friction could be a cause of the observed error.
2. The instructions for the laboratory were to obtain the value for the acceleration at each angle from the graph of the velocity versus time data. The photogate data provides a value for the acceleration as a function of time directly in a channel labeled acceleration. Examine that acceleration data for the first data run at H = 0.100 m. Based solely on the data for that one angle, explain why the acceleration determined from the velocity versus time is a superior way to measure the acceleration of the cart. For H = 0.100 m the value of sine ࣂ = H/L is 0.0820 and the value of the acceleration is a = 0.756 m/s2. Thus gexp = (0.756)/(0.0820) = 9.21 m/s2. This value does not agree with the known value of 9.80 m/s2 nearly as well as does the linear fit. 1
Acceleration Versus Sine of Angle
Acceleration (m/s squared)
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
y = 9.7169x ‐ 0.04 R² = 0.9998
0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Sine of Inclination Angle
0.08
0.1
Laboratory 5. Uniformly Accelerated Motion on the Air Table Comments to the Instructor This laboratory uses an air table with a sparktimer to produce a similar experimental arrangement to the one used in Laboratory 4. The air table is tilted to produce an inclined plane of fixed angle θ, and the position of a puck as it moves down the inclined plane is recorded with a sparktimer. The sparktimer produces many more data points per unit time than was observed in Laboratory 4, and the time interval between data points is fixed. This leads to a different analysis of the data for the laboratory compared to Laboratory 4. In this laboratory the average velocity is determined for each of the time intervals. This average velocity during each time interval is equal to the instantaneous velocity at the time corresponding to the center of the time interval. This fact is only true for uniformly accelerated motion which has a linearly increasing velocity, and it is a very crucial concept for understanding the basis of the laboratory. Students usually have a difficult time really appreciating the subtlety of this point. The data analysis is, therefore, based on the linearity of the instantaneous velocity with time. A linear least squares fit to the instantaneous velocity versus time is required, and the slope of that fit is the experimental value for the acceleration of the puck. Since the point at which the time is chosen to be t = 0 is arbitrary, the puck has some initial velocity. This is determined as the intercept of the least squares fit. The precision air tables produce data which give an extremely linear dependence of the velocity on the time. Thus a precise value for the acceleration of the puck is obtained. The acceleration of the puck, however, may be significantly affected by friction if there are any air leaks in the system. If this is true, it may cause significant error in the value determined for g, the acceleration due to gravity. Also, if too small an angle is chosen for the incline, the acceleration may be so small that friction is comparable to the acceleration produced by the
inclined plane. If these two problems are avoided, the experimental value for the acceleration due to gravity should be accurate to 10% or better.
Post Laboratory Exam Questions 1. A particle that moves in one dimension with constant acceleration has a displacementproportional to time. (a) true (b) false Answer (b) 2. The average velocity is the same as the instantaneous velocity for all types of motion. (a) true (b) false Answer (b) 3. The instantaneous velocity is proportional to time for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration. (a) true (b) false Answer (a) 4. For all types of motion the average velocity is always equal to the displacement divided by the time interval of the displacement. (a) true (b) false Answer (a) 5. In which direction will friction cause an error in the experimental value for g? (a) experimental g too large (b) experimental g too small Answer (b) 6. A puck with acceleration (a) takes time (T) to travel distance x when released from rest. A puck with acceleration (2a) takes what time to travel x when released from rest? (a) ½ T (b) 2 T (c) ¼ T (d) 0.707 T) Answer (d) 7. If the laboratory were repeated with everything else the same except the sparktimer at 20 Hz, the effect would be (a) the velocity would be larger (b) the number of intervals would be doubled (c) the number of intervals would be halved (d) the velocity would be smaller. Answer (b) 8. A student performs the laboratory with an angle of incline of 3.50°. Assuming the acceleration of gravity is 9.80 m/s2, what is the acceleration of the cart? (a) 0.476 m/s2 (b) 0.598 m/s2 (c) 0.769 m/s2 (d) 0.888 m/s2 Answer (b) 9. The point chosen for t = 0 is arbitrary. The point chosen for the analysis determines the value of (a) the acceleration (b) the initial velocity (c) the value of g (d) the angle. Answer (b)
10. A larger value for θ, the angle of inclination, will produce (approximately) (a) the same a, different g (b) same vo, same a (c) different a, different g (d) different a, same g. Answer (d)
PreLaboratory Assignment 1. The displacement is (a) always a vector, (b) a vector only if the object is at rest, (c) a vector only if the object is in motion, (d) always a scalar, (e) a scalar only if the object is in motion. Answer (a) 2. For one dimension the instantaneous velocity is always defined as Δx/Δt. (a) true (b) false Answer (b) 3. Velocity of an object is proportional to elapsed time (a) always, (b) only for positive acceleration, (c) only for negative acceleration, (d) only for constant acceleration. Answer (d) 4. Suppose that an ideal frictionless inclined plane has an angle of inclination of 5.00° with respect to the horizontal. What is the acceleration of an object sliding down that plane? Assume that the acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.80 m/s2. Show your work. Answer: a = g sin(q) = 9.80 sin(5.00º) = 9.80 (0.08716) = 0.854 m/s2 5‐7 The data below for the instantaneous velocity v versus the time t were obtained in a student experiment. Perform a linear least squares fit with v as the vertical axis and t as the horizontal axis. Determine the intercept (initial velocity vo), slope (acceleration a), and correlation coefficient (r) of the straight line. v (m/s)
0.352
0.496
0.655
0.808
0.939
1.073
t (s)
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
5. Intercept = vo = ____0.212__m/s 6. Acceleration a = ____0.727__m/s2
7. Correlation coefficient r = __0.9994___ 8. There are six data points in the Question 7 least squares fit calculation. Statistical theory states that for six data point there is a 0.1% probability that a value of correlation coefficient r ≥ 0.974 will be obtained for uncorrelated data. Compare the value of r obtained in Question 7 to 0.974. State your conclusion about the probability that these data show that the velocity is proportional to time. Answer: For 6 data points the probability is 0.1% to achieve r ≥ 0.974 for uncorrelated data. The value of r = 0.9994 shows that these data are definitely correlated and they prove that velocity is proportional to time. 9. Assume that the data of Question 5‐7 were taken for an inclined plane of angle 4.40°. Equation 5 states the acceleration is a = g sin θ. Use this equation to determine an experimental value for g from the acceleration determined in Question 6. Calculate the percentage error between this experimental value gexp and the true value of 9.80 m/s2. Answer: gexp = ____9.48_m/s2 Percentage error = __3.3_
Laboratory Report Data Table Point t (s)
x(cm)
x (m)
0
0.000
0.00
0.0000
1
0.100
1.51
0.0151
2
0.200
3.62
0.0362
3
0.300
6.44
0.0644
4
0.400
9.86
0.0986
5
0.500
13.98
0.1398
6
0.600
18.69
0.1869
7
0.700
24.08
0.2408
8
0.800
30.08
0.3008
9
0.900
36.62
0.3662
10
1.000
43.75
0.4375
11
1.100
51.54
0.5154
12
1.200
60.00
0.6000
Calculations Table Δx (m) 0.0151 0.0211 0.0282 0.0342 0.0412 0.0471 0.0539 0.0600 0.0654 0.0713 0.0779 0.0846
v (m/s) 0.151 0.211 0.282 0.342 0.412 0.471 0.539 0.600 0.654 0.713 0.779 0.846
t (s) 0.050 0.150 0.250 0.350 0.450 0.550 0.650 0.750 0.850 0.950 1.050 1.150
h = 0.0395 m
a = 0.628 m/s2
d = 0.5845 m
vo = 0.123 m/s
Δt = 0.100 s
θ = 3.87 degrees
Mass = 0.5549 kg
gexp = 9.29 m/s2
r =0.9998
% Error = 5.2 %
Questions 1. Suppose a different point had been chosen as the origin for the analysis of the data. Would this change significantly the value of the acceleration? State carefully your reasoning as to why it would or would not change. Since acceleration is constant, choosing a different point (which amounts to choosing a different time for t = 0) should not significantly change the value determined for a. Small changes might occur due to experimental uncertainty in each data point. 2. Would choosing a different point as the origin for the analysis change significantly the value of vo, the initial velocity? State carefully the reasoning for your answer. The value of the initial velocity vo will change if a different starting point is chosen for the point at which t =0. The farther along in the motion chosen for t = 0, the greater will be the value of the initial velocity. 3. How long before the time you chose as zero for your analysis was the puck actually released? (Hint‐‐‐consider the time at which v = 0 in Equation 4.) Assuming v = vo + at with the values determined gives v = 0.123 + 0.628 t. Letting v = 0 in that equation gives t = −(0.123)/(0.628) = −0.196 s. Thus the puck was released 0.196 seconds before the time chosen as t = 0. 4. There are 12 data points in the linear least squares fit to Equation 4. Statistical theory states that there is a 0.1% probability of achieving a value of r ≥ 0.823 for 12 data points of uncorrelated data. State your assessment of how well your data confirm the theory. Given that for 12 data points there is only one chance in 1000 that ≥ 0.823 for uncorrelated data, the value of r = 0.9998 indicates high probability that the data are correlated and that the velocity is proportional to time.
Puck Velocity Versus Time
1
Velocity (m/s)
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Time (s)
Laboratory 6. Kinematics in Two Dimensions on the Air Table Comments to the Instructor The puck has acceleration in the y‐direction that is a component of the acceleration due to gravity. It has no acceleration in the x‐direction except that caused by friction. It is important that the vertical axis (y axis) be correctly established by releasing a puck in vertical free‐fall. If the puck is not properly released with no initial velocity in the x direction, it may create a co‐ ordinate system which appears to have a component in the x‐direction. If there is any doubt that the puck was released properly, it should be released again near the point of the first attempt and the two tracks compared. It is critical that the x and y axes are properly constructed before any measurements are performed. A quick look around the room to determine that each group of students has properly established the axes is worthwhile. The values of x and y are to be measured from the coordinate axes and then displacements determined by subtraction. The fact that x is measured from the y axis, and y is measured from the x axis is sometimes a source of confusion. Students should be encouraged to measure all distances as carefully as possible and always to attempt to estimate to the nearest 0.1 mm. The change in the sign of the y velocity can also be a source of confusion. The change in sign arises naturally when the y values begin decreasing if the Δy’s are calculated systematically. Sometimes students simply reverse the order of subtraction and miss the point. The sign must be included in the linear least squares fit, and the graph of velocity should also reflect the fact that the direction of the puck changes at the height of its motion. When the laboratory has been performed correctly, the velocity in the x direction should be very nearly constant, and any acceleration in that direction should be 5% or less of the acceleration in the y direction.
Post Laboratory Exam Questions A particle is launched with a velocity of 20.0 m/s in a direction 35° above the horizontal axis as shown in Figure 6‐1. There is no acceleration in the x direction, but there is a downward acceleration in the negative y direction of magnitude 3.50 m/s2. Answer the following Questions (1‐5) about that motion. 1. The initial value of vx at t = 0 is (a) 16.38 m/s (b) 20.0 m/s (c) 11.47 m/s (d) 4.47 m/s. Answer (a) 2. The initial value of vy at t = 0 is (a) 16.38 m/s (b) 20.0 m/s (c) 11.47 m/s (d) 4.47 m/s. Answer (c) 3. The value of vx at t = 2.00 s is (a) 16.38 m/s (b) 20.0 m/s (c) 11.47 m/s (d) 4.47 m/s. Answer (a) 4. The value of vy at t = 2.00 s is (a) 16.38 m/s (b) 20.0 m/s (c) 11.47 m/s (d) 4.47 m/s. Answer (d) 5. The magnitude of the velocity of the particle at t = 2.00 s is (a) 14.94 m/s (b) 15.34 m/s (c) 21.00 m/s (d) 16.98 m/s. Answer (d) 6. The average velocity during a given time interval is equal to the instantaneous velocity at the center of the time interval (a) for both constant velocity and constant acceleration (b) only for constant velocity (c) only for constant acceleration (d) for neither constant velocity nor constant acceleration. Answer (a) 7. The graph of a velocity versus time for a particle with constant velocity would be (a) a parabola (b) a straight line with positive slope (c) a straight line with negative slope (d) a straight line with zero slope. Answer (d) 8. For this laboratory the acceleration in the y direction is (a) negative (b) a component of g (c) dependent on the angle of the table (d) all of the above. Answer (d) 9. In this laboratory the coordinate positions x and y were determined by (a) measuring both from the origin (b) x was measured from y axis and y was measured from x axis (c) x was
measured from x axis and y was measured from y axis (d) measuring both from the highest point in the puck's trajectory. Answer (b) 10. A projectile is launched on level ground at an angle of 40.0° above the horizontal at a speed of 25.0 m/s. How high above the ground (y) and at what horizontal distance (x) is the projectile 3.00 seconds after it is launched? Assume g = 9.80 m/s2. (a) x = 57.5 m, y = 4.11 m (b) x = 75 m, y = 48.21 m (c) x = 48.21 m, y = 44.1 m (d) x = 35.5 m, y = 27.2 m Answer (a)
PreLaboratory Assignment 1. (a) The value of vx is always positive and decreases very slightly with time. (b) The value of vx changes from positive to negative with time. (c) The value of vx is always negative and increases very slightly with time. (d) The value of vx is always positive and is constant with time. (e) The value of vx changes from negative to positive with time. Answer (d) 2. (a) The value of vy is always positive and decreases very slightly with time. (b) The value of vy changes from positive to negative with time. (c) The value of vy is always negative and increases very slightly with time. (d) The value of vy is always positive and is constant with time. (e) The value of vy changes from negative to positive with time. Answer (b) Assume now for the projectile motion shown in Figure 6‐1 that there is a very small frictional force acting on the puck. For that assumption, choose the correct statements about the motion in 3 and 4 below. 3. (a) The value of vx is always positive and decreases very slightly with time. (b) The value of vx changes from positive to negative with time. (c) The value of vx is always negative and increases very slightly with time. (d) The value of vx is always positive and is constant with time. (e) The value of vx changes from negative to positive with time. Answer (a) 4. (a) The value of ax is zero. (b) The value of ax is very small and negative. (c) The value of ax is very small and positive. (d) The value of ax changes from positive to negative. (e) The value of ax changes from negative to positive. Answer (b)
A particle moves in such a way that its co‐ordinate positions x and y as a function of time are given by the following table. x(m)
0.000
0.550
1.100
1.650
2.200
2.750
3.300
3.850
4.400
y(m)
0.000
1.425
2.700
3.825
4.800
5.625
6.300
6.825
7.200
t(s)
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
Answer the following Questions (5 through 7) with respect to these data. 5. What is the particle's average velocity in the y direction v y between t = 0.200 s and t = 0.300 s? What is v y between t = 0.400 s and t = 0.500 s? What is v y between t = 0.700 s and t = 0.800 s? Show your work. From t = 0.2 s to t = 0.3 s v y =(3.825‐2.700)/(0.1) = 11.25 m/s, from t = 0.4 s to t = 0.5 s v y =(5.625‐4.800)/(0.1) = 8.25 m/s, and from t = 0.7 s to t = 0.8 s v y =(7.200‐
6.825)/(0.1) = 3.75 m/s 6. What is the particle's average velocity in the x direction v x between t = 0.200 s and t = 0.300 s? What is v x between t = 0.400 s and t = 0.500 s? What is v x between t = 0.700 s and t = 0.800 s? Show your work. From t = 0.2 s to t = 0.3 s v x =(1.650‐1.100)/(0.1) = 5.50 m/s, from t = 0.4 s to t = 0.5 s v x =(2.750‐2.200)/(0.1) = 5.50 m/s, and from t = 0.7 s to t = 0.8 s v x =(4.400‐ 3.850)/(0.1) = 5.50 m/s 7. What is the particle's instantaneous velocity in the y direction vy at t¼0.250 s? What is vy at t¼0.450 s? What is vy at t¼0.750 s? (Hint—Assume that the average velocity during a time interval is equal to the instantaneous velocity at the center of the time interval.) Show your work. At t = 0.250 s vy is equal to the average velocity between t = 0.2 and t = 0.3 s calculated above to be equal to 11.25 m/s. At t = 0.450 s vy is equal to the average velocity between t = 0.4 and t = 0.5 s calculated above to be equal to 8.25 m/s.
Laboratory Report Data Table Calculations Table t(m) 0.000 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 1.000 1.100 1.200 1.300 1.400 1.500
x(cm) 0.00 2.59 4.90 7.31 9.79 12.18 14.53 16.99 19.32 21.76 24.10 26.50 28.82 31.16 33.60 35.92
x(m) 0.0000 0.0259 0.0490 0.0731 0.0979 0.1218 0.1453 0.1699 0.1932 0.2176 0.2410 0.2650 0.2882 0.3116 0.3360 0.3592
y(cm) 0.00 5.12 9.68 13.40 16.55 18.91 20.56 21.60 21.90 21.55 20.52 18.80 16.41 13.41 9.70 5.40
y(m) 0.0000 0.0512 0.0968 0.1340 0.1655 0.1891 0.2056 0.2160 0.2190 0.2155 0.2052 0.1880 0.1641 0.1341 0.0970 0.0540
Δt = 0.100 s
Δx(m) 0.0259 0.0231 0.0241 0.0248 0.0239 0.0235 0.0246 0.0233 0.0244 0.0234 0.0240 0.0232 0.0234 0.0244 0.0232
Δy(m) 0.0512 0.0456 0.0384 0.0315 0.0236 0.0165 0.0104 0.0030 ‐0.0035 ‐0.0103 ‐0.0172 ‐0.0239 ‐0.0300 ‐0.0371 ‐0.0430
vx(m/s) 0.259 0.231 0.241 0.248 0.239 0.235 0.246 0.233 0.244 0.234 0.240 0.232 0.234 0.244 0.232
vy(m/s) 0.512 0.456 0.384 0.315 0.236 0.165 0.104 0.030 ‐0.035 ‐0.103 ‐0.172 ‐0.239 ‐0.300 ‐0.371 ‐0.430
ax = ‐0.00782 m/s2
ay = ‐0.682 m/s2
(vx)o = ‐0.245 m/s
(vy)o = 0.548 m/s
r = ‐0.435
r = ‐0.9998
t(s) 0.050 0.150 0.250 0.350 0.450 0.550 0.650 0.750 0.850 0.950 1.050 1.150 1.250 1.350 1.450
Questions 1. Suppose a different point had been chosen as the origin for the analysis of the data. In principle would this significantly change the value of the acceleration ay? State clearly why it would or would not change the value. A different choice of origin amounts to a different choice for t = 0 which in principle will not change the value of the acceleration. A very small change might be seen due to experimental uncertainty in the data.
2. Would choosing a different point as the origin for the analysis change significantly the value of the initial velocity (vy)o? State clearly why it would or would not change. A different choice of origin would amount to different choice for t = 0, and that will affect the value of the initial velocity. Since the acceleration is negative, the value (vy)o will be smaller for a later choice of t = 0. 3. What is the equation for the magnitude of the initial velocity of the puck? Calculate the value of the initial velocity of the puck. v o = (v xo ) 2 + (v yo ) 2 so the value of vo = ( −0.245) 2 + (0.548) 2 = 0.600 m/s 4. Calculate the ratio of the magnitude of ax to the magnitude of ay. (ax)/(ay) = (0.00782)/(0.682)= 0.0115 5. The small negative value of ax is due to friction. If the ratio calculated in Question 4 is 0.02, it would indicate that friction is about a 2% effect. If the ratio were 0.01, it would indicate that friction is approximately a 1% effect. Based on your value of that ratio, estimate how large an effect friction was in your data. If ax is indeed due to friction the ratio calculated above would indicate that friction is approximately a 1.1 % effect.
X and Y Velocity Versus Time
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 Velocity (m/s)
0
0.5
1
0.1
1.5 vy vx
0
Linear (vy) Linear (vx)
-0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -0.6 Time (s)
Laboratory 7. Coefficient of Friction Comments to the Instructor The purpose of this laboratory is to demonstrate the existence of both static and kinetic friction. The friction between a wooden block and a wooden plane is investigated. The coefficient of each type of friction is determined by two methods, and the results compared. It is extremely important that only one surface is used for both the block and the wooden plane for all of the measurements. In addition, different places on the plane should be used in order to properly average over that surface. The lab has been changed in this edition to use different values of mass for the inclined data portion of the lab. This allows the student to investigate the independence of the coefficients on the normal force directly. In the part of the laboratory where values are obtained from the board in a horizontal position, the students are expected to recognize that the linearity of the graphs of M2 versus M1 demonstrate the independence of the normal force.
Post Laboratory Exam Questions 1. The relationship between μs and μk is (a) μs = μk (b) μs > μk (c) μs
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