Daoist Dietetics

Three Pines Press P. O. Box 609 Dunedin, FL 34697 \s^v\v. threepinespress.com © 2010 by Livia Kohn All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the pubhsher. 9

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First Three Pines Edition, 2010 Printed in the United States of America (8> This edition is printed on acid-free paper that meets the American National Standard Institute Z39.48 Standard. Distributed in the United States by Three Pines Press. Cover art: Private photo of Daoist porridge.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kohn, Livia, 1956Daoist dietetics : food for immortality / by Livia Kohn. — 1st Three Pines ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-931483-14-8 (alk. paper) 1. Cookery, Chinese. 2. Dietetics-China. 3. Taoism. I. Title. TX724.5.C5.K64 2010 613.20951?dc22 2010000017

INTRODUCTION PART I: MEDICINAL DIETS 1. Principles of Chinese Diet 2. Social Regulations 3. Dietary Therapy

17 33 50

PART II: DAOIST FOOD 4. What Daoists Eat 5. Food in Ritual 6. Living on Qi

71 96 117

PART III: TEXTS ON PRACTICES \. Herbal Formulas 2. Giving up Ordinary Food 3. Guiding Qi 4. Embryo Respiration

145 150 159 163

PART IV: RECIPES Notes \. Cooked Cereals 2. Appetizers 3. Salads 4. Soups 5. Stews and Noodle Soups 6. Main Dishes 7. Desserts 8. Herbal Drinks

171 172 175 178 180 183 185 189 191

BIBLIOGRAPHY

193

INDEX

209

This book grew over several years in an ongoing dialogue with my friend and colleague Ute Engelhardt. As sinology students at the University of Munich in the 1970s, we both focused on the work of Sima Chengzhen, then moved on in different directions. As I continued to explore the various modes of self-cultivation in the Daoist tradition, Ute became a specialist in Chinese dietetics, examining and presenting— usually in cooperation with practitioners of Chinese medicine —the characteristics, workings, and therapeutic application of all different kinds of food. We had variously talked about putting together a book that would bring our expertise together and when, early in 2009, her new book on Chinese dietetic recipes appeared and I visited her in Munich, we decided to move ahead on the project. Then and there, we created a preliminary book outline and began the writing process. In the event, since I had more time and could dedicate myself fully to the work, I ended up writing it myself. But her published work on dietary therapy, her continued encouragement, her sharing of references and research materials, and her corrective readings have been essential in creating Daoist Dietetics. Modesty prevented her from accepting the position of cooperator, but her presence is felt throughout the work. I would also like to thank Andreas Noll for encouraging the project and suggesting that I teach dietary methods at the TCM Congress in Rothenburg, Germany. Last, but certainly not least, Stephen Eskildsen and Vivienne Lo have been very supportive and made numerous suggestions for correction and improvement.

The body always move; your food always reduce. Moving, never reach extremes; reducing, never get to naught. Eliminate fat and heavy things; control all salt and sour tastes. Diminish thoughts and worries; lessen joy and anger. Get out of hectic rushing; watch out for sexual exhaustion. Do this always—and you'll see results! —Master Blue Ox {Yangxing yanming In 1.10b)

.

D a o i s m is special a m o n g t h e w o r l d ' s r e l i g i o n s in that it p l a c e s p a r t i c u l a r en^phasis on b o d y c u l t i v a t i o n for spiritual a t t a i n m e n t . T h i s p e c u l i a r i t y is d u e t o t h e traditional C h i n e s e c o n c e p t i o n o f the b o d y a s j o i n e d w i t h t h e greater u n i v e r s e t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m of a vital e n e r g y k n o w n as qi Qi is the c o n c r e t e aspect of D a o , the m a t e r i a l root p o w e r of t h e u n i v e r s e , the b a s i c stuff of nature. In a n c i e n t s o u r c e s it is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h mist, fog, a n d m o v i n g c l o u d s . T h e c h a r a c t e r for qi as it a p p e a r s in the o r a c l e b o n e s o f the S h a n g d y n a s t y ( 1 7 6 6 - 1 1 2 2 B.C.E.) c o n s i s t s of t w o parts: a n i m a g e o f s o m e o n e e a t i n g and grain in a pot. C o m b i n e d , t h e s e p a r t s signal qi as t h e quality w h i c h n o u r i s h e s , w a r m s , transforms, a n d rises. Qi is, therefore, t h e life force in the h u m a n b o d y a n d t h e b a s i s of all p h y s i c a l vitality, found f o r e m o s t in the air we b r e a t h e and in the f o o d s we eat. T h i s m e a n s that d i e t a r y p r a c t i c e s a r e a t the v e r y c o r e o f the D a o i s t u n d e r t a k i n g . T h e y form an essential w a y t o w a r d b e i n g h e a l t h y in the w o r l d , l i v i n g for an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d , and t r a n s c e n d i n g t o the u l t i m a t e state o f i m m o r t a l i t y .

D a o i s t s and m e d i c a l w r i t e r s i n C h i n e s e h i s t o r y h a v e f o r m u l a t e d the c o s m o l o g y o f t h e b o d y i n m a n y different t e r m s and e s t a b l i s h e d n u m e r o u s t h e o r i e s o f h o w e x a c t l y t h e v a r i o u s parts a n d a s p e c t s function a n d w o r k t o g e t h e r . W h i l e i t will b e t h e e x c i t i n g task o f future r e s e a r c h t o exp l o r e their w o r k a n d u n d e r s t a n d their c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d different h i s t o ries, it is p o s s i b l e to s u m m a r i z e the f u n d a m e n t a l tenets of the C h i n e s e v i s i o n to p r e s e n t a g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k of D a o i s t c u l t i v a t i o n p r a c t i c e , u n -

2 / Daoist Dietetics d e r s t a n d i n g fully well that this is an a p p r o x i m a t i o n and d o e s n o t c l a i m to s h o w it as an i m m u t a b l e s y s t e m of either t h e o r y or practice. T h u s , g e n e r a l l y traditional D a o i s t and m e d i c a l thinkers a g r e e that there is only o n e qi, j u s t as there is o n l y o n e D a o . M a n y u n d e r s t a n d it to c o m e in t w o forms: a b a s i c p r i m o r d i a l or p r e n a t a l qi that is i n b o r n a n d c o n n e c t s us to t h e c o s m o s and t h e D a o ; a n d a s e c o n d a r y , earthly or p o s t n a t a l qi that is r e p l e n i s h e d by b r e a t h i n g , food, as well as social and s e x u a l c o n tact and h e l p s t h e b o d y s u r v i v e in e v e r y d a y life. B o t h forms of qi are n e c e s s a r y and interact c o n s t a n t l y w i t h e a c h other, so that p r i m o r d i a l qi is lost as a n d w h e n e a r t h l y qi is insufficient, a n d e n h a n c i n g earthly qi is no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y w h e n p r i m o r d i a l qi is c o m p l e t e (as in t h e c a s e of the e m b r y o i n the w o m b ) . O n c e p e o p l e are born, they start this i n t e r c h a n g e of the t w o d i m e n s i o n s of qi a n d s o o n start losing their p r i m o r d i a l qi, e s p e c i a l l y t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the w o r l d o n the b a s i s o f p a s s i o n s a n d desires, s e n s o r y e x c h a n g e s , a n d intellectual distinction. As p e o p l e lose their p r i m o r d i a l qi, they b e g i n to d e c l i n e a n d e v e n t u a l l y die. S h o u l d t h e y l o s e it at a rather rapid or u n b a l a n c e d rate, t h e y e x p e r i e n c e a w e a k e n i n g o f their d e f e n s e s w h i c h g r o w s into m i n o r s y m p t o m s that m a y lead to a c u t e or c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n s . Just as s i c k n e s s is therefore a form of (j/-loss, so h e a l i n g is t h e r e p l e n i s h i n g of qi w i t h m e d i c a l m e a n s s u c h as d i e t a r y t h e r a p y or food c u r e s as well as drugs, herbs, a c u p u n c ture, m a s s a g e s , a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r m e a n s a t the p h y s i c i a n ' s disposal. L o n g e v i t y , next, c o m e s i n a s a n d w h e n p e o p l e h a v e b e c o m e a w a r e o f their c o n t r i b u t i o n to internal i m b a l a n c e s a n d t a k e their h e a l i n g into their o w n h a n d s . B e i n g initially h e l p e d b y m e d i c a l m e a n s , t h e n d e v e l o p i n g a life-style m o r e c o n g r u e n t with their e n e r g e t i c n e e d s , they attain a state of g o o d health. H o w e v e r , t h e y d o n o t stop there b u t p r o c e e d t o i n c r e a s e their p r i m o r d i a l qi to a n d e v e n a b o v e the level t h e y h a d at birth. To do so, t h e y f o l l o w specific d i e t a r y p r i n c i p l e s a s well a s w o r k w i t h b r e a t h i n g , h e a l i n g e x e r c i s e s {daoyin i ^ ^ l ) , self-massages, s e x u a l control, and m e d i t a t i o n s — p r a c t i c e d to a l a r g e e x t e n t t o d a y u n d e r the n a m e of q i g o n g (see K o h n 1 9 8 9 ; 2 0 0 6 ; 2 0 0 8 a ; C o h e n 1 9 9 7 ) . A p p l i e d regularly a n d s y s t e m atically, t h e s e m e t h o d s e n s u r e n o t o n l y a n e x t e n s i o n o f n a t u r a l life e x p e c t a n c y b u t often lead t o i n c r e a s e d v i g o r a n d y o u t h f u l n e s s . I m m o r t a l i t y , third, raises the p r a c t i c e s to a yet h i g h e r level. To attain it, p e o p l e h a v e to t r a n s f o r m all their qi into p r i m o r d i a l qi a n d p r o c e e d to i n c r e a s i n g l y refine it to e v e n s u b t l e r levels. T h i s finer qi will e v e n t u a l l y

2 / Daoist Dietetics d e r s t a n d i n g fully well that this is an a p p r o x i m a t i o n and d o e s not c l a i m to s h o w it as an i m m u t a b l e s y s t e m of either theory or practice. Tlius, g e n e r a l l y traditional D a o i s t and m e d i c a l thinkers agree that there is only o n e qi, j u s t as there is only o n e D a o . M a n y u n d e r s t a n d it to c o m e in t w o forms: a basic p r i m o r d i a l or p r e n a t a l qi that is inborn a n d c o n n e c t s us to t h e c o s m o s and t h e D a o ; and a s e c o n d a r y , earthly or p o s t n a t a l qi that is r e p l e n i s h e d by b r e a t h i n g , food, as well as social and s e x u a l c o n tact a n d h e l p s the b o d y s u r v i v e in e v e r y d a y life. B o t h forms of qi a r e n e c e s s a r y and interact c o n s t a n t l y w i t h e a c h other, so that p r i m o r d i a l qi is lost as and w h e n e a r t h l y qi is insufficient, a n d e n h a n c i n g e a r t h l y qi is no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y w h e n p r i m o r d i a l qi is c o m p l e t e (as in the c a s e of the e m b r y o i n the w o m b ) . O n c e p e o p l e are born, they start this i n t e r c h a n g e of t h e t w o d i m e n s i o n s of qi a n d s o o n start losing their p r i m o r d i a l qi, especially t h r o u g h interaction w i t h the w o r l d o n the b a s i s o f p a s s i o n s a n d desires, s e n s o r y e x c h a n g e s , a n d intellectual distinction. As p e o p l e lose their p r i m o r d i a l qi, t h e y b e g i n to d e c l i n e and e v e n t u a l l y die. S h o u l d they lose it at a rather r a p i d or u n b a l a n c e d rate, t h e y e x p e r i e n c e a w e a k e n i n g o f their defenses w h i c h g r o w s into m i n o r s y m p t o m s that m a y l e a d to a c u t e or c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n s . Just as s i c k n e s s is therefore a form of qi-\oss, so h e a l i n g is t h e r e p l e n i s h i n g of qi w i t h m e d i c a l m e a n s s u c h as dietary t h e r a p y or food c u r e s as well as drugs, h e r b s , a c u p u n c ture, m a s s a g e s , a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r m e a n s a t the p h y s i c i a n ' s disposal. L o n g e v i t y , next, c o m e s i n a s a n d w h e n p e o p l e h a v e b e c o m e a w a r e o f their c o n t r i b u t i o n to internal i m b a l a n c e s a n d take their h e a l i n g into their o w n h a n d s . B e i n g initially h e l p e d b y m e d i c a l m e a n s , t h e n d e v e l o p i n g a life-style m o r e c o n g r u e n t w i t h their e n e r g e t i c n e e d s , they attain a state of g o o d health. H o w e v e r , t h e y d o n o t s t o p there b u t p r o c e e d t o i n c r e a s e their p r i m o r d i a l qi to a n d e v e n a b o v e t h e level t h e y h a d at birth. To do so, t h e y f o l l o w specific d i e t a r y p r i n c i p l e s a s well a s w o r k w i t h b r e a t h i n g , h e a l i n g e x e r c i s e s {daoyin

[), self-massages, s e x u a l control, and m e d i -

t a t i o n s — p r a c t i c e d t o a large e x t e n t t o d a y u n d e r the n a m e o f q i g o n g ^ J / j (see K o h n 1 9 8 9 ; 2 0 0 6 ; 2 0 0 8 a ; C o h e n 1 9 9 7 ) . A p p l i e d regularly a n d s y s t e m atically, t h e s e m e t h o d s e n s u r e n o t only a n e x t e n s i o n o f n a t u r a l life e x p e c t a n c y b u t often lead t o i n c r e a s e d v i g o r a n d youthfulness. I m m o r t a l i t y , third, r a i s e s the p r a c t i c e s to a yet h i g h e r level. To attain it, p e o p l e h a v e to t r a n s f o r m all their qi into p r i m o r d i a l qi a n d p r o c e e d to i n c r e a s i n g l y refine it to e v e n s u b t l e r levels. T h i s finer qi will e v e n t u a l l y

Introduction / 3 turn into p u r e spirit {shen | ^ ) , w i t h w h i c h p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n c r e a s i n g l y i d e n tify t o b e c o m e spirit-people a n d i m m o r t a l s . T h e p r a c t i c e that leads t h e r e i n v o l v e s i n t e n s i v e m e d i t a t i o n a n d t r a n c e t r a i n i n g a s well a s m o r e r a d i c a l f o r m s o f diet a n d other l o n g e v i t y p r a c t i c e s . I m m o r t a l i t y i m p l i e s t h e o v e r c o m i n g o f the n a t u r a l t e n d e n c i e s o f t h e b o d y a n d its t r a n s f o r m a t i o n into a different kind of e n e r g e t i c constellation. T h e result is a b y p a s s i n g o f d e a t h s o that the e n d o f t h e b o d y h a s n o i m p a c t o n the c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e spirit-person. I t also leads t o t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f m a g i c a l p o w e r s a n d e v e n t u a l l y t o r e s i d e n c e i n the h e a v e n s a n d p a r a d i s e s o f t h e i m m o r t a l s . C h i n e s e l o n g e v i t y a n d d i e t a r y practices, as first d e s c r i b e d in m a n u s c r i p t s o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y

B.C.E.

(see H a r p e r 1 9 9 8 ; L o 2010), o c c u p y a m i d d l e

g r o u n d i n this s y s t e m . T h e y stand b e t w e e n h e a l i n g and i m m o r t a l i t y a n d a r e usefully a p p l i e d o n either level. A l t h o u g h essential a s m e d i c a l t e c h n i q u e s and in h e a l t h i m p r o v e m e n t , t h e y a l s o p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e in D a o i s m , b u t w i t h s o m e m o d i f i c a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , diets o n the m e d i c a l a n d h e a l t h levels i n v o l v e m o d e r a t i o n in food i n t a k e as well as overall life-style as well as t h e c o n s c i o u s u s e of i n h e r e n t food qualities s u c h as w a r m i n g , c o o l i n g , sinking, o r r i s i n g t o b a l a n c e s e a s o n a l c l i m a t e s , g e o g r a p h i c a l variations, and p e r s o n a l t e n d e n c i e s —either w o r k i n g in h a r m o n y w i t h t h e m o r u s i n g food t o c o u n t e r a c t their t e n d e n c i e s and allevia t e their i m p a c t . P r a c t i t i o n e r s are e n c o u r a g e d t o a v o i d e x c e s s e a t i n g a n d h e a v y foods, t o eat p r o p e r l y c o o k e d m e a l s i n s m a l l portions, a n d t o b e m e n t a l l y c a l m a n d c o n s c i o u s l y a w a r e a s t h e y eat. A s t h e y are c o n s c i e n tious in their practice, their qi c o n t i n u e s to b e c o m e s t r o n g e r and t h e y n e e d e v e r less food, until—in i m m o r t a l i t y p r a c t i c e — t h e y c a n cut o u t all m a i n staples and r e p l a c e food first b y h e r b a l and m i n e r a l c o n c o c t i o n s , then by the c o n s c i o u s intake of qi t h r o u g h b r e a t h . T h i s t e c h n i q u e is c a l l e d " a v o i d i n g g r a i n " {bigu ^f-fx) a n d is still u n d e r t a k e n today. Similarly, h e a l i n g exercises, self-massages, a n d b r e a t h i n g t e c h n i q u e s s e r v e to stretch and l o o s e n m u s c l e s , s t i m u l a t e the circulation, and aid t h e s m o o t h flow of qi in t h e b o d y . T h e y a r e n e v e r s t r e n u o u s , b u t c h a n g e in n a t u r e as p e o p l e p r o c e e d from h e a l i n g to l o n g e v i t y and i m m o r t a l i t y levels, b e c o m i n g m o r e c o s m i c i n pattern and m o r e counter-intuitive. B r e a t h i n g for health and l o n g life t h u s i n v o l v e s i n h a l i n g all the w a y to the diap h r a g m , w h i c h e x p a n d s a s o n e inhales. B r e a t h i n g for i m m o r t a l i t y , o n the o t h e r h a n d , m a y lead t o s o m e t h i n g called " r e v e r s e d b r e a t h i n g , " w h i c h u s e s the d i a p h r a g m the o p p o s i t e w a y , c o n t r a c t i n g i t o n inhalation. T h e p r a c t i c e leads e v e n t u a l l y to a m e t h o d called " e m b r y o r e s p i r a t i o n " (taixi

4 / Daoist Dietetics § P S ) / in w h i c h no o b v i o u s b r e a t h e n t e r s or l e a v e s the nostrils. Instead, practitioners a b s o r b qi t h r o u g h their entire b o d y a n d c i r c u l a t e it within. S e x u a l t e c h n i q u e s , too, are used on all levels, first with a partner, later internally in c e l i b a t e s o l o practice. In all cases, a d e p t s e x p e r i e n c e s e x u a l s t i m u l a t i o n b u t then, i n s t e a d l o s i n g it t h r o u g h o r g a s m , r e v e r t t h e rising qi of arousal, c o m m o n l y called e s s e n c e (jiiig

), and m o v e it up a l o n g

the spine w i t h the h e l p o f m e d i t a t i o n a n d m a s s a g e s . T h i s i s c a l l e d " r e verting the semen to nourish the brain" and is supposed to have strong life-extending effects. In m o r e t e c h n i c a l D a o i s t p r a c t i c e of later centuries, i t m i g h t e v e n lead t o t h e g e s t a t i o n o f a n i m m o r t a l e m b r y o (see W i l e 1992; K o h n and W a n g 2 0 0 9 ) .

B e f o r e o n e attains a n y o f t h e s e h i g h e r stages, t h o u g h , o n e h a s t o lay t h e g r o u n d w o r k . It c o n s i s t s largely of b a l a n c i n g qi. C h i n e s e m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k m a y d i s c u s s qi in t e r m s of quantity, s i n c e h a v i n g m o r e indicates a s t r o n g e r m e t a b o l i c function. This, h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t m e a n that h e a l t h o r l o n g e v i t y are a b y p r o d u c t of s t o r i n g large q u a n t i t i e s of qi. M o r e c o m m o n l y t h e y n o t e that there is a n o r m a l or h e a l t h y a m o u n t of qi in e v e r y person, a n d h e a l t h m a n i f e s t s i n its b a l a n c e a n d h a r m o n y , its m o d e r a t i o n a n d s m o o t h n e s s of flow. T h e texts e n v i s i o n this flow as a c o m p l e x syst e m of w a t e r w a y s w i t h the " O c e a n of Qi" (Qihai MIS) in the a b d o m e n ; rivers of qi f l o w i n g t h r o u g h the u p p e r torso, arms, a n d legs; s p r i n g s of qi r e a c h i n g to the w r i s t s a n d a n k l e s ; a n d w e l l s of qi in the fingers a n d toes. E v e n a s m a l l s p o t in this c o m p l e x s y s t e m c a n influence t h e w h o l e , so that o v e r a l l b a l a n c e a n d s m o o t h n e s s are the g e n e r a l goal. H u m a n life is t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of qi; death is its dispersal. After receivi n g a c o r e p o t e n t i a l of p r i m o r d i a l qi at birth, p e o p l e t h r o u g h o u t life n e e d t o s u s t a i n it. T h e y d o s o b y d r a w i n g p o s t n a t a l q i into t h e b o d y from air a n d food, a s well a s from o t h e r p e o p l e t h r o u g h sexual, e m o t i o n a l , a n d social interaction. B u t t h e y also lose qi t h r o u g h b r e a t h i n g b a d air, o v e r b u r d e n i n g their b o d i e s w i t h food a n d drink, a n d getting i n v o l v e d i n n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n s a n d e x c e s s i v e s e x u a l o r social interactions. To b a l a n c e qi, it is thus b e s t to b r e a t h e d e e p l y a n d e a t m o d e r a t e l y in acc o r d a n c e w i t h the s e a s o n s , t o m o v e s m o o t h l y , e x e r c i s e w i t h o u t exertion, a n d m a t c h activities t o the b o d y ' s n e e d s . T h i s i s h o w o n e k e e p s h a r m o n y , m a i n t a i n s health, a n d a c h i e v e s l o n g life. H e a l t h i n the v i s i o n o f C h i n e s e

Introduction / 5 m e d i c i n e a n d D a o i s m is thus m o r e t h a n t h e a b s e n c e of s y m p t o m s : it is the p r e s e n c e of s t r o n g vitality a n d of a s m o o t h , h a r m o n i o u s , a n d active flow of qi, a state k n o w n as " p r o p e r qi" {zhengqi j E ^ ) . Its o p p o s i t e is " w a y w a r d qi" {xieqi MMd< V that h a s lost t h e h a r m o n i o u s pattern o f flow and n o l o n g e r s u p p o r t s t h e d y n a m i c forces o f c h a n g e . W h e r e a s p r o p e r qi m o v e s in a steady, h a r m o n i o u s r h y t h m and effects daily r e n e w a l , h e l p i n g h e a l t h a n d l o n g life, w a y w a r d qi is d i s o r d e r l y and dysfunctional, c r e a t i n g c h a n g e that v i o l a t e s the n o r m a l order. W h e n i t b e c o m e s d o m i n a n t , the (^i-flow c a n turn u p o n itself and d e p l e t e t h e b o d y ' s r e s o u r c e s . T h e n the p e r s o n n o l o n g e r o p e r a t e s a s p a r t o f a u n i v e r sal s y s t e m and is n o t in t u n e with the b a s i c life force. W a y w a r d n e s s typically a p p e a r s w h e n qi b e g i n s to m o v e either t o o fast or t o o slow, is e x c e s sive or d e p l e t e d , or c r e a t e s r u s h e s or obstructions. It d i s t u r b s t h e r e g u l a r t l o w and c a u s e s a i l m e n t s .

M o r e specifically, qi can b e c o m e e x c e s s i v e t h r o u g h o u t s i d e influences s u c h a s t o o m u c h h e a t o r c o l d o r t h r o u g h inside p a t t e r n s s u c h a s t o o m u c h e m o t i o n o r s t i m u l a t i o n . E x c e s s i v e q i c a n b e m o v i n g too fast o r b e v e r y sluggish, a s i n the c a s e o f e x c e s s i v e d a m p n e s s . W h a t e v e r t h e c a s e , from a u n i v e r s a l p e r s p e c t i v e there is no a d d i t i o n a l or n e w qi c r e a t e d , b u t l o c a l i z e d d i s h a r m o n i e s h a v e arisen b e c a u s e t h e qi-i\ow h a s b e c o m e e x c e s s i v e a n d thus h a r m f u l . Still, e v e n d e s c r i b i n g it in this w a y we are t h i n k i n g in t e r m s of qi as an e n e r g e t i c s u b s t a n c e , w h i c h it really is not. A b e t t e r w a y o f e x p r e s s i o n w o u l d b e t o s a y that the p r o c e s s itself o f t u r n i n g h o t or a n g r y is qi, that the w a y t h i n g s m o v e a n d c h a n g e is w h a t c o n s t i tutes o u r b e i n g qi. Similarly, qi c a n be in depletion. T h i s m a y m e a n that there is a t e n s e flow of qi d u e to n e r v o u s n e s s or anxiety, or that the v o l u m e a n d d e n s i t y of qi h a v e d e c r e a s e d , w h i c h i s the c a s e i n s e r i o u s p r o l o n g e d illness. H o w e v e r , m o r e c o m m o n l y it m e a n s that t h e qi activity level is lower, that its flow is n o t quite up to s t a n d a r d , that there is less than n o r m a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n of qi in o n e or the o t h e r b o d y part. In the s a m e vein, p e r f e c t i o n of qi m e a n s

6 / Daoist Dietetics t h e o p t i m a l functioning of qi in the b o d y , w h i l e c o n t r o l of qi m e a n s t h e p o w e r to consciously guide the energetic process. T h a t is to say, h e a l i n g is the c o r r e c t i o n of qi-i\ow from a d e v i a n t or w a y w a r d pattern b a c k to a h a r m o n i o u s or c o r r e c t flow, m a t c h i n g the r h y t h m o f D a o , c r e a t i n g w e l l - b e i n g i n t h e p e r s o n , and a i d i n g social interactions. L o n g e v i t y is the e n h a n c e m e n t and s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the p r o p e r flow of qi, a l l o w i n g p e o p l e t o fully g o a l o n g w i t h all the m o v e m e n t s o f D a o i n order to enjoy health, retain vigor, a n d live l o n g a n d successful lives. I m m o r tality, finally, is the m o v e t o w a r d D a o as t h e c r e a t i v e p o w e r at the center of the universe, t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of p r o p e r , h e a l t h y , a n d h a r m o n i o u s qi into the subtler levels of c o s m i c p o w e r , into a m y s t e r i o u s a n d ineffable state o f b e i n g that g o e s far b e y o n d the n a t u r a l w o r l d . E a t i n g and drinki n g are at t h e v e r y c e n t e r of this qi-work, an essential w a y of relating to n a t u r e a n d society, a k e y m e t h o d o f h e l p i n g o r h u r t i n g t h e b o d y ' s internal s y s t e m s a n d t h u s either e n h a n c i n g or d i m i n i s h i n g health, l o n g life, and immortality.

'7H S 5 ; B y n u m 1 9 8 7 ; B r u m b e r g 1 9 8 8 ) . C l a s s , caste, race, g e n d e r , status, a n d 33

34 / Medicinal Diets a g e all h a v e t o d o w i t h w h o h a s a c c e s s t o w h a t k i n d s o f food, l e a d i n g t o c o n s u m p t i o n p a t t e r n s that are i n h e r e n t l y social a n d political ( C o u n i h a n 1999 8). F o o d defines s o c i a l c o n t e x t . Often f a m i l y m e a n s the g r o u p o f p e o p l e w h o s h a r e the s a m e h e a r t h ; feeding a s t r a n g e r g i v e s h i m the benefit of h o s p i tality; a n d food offerings define the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p e o p l e a n d their g o d s ( C o u n i h a n 1 9 9 9 , 1 5 - 1 7 ) . T h e refusal o f food i n p r o l o n g e d fasting, m o r e o v e r , often s e r v e s t o reject s o c i e t y w h i l e d e v e l o p i n g a l t e r n a t i v e social s t r u c t u r e s a n d c o n c e p t u a l realities. F o o d h e r e , r a t h e r than b e i n g a form of p h y s i c a l s u s t e n a n c e , is s e e n n e g a t i v e l y as a v e h i c l e for m o r t a l i t y : its a v o i d a n c e e n a b l e s p r a c t i t i o n e r s " t o t r a n s c e n d their m u n d a n e a n d e a r t h l y s e l v e s i n t h e q u e s t for p i e t y o r p e r f e c t i o n " ( C o u n i h a n 1 9 9 9 , 9 8 - 9 9 ) . A l l t h e s e g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s a l s o a p p l y t o C h i n e s e a n d D a o i s t food. C o n s c i o u s l y s t r u c t u r e d from antiquity, food in C h i n a signified social realities, a n d different s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e c o n n e c t e d t o m o r a l realities ( S t e r c k x 2 0 0 5 , 5 3 ) . T h e e m p e r o r ' s b o d y b e i n g a m a j o r c o n d u i t for t h e will o f H e a v e n , n o u r i s h i n g i t m e a n t t o s u p p o r t the p r o p e r g o v e r n a n c e o f t h e w o r l d , e n a b l e d b y the c o n t i n u o u s v i g i l a n c e o f n u m e r o u s c o u r t p h y s i c i a n s a n d nutritionists ( L o 2 0 0 5 , 1 6 5 - 6 6 ) . Different foodstuffs w e r e e m p l o y e d i n different c o n t e x t s , c h a n g i n g o v e r h i s t o r y a s the e c o n o m y d e v e l o p e d a n d n e w i t e m s b e c a m e a c c e s s i b l e a n d fashionable. A l s o n e w s e t t i n g s u n f o l d e d (e.g., m o n a s t e r i e s ) , a n d t a b o o s o f v a r i o u s sorts c a m e t o e x p r e s s n e w l y a r i s i n g fears a n d p r e f e r e n c e s . In addition, social c o n s t r u c t s of life c y c l e s a n d e x p e c t a n c y as well as efforts to i n c r e a s e l o n g e v i t y h a d a distinct i m p a c t on t h e k i n d s of foods p e o p l e w e r e s u p p o s e d t o eat a n d c o m b i n a t i o n s they b e t t e r a v o i d e d . S o m e foodstuffs, n o t a b l y t h i n g s p r e s e r v e d b y d r y i n g , p i c k l i n g , o r ferm e n t i n g , a s well a s i t e m s that h a d a n i n h e r e n t toxicity, w e r e p r o h i b i t e d o r c o u l d o n l y b e t a k e n u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s . O t h e r social t a b o o s i n c l u d e the c o n s u m p t i o n o f c e r t a i n a n i m a l s c o n s i d e r e d d i r t y o r o f h u m a n flesh, a l t h o u g h that t a b o o v a r i e d o v e r the years. T h e C h i n e s e c a l e n d a r , a c o m p l e x m i x t u r e o f s o l a r a n d l u n a r features, m o r e o v e r w a s i m p o r t a n t n o t o n l y i n defining t h e s e a s o n s b u t also the a s t r o l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s o f p e o p l e a n d foodstuffs. A l r e a d y f o r m u l a t e d i n Han-dynasty almanacs unearthed at Shuihudi (Loewe 1988; Lo 2005, 1 7 8 ) , m a n y o f its r e g u l a t i o n s d e a l w i t h the y e a r o f o n e ' s b i r t h o r that o f o n e ' s p a r e n t s a s w e l l a s w i t h c e r t a i n k i n d s o f food a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

36 / Medicinal Diets t h r o u g h C e n t r a l A s i a into India, a n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t n e w foods b e c a m e c o m m o n ( A n d e r s o n 1 9 8 8 , 3 4 ) . T h e y i n c l u d e d grape, alfalfa, p o m e g r a n a t e , w a l n u t , s e s a m e , onion, c a r a w a y s e e d s , peas, c o r i a n d e r , and c u c u m b e r , as well as d r a g o n fruit a n d litchi, fruits t o d a y t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h C h i n a (Yii 1977, 8 0 ) . In t e r m s of t e c h n o l o g y , it w a s u n d e r the H a n that s o y b e a n s w e r e b o i l e d a n d p r e s s e d for the first time, c r e a t i n g the w i d e - s p r e a d s o y m i l k a n d its derivative, tofu. T h e y w e r e also f e r m e n t e d a n d m a d e into a k i n d of relish k n o w n as shi ^ e a t e n b o t h as a s n a c k and u s e d as a c o n d i m e n t . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e at this t i m e i n v o l v e d the m i l l i n g o f g r a i n s into flour, p r o b a b l y b a s e d o n t e c h n o l o g y i m p o r t e d from w e s t e r n A s i a , w h i c h a l l o w e d t h e creation o f v a r i o u s kinds o f c a k e s and t h e earliest n o o d l e s , m a d e m a i n l y from w h e a t . N o o d l e s (mian | i ) and s t e a m e d b u n s (mantou

lisi)

as well as b a k e d c a k e s {bing

tJf)

became

p o p u l a r a t the t i m e (Yii 1977, 8 1 ; H u a n g 2 0 0 0 , 4 6 2 - 8 4 ) . T h e s a m e trend c o n t i n u e d i n t h e T a n g d y n a s t y , w h e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n tacts w e r e intensified a n d t e c h n o l o g y a d v a n c e d . In a d d i t i o n to m i l l e t and w h e a t , rice b e c a m e m o r e easily accessible, and b a r l e y w a s u s e d m o r e w i d e l y . N e w p l a n t f o o d s i n c l u d e d r h u b a r b , w a t e r m a l l o w , celery, nasturt i u m s , a s p a r a g u s , parsley, shallots, as well as v a r i o u s k i n d s of a l g a e and s e a w e e d s . E x o t i c fruits i m p o r t e d from C e n t r a l A s i a a n d t h e tropical s o u t h w e r e n e w varieties o f p e a c h a s well a s cherries, p l u m s , apricots, pears, c r a b a p p l e , q u i n c e , o r a n g e s , t a n g e r i n e s , b a n a n a s a n d m a n y m o r e . T h e r e w e r e also t h e fruits o f v a r i o u s p a l m trees, olives a n d v a r i o u s kinds o f n u t s a n d seeds, a s well a s n u m e r o u s different types o f a n i m a l p r o d ucts,

consumed

especially

among

the

wealthier

and noble

classes

(Schafer 1977, 8 9 - 9 9 ) . A t t h e s a m e time, p r e s e r v a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a d v a n c e d , i n c l u d i n g drying, s m o k i n g , a n d f e r m e n t i n g , as well as p i c k l i n g in b r i n e , salt, v i n e g a r , b r a n , oil, chili, a n d v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s thereof. F o o d s c o u l d b e liquidp a c k e d o r dried, s e a l e d o r u n s e a l e d w i t h v a r i o u s spices, s t r o n g i n flavor o r v e r y m i l d . G r a p e s , for e x a m p l e , c o u l d b e p a r c h e d , crinkled, o r dried a n d s p i c e d to create a large v a r i e t y of r a i s i n - b a s e d d i s h e s ( A n d e r s o n 1 9 8 8 , 167; Schafer 1977, 113-16; H u a n g 2 0 0 0 , 3 7 9 - 4 2 9 ) . M i l k , e s p e c i a l l y from g o a t s a n d h o r s e s b u t also from p a l m s a n d a l m o n d s , b e c a m e m o r e widely available due to contact with northern Asian peoples. It was m o d i f i e d i n m a n y w a y s ; c u r d l e d into c a k e s like tofu, f e r m e n t e d into k u m i s a n d y o g u r t , k a y m a k a n d c l o t t e d c r e a m , a s well a s clarified b u t t e r ( m a d e from c o a g u l a t e d m i l k oils) (Schafer 1977, 1 0 6 ) .

Social Regulations / 37 7 ^ m a k e foods m o r e p a l a t a b l e , T a n g p e o p l e e m p l o y e d s w e e t e n e r s a n d s r i c e s . S w e e t e n e r s i n c l u d e d v a r i o u s k i n d s o f h o n e y a s well a s s u g a r c a n e , sugar b e e t s , raisin tree extracts, and m a l t o s e , " a k i n d o f m a l t s u g a r d e r.ved from g e r m i n a t i n g g r a i n s " (Schafer 1977, 1 0 8 ) . A m o n g spices, h o t r-epper c o r n s — t h e s e e d s of a p l a n t k n o w n as fagara (jiao t K ) — w e r e m o s t popular. T h e y c a m e i n v a r i o u s local v a r i e t i e s a s well a s i n i m p o r t e d form rrom Persia, s u c h a s o u r b l a c k p e p p e r , then k n o w n a s " b a r b a r i a n f a g a r a " '-.u-:ao SfJtU). S o m e Indian-style s p i c e s s u c h as c a r d a m o m , n u t m e g , a n d : u m i n too m a d e their w a y t o C h i n a , s o that curry-like d i s h e s b e c a m e available (Schafer 1 9 7 7 , 1 1 0 - 1 1 ) . •_"nlike in the H a n a n d T a n g , w h e n t h e m a i n i m p a c t on the d e v e l o p m e n t : : C h i n e s e c u i s i n e c a m e from foreign c o n t a c t s , t h e S o n g s a w m a j o r ;r.anges i n d o m e s t i c e c o n o m y a n d infrastructure. A s the aristocratic elite was r e p l a c e d b y a n e d u c a t e d b u r e a u c r a c y a n d t h e m e r c h a n t c l a s s g r e w .r. importance, agricultural t e c h n o l o g y t r a n s f o r m e d . R o a d s and w a t e r wavs w e r e e x p a n d e d s o m o r e g o o d s c o u l d p a s s m o r e easily from o n e region to another. As a result, b o t h rice a n d t e a — p r o m i n e n t in s o u t h e r n C h i n a a n d d e l i c a c i e s for the u p p e r classes b e f o r e — b e c a m e w i d e s p r e a d all over t h e c o u n t r y w h i l e m a n y local foods g r e w to n a t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e . A s M i c h a e l F r e e m a n says, " S o n g c o o k s w e r e the b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f t w i n revolutions, in agriculture a n d in c o m m e r c e , a n d enjoyed, e s p e c i a l l y in the t w o c a p i t a l s [Kaifeng and H a n g z h o u ] , a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d a b u n d a n c e that p r o b a b l y m a d e city d w e l l e r s t h e best-fed m a s s p o p u l a t i o n i n w o r l d r i s t o r y u p t o that t i m e " ( 1 9 7 7 , 1 4 3 ) . O n e major r o l e in t h e s e c h a n g e s w a s the i m p o r t of a n e w , faster r i p e n i n g and drought-resistant strain of rice from C h a m p a , a H i n d u k i n g d o m in w h a t is t o d a y C e n t r a l V i e t n a m .

It m a d e d o u b l e - c r o p p i n g possible,

greatly i n c r e a s e d the yield of the fields, a n d s u p p o r t e d the p o p u l a t i o n e x p l o s i o n w h i c h led to an overall i n c r e a s e from 1 0 0 to 1 5 0 m i l l i o n in the course of the S o n g d y n a s t y . In addition, s o r g h u m (gaoliang ^'^) b e c a m e a\'ailable for the first time, useful as a n i m a l fodder a n d for distilling into hard liquor. A n o t h e r m a j o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o c c u r r e d t h r o u g h c h a n g e s i n infrastructure a n d t h e c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f food. M a r k e t s g r e w m a s s i v e l y , s o that H a n g z h o u a l o n e h a d ten h u g e s q u a r e s for trading. A s M a r c o P o l o n o t e s , "on each of t h e said s q u a r e s t h r e e d a y s a w e e k there is c o n c o u r s e of from forty t o fifty t h o u s a n d p e r s o n s w h o c o m e t o m a r k e t a n d b r i n g e v e r y thing y o u c a n desire for food, b e c a u s e t h e r e is a l w a y s a great s u p p l y of

38 / Medicinal Diets v i c t u a l s " ( M o u l e a n d Pelliot 1 9 3 8 , 3 2 8 ; F r e e m a n 1977, 1 4 9 ) . V a r i e t y inc r e a s e d drastically a n d m a n y different k i n d s o f food b e c a m e available t o p e o p l e from all w a l k s of life. B o t h rich and p o o r ate pork, l a m b , and kid a s well a s h o r s e m e a t , beef, v e n i s o n , a n d v a r i o u s k i n d s o f g a m e , poultry, fish, and shellfish. V e g e t a b l e s , es peci al l y in the south, w e r e fresh all y e a r r o u n d a n d p r e s e r v e d in m a n y w a y s for t h e c o l d e r regions. Fruit of an a m a z i n g variety w a s a c o m m o n e l e m e n t in t h e S o n g diet a n d eaten at all t i m e s , b e f o r e a n d after m e a l s , i n s u m m e r a n d i n w i n t e r ( F r e e m a n 1 9 7 7 , 1 5 4 - 5 5 ) . T h e r e s t a u r a n t c u l t u r e flourished a n d b o t h c a t e r i n g i n family style a n d specialty c o o k i n g b e c a m e w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e t o satisfy social needs and pleasures. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e S o n g d y n a s t y also b e c a m e t h e first m a j o r p e r i o d that s a w a w i d e - s p r e a d t a b o o a g a i n s t e a t i n g beef, partly d u e to religious or spiritual r e a s o n s — s i n c e it a l l o w e d p e o p l e to b e l o n g to i n c r e a s i n g l y p o p u l a r " v e g e t a r i a n " sects yet a c c e p t social n o r m s a n d still eat pork— b u t also t o p r e s e r v e the e c o n o m i c a l l y essential w a t e r buffalo ( G o o s s a e r t 2 0 0 5 , 2 4 0 - 4 1 ) . D a o i s t s i n par t i cul ar t a b o o e d b e e f t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e "three revolting animals"

(sanyaii H R :

wild g o o s e , dogs, a n d a q u a t i c c r e a t u r e s

like eels a n d turtles) a n d e m p h a s i z e d the p o w e r o f these foods t o invite d e m o n s a n d p e s t i l e n c e into o n e ' s life ( G o o s s a e r t 2 0 0 5 , 2 4 3 ) . F o r m a n y centuries, until the anti-superstition c a m p a i g n e n d e d the p o p u l a r t e m p l e culture in 1898, only ethnic non-Chinese, Muslims, vagrants, criminals, and Confucian fundamentalists c o n s u m e d beef in China (Goossaert 2005, 245, 248).

T h e M o n g o l c o n q u e s t i n t h e thirteenth c e n t u r y f o l l o w e d b y t h e w a r s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e M i n g d y n a s t y ( 1 3 6 8 - 1 6 4 4 ) led t o a s e v e r e r e d u c t i o n in economic productivity and a shrinking population, which went b a c k t o a b o u t 1 0 0 million. W h i l e C h i n e s e c u i s i n e b y a n d large r e m a i n e d stable a n d traditional, t h e foreign rulers i n t r o d u c e d c e r t a i n M o n g o l i a n a n d M i d d l e E a s t e r n w a y s of eating. T h e s e are d o c u m e n t e d in the Yinshan zhengyao

$XM^W

( Pr i nci pl es o f C o r r e c t Diet; dat. 1330) b y H u S i h u i

^•M,, w h i c h a l s o details t h e m e d i c a l u s e s of food (Buell a n d A n d e r s o n 2000; Sabban 1986). Another important document of the same period is t h e Yinshi xuzhi

i^:ft|l^n

( E s s e n t i a l K n o w l e d g e for E a t i n g a n d D r i n k i n g ;

dat. 1 3 6 8 ) b y Jia M i n g Mi^ w h i c h p r e s e n t s d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t s o f w h a t

Social Regulations / 39 4 : r . i ; o f food s u p p o r t life i n w h a t forms o f p r e p a r a t i o n ( M o t e 1977, 2 2 5 :-? H u a n g 2 0 0 0 , 1 3 7 - 3 8 ) . "'-i ^ h n g dynasty, p r e s e r v i n g p e a c e for s e v e r a l centuries, s u p p o r t e d ---;-.'.ed g r o w t h a n d m a d e i n r o a d s i n t e c h n o l o g y a n d food availability. i :r h y d r a u l i c projects p r e v e n t e d flooding in l o w - l y i n g a r e a s and c r e z:id n e w lands for c u l t i v a t i o n w h i l e c o n t a c t w i t h W e s t e r n m i s s i o n a r i e s r - o d u c e d n e w foods from the A m e r i c a s , n o t a b l y m a i z e , p o t a t o e s , t o m a - >;-s and p e a n u t s ( k n o w n earlier b u t p o p u l a r i z e d at this t i m e ) . T h e c o u r t s u p p o r t e d major e n c y c l o p e d i c projects, w h i c h i ns pi r ed L i S h i z h e n (1518-1593) to compile an encompassing handbook on herbal : : ™ . u l a s and foodstuffs, the Bencao gangmu

(Systematic Mate-

r-.a M e d i c a ) , w h o s e 1 1 , 0 9 6 p r e s c r i p t i o n s still form an i m p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e : : s i a v (Lo 2 0 0 5 , 1 7 5 ; a l s o U n s c h u l d 1 9 8 6 ; N e e d h a m 1 9 8 6 ; M e t a i l i e 2 0 0 1 ) . ~ r e s e overall t e n d e n c i e s c o n t i n u e d u n d e r t h e Q i n g , w i t h the m a i n difTirence that t h e p o p u l a t i o n e x p l o d e d o n c e again, rising to 4 5 0 m i l l i o n by :r.e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h century. T h i s led to a vast i n c r e a s e in f a m i n e s a n d rebellions — w h i c h of c o u r s e further d i s r u p t e d the food supply. M o r e pvople lived o n n e w c r o p s o f m a i z e , potatoes, and s w e e t potatoes, w h i l e 'sxe share of rice d r o p p e d from 70 to 36 p e r c e n t of overall food p r o d u c r.on ( S p e n c e 1 9 7 7 , 2 6 3 , 2 7 1 ) . ~?.e m o d e r n a g e h a s b r o u g h t a v a r i e t y of food d e v e l o p m e n t s , m a i n l y r e c a u s e o f t o political events. W h i l e C h i n e s e food h a s s p r e a d all o v e r t h e •.•.orld d u e t o i n c r e a s e d e m i g r a t i o n (see W u and C h e u n g 2 0 0 2 ; R o b e r t s 2 0 0 2 ) , C h i n a itself u n d e r w e n t v a r i o u s p e r i o d s o f turbulence, n o t a b l y i n the early t w e n t i e t h century, d u r i n g the J a p a n e s e invasion, and in W o r l d '•'.'ar II, w h i c h lead to w i d e s p r e a d s h o r t a g e s and famines. So did t h e Great L e a p F o r w a r d in t h e late 1 9 5 0 s a n d e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s ( A n d e r s o n a n d A n d e r s o n 1 9 7 7 , 3 5 1 ) . A t all other t i m e s C h i n a e x p e r i e n c e d a n a b u n d a n c e :t food a n d e x p a n s i o n of diet, b o t h t h r o u g h foreign c o n t a c t and a d \ a n c e d t e c h n o l o g y . E n h a n c e d foreign trade b r o u g h t v a r i o u s n e w a n d h i g h l y p o p u l a r v e g e t a b l e s into t h e country, such as carrots from E u r o p e , e g g p l a n t s from India,

o k r a from Africa, a n d c i l a n t r o from M e x i c o

A n d e r s o n a n d A n d e r s o n 1977, 3 3 1 ) . A d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g y , w h i l e i n c r e a s i n g food p r o d u c t i o n a n d thus s u p porting yet a n o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n explosion, e s p e c i a l l y u n d e r t h e C o m m u nists, h a s also h a d its d o w n s i d e s . T h e m o s t o b v i o u s i s t h e t e n d e n c y t o alter and d e n a t u r e foodstuffs, o f w h i c h the m o s t b l a t a n t e x a m p l e i s the

40 / Medicinal Diets p o l i s h i n g o f rice and b l e a c h i n g o f w h e a t flour that b e g a n i n C h i n a i n t h e late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( A n d e r s o n a n d A n d e r s o n 1977, 3 4 5 ) . M o d e r n b i o e n g i n e e r i n g often r e d u c e s t h e nutritional v a l u e o f b a s i c s t a p l e s and enc o u r a g e s t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f e m p t y calories, t h u s l e a d i n g t o n e w a n d i n c r e a s e d h e a l t h p r o b l e m s , s u c h a s h y p e r t e n s i o n , diabetes, and obesity. Not i m m u n e to these development, Chinese eating habits have underg o n e a s e r i o u s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y in t h e last few d e c a d e s . W h a t Eugene and Marja Anderson note about H o n g K o n g in the 1970s holds v e r y m u c h t r u e for C h i n a today: At an equal pace with improvement in quality and availability of food has been a pernicious sort of Westernization, involving low-extraction flour, highly polished rice, and above all white sugar in all its forms. . . . The tendency now is to eat less fmit and vegetables, more fat and flour and sugar. Soft drinks, candy, cookies, factory-made cakes (essentially unenriched flour, white sugar, and cheap cooking oil), and the like, have come to constitute a major part of diet. (1977, 353) I n m a n y w a y s , therefore, n o t only W e s t e r n e r s b u t t h e C h i n e s e t h e m s e l v e s c a n b e n e f i t g r e a t l y from traditional dietetic w i s d o m t o m a i n t a i n h e a l t h a n d r e a c h v i g o r o u s l o n g e v i t y . O n e s t e p i n that direction i s t h e inc r e a s e d p o p u l a r i t y o f B u d d h i s t restaurants, w h i c h are strictly v e g e t a r i a n a n d u s e m o r e o r g a n i c and w h o l e foods, e s p e c i a l l y i n T a i w a n b u t i n c r e a s i n g l y also on the m a i n l a n d . A n o t h e r is the s p r e a d of m e d i c i n a l restaur a n t s s e r v i n g m e d i c a t e d d i s h e s (yaoshan MM) that b o l s t e r a n d tonify qi as part of nutritional t h e r a p y {shiliao^^) or p e r s o n a l self-care {ziwo baojian

\^nUm)

( F a r q u h a r 2 0 0 2 , 51).

T h e a i m o f t h e s e m e d i c a t e d d i s h e s i s t o b a l a n c e yin and yang, s t r e n g t h e n t h e constitution, p r e v e n t a n d treat diseases, a n d l e n g t h e n life. M a n y o f the specialized restaurants cater particularly to middle-aged men, helpi n g t h e m to s u p p l e m e n t qi, p r e v e n t the d e p l e t i o n s e x u a l e s s e n c e , a n d g e n e r a l l y i m p r o v e t h e functioning o f their o r g a n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e k i d n e y s . D i s h e s i n c l u d e r e g u l a r foodstuffs, s u p p l e m e n t e d b y (^/-enhancing herbs, s u c h a s g i n s e n g , a s t r a l a g u s , s c h i s a n d r a , c h r y s a n t h e m u m , fennel, h a w thorn, a n d A s i a n c o r n e l i a n c h e r r y ( F a r q u h a r 2 0 0 2 , 6 0 ) .

Social Regulations / 41

C h m e s e d i e t a r y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s literally e x t e n d from w o m b t o t o m b , "jit as a c h i l d b o r n in C h i n a is a l r e a d y a y e a r old, so the influence of rood o n h u m a n life b e g i n s b e f o r e birth ( D e s p e u x 2 0 0 7 , 2 5 ) . T o n o u r i s h the g r o w i n g e m b r y o , p r e g n a n t w o m e n m u s t p r a c t i c e "fetal e d u c a t i o n " :.;:';ao

fjoi^),

.Iready

t a k i n g g o o d c a r e of t h e m s e l v e s a n d their nutrition.

the M a w a n g d u i m a n u s c r i p t

Taichan shu

^j^-.^f

(Book of Em-

ryonic G e n e r a t i o n ) says: In the first month, it is called "flowing into the form." Food and drink must be the finest; the sour boiled dishes must be thoroughly cooked. Do not eat acrid or rank foods. This is called "internal fixture." In the second month, it first becomes lard. Do not eat acrid or stinking foods. The dwelling place must be still. For a boy, there must be no exertion, lest the hundred joints ail ail. This is called "first deposition." In the third month, it first become suet and appears like a gourd. During this time, it does not have a fixed configuration and if exposed to things it transforms. For this reason, lords, sires, and great men must not employ dwarves. Do not observe monkeys. Do not eat onion and ginger. Do not eat a rabbit boiled dish. (Harper 1998, 378-79; Lo 2005,180) D u r i n g p r e g n a n c y , qi t e n d s to flow m o s t s t r o n g l y in the c h a n n e l s that run a l o n g t h e front a n d c e n t e r of the torso —the earliest a n d m o s t foundational v e s s e l s o f the h u m a n b o d y , from w h i c h t h e e m b r y o g r o w s . T h e y are

the

chongmai

Conception

t4^M).

Vessel

{renmai { i M )

and

the

Penetrating

Vessel

S i n c e all o t h e r c h a n n e l s a r e less active, there is a ten-

d e n c y t o w a r d a w e a k n e s s of y\n-qi a n d xweJlTl ( b l o o d ) , e s p e c i a l l y in the first trimester. T o off-set this t e n d e n c y , p r e g n a n t w o m e n s h o u l d e n h a n c e the liver a n d its related s y s t e m b y f a v o r i n g s o y b e a n s , p i n e nuts, t o m a toes, spinach, a n d eggs, a n d a v o i d i n g a n y o v e r l y y a n g foods, s u c h a s spicy, hot, and d r y i t e m s as well as caffeine a n d a l c o h o l . A l s o , t h e y should m o d e r a t e their intake o f ginger, c i n n a m o n , p e p p e r , a n d g a m e (Engelhardt and Nogel 2009, 39). .-\fter g i v i n g birth, t r a d i t i o n a l l y a n d still today, w o m e n are n o t a l l o w e d to do a n y w o r k or exert t h e m s e l v e s for an entire m o n t h . W h i l e l a r g e l y feeding on c h i c k e n and c h i c k e n s o u p in all p o s s i b l e variations, t h e y

42 / Medicinal Diets s h o u l d a l s o m a k e sure that their xue ( b l o o d ) d o e s n o t s t a g n a t e b y t a k i n g s o m e l e e k s a n d a d z u k i b e a n s . B r e a s t f e e d i n g , m o r e o v e r , t a k e s a lot of ene r g y o u t o f the b o d y w h i l e n o u r i s h i n g the n e w b o r n b a b y . I t i s b e s t t o eat h i g h l y n o u r i s h i n g yet e a s i l y d i g e s t i b l e foods for this p u r p o s e . A g a i n , h o t a n d s p i c y as well as cold, sour, a n d c o n t r a c t i n g f o o d s are b e s t a v o i d e d . T h e s a m e g o e s also for c o o l i n g and r a w foods, s u c h a s m e l o n s a n d b a nanas (Engelhardt and Nogel 2009, 39). A l l t h e s e are rather a n c i e n t g u i d e l i n e s . T h u s t h e fourth-century Yangsheng yaoji in its section on p r e g n a n c y , like the M a w a n g d u i m a n u s c r i p t s , d i s c o u r a g e s the ingestion o f i n t e n s e l y y a n g foods, s u c h a s m e a t a n d s p i c y d i s h e s ( i n c l u d i n g ginger, c i n n a m o n , a n d s u g a r ) , a s well a s o f v e r y c o l d foods, s u c h as ice-cold rice-soup, since they p u t i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e o n the a l r e a d y w e a k e n e d yin. U n l i k e m o d e r n sources, t h e text i n addition c o n n e c t s foods w i t h certain e m b r y o n i c d e v e l o p m e n t s in a quasim a g i c a l m a n n e r . F o r e x a m p l e , p r e g n a n t w o m e n s h o u l d n o t eat the m e a t o f the six d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s b e c a u s e their s e n s e s are n o t v e r y k e e n a n d i n g e s t i n g t h e m m i g h t c a u s e the c h i l d t o suffer from r e d u c e d v i s i o n a n d h e a r i n g . T h e y b e t t e r n o t eat rabbit t o a v o i d t h e potential d e v e l o p m e n t o f a harelip; n o r turtle to p r e v e n t the c h i l d h a v i n g a v e r y s h o r t n e c k . R a w ginger, w h i c h l o o k s like a finger, is t a b o o lest t h e child g r o w an e x t r a digit. E a t i n g s p a r r o w s m a y c a u s e intense, u n c o n t r o l l e d desires i n t h e child, w h i l e a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s m a y l e a d t o m e n t a l c o n f u s i o n (Stein 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 8 - 0 9 ; also D e s p e u x 2 0 0 7 , 2 6 ; F u r t h 1 9 9 9 ) . O n c e c h i l d r e n are w e a n e d a n d e a t o n their o w n , other dietetic r u l e s apply. S i n c e their internal s y s t e m is n o t fully d e v e l o p e d a n d qi a n d xue a r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y stable, c h i l d r e n t e n d to suffer easily from a i l m e n t s of the c e n t e r (spleen a n d s t o m a c h ) , t e n d i n g t o w a r d n a u s e a , c o n s t i p a t i o n , a n d d i a r r h e a . T h e y s h o u l d thus a v o i d all sorts o f e x t r e m e s i n t e r m s o f b o t h flavor a n d t e m p e r a t u r e , focusing o n m o d e r a t e and b a l a n c i n g foods. A n y t h i n g v e r y s t r o n g m a y b u r d e n the c e n t e r a n d c a u s e trouble (e.g., glutin o u s rice) a s m u c h a s s t r o n g l y c o o l i n g foods, s u c h a s c o l d m i l k , ice c r e a m , r a w foods, a n d yogurt. A l l t h e s e m i g h t i n c r e a s e d a m p n e s s a n d a w e a k n e s s i n s p l e e n - y a n g . V a r i o u s grains, s u c h a s rice, millet, and w h e a t a s well a s g e n t l e v e g e t a b l e s like c a r r o t s a n d p o t a t o e s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , are h i g h l y r e c o m m e n d e d ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d N o g e l 2 0 0 9 , 3 8 ; D e s p e u x 2 0 0 7 , 2 6 ) . T h e Yangshetzg yaoji, too, s u p p o r t s this u n d e r s t a n d i n g , s u g g e s t i n g the avoidance of heavy grains such as soybeans and roasted wheat as well as o f c o l d d r i n k s (Stein 1 9 9 9 , 2 1 2 ) .

I L

I

Social Regulations / 43 After r e a c h i n g a d u l t h o o d , p e o p l e s h o u l d m a t c h their nutrition w i t h the s e a s o n s a n d a d a p t it to their i n d i v i d u a l constitution, a v o i d i n g specific food c o m b i n a t i o n s a n d o b s e r v i n g a p l e t h o r a of t e m p o r a l t a b o o s (see b e low). T h e y s h o u l d t a k e c a r e t o m o d e r a t e food i n t a k e a n d a v o i d i n t o x i c a tion, e n g a g i n g i n regular e x e r c i s e a n d a i d i n g the d i g e s t i o n b y m o v i n g gently after a m e a l . As a l r e a d y t h e Yangsheng yaoji says: "After a filling m e a l it is q u i t e u s e l e s s for t h e b o d y to sit or lie d o w n : m u c h b e t t e r to go out for a w a l k or w o r k on a task at h a n d . N o t d o i n g that c a n lead to b l o c k a g e s a n d indigestion, o r c a u s e p a r a l y s i s i n t h e e x t r e m i t i e s a n d d a r k spots in face a n d eyes, in g e n e r a l d i m i n i s h i n g life e x p e c t a n c y " (ch. 6; Stein 1 9 9 9 , 194; also Yangxing yanming lu 1.10a). It a l s o insists that drinking w a t e r i m m e d i a t e l y after e a t i n g will d i s p e r s e the grain-j^i a n d c a u s e ailments d u e to ^f-congestion. N o r s h o u l d o n e fast for a p e r i o d , get v e r y hungry, and then eat v o r a c i o u s l y and fill up q u i c k l y (as in y o - y o dieting). Tliis will lead to c o n g e s t i o n s in t h e h e a r t area and c a u s e h a r m in the l o n g run (Stein 1999, 194). W h e n p e o p l e g r o w old, their m a i n dietary c o n c e r n shifts t o w a r d the prevention o f d i s e a s e s a n d the e n h a n c e m e n t o f vitality. S i n c e i n o l d e r p e o ple qi and xue tend to b e c o m e d e p l e t e w h i l e yin a n d y a n g g r o w w e a k e r , foods s h o u l d b e e a s y t o digest a n d e n h a n c i n g . T h e y b e s t c h o o s e food for its b a l a n c e d and neutral t e m p e r a t u r e a n d flavor, so that it m a y s u p p o r t the s p l e e n and s t o m a c h in the center as well as the k i d n e y s as the seat of \'ital e s s e n c e . E s p e c i a l l y c o o k e d cereals, stews, a n d s o u p s are r e c o m m e n d e d . It is also i m p o r t a n t to eat with care, a v o i d i n g the m i x i n g of too m a n y ingredients; t o m a i n t a i n regularity, s t a y i n g a w a y from o d d h o u r s and great v a r i a t i o n in a m o u n t s ; to p r e s e r v e the center, f o c u s i n g h e a v i l y on g r o u n d or flaked g r a i n s in v a r i o u s forms; to s u p p o r t the k i d n e y s , using m o d e r a t e a m o u n t s o f l a m b , c h i c k e n , eggs, m i l k , and seafood; and t o e n h a n c e k i d n e y function, s e a s o n i n g food w i t h w a l n u t s , s e s a m e , o r other seeds ( E n g e l h a r d t and H e m p e n 1997, 6 2 0 - 2 2 ; E n g e l h a r d t a n d N o g e l 2 0 0 9 , 39-40).

44 / Medicinal Diets

In addition to t h e v a r i a t i o n o v e r historical p e r i o d s a n d t h e g e n e r a l g u i d e -

Ti

lines for different ages, C h i n e s e dietitians also p r o v i d e d specific a v o i d a n c e s (see H u a n g 2 0 0 7 , 9 4 - 1 0 5 ) . T h e y f u n d a m e n t a l l y deal w i t h s u b s t a n c e s of a p o t e n t i a l l y p o i s o n o u s nature, w h i c h n e e d to be treated with c a r e b u t are n o t t o b e a v o i d e d c o m p l e t e l y , s i n c e a n y toxin, i f p r o p e r l y m a s tered, c a n c o m b a t d i s e a s e a n d h a v e a beneficial effect ( A n d e r s o n 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 5 ) . E x a m p l e s o f foods c o n s i d e r e d p o i s o n o u s a n d h a n d l e d w i t h c a r e i n c l u d e d o m i n a n t l y puffer fish ( F u g u ) a n d h o r s e m e a t as well as, to a l e s s e r d e g r e e , garlic, c u c u m b e r , e g g p l a n t , pork, fox m e a t , as well as p e a c h a n d apricot k e r n e l s ( D e s p e u x 2 0 0 7 , 2 4 ) . W h i l e the i n h e r e n t level o f t o x i c i t y m a y v a r y w i t h t i m e s and s e a s o n s , different m e t h o d s o f p r e p a r a t i o n s e r v e to e l i m i n a t e or r e d u c e it, n o t a b l y c u t t i n g out the toxic part or t h o r o u g h l y b o i l i n g a n d frying.

4

A n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n o f toxicity h a s t o d o w i t h the freshness and q u a l i t y o f food. M a n y texts w a r n a g a i n s t c o n s u m i n g stale o r old food, i t e m s that h a v e b e e n e x p o s e d t o the e l e m e n t s o r c h e w e d b y a n i m a l s ( R e a d 1 9 3 1 , 3 4 8 ; L o 2 0 0 5 , 1 8 0 ) , a s well a s — e s p e c i a l l y a l s o i n D a o i s t d o c u m e n t s — t h i n g s that h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d b y drying, pickling, o r fermenting. C e r t a i n signs, m o r e o v e r , p r o v i d e clear w a r n i n g s : v e g e t a b l e s that are discolored, r a b b i t s w i t h their e y e s shut, s h e e p ' s liver w i t h holes, fruit or m e a t that h a s b e e n on the g r o u n d , p e a c h e s a n d a p r i c o t s with a d o u b l e kernel, a n d a n y foodstuff that i s b e i n g s h u n n e d b y a n i m a l s ( D e s p e u x 2 0 0 7 , 2 5 ) . Already Confucius already practiced appropriate avoidances:

;

He did not object to having his grains finely cleaned, nor to having his minced meat cut up fine. He did not eat grain that had been injured by heat or damp and turned sour, nor fish or flesh that was gone. He did not eat what was off in color or smelled strange, nor anything that was not properly cooked or out of season. He did not eat meat that was not cut properly, nor what was served without its proper sauce. Even when there was meat in abundance he would not eat it in disproportionate amount over staple foods. Only in his ale he knew no measure, although he never got drunk. He did not partake of ale and dried meat bought in the market. When he had eaten his fill, he would not eat more, even if the ginger had not yet been cleared (Lunyu 10.8; Sterckx 2005, 50)

-J

Sodal Regulations / 45 D a o i s t s a g r e e w i t h t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s to a large d e g r e e . F o r e x a m p l e , the Laozi shuo Fashi jinjie jing on m o n a s t i c eating prohibits the c o n s u m p t i o n of a n y food left b e h i n d by b i r d s , b e a s t s , w o r m s , or fish; left o v e r from offerings to spirits a n d d e m o n s at altars, shrines, or t e m p l e s ; as well as a n y rice o r w h e a t c a k e s that are u n c l e a n o r rotten; h a v e m o l d y o r d a m aged spots; are b r o k e n o r burnt; w e r e r e t u r n e d b y c h i l d r e n ; o r dirtied b y f l y i n g birds. (#19-25; K o h n 2 0 0 4 b , 1 2 6 - 2 7 ) T o x i c i t y c a n also o c c u r w h e n food is t a k e n that is u n s u i t a b l e for t h e c u r rent c o n s t i t u t i o n of the person, so that, for e x a m p l e , the v e r y w a r m i n g q u a h t i e s o f m u t t o n c a n d o s e r i o u s h a r m t o s o m e o n e a l r e a d y suffering from a h e a t c o n d i t i o n . M o r e generally, c e r t a i n c o m b i n a t i o n s of food t e n d t o c r e a t e t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e b o d y that a r e h a r m f u l t o w i d e r a n g e s o f the p o p u l a t i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f p e r s o n a l constitution. T h e

Yangshe7tg yaoji p r o -

v i d e s a rather l e n g t h y list, i n d i c a t i n g w h i c h foods c o m b i n e d w i t h w h a t will r e s u l t i n w h a t p o t e n t i a l h a r m (Stein 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 0 - 0 7 ) : Table 1 Harmful Food Combinations Combination of

with

anything hot anything hot, fatty apricots

cold vinegar pork fat

Consequence damage to qi loss of voice death

celery chestnuts

raw pork liver raw fish

flatulence swellings

dates fish, raw game

raw onions

pains

knotgrass prawns

and/or with

spiky vegs.

(^/-obstructions death

game

anchovies

death

game, raw garlic

prawn broth malt syrup

chest pains harm

ginger, dried

rabbit

intestinal cramps

hollyhock mallows

eggs pork

meat, raw

milk

millet, dried millet, white

pork honey

mussels, oysters

raw vegetables

mussels, oysters mustard

fruits

chest pains

rabbit

diseases

millet

dull complexion reduced qi parasites

fatty dishes

digestive troubles harm to organs

plums

chest pains

46 / Medicinal Diets oats

white honey

parasites

onion

cinnamon

diarrhea

onions, leeks onions, raw

honey chicken

meats

diarrhea bleeding

oiiions, raw

carp

dates

ailments

pears plums

raw leeks pheasant

swellings bleeding

plums

honey

harm to organs

plums, pickled pork

pork fat fish

harm harm

pork liver

carp

emaciation

pork liver pork liver

caviar small beans

poultry prawns

eggs

harm reduced eyesight harm

sweet soups sweets

game ginger raw vegetables

plums

chronic diseases nausea, cramps

raw fish

chest pains impotence death

crab feet game

prawns

chest pains harm harm

alcohol

sweetwood vegs., pungent vegs., pungent

knotgrass pork

vegs., raw vegs., spiky

pungent vegs.

wheat

oatmeal

yogurt

vinegar

yogurt

ground fish

bloody urine parasites

yogurt

rice soup

nausea

parched thirst

B y t h e s a m e token, c h a n g e s i n the c o u r s e o f the s e a s o n s will r e q u i r e different n u t r i t i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s as well as b e h a v i o r a l adjustments. S u n S i m i a o in h i s Sheyang lun

( O n P r e s e r v i n g a n d N o u r i s h i n g [Life],

D Z 8 4 1 ) spells o u t specific g u i d e l i n e s for e a c h m o n t h , p r e s e n t i n g the o v e r a l l pattern, g e n e r a l and specific d i e t a r y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , a n d s o m e b e h a v i o r a l t a b o o s a l o n g t h e lines of a F a r m e r ' s Almanac.^ F o r e x a m p l e .

' An early emphasis on seasonal adjustment of food and lifestyle is found in the Yinshu (Stretch Book), a manuscript on healing exercises unearthed from Zhangjiashan and dated to 186 B.C.E. For details, see Kohn 2008a, 41; Lo 2009. Similar guidelines also appear in the 6'''-century Qimin yaoshu ^Js^Sfll (Essential

Social Regulations / 47 In the first month, kidney cji is susceptible to sickness, while lung qi wanes. It is best to reduce salty and sour flavors and increase spicy food. This will help the kidneys and supplement the lungs. To calm and nurture stomach qi, moreover, do not expose yourself to cold and frost nor get extremely warm and heated. Rise and retire early to relax body and spirit. In terms of diet, avoid raw leeks, since they diminish fluids and blood. Do not eat raw pepper, which may lead to chronic conditions and can cause the face to attract wind. Do not partake of hibernating animals: this reduces human life expectancy. Nor should you eat the meat of wild beasts like tigers, panthers, and foxes—it may cause agitation in spirit and souls. The 4* day of this month is good for plucking out white hairs. The 7* day is good for quieting thoughts and contemplating perfection, and doing retreats to increase good fortune. On the 8"^ day, take baths but avoid long journeys, (la)

,

i

E a c h m o n t h i n the c o u r s e o f the y e a r h a s s i m i l a r g u i d e l i n e s specifying foods that will m a t c h t h e c h a n g e s of the five p h a s e s in t h e c o u r s e of t h e year. T h e y are still part o f the m e d i c a t e d and D a o i s t diets t o d a y (see D e s p e u x 2 0 0 7 , 2 6 ) . T h e Yangsheng yaoji, too, h a s a p e r t i n e n t list, p r o v i d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i v e m o n t h l y t a b o o s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e dire c o n s e q u e n c e s o f their v i o l a t i o n (Stein 1 9 9 9 , 1 8 9 - 9 3 ) (see T a b l e 2 ) . D a o i s t s , in b r o a d a g r e e m e n t w i t h this u n d e r s t a n d i n g of food a v o i d a n c e s , list similar t a b o o s . T h e m o s t d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t a p p e a r s in the Lingshu ziwen xianji MWM'^illi^^

( I m m o r t a l s ' T a b o o s A c c o r d i n g to t h e P u r p l e

T e x t s Inscribed b y t h e Spirits, D Z 179).^ A c c o r d i n g t o this, D a o i s t s s h o u l d a v o i d g i v i n g offense t o t h e spirits b y relieving t h e m s e l v e s o r p e r f o r m i n g o t h e r acts of p e r s o n a l h y g i e n e w h i l e facing n o r t h or d e v e l o p i n g a great

Arts for the People's Welfare), which contains 260 recipes. See Sabban 1996; Huang 2000, 123-24; Lo 2005, 166. For more classical works on seasonal adjustment, see Huang 2007, 70-73. For a modem perspective, see Engelhardt and Hempen 1997, 617-20. 2 The text formed part of the Highest Clarity (Shangqing) revelations in the mid-fourth century and in its present form probably dates from the fifth century (Robinet 1984, 2:412-15; Kleeman 1991, 176). Its taboos also appear in Zhen'gao M |g (Declarations of the Perfected, DZ 1016); Zhenzhong ji ift^^i!, (Pillowbook Record, DZ 836) 5a-6a; Shangqing xiuxing jingjue ±i-fflffTlMI^ (Scriptural Instructions on Shangqing Cultivation, DZ 427), 22b-25a; and in Yunji qiqian ^ ^ t ^ (Seven Tablets in a Cloudy Satchel, DZ 1032; abbr. YJQQ), 33.6a, 40.11b-12a.

48 / Medicinal Diets r a g e a g a i n s t t h e celestial forces. I n t e r m s o f diet, t h e y s h o u l d e s c h e w " t h e m e a t o f a r m o r e d [shelled] a n i m a l s like turtles o r d r a g o n s o n the d a y s o f S i x A r m o r e d G o d s [Liujia]." A l s o , t h e y s h o u l d a v o i d p h e a s a n t o n bingwu d a y s ; t h e m e a t of b l a c k a n i m a l s on bingzi days; getting d r u n k on yimao d a y s ; a n d s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s o r s l e e p i n g i n the s a m e b e d w i t h their s p o u s e on gengjia d a y s ( B o k e n k a m p 1997, 3 6 5 ) —all t a b o o s that h a v e to do w i t h t h e c o s m i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the cyclical signs for t h e days a n d y e a r s that f o r m part of t h e s e x a g e n a r y c y c l e , a central part of t h e C h i n e s e c a l e n d a r s i n c e t h e S h a n g d y n a s t y (also D e s p e u x 2 0 0 7 , 2 7 ) .

Table 2 Monthly Taboos Mo 1

Avoid eating

Otherwise

And also

food chewed by rats

rat bumps on head latent diseases

mouth cankers

raw onions liver 2 3 4 5 6 7

spring water pickled meat /vegs. garlic heart unripe fruit mixed vegetables soft turtle fruit after dropping honey

10

11 12

mental confusion spleen damage, phlegm hepatitis

damage of spirit abscesses and boils extreme cold

emotions: fear, sadness hepatitis, colds, diarrhea cold yang, short breath

turtle-shaped boils fistulas diarrhea

intestinal cramps

damage of po soul cough in winter

impulsiveness

colds in winter ills oihun soul

nausea

ginger frozen raw vegs. pepper

dull complexion qi weakness

chest and abdominal aches

kidneys

damage of will

restlessness

dried, old meat dog-chewed food

kidney damage heart fistulas

numbness

lungs 8 9

damage of htm soul malaria summer heat ills harm in five organs

pig's lungs, vinegar frozen herbs

throat infections

Sodal Regulations / 49 M o r e specific m o n t h l y t a b o o s i n c l u d e n o t t o eat fish o n 2 / 9 o r v e g e t a b l e hearts o n 4 / 8 . B e y o n d t h e m e r e dietary g u i d e l i n e s , they a l s o i n c l u d e b e h a v i o r a l p r o h i b i t i o n s , s o that D a o i s t s s h o u l d n o t l o o k a t b l o o d o n 5/5, d i g the e a r t h on 6/6, think of evil things on 7/7, sell or b u y f o o t w e a r on 8/4, sleep on a h i g h b e d or thick m a t on 9 / 9 , p u n i s h offenders on 1 0 / 5 , a n d b a t h e o n 1 1 / 1 1 . O n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e y s h o u l d r e m a i n a w a r e o f the D a o a t all t i m e s and specifically o n t h e last t h r e e d a y s o f the 1 2 * m o n t h p r e pare for t h e N e w Y e a r b y fasting, b u r n i n g i n c e n s e , and b e i n g m i n d f u l o f the i m m o r t a l s (Sab). B e s i d e s i n c u r r i n g straightforward p h y s i c a l h a r m b y d i s o b e y i n g d i e t a r y a n d other t a b o o s , D a o i s t s b e l i e v e d that p e o p l e are c l o s e l y s u p e r v i s e d b y t h e celestial a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . As t h e Lingshu ziwen xianji n o t e s : " A l l t h e s e t a b o o s are t h e great p r o h i b i t i o n s o f t h e celestials. T h e T h r e e Offices [of H e a v e n , Earth, and W a t e r ] r e p o r t a n d e x a m i n e them, c o u n t i n g t h e m a m o n g the g r a v e s t sins. A s p u n i s h m e n t s t h e y o r d e r p e o p l e ' s three spirit s o u l s (hun) to be sick and m a k e their s e v e n m a t e r i a l souls (po) e n g a g e in fighting" ( 3 b ; B o k e n k a m p 1997, 3 6 5 ) . E a t i n g a s well a s v a r i o u s o t h e r f o r m s of social interaction t h u s f o r m e d an i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t in the C h i n e s e a n d D a o i s t w a y o f b e i n g i n the w o r l d . To c o n c l u d e , in addition to i n c o r p o r a t i n g the s a m e o v e r a l l p r i n c i p l e s a n d food classifications as t h e traditional C h i n e s e m e d i c a t e d diet, D a o i s t d i e tetics is also subject to the s a m e social, political, a n d historical c i r c u m s t a n c e s . B o t h s h a r e ideas a b o u t age-related e a t i n g and h a v e m a n y food t a b o o s i n c o m m o n . B o t h are subject t o c h a n g e o v e r time, s e e i n g n e w food stuffs arrive and i n t e g r a t i n g t h e m into their e s t a b l i s h e d patterns. T h u s in D a o i s t k i t c h e n s e v e n today, o n e m a y find b r e a d w i t h stir fries a l o n g s i d e rice, a n d it is p r o b a b l y o n l y a m a t t e r of t i m e until tofu b u r g e r s , b a c o n , a n d h o t d o g s m a k e their d e b u t i n C h i n e s e v e g e t a r i a n k i t c h e n s . T h e q u e s tion r e m a i n s o p e n w h e t h e r o n e s h o u l d l o o k forward t o o r d r e a d the arrival of D a o i s t fast food —following t h e footsteps of t h e buffet-style B u d dhist eateries and t h e m e d i c i n a l r e s t a u r a n t s a l r e a d y w i d e s p r e a d i n C h i n e s e c o m m u n i t i e s the w o r l d o v e r .

People of antiquity cured diseases by creating internal harmony with sweet spring [saliva] and moistening themselves with primordial c\i. Their medicines were neither astringent nor bitter; they tasted sweet and were full of flavor. They would take their nourishment and pass it through their five inner organs, then tie it into their hearts and lungs. Thus their entire bodies would be free from afflictions. (Luoshu baozi ming in Yangxing yanming lu 1.5a) W h i l e the u l t i m a t e goal o f b o t h C h i n e s e and D a o i s t dietetics i s t o eat like t h e p e o p l e of antiquity, in s u c h a w a y that food n o u r i s h e s the five o r g a n s a n d s p r e a d s h a r m o n i o u s qi t h r o u g h o u t the b o d y , t h e fact r e m a i n s that p e o p l e suffer from a w i d e v a r i e t y of a i l m e n t s , w h i c h in m a n y c a s e s are food related o r c a n a t least b e alleviated b y dietetic m e a n s . G i v e n this situation, n u t r i t i o n p l a y s a m a j o r r o l e in all f o r m s of C h i n e s e healing, a n d f e w t r e a t m e n t s will b e w i t h o u t d i e t a r y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . In addition, food is also u s e d as m e d i c i n e by itself, in a p r a c t i c e k n o w n as dietary therapy, d e s c r i b e d v a r i o u s l y as food c u r e s (shiliao :ft-@), nutrit i o n a l t h e r a p y (shizhi

:fttp),

and m e d i c a t e d foods {yao'er

^I5)

(Engel-

h a r d t and H e m p e n 1997, 1; Lo 2 0 0 5 , 1 6 3 ) . It m e a n s selecting food stuffs a n d f o r m s of p r e p a r a t i o n in the c o n s c i o u s a t t e m p t to b a l a n c e qi a n d allev i a t e or c u r e m e d i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . P a y i n g attention to food qualities as e x p r e s s e d i n color a n d i n h e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e , m a k i n g s u r e o f the p r o p e r s a t u r a t i o n w i t h flavor, a n d s e e i n g to the a d d i t i o n of (ji'-modifying ingred i e n t s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the o r g a n s a n d qi-i\ow of the b o d y are all factors w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h the m e d i c a l from the c u l i n a r y ( L o 2 0 0 5 , 1 7 6 ) . 50

Dietary Therapy / 51 D i e t a r y t h e r a p y i n C h i n a i s c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d t o the t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b o d y w h i c h , a s m u c h a s t h e w o r l d i n g e n e r a l a n d food i n particular, e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s i s t s of qi. T h e b o d y as qi is a c o m p l e x s y s t e m of different f o r m s o f e n e r g y , a b s o r b e d from o u t s i d e s o u r c e s a n d t r a n s f o r m e d v a r i o u s l y i n t o yin a n d y a n g a s p e c t s , s u c h a s d e f e n s i v e a n d n u t r i tive qi a n d different k i n d s of b o d y fluids. A l l t h e s e are m a n a g e d in t h e b o d y ' s s t o r a g e c e n t e r s a n d t r a n s p o r t c h a n n e l s , d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s o f inn e r o r g a n s a n d (jf-channels. U n l i k e i n W e s t e r n b i o m e d i c i n e , o r g a n s h e r e are e n t i r e c o m p l e x e s o r functional s y s t e m s that i n c l u d e a series of other p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s , s u c h as senses, b o d y tissue, e m o t i o n s , a n d the like. T h e y c o n n e c t t o e a c h o t h e r i n s u b t l e w a y s a n d c o m b i n e i n a n intricate w e b w o r k o f rise a n d fall, s o that action i n o n e c o m p l e x will h a v e a n effect o n t h e c o n d i t i o n o f a n o t h e r a n d affect t h e w h o l e . T h e m o s t essential o r g a n - s y s t e m i s the s p l e e n - s t o m a c h c o m p l e x i n the b o d y ' s c e n t e r . A n y i n g e s t e d i t e m g o e s there first, b e f o r e b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d into u s e a b l e qi a n d t r a n s m i t t e d to the others. B e y o n d h a v i n g the b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d activity a s d e s c r i b e d earlier, e a c h food t h u s a l s o w o r k s t h r o u g h t h e s e o r g a n s , e n h a n c i n g o r d i m i n i s h i n g their yin a n d y a n g aspects, a n d t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g for a h i g h l y specific a n d d e t a i l e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f food t h e r a p y . E a c h o r g a n - c o m p l e x , m o r e o v e r , t e n d s t o w a r d specific f o r m s o f i m b a l a n c e , d e s c r i b e d typically i n t e r m s o f yin ( m o i s t u r i z i n g , stable) a n d y a n g (drying, a c t i v e ) a s w e l l a s d e p l e t i o n a n d e x c e s s , s i n k i n g a n d rising, c o o l i n g a n d h e a t i n g , s o that p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n s o f p a t h o l o g i e s u n f o l d . T h e y t e n d t o r a n g e from the m o r e e l e m e n t a r y t o t h e h i g h l y c o m p l e x , increasi n g i n s y m p t o m s a n d intensity i f w e a k n e s s e s g o u n c h e c k e d . F o r e a c h case, d i e t a r y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a l l o w p a t i e n t s to m o d i f y their food intake t o w a r d o p t i m a l o r g a n f i m c t i o n i n g . T o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h d i e t a r y m e a s u r e s h o u l d b e t a k e n for w h a t c o n d i t i o n is the t a s k of traditional C h i n e s e d i a g n o s t i c s . It w o r k s less w i t h c o n c r e t e a n d m e a s u r a b l y data, s u c h a s b l o o d p r e s s u r e , t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d p u l s e rate. I n s t e a d p h y s i c i a n s a n a l y z e t h e state of the p a t i e n t ' s i^f-flow, using— besides obvious immediate impressions and questions about symptoms a n d c a s e h i s t o r y — t o n g u e i n s p e c t i o n , p u l s e analysis, a n d a b d o m i n a l p a l pation. A l s o , i n c o n t r a s t t o W e s t e r n m e d i c i n e , t h e y d o n o t w a i t for large, intense, a n d o b v i o u s c o n d i t i o n s t o o c c u r , b u t p a y c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o e v e n minor signs of imbalance and discomfort, hoping—often with dietary

I

52 / Medicinal Diets m e a s u r e s — t o p r e v e n t their g r o w t h into s e r i o u s s y m p t o m s and, w o r s t o f all, p e r v a s i v e s y n d r o m e s . M e d i c a l dietetics o r nutritional therapy, then, w o r k s w i t h t h e q u a l i t i e s o f food d e s c r i b e d earlier a n d treats all k i n d s of c o n d i t i o n s . E x a m p l e s inc l u d e c a s e s of all different ages, g e n d e r s , and p a t h o l o g i e s ; r e m e d i e s inv o l v e specific r e c i p e s as m u c h as dietary p a t t e r n s and overall lifestyle r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . T h e goal is, a s m u c h i n m e d i c i n e a s i n D a o i s m , t o c r e a t e a w a y of e a t i n g that m a t c h e s t i m e a n d p l a c e a n d is perfectly s u i t e d to the individual's needs.

T h e b o d y as c\i h a s b o t h p r i m o r d i a l a n d p o s t n a t a l a s p e c t s . P r i m o r d i a l qi, r e c e i v e d at birth from H e a v e n a n d Earth t h r o u g h the parents, is c e n t e r e d in the k i d n e y area, from w h e r e it m a n i f e s t s as vital e s s e n c e ( / ; « ^ ) . P o s t n a tal qi is d e r i v e d from food, air, a n d w a t e r . T h e p o s t n a t a l m e t a b o l i s m utilizes e s p e c i a l l y t h e s p l e e n a n d l u n g s a n d their a s s o c i a t e d c h a n n e l s t o c o n v e r t w o r l d l y m a t e r i a l s into u s e a b l e qi as well as into xue JlJl ( b l o o d ) , the yin c o u n t e r p a r t of qi a n d a m o r e internal force. T h u s , the l u n g s receive b r e a t h from the nose. W h i l e d r a w n i n t h r o u g h the n o s e , this is called p u r e qi {qingqi -MMi), b u t o n c e it r e a c h e s the l u n g s it is k n o w n as e m p t y qi {kongqi ?MM)- F r o m t h e lungs, it d e s c e n d s to the k i d n e y s . A t t h e s a m e time, the s t o m a c h g r i n d s u p food after ingestion t h r o u g h t h e m o u t h , p r e p a r i n g it for t h e s p l e e n to extract its qi. K n o w n as grain qi (guqi i x ^ ) this a s c e n d s to t h e c h e s t area w h e r e the fire of the heart, d r i v e n b y the e s s e n c e o f the k i d n e y s ( w h i c h i s e n h a n c e d b y e m p t y qi) a n d assisted by the U p p e r H e a t e r t r a n s f o r m s it into ancestral qi (zongqi

^U)-

A n c e s t r a l qi n e x t c o m b i n e s with t h e p r i m o r d i a l qi a l r e a d y stored in t h e d e p t h of t h e p e r s o n to form perfect qi {zhenqi WM)- T h i s in turn d i v i d e s a n d m o v e s on to return again, in its n e w form, to the s p l e e n and lungs. In t h e lungs, it d i v i d e s into c h a n n e l qi [maiqi Mm), i.e., t h e qi in the c h a n n e l s of the b o d y , a n d d e f e n s i v e or p r o t e c t i v e qi (weiqi tlllS,) w h i c h circulates c l o s e to t h e b o d y ' s surface. In the spleen, it t r a n s f o r m s into n u t r i t i v e or c o n s t r u c t i v e qi {yingqi Wm) w h i c h flows in t h e d e e p e r interstices and t r a n s p o r t s the xue, a l s o distilled in the s p l e e n a n d s t o r e d in the liver (Jackowicz 2006, 71; Kaptchuk 1983, 46-55).

Dietary Therapy / 53 D e f e n s i v e and nutritive qi p u l s a t e t h r o u g h the b o d y at different levels to d e f e n d a n d n u r t u r e it. D e f e n s i v e qi is y a n g in quality; it m o v e s n e x t to the c h a n n e l s a n d

travels widely around

the b o d y ,

nourishing and

s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e skin. It r e g u l a t e s the s w e a t g l a n d s , m o i s t e n s t h e skin a n d hair, n o u r i s h e s t h e tissues, a n d c o n t r o l s the o p e n i n g and c l o s i n g o f the s k i n ' s p o r e s . F o r m i n g a d e f e n s e a g a i n s t h a r m f u l o u t s i d e influences a n d p a t h o g e n i c stress, i t m a i n t a i n s t h e stability o f t h e b o d y , n o t u n l i k e the i m m u n e system in Western medicine. N u t r i t i v e qi is yin in n a t u r e a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h xue. S i t u a t e d m o r e d e e p l y inside, it n o u r i s h e s the m u s c l e s and o r g a n s and e n s u r e s that the b o d y ' s tissues r e m a i n strong. T h e t w o form a c o m p l e m e n t a r y pair, like qi a n d xue. T h e y are c h a r a c t e r i z e d s i m i l a r l y in that their yin a s p e c t is t h i c k e r a n d h e a v i e r a n d stays d e e p w i t h i n t h e b o d y , w h i l e its y a n g c o u n terpart is t h i n n e r a n d lighter a n d m o v e s at t h e surface of the b o d y , interfacing w i t h t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . T h e s a m e a l s o h o l d s true for the b o d y fluids (jinye

T h e y are d e -

fined as n u t r i t i v e s u b s t a n c e s , f o r m e d w h e n food in t h e d i g e s t i v e p r o c e s s is subjected to the functions of the s t o m a c h , spleen, l u n g s , a n d so on. A m o n g t h e m , jin are y a n g in nature. T h e y a p p e a r as light, clear fluids that c o m e t o the b o d y ' s surface d u e t o internal p r o c e s s e s . E x a m p l e s inc l u d e saliva (associated w i t h the k i d n e y s ) , tears (liver), s w e a t (heart), n a s a l m u c u s (lungs), and oral m u c u s (spleen). T h e y l u b r i c a t e the skin and the flesh. Ye, on t h e other h a n d , are yin. T h e y are h e a v y , thick fluids diffused i n t e r n a l l y d u e t o b o d y m o v e m e n t , a s for e x a m p l e l y m p h and internal m u c u s . T h e y l u b r i c a t e t h e j o i n t s a n d t e n d o n s , p r o t e c t t h e b r a i n , a n d fill the s p i n e . T h e fluids, w h e n p r o d u c e d in their a p p r o p r i a t e a m o u n t s , s e r v e a s p r o t e c t o r s a n d lubricants o f the b o d y . W h e n t h e y are deficient o r e x c e s s i v e , h o w e v e r , they c a n b e useful d i a g n o s t i c tools. (Kohn 2005, 32-33; Kaptchuk 1983, 66-67). T h e b o d y as qi in its v a r i o u s f o r m s is m a n a g e d by t h e five o r g a n c o m p l e x e s , w h i c h —in c l o s e l i n k w i t h their related c o s m i c a n d b o d i l y f o r c e s — m a i n t a i n it in a c o n s t a n t flow of m o v e m e n t a n d e x c h a n g e . To d e s c r i b e t h e m individually, the " s p l e e n " (pi g$) is n o t j u s t o n e o r g a n b u t p a r t o f t h e p h a s e earth a n d all the c o s m i c c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t implies: the c o l o r yellow, t h e season o f late o r I n d i a n s u m m e r , the direction o f the center, a n d in g e n e r a l w i t h stability and c e n t e r e d n e s s .

54 / Medicinal Diets F u r t h e r c o n n e c t e d w i t h m u s c l e s a n d s i n e w s , m o u t h a n d lips, t h e s e n s e o f taste, a n d t h e b o d y fluid o f o r a l m u c u s , its k e y e m o t i o n i s w o r r y , w h i c h i n c l u d e s thoughtfulness, p l a n n i n g , and o v e r a n a l y z i n g , l e a d i n g to t h e fact that m a n y b r a i n - w o r k e r s t e n d t o w a r d s p l e e n issues. A m o n g virtues, i t r e p r e s e n t s the h o n e s t y : trust in o n e s e l f a n d others, faithfulness, a n d c o n fidence. M o s t c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d with qi, t o g e t h e r w i t h its y a n g partner, t h e s t o m a c h , it is " t h e p r i m a r y o r g a n of digestion, the c r u c i a l link by w h i c h food is t r a n s f o r m e d into qi a n d xwe-blood" ( K a p t c h u k 1 9 8 3 , 7 9 ) . As the Huangdi neijing suwen notes: " T h e s t o m a c h is the r e s i d e n c e of the g r a n a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n : the v a r i o u s k i n d s o f taste o r i g i n a t e h e r e " (3.1a). T h e s p l e e n i s t h e root o f the p e r s o n ' s a c q u i r e d constitution, the seat o f n u t r i t i v e qi, a n d the p l a c e w h e r e b o t h qi a n d xue originate. It distributes a c t i v e fluids t h r o u g h o u t the b o d y , firms up t h e tissues, a n d stabilizes the internal fluid s y s t e m . Its m a i n fimction is to d i v i d e clear from turbid qi after food a n d d r i n k h a v e b e e n i n g e s t e d t h r o u g h t h e m o u t h , its associa t e d s e n s e of taste p r o v i d i n g a first indication of w h a t to e x p e c t e n e r g e t i cally. T h e s p l e e n h a s t w o major aspects, a n active d i m e n s i o n k n o w n a s s p l e e n qi a n d a w a r m i n g p o w e r c a l l e d s p l e e n y a n g (fire). B o t h h a v e w a r m i n g a n d d r y i n g p o w e r s n e e d e d i n food p r o c e s s i n g t o e l i m i n a t e e x u

t r a n e o u s liquids. S h o u l d t h e s e a s p e c t s g o astray, s o m e liquids are n o t p r o c e s s e d b u t r e m a i n as a k i n d of s l u s h to c r e a t e c o n d i t i o n k n o w n as " d a m p n e s s " w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y m a y g r o w into p h l e g m a n d lead t o serio u s o b s t r u c t i o n s ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1997, 4 2 1 ) . S y m p t o m s of a d e p l e t i o n of s p l e e n qi i n c l u d e fatigue, l a c k of appetite, b e l c h i n g , a w e a k digestion, l o o s e stools, a b l o a t e d a b d o m e n , a n d a p a l e o r w h i t e t o n g u e . D e p l e t i o n o f s p l e e n y a n g i s i n d i c a t e d b y the s a m e signs, p l u s a p e r v a s i v e feeling of cold, e s p e c i a l l y also in the h a n d s and feet, a n d a s t r o n g d e s i r e for w a r m d r i n k s . S p l e e n d a m p n e s s , finally, m a y also c o m e w i t h feelings o f fullness, l a c k o f thirst, n a u s e a , n u m b n e s s , a s well a s a g e n e r a l s e n s e o f w e a k n e s s ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1997, 4 2 4 ) . A s i d e from t r e a t i n g t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s b y s t i m u l a t i n g the s p l e e n c h a n n e l ( w h i c h r u n s a l o n g t h e i n s i d e o f t h e leg a n d t h r o u g h the a b d o m e n ) w i t h a c u p u n c t u r e , m o x i b u s t i o n , a c u p r e s s u r e , o r q i g o n g , h e r b a l a n d dietary r e m e d i e s are h i g h l y effective. T h e latter w o r k p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the t w o flavors a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the spleen: s w e e t a n d neutral. M o s t foods of all t h e different food g r o u p s reflect t h e s e flavors, e s p e c i a l l y all k i n d s of grain, s w e e t tasting v e g e t a b l e s (carrots, c a b b a g e , p o t a t o e s , s q u a s h ) , n o n citrus fruits, as well as an e x t e n s i v e s e l e c t i o n of m e a t , poultry, fish, and

I

-

I

Dietary Therapy / 55 dairy. It is b e s t to select t h o s e that are w a r m i n g a n d h a v e a d r a i n i n g effect o n d a m p n e s s , a s i s the c a s e p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h fish a n d b e a n s . T h e y s h o u l d b e w e l l c o o k e d a n d e a t e n w a r m (fruits, for e x a m p l e , a s c o m p o t e ) , p r e f e r a b l y i n a c a l m setting. A n y fatty, h e a v y , a n d sticky f o o d s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d , a s m u c h a s a n y form o f c o o k i n g that a d d s oil, s t r o n g spices, a n d e x c e s s i v e s w e e t n e s s ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1997, 4 2 5 - 3 5 ) . T h e s p l e e n ' s m a t c h i n g y a n g o r g a n is the " s t o m a c h " (fu Jjg). It s e r v e s as a n i n t e r m e d i a t e a n d b a l a n c i n g c e n t e r i n food p r o c e s s i n g , t a k i n g c a r e t o p r o p e r l y c o o l a n d m o i s t u r i z e t h e v a r i o u s s u b s t a n c e s . Its c h a n n e l r u n s a c r o s s the face, t h r o u g h the torso, a n d a l o n g the o u t s i d e o f the leg t o e n d o n the m e d i a l side o f the s e c o n d toe. Its f a v o r e d flavors are n e u t r a l a n d slightly sour, w h i l e its d e s i r e d t e m p e r a t u r e i s c o o l i n g r a t h e r than w a r m ing. P a t h o l o g i e s i n c l u d e a n e x c e s s i n s t o m a c h h e a t w h i c h m a n i f e s t s i n a n i n c r e a s e o f a p p e t i t e a n d thirst, a s well a s p a i n i n t h e u p p e r a b d o m e n , h e a r t b u r n , s w o l l e n g u m s , a g e n e r a l itchiness, a n d a rather r e d t o n g u e ; a n d a d e p l e t i o n of s t o m a c h yin, w h i c h is a p p a r e n t in a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d c o n s t i p a t i o n , a d r y m o u t h , a n d a feeling of h e a t or fever ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1997, 4 3 9 - 4 0 ) . T o r e m e d y t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e d i e t a r y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n i s for c o o l i n g a n d slightly s o u r foods, w h i c h i n c l u d e e s p e c i a l l y w h e a t , b u c k w h e a t , a n d s w e e t p o t a t o a m o n g grains, a s well a s c u c u m b e r s , t o m a t o e s , c e l e r y , b a m b o o s h o o t s , b e a n sprouts, e g g p l a n t , s p i n a c h , a n d n a p a c a b b a g e a m o n g v e g e t a b l e s , p l u s all c i t r u s fruits, tofu, fish, a n d s o m e dairy ( E n g elhardt and H e m p e n 1997, 441-43). A s far a s d i e t a r y t h e r a p y i s c o n c e r n e d , all o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s a n d o r g a n s are s e c o n d a r y t o the s p l e e n - s t o m a c h s y s t e m . A l l food c u r e s e s s e n t i a l l y b e g i n b y s t a b i l i z i n g t h e m i d d l e , m a k i n g s u r e that the c e n t e r i s s t r o n g a n d well b a l a n c e d . T h e y e s t a b l i s h a firm d i g e s t i v e a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g p o l e w h i c h in turn will h e l p s t a b i l i z e t h e qi in all the other o r g a n s .

S^(te«tcCecC ^p^fdccdtcM, T h e first o r g a n affected by t h e c e n t e r is t h e " l u n g s " (jei W), the o r g a n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p h a s e m e t a l : fall, w h i t e , a n d west. It is also l i n k e d w i t h the l a r g e i n t e s t i n e a s its y a n g p a r t n e r a n d i n c h a r g e o f t h e s k i n a s m a i n b o d y part. T h i s e x p l a i n s w h y p e o p l e w i t h c h r o n i c d i g e s t i v e d y s function often d e v e l o p a s t h m a a n d s k i n p r o b l e m s , w h i c h — i n r e v e r s a l o f t h e d i s e a s e ' s u n f o l d i n g — t e n d to clear up w i t h a l u n g - s u p p o r t i v e diet.

56 / Medicinal Diets T h e l u n g s are in c h a r g e of t r a n s f o r m i n g air into a n c e s t r a l qi by m i x i n g e m p t y qi w i t h the g r a i n qi of t h e spleen. T h e y then distribute it all o v e r t h e b o d y t h r o u g h t h e exterior (jin) b o d y fluids a n d the d e f e n s i v e qi. T h e i r related s e n s e o r g a n i s t h e nose, m a t c h i n g t h e b o d y fluid o f n a s a l m u c u s a n d c o r m e c t i n g t h e m t o t h e c o m m o n c o l d . I n general, t h e l u n g s are easily harmed by cold and wind, favoring w a r m s and dryness, which connects t o their flavor o f p u n g e n t , s p i c y ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1997, 4 5 5 - 5 6 ) . T h e e m o t i o n o f the l u n g s i s s a d n e s s , i.e., p e n s i v e n e s s , m e l a n c h o l y , a n d r e l u c t a n c e to let go, w h i l e its v i r t u e is r i g h t e o u s n e s s , i m p a r t i a l j u s t i c e or integrity, t h e ability to a c c e p t gain and loss, s u c c e s s a n d failure as t h e y c o m e ( K a p t c h u k 1 9 8 3 , 9 1 ) . As the Huangdi neijing suwen says: " T h e l u n g s a r e the r e s i d e n c e o f the h i g h m i n i s t e r s o f state: o r d e r a n d d i v i s i o n origin a t e h e r e " ( 1 . 3 b ) . T h e i r related qi-channe\ starts in t h e chest, m o v e s t h r o u g h t h e a r m p i t and a l o n g t h e i n n e r side o f the arm, a n d e n d s a t the top o f t h e t h u m b . I t h a s e l e v e n a c u p u n c t u r e points, u s e d t o treat s y m p t o m s o f c o l d s a n d c o u g h a s well a s c a s e s o f s h o u l d e r and b a c k p a i n (Kaptchuk 1 9 8 3 , 1 1 2 ; Kohn 2995, 53). T h e m a i n p a t h o l o g y is d e p l e t i o n of l u n g qi, w h i c h m a n i f e s t s in s h o r t n e s s of b r e a t h (lack of active qi), c o u g h (inability of qi to m o v e d o w n w a r d ) , a t e n d e n c y to p e r s p i r e {qi c a n n o t c l o s e the p o r e s properly, c o n n e c t i o n to t h e skin), g e t t i n g cold easily ( l a c k of defensive qi), as well as a w e a k voice, fatigue, and a p a l e c o m p l e x i o n (all i n d i c a t i v e of qi w e a k n e s s ) . C l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d t o d e p l e t i o n o f s p l e e n yang, the s a m e w a r m i n g a n d stabilizing f o o d s are r e c o m m e n d e d h e r e . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o b u i l d u p the m i d d l e b e fore a n y m a j o r i m p a c t o n t h e l u n g s c a n b e seen. A n o t h e r p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m i s t h e d e p l e t i o n o f l u n g yin, w h i c h m e a n s that t h e r e are insufficient b o d y fluids, a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n o v e r a l l s e n s e o f d r y n e s s (dry m o u t h , dry skin, d r y c o u g h ) , n i g h t s w e a t s a n d interrupted sleep, b u r n i n g p a l m s , h o a r s e n e s s , as w e l l as a g e n e r a l feeling of heat. T h i s i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o d e p l e t i o n o f s t o m a c h yin a n d a c c o r d i n g l y r e q u i r e s c o o l i n g a n d m o i s t u r i z i n g foods. A g a i n , b u i l d i n g u p t h e m i d d l e i s k e y ( E n g e l h a r d t and H e m p e n 1 9 9 7 , 4 5 8 - 6 0 ) . I n t e r m s o f e x c e s s , the l u n g s m a y suffer from w i n d , w h i c h essentially m e a n s all the s y m p t o m s o f the a c u t e c o m m o n c o l d a n d c o m e s w i t h a c l o s u r e o f t h e b o d y ' s surface. W a r m i n g a n d e s p e c i a l l y s p i c y f o o d s are h i g h l y r e c o m m e n d e d , u s i n g t h e p r i m e flavor o f t h e l u n g s . S p i c y foods a v o i d grains, fruit, a n d m e a t , a n d rely on certain select v e g e t a b l e s : on-

Dietary Tiierapy / 57 ions, garlic, ginger, radish, fennel, and b e l l p e p p e r , p l u s all k i n d s of spices ( E n g e l h a r d t and H e m p e n 1 9 9 7 , 4 1 5 ) . A s i d e from a i d i n g the lungs, these foods also t e n d to be h e a t i n g a n d y a n g - s t r e n g t h e n i n g , w h i c h is w h y m a n y o f t h e m are e s c h e w e d b y r e l i g i o u s practitioners. A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e c o n d i t i o n is l u n g d a m p n e s s : a c h r o n i c c o u g h , b r o n c h i tis, or a s t h m a , w h i c h m e a n s a b u i l d - u p of p h l e g m a n d a w h i t e c o m p l e x ion. N o t u n l i k e s p l e e n d a m p n e s s i n n a t u r e , i t c a n b e treated w i t h s i m i l a r foods: w a r m i n g and s w e e t with a t e n d e n c y to drain. B e y o n d this, h o w ever, citrus fruits and ginger, as well as fresh j u i c e s , e s p e c i a l l y of r a d i s h a n d pear, a r e r e c o m m e n d e d h e r e , w h i l e sticky rice a n d d a i r y s h o u l d b e avoided (Engelhardt and H e m p e n 1997, 471-72). R e c e i v i n g a n c e s t r a l qi from t h e l u n g s a n d t r a n s p o r t i n g it into t h e b o d y ' s c h a n n e l s , next, is the " h e a r t " (xin /L^) the o r g a n l i n k e d w i t h the p h a s e fire, the c o l o r red, t h e s e a s o n of the s u m m e r , a n d the direction of the south. It also m a n a g e s the c o n s t r u c t i v e qi, w h i c h t r a n s p o r t s xue, a n d the w o r k i n g s o f the b l o o d v e s s e l s . A m o n g s e n s e s , i t c o r r e s p o n d s t o touch, a m o n g b o d y fluids it c o n n e c t s to s w e a t (a p r e c i o u s entity that c o n t a i n s m a n y i m p o r tant s u b s t a n c e s ) , a m o n g e m o t i o n s it relates to j o y ( e n t h u s i a s m , e u p h o r i a , or h a t r e d ) , w h i l e its v i r t u e is propriety, i.e., a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r , t i m e l y interactions, and b e h a v i n g s u i t a b l y in a g i v e n context. T h e h e a r t is also the seat of the spirit, e n s u r i n g that internal c o n s c i o u s ness, a w a r e n e s s , t h o u g h t , and reflection intersect p r o p e r l y w i t h t h e w o r l d o f t i m e and s p a c e ( K a p t c h u k 1 9 8 3 , 8 8 ) . I t i s v e r y m u c h i n c h a r g e o f t h e p e r s o n in g e n e r a l a n d t a k e s c a r e of its p r o p e r rest by p r o v i d i n g sufficient sleep. As a l r e a d y t h e Suwen says: " T h e h e a r t is the r e s i d e n c e of t h e ruler: spirit a n d clarity o r i g i n a t e h e r e . " Its c h a n n e l b e g i n s in the a r m p i t and,

w i t h an internal b r a n c h c o n n e c t i n g to the h e a r t itself, p a s s e s

t h r o u g h the c h e s t a n d lungs. After m o v i n g a l o n g the s i d e o f the throat a n d t h r o u g h the inner side of t h e arm, it e n d s at the tip of t h e little finger (Kaptchuk 1 9 8 3 , 1 1 8 ; Kohn 2005, 54). A d e p l e t i o n of h e a r t y a n g or qi is indicated by c o l d and listlessness, c o m b i n e d w i t h fatigue a n d irregularities in the h e a r t beat. It is b e s t treated w i t h s t i m u l a n t s , s u c h as limited d o s e s of coffee and c o c o a as well as w i t h t h e m a t c h i n g a n i m a l o r g a n ( E n g e l h a r d t and H e m p e n 1 9 9 7 , 2 7 6 - 7 7 ) . A d e p l e t i o n of h e a r t yin or xue, on the o t h e r h a n d , is a n e r v o u s h e a t c o n d i tion, w h i c h m e a n s s l e e p l e s s n e s s , forgetfulness, n u m b n e s s , vertigo, and e r u p t i o n s of h e a t in different parts of the b o d y . S i n c e it is c a u s e d by d e -

58 / Medicinal Diets p l e t i o n rather t h a n e x c e s s , t h e r e m e d y is a s u p p o r t of yin t h r o u g h w a r m i n g s w e e t or n e u t r a l foods, v e r y m u c h like those u s e d for d e p l e t i o n of s p l e e n qi. In addition, s p i c y foods that aid the l u n g s m a y a l s o be helpful as well as bitter f o o d s — t h e flavor a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the heart: n o t found in g r a i n or fruits, it a p p e a r s in a v a r i e t y of leafy greens, s u c h as lettuce, e n dives, chicory, celery, a n d d a n d e l i o n , p l u s p i g ' s o r h a r e ' s liver a m o n g meats,

and

tea,

cocoa,

a n d coffee

a m o n g liquids

(Engelhardt and

H e m p e n 1997, 4 1 3 ; 5 1 6 - 1 8 ) . T h e m a t c h i n g y a n g o r g a n s o f the l u n g s and the h e a r t are t h e l a r g e a n d s m a l l intestines, w h o s e c h a n n e l s run a l o n g t h e outer arms, c o n n e c t i n g t h e h a n d s t o t h e torso. T y p i c a l p a t h o l o g i e s are e x c e s s h e a t a n d d e p l e t i o n of qi, m a n i f e s t in t e n d e n c i e s t o w a r d c o n s t i p a t i o n a n d diarrhea, as well as i n v a s i o n b y parasites. F o r e x c e s s heat, c o o l i n g a n d s o o t h i n g s u b s t a n c e s are helpful, n o t a b l y n u t s a n d s e e d s as well as soft fruits, v e g e t a b l e s , a n d dairy. For depletion, t a k e ^ i - e n h a n c i n g foods, s u c h a s g r a i n s a n d w a r m i n g v e g e t a b l e s , fried w i t h chilies, p e p p e r , n u t m e g , a n d ginger. Parasites, finally, c a n b e d r i v e n o u t b y garlic a n d scallions a s well a s o t h e r k i n d s o f o n i o n s c o m b i n e d w i t h g r a i n s a n d b e a n s ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1997, 525-32). C o m p l e m e n t i n g the h e a r t i n the s c h e m e o f the five p h a s e s i s t h e k i d n e y c o m p l e x (shen W) w h i c h b e l o n g s to the p h a s e water, the s e a s o n winter, a n d the c o l o r b l a c k . T h e m o s t yin a m o n g o r g a n s , i t i s also the m o s t p o tent, b e i n g in c h a r g e of e s s e n c e (jing), a c o r e form of c o n c e n t r a t e d qi that f o r m s b o n e s , teeth, a n d brain, a n d i s k e y t o h a r d w o r k , e n d u r a n c e , a n d p e r s e v e r a n c e . E s s e n c e also rules birth, d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d m a t u r a t i o n and is t h e p r i m o r d i a l seat of the life p r o c e s s , often a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e x u a l i t y a n d p r o c r e a t i o n ( K a p t c h u k 1983, 8 3 - 8 4 ) . T h e b o d y fluid o f the k i d n e y s i s t h e saliva; their related s e n s e o r g a n are t h e ears —described i n D a o i s t literature a s the " D a r k T o w e r s , " the n a m e a l s o g i v e n t o the k i d n e y s . T h e r e l a t e d e m o t i o n i s fear (caution, anxiety, p a n i c ) , c o u n t e r a c t e d effectively by the virtue of w i s d o m , a s e n s e of life a n d its unfolding, t h e intuitive k n o w l e d g e w h e n t o m o v e a n d w h e n t o rest. T h e Suwen n o t e s : " T h e k i d n e y s are the r e s i d e n c e of the b u s i n e s s m e n : a c t i v i t y a n d c a r e o r i g i n a t e h e r e " (3.1b). T h e related c h a n n e l b e g i n s at B u b b l i n g W e l l ( Y o n g q u a n 'M^) in the c e n t e r of t h e sole, then r u n s t h r o u g h t h e instep, circles a r o u n d t h e m e d i a l ankle, m o v e s u p the inner leg a n d t h r o u g h t h e a b d o m e n t o t h e c h e s t ( K a p t c h u k 1 9 8 3 , 1 2 2 - 2 3 ; K o h n 2 0 0 5 , 55).

I

Dietary Ttierapy / 59 T h e k i d n e y s y s t e m w a r m s the c e n t e r and s u p p l i e s qi to the h e a r t as well as r u n n i n g t h e e n t i r e w a t e r - s y s t e m of the b o d y . Its flavor is salty, w h i c h m e a n s no fruit at all a n d o n l y selected other foodstuffs: m i l l e t a m o n g grains; s e a w e e d a m o n g v e g e t a b l e s ; o c t o p u s , c r a b , oysters, a n d a b a l o n e a m o n g seafood; duck, p i g e o n , and p o r k a m o n g a n i m a l flesh ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1 9 9 7 , 4 1 3 ) . T h e k i d n e y s b e i n g s o i m p o r t a n t t o the overall functioning of t h e b o d y , a n d salt b e i n g essential to life, t h e s e foods p l a y a relatively large role in food p r e p a r a t i o n . It also e x p l a i n s the u b i q u i t y of soy sauce, t h e great all-spice o f C h i n e s e c o o k i n g . P a t h o l o g i e s t e n d to be in the form of depl et i on: of k i d n e y y a n g a n d qi as well as of k i d n e y yin. Y a n g a n d qi d e p l e t i o n s are c o l d c o n d i t i o n s , i n v o l v i n g b r e a t h l e s s n e s s , c o l d h a n d s a n d feet, frequent urination, d i s c h a r g e of s e x u a l fluids, ear p r o b l e m s (infections, loss of hearing, tinnitus), j o i n t pains, h e a d a c h e s , and hair loss. S p i c y , w a r m i n g foods are best: leeks, w a l n u t s , fennel, grapes, a s well a s c h i c k e n and g a m e . K i d n e y yin d e p l e tion c o m e s w i t h i n c r e a s e d thirst, d a r k urine, n i g h t s w e a t s , constipation, d r y m o u t h , vertigo, n u m b n e s s , a s well a s b a c k pain. S w e e t , neutral and w a r m i n g foods, s u c h as c h i c k e n , will benefit here; so will t h e k i d n e y s of

•

a n i m a l s ( E n g e l h a r d t and H e m p e n 1997, 5 0 0 - 0 4 ) . Its m a t c h i n g y a n g p a r t n e r is t h e b l a d d e r (pang M) w i t h t h e l o n g e s t of t h e c h a n n e l s that r u n s d o w n t h e b a c k i n t w o parallel lines a s well a s a c r o s s t h e h e a d and a l o n g t h e o u t s i d e of the legs. Its m a i n t a s k is to transform b o d y fluids and lead t h e m t o w a r d e l i m i n a t i o n . It is very s e n s i t i v e to c o l d and dampness,

w h i c h lead t o s y m p t o m s c o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d with

b l a d d e r infections. T h e b e s t dietary t h e r a p y i n v o l v e s neutral, lightly salty a s well a s bitter foods ( E n g e l h a r d t and H e m p e n 1997, 5 0 9 ) . Finally, the last of the five o r g a n s y s t e m s is the " l i v e r " (gan U f ) , a s s o c i ated w i t h the p h a s e w o o d : spring, east, a n d green. T h e m o d e r a t o r o f the entire system, its m a i n t a s k is to control the overall flow of qi a n d to store t h e xue. In t e r m s of its w i d e r associations, it is l i n k e d w i t h the w o r k i n g of j o i n t s and t e n d o n s a n d c o r r e s p o n d s t o the s e n s e o f v i s i o n and the e y e s ( P o r k e r t 1 9 7 4 , 1 1 7 - 1 9 ) . A m o n g b o d y fluids, liver m e a n s tears, a m o n g e m o t i o n s it relates to a n g e r (aggression, c o u r a g e , or l a c k thereof), w h i l e in t h e virtues it m a t c h e s b e n e v o l e n c e or k i n d n e s s . T h e liver i s also indicative o f the repetitive c y c l e s o f h u m a n life, curtaili n g e x t r e m e s a n d e n s u r i n g the s m o o t h m o v e m e n t o f q i ( K a p t c h u k 1 9 8 3 , 8 1 - 8 2 ) . T h e Huangdi neijing suwen d e s c r i b e s it as "the r e s i d e n c e of the

60 / Medicinal Diets strategists: p l a n n i n g a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o r i g i n a t e h e r e " ( 3 . 1 a ) . Its c h a n n e l b e g i n s a t t h e tip o f the b i g toe, then m o v e s u p the instep t o t h e i n n e r side of the leg, c r o s s e s t h e p u b i c region, l o w e r a b d o m e n , liver, a n d l u n g s to e n d i n t h e rib c a g e . A n internal b r a n c h e n d s a t t h e liver. Its m o s t i m p o r tant p o i n t i s T o o Fast ( T a i c h o n g y f c ^ ; Li-3) o n t h e top o f the foot n e a r the a n k l e . It is a s t r o n g p o i n t for m o v i n g qi a n d h e l p s w i t h n u m e r o u s ailm e n t s ( K a p t c h u k 1 9 8 3 , 128; K o h n 2 0 0 5 , 5 7 ) . T h e m o s t c o m m o n p a t h o l o g y o f the liver i s a n e x c e s s o f qi, w h i c h m a n i fests in a b l o c k a g e t h a t c a n lead to internal h e a t a n d w i n d . S y m p t o m s i n c l u d e a b d o m i n a l o r c h e s t tension, n a u s e a , c o n s t i p a t i o n , a n d P M S , a s well as a c o n t i n u e d s e n s e of frustration or e v e n d e p r e s s i o n . C o o l i n g a n d m o i s t u r i z i n g foods are best; h o w e v e r , s h r i m p s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d s i n c e t h e y i n c r e a s e e n e r g e t i c mobility, a n d a l c o h o l i s b a d b e c a u s e i t p r o d u c e s too m u c h heat (Engelhardt and H e m p e n 1997, 480). A d e p l e t i o n of liver yin or xtie, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , leads to rising liver y a n g (fire), w h i c h c a u s e s i n s o m n i a , vision p r o b l e m s (blurring, dizziness, n i g h t b l i n d n e s s , dry e y e s ) , vertigo, n u m b n e s s , d r y nails, p a l e n e s s , a n d m e n s t r u a l inhibition. Neutral, lightly c o o l i n g foods a s well a s s o m e s w e e t a n d s o u r items are b e s t — n o t unlike t h e diet r e c o m m e n d e d for d e p l e t i o n of s p l e e n qi. In addition, s o y b e a n s , nuts, a n d s e e d s are g o o d as well a s the liver o f a n i m a l s , e s p e c i a l l y c h i c k e n s . E g g s and p o r k m a y also b e u s e d , b u t i n limited a m o u n t s ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1 9 9 7 , 4 8 3 - 8 6 ) . O t h e r t h a n that, special liver foods a r e helpful, w h i c h m e a n s t h o s e o f s o u r flavor: a d z u k i b e a n s , t o m a t o e s , p h e a s a n t , y o g u r t , and a n y t h i n g s p i c e d w i t h vinegar, as well as m o s t fruits, n o t a b l y all k i n d s of citrus, b u t a l s o apples, apricots, p e a r s , kiwis, p e a c h e s , m a n g o , p l u m s , p i n e a p p l e , a n d star f r u i t ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1 9 9 7 , 4 1 3 ) . T h e m a t c h i n g y a n g o r g a n is t h e gall b l a d d e r {dan Ift), t h e m a i n r e c i p i e n t of fluids from t h e liver a n d p r o v i d e r of qi for t h e s t o m a c h . A l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h decision m a k i n g , c o u r a g e , a n d initiative, it suffers m o s t l y from d a m p n e s s w h i c h m a n i f e s t s i n n a u s e a , fever, y e l l o w c o m p l e x i o n , d a r k urine, a n d a bitter taste in the m o u t h as well as in frustration a n d e m o t i o n a l tension. S w e e t a n d c o o l i n g foods a r e helpful, a s n o t a b l y b u c k w h e a t , y e l l o w s o y b e a n sprouts, d a n d e l i o n s , a n d tea ( E n g e l h a r d t a n d H e m p e n 1997, 4 9 2 - 9 3 ) .

62 / Medicinal Diets a t the t o n g u e ' s coating, s h a p e , a n d color. T h e c o a t i n g o r " m o s s " o f t h e t o n g u e indicates t h e relative state of b o d y fluids in a c o n t i n u u m from no c o a t t h r o u g h t h i c k c o a t t o p e e l e d coat, with m u l t i p l e v a r i a t i o n s i n b e t w e e n . T h e a b s e n c e of a c o a t m a y i n d i c a t e a l a c k of the s t o m a c h fluids n e c e s s a r y to g e n e r a t e a coat. T h e t h i c k n e s s of a c o a t i n d i c a t e s the relative t h i c k n e s s of t h e b o d y fluids. A thin w h i t e c o a t is c o n s i d e r e d n o r m a l a n d i n d i c a t i v e of a relative fluid b a l a n c e . If the c o a t is thin a n d clear, fluids a r e d e p l e t e d a n d the b o d y l a c k s t h e ability t o lubricate its m e m b r a n e s . T h e s h a p e o f t h e t o n g u e i s e v a l u a t e d for w h e t h e r i t i s s h o r t o r l o n g , s w o l l e n o r thin, c r a c k e d o r s m o o t h , a n d for t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f visible v e i n s . A s w o l l e n t o n g u e s e e m s t o o large for the m o u t h . Often t h e sides of t h e t o n g u e a p p e a r w a v y in a p a t t e r n k n o w n as "teeth m a r k s " or " s c a l loping." This is caused by the swelling between the ligaments which h o l d the t o n g u e t o g e t h e r a n d c a u s e it to flare out at its lateral e d g e s . M e c h a n i c a l l y the s w o l l e n t o n g u e is i n d i c a t i v e of a relative i m b a l a n c e b e t w e e n interstitial fluid a n d b l o o d fluid v o l u m e s ; e s s e n t i a l l y t h e tissues are w a t e r l o g g e d . T h e s w o l l e n t o n g u e i s c l i n i c a l l y related t o w e a k s p l e e n y a n g w h i c h is r e s p o n s i b l e for t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the fluids. T h i s p r e s e n t a tion often a l s o e v i d e n c e s e d e m a in t h e j o i n t s as well as a puffy a p p e a r a n c e . W h e n the t o n g u e is thin, it i n d i c a t e s a d e p l e t i o n in the b l o o d w h i c h s h o u l d fill t h e t o n g u e . T h i s is c o n s i d e r e d a p r e c u r s o r to yin depletion, e v i d e n c e d b y dry s i g n s o n the m u c u s m e m b r a n e a s w e l l a s i n s o m n i a , irritability, h o t flashes, a n d a m e n o r r h e a . C r a c k s in t h e t o n g u e i n d i c a t e a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d i s h a r m o n y of the o r g a n s m a t c h i n g specific areas o f the t o n g u e . Finally, the u n d e r s i d e o f the t o n g u e is i n s p e c t e d for t h e visibility of v e i n s . If the v e i n s a r e d a r k a n d visible, the o v e r a l l c i r c u l a t o r y s y s t e m i s inefficient—like t h e h a n d s o f a n arthritic p a t i e n t w h o d e v e l o p s d a r k e r v e i n s d u e t o the p o o r circulation. T h e c o l o r o f the b o d y o f t h e t o n g u e i s t h e last p a r a m e t e r i n s p e c t e d . I f t h e t o n g u e is p a l e a n d w a s h e d out, the qi is deplete. If the t o n g u e is dark, b l a c k , o r p u r p l e , t h e b l o o d i s stagnant. T h e s e c o l o r s c a n b e g e n e r a l t o the t o n g u e b o d y o r t h e y c a n b e l o c a l t o a g i v e n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e area. After v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n c o m e s t o u c h i n g , w h i c h m a y i n v o l v e p a l p a t i n g painful a r e a s a n d e x a m i n i n g the a b d o m e n . M o s t essentially, h o w e v e r , i t m e a n s p u l s e d i a g n o s i s . P h y s i c i a n s t a k e the radial pulse, s u b d i v i d i n g into t h r e e p o s i t i o n s from t h e w r i s t c r e a s e up a n d feeling it at t h r e e levels of depth.

This

creates

eighteen

positions

that

are

cross-referenced

to

t w e n t y - e i g h t p o s s i b l e q u a l i t y a s s e s s m e n t s , e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t i n g in a di-

1

I

Dietary Therapy / 63 agnostic pattern. T h e p u l s e i s a l w a y s t a k e n i n t h r e e p o s i t i o n s o n b o t h sides, b y a p p l y i n g t h r e e different p r e s s u r e s — s u p e r f i c i a l , m e d i u m , and d e e p — e a c h m a t c h i n g t h e q u a l i t y of qi in t w o of t h e t w e l v e k e y o r g a n s : 1. left: heart/small intestine 2. left: liver/gall bladder 3. left: kidney/bladder

1. right: lungs/large intestine 2. right: spleen/stomach 3. right: pericardium/triple heater

T h e t w e n t y - e i g h t t y p e s o f pulses, then, c o n s i s t o f e i g h t e e n c l a s s e s disting u i s h e d a c c o r d i n g t o d e p t h (2), s p e e d (2), w i d t h (2), s t r e n g t h (2), s h a p e (4), length (2), r h y t h m (3), and b a l a n c e (1); p l u s ten types, i.e., flooding, m i n u t e , frail, s o g g y , leathery, h i d d e n , c o n f i n e d , s p i n n i n g , h o l l o w , a n d scattered. T h e m o s t d e s i r a b l e p u l s e i s m o d e r a t e , regular, m e d i u m , strong, and even. W h e n taking the patient's pulse, variants due to seasons, time o f day, and g e n d e r m u s t b e t a k e n into c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A l l o t h e r a b n o r m a l i t i e s indicate w e a k n e s s or e x c e s s of the qi in specific o r g a n s . T y p i c a l indications i n c l u d e (see K a p t c h u k 1 9 8 3 , 1 9 4 - 2 1 0 a n d 3 2 3 - 4 9 ) : superficial deep slow rapid taut

wry thready short knotted intermittent

easily palpable but weak felt only with pressure less than four beats more than five beats forceful and tight rolling or flowing rather fine pulse uneven, missing beats slow, irregular misses slow, regular misses

beginning disease internal syndromes cold syndromes heat syndromes yang hyperactivity excessive phlegm depleted (j;/blood (^i/blood-stagnation endogenous cold impairment of qi

U s i n g the i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d from t h e s e e x a m i n a t i o n s , the clinician classifies the information in t e r m s of t w o s y s t e m s : the m a i n c h a n g e s of t h e c o n d i t i o n a n d its m a i n characteristics. T h e m a i n c h a n g e s are d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s o f t h e so-called six p a t h o g e n i c p a t t e r n s {liuxie A J | i ) , classified g e n e r a l l y i n t o yin a n d y a n g a n d m o r e specifically d i v i d e d into t w o aspects: e x t e r n a l (those that i n v a d e t h e b o d y ) a n d internal (those g e n e r a t e d in t h e b o d y ) . T h e three y a n g p a t t e r n s are: 1. Wind (feng J i l t ventus), i.e., fast change or movement, associated with the liver. Externally generated through wind, draft, air conditioning, changes in temperature. Manifests first on the body surface, may appear as pain, skin erup-

64 / Medicinal Diets tions, colds, fever, and fear of drafts. It can also be an internally generated, chronic liver problem. 2. Heat {re calor), i.e., acceleration or dilation of qi, linked with the heart. Externally created from exposure to heat or internally due to conditions related to the heart. Symptoms include red skin, swellings, inflammation, yellow secretions, dry tongue, thirst, rapid pulse, perspiration, red face, fever, and swollen throat. The patient appears agitated and talkative, thirsty, and constipated. 3. Dryness (zao '1^ ariditas), i.e., withering or shriveling tendency, related to the lungs. Developed due to chronic dehydration and blockages in fluid movement. Manifests as asthma, phlegm, fever, body aches, dry nostrils, tongue, or skin, and lack of urination. It indicates an internal loss of fluids and often comes with irritation, weakness, or anemia. T h e three yin p a t t e r n s are: 4. Cold {han algor), i.e., contracting or slowing qi, linked with the kidneys. Due externally to exposure to cold. Patient appears pale, cold, contracted, with clear secretions. He may have a fever but no sweat, and tends to feel cold, stiff, crampy, or sleepy; appears shrinking and clenching, is quiet and unwilling to talk, shows a lack of thirst, and tends toward diarrhea. 5. Dampness {shi'M, humor), i.e., sinking or accumulating, related to the spleen. Generated by exposure to damp conditions and the ingestion of sticky, cooling foods (dairy, ice cream). Produces turbid, sticky, or cloudy secretions, feelings of nausea, swellings, a greasy tongue, as well as heavy or sore limbs. Patients often have oily skin and indigestion. 6. Summer heat {shu # aestus), i.e., drying out, linked with the pericardium. Caused by exposure to extreme heat, it creates exhaustion, depletion of fluids, sweating, and bursts of high fever. (Kaptchuk 1983, 146-57; Engelhardt and Hempen 1997, 540-65; Kohn 2005, 70-71) I n a d d i t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m a i n p a t h o g e n i c pattern, c l i n i c i a n s also e v a l u a t e their findings i n t e r m s o f t h e d o m i n a n t characteristics o f t h e c o n d i t i o n , d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s of the eight k e y criteria (bagang AM), w h i c h a n s w e r four q u e s t i o n s . T h e first i s t h e g e n e r a l n a t u r e o f t h e c o n d i tion: is it y i n or y a n g ? S e c o n d c o m e s its d e g r e e of p e n e t r a t i o n : is it exter-

Dietary Therapy / 65 nal (biao ^) or internal Qi S ) , a c u t e or c h r o n i c ? T h i r d is its f u n d a m e n t a l d\Tiamic: is it c o o l i n g (haji ^ ) or h e a t i n g {re ift) in nature, t e n d i n g t o •.sard s l u g g i s h or e n h a n c e d m o v e m e n t ? A n d fourth is its g e n e r a l state: is :t d e p l e t e / e m p t y {xu !M) or excessive/full {shi

i n d i c a t i n g w e a k n e s s or

intensity? U s u a l l y the picture p r e s e n t e d by t h e p a t i e n t is a m i x t u r e of t h e s e indications, from w h i c h p h y s i c i a n s di s cer n a pattern. F o r e x a m p l e , the p r e s e n c e of an o b s t r u c t i o n of qi c o u l d be c a u s e d by c o l d or by heat. If it is cold-induced, there will be a p a l e skin a n d c o m p l e x i o n , a w h i t e coat on the t o n g u e , and a dislike of cold. S u c h an o b s t r u c t i o n t e n d s to be longterm or chronic; it c o m e s from an insufficient flow of qi to the area in question. A h e a t - i n d u c e d obstruction, on the o t h e r h a n d , s h o w s an o v e r flow of qi that is m o v i n g fast in different d i r e c t i o n s a n d thus c r e a t e s b l o c k a g e s . T h i s i s m o r e acute. T h e patient s h o w s r e d n e s s a n d swelling, and e x p r e s s a s t r o n g liking for c o o l n e s s a n d c o l d s u b s t a n c e s . T h e treatm e n t v a r i o u s a c c o r d i n g l y : c o o l i n g h e r b s and foods as well as d r a i n a g e for the h e a t - i n d u c e d disorder; w a r m i n g c o m p r e s s e s , teas, and m e d i c i n e s , as well as e n h a n c e m e n t of qi t h r o u g h a c u p u n c t u r e for the cold c o n d i t i o n .

To activate t h e p r i n c i p l e s of d i e t a r y t h e r a p y in practice, all s y m p t o m s and c o n d i t i o n s n e e d first to be translated into t h e C h i n e s e d i a g n o s t i c s y s tem, related to specific o r g a n s and c h a n n e l s as well as to qualities a n d m o v e m e n t s . O n l y t h e n can specific r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s be m a d e and food t h e r a p y b e g i n . F o r e x a m p l e , in c a s e of pai n in the j o i n t s and m u s c l e s , the first q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r it is due to qi obstruction, cold, or w i n d , l e a d i n g to a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n to increase foods that s u p p o r t e n e r g e t i c m o v e m e n t , warmth, or calm. In cases of nervousness and insomnia, the question is w h e t h e r it is c a u s e d by w o r r y (a spleen-related c o n d i t i o n ) or the d e p l e tion of liver e n e r g i e s . In t h e first case, the c e n t e r n e e d s to be stabilized with foods related to s p l e e n a n d s t o m a c h ; in the s e c o n d , a n y t h i n g that s u p p o r t s liver qi is helpful, s u c h as celery, w a t e r c h e s t n u t s , m u n g b e a n s , peanuts, a n d s h r i m p s ( E n g e l h a r d t and H e m p e n 1997, 5 7 4 - 6 0 3 ) . It is n o t possible to list all t h e different v a r i a t i o n s in t h e s e p a g e s , but here are a few p e r t i n e n t c a s e e x a m p l e s . In o n e case, a m o t h e r b r i n g s her three-year old s o n into the clinic b e c a u s e he t e n d s t o w a r d c o l d s . After a n o r m a l p r e g n a n c y and birth, he b e g a n h a v i n g feverish ear infections at six m o n t h s . At the m o m e n t he is not sick.

66 / Medicinal Diets b u t the m o t h e r w o r r i e s that e n t r y into p r e s c h o o l a n d e x p o s u r e t o m u l t i p l e g e r m s will c r e a t e difficulties a n d w o u l d like t o see t h e c h i l d strengthened. U p o n q u e s t i o n i n g i t e m e r g e s that the b o y g e t s c o l d easily a n d h a s a tend e n c y t o w a r d p h l e g m . H e often c o m p l a i n s o f b e l l y a c h e s a n d t e n d s t o h a v e soft stools. H e likes w a r m f o o d s a n d drinks, h o w e v e r , h e eats c o r n flakes w i t h c o l d m i l k for b r e a k f a s t . H e h a s t h r e e m a i n m e a l s p l u s t w o s n a c k s i n the c o u r s e o f a d a y . T o m a k e s u r e h e gets sufficient v i t a m i n s , t h e m o t h e r a l s o p r o v i d e s h i m w i t h fresh fruit, j u i c e s , and s o m e salads. L o o k i n g at the patient, the c h i l d a p p e a r s n o r m a l for h i s age, b u t h a s a p a l e c o m p l e x i o n a n d d a r k r i n g s u n d e r t h e eyes. T h e t o n g u e i s light i n c o l o r and soft. P u l s e d i a g n o s i s s h o w s a s l o w and w r y pattern, i n d i c a t i v e o f c o l d a n d d a m p n e s s . I n t e r m s o f the six p a t h o g e n i c patterns, the b o y m a t c h e s the " c o l d " s y n d r o m e ; i n t e r m s o f the e i g h t k e y criteria, his c o n dition is m o r e yin t h a n yang, internal and c h r o n i c r a t h e r t h a n external, m a t c h e s a c o l d r a t h e r than h o t pattern, a n d s h o w s a d e p l e t e d rather than excessive mode. T h e final q u e s t i o n i s w h i c h inner o r g a n s are m o s t i n v o l v e d i n the c o n d i tion. I n this c a s e , t h e y are t h e k i d n e y s , spleen, a n d lungs. T h e w e a k e n i n g of the k i d n e y s , t h e seat of c e n t r a l life energy, is e v i d e n t from the p a l e c o m p l e x i o n a n d t h e d a r k r i n g s u n d e r t h e e y e s ; a n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n i s the t e n d e n c y t o w a r d e a r i n f e c t i o n s — t h e e a r s b e i n g the s e n s e o r g a n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the k i d n e y s . T h e r e d u c e d function o f t h e spleen, w i t h t h e s t o m a c h r e s p o n s i b l e for d i g e s t i o n and t h e p r o d u c t i o n of inner w a r m t h , is m a d e clear from the b e l l y aches, t h e soft stools, t h e l o w appetite, a n d the t e n d e n c y to feel cold. T h e affect on the lungs, finally, c o n n e c t e d to b r e a t h i n g , n o s e , a n d d e f e n s i v e qi, is a p p a r e n t from h i s t e n d e n c y t o w a r d c o l d s and feverish infections. A l t o g e t h e r , the d i a g n o s i s is that t h e b o y suffers from a d e p l e t i o n of the k i d n e y , spleen, and l u n g c o m p l e x e s , i n d i c a t e d d o m i n a n t l y in a p e r v a s i v e p a t t e r n of c o l d . T h e t h e r a p e u t i c p r i n c i p l e is a c c o r d i n g l y a w a r m i n g a n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e qi in t h e s e t h r e e o r g a n s . T h i s c a n be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h a c u p u n c t u r e and m o x i b u s t i o n (the b u r n i n g o f t h e m o x a h e r b o n selected a c u p u n c t u r e p o i n t s ) as well as m a s s a g e s or a c u p r e s s u r e . Q i g o n g , p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t that e n c o u r a g e s e n e r g y flow in the specific areas, is a l s o a g o o d m e a s u r e . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h o u g h , is t h e i n g e s t i o n of h e r b a l r e m e d i e s a n d a l a s t i n g c h a n g e in diet.

Dietary Therapy / 67 As regards dietary measures, the b o y should take his meals regularly and e a t s l o w l y t o a v o i d u p s e t t i n g the s t o m a c h . H e s h o u l d a v o i d a n y thing cold, oily, o r h e a v y , w h i c h m a y p l a c e a b u r d e n o n the l u n g s a n d kidneys. In t h e m o r n i n g s , r a t h e r than cold c o r n flakes he s h o u l d e a t a \ s a r m breakfast, p r e f e r a b l y a c o o k e d c e r e a l w i t h n u t s a n d dried fruit a n d m a y b e s o m e ginger. D u r i n g t h e day, h i s m e a l s s h o u l d c o n s i s t o f c o o k e d foods a n d s o u p s , i n c l u d i n g a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e w a r m i n g e l e m e n t s , s u c h as c h i c k e n a n d v a r i o u s k i n d s of o n i o n s . R a t h e r than h a v i n g fresh fruit a n d salads, for t h e t i m e b e i n g i t i s b e t t e r i f h e eats c o m p o t e s a n d c o o k e d or fried v e g e t a b l e s ( E n g e l h a r d t and N o g e l 2 0 0 9 , 4 0 - 4 3 ) . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e i s the c a s e o f a 5 3 - y e a r - o l d w o m a n w h o h a s t r o u b l e with m e n o p a u s e . H e r p e r i o d s h a v i n g c e a s e d s e v e r a l y e a r s a g o , s h e s t o p p e d h o r m o n e r e p l a c e m e n t t h e r a p y d u e t o s e r i o u s s i d e effects a n d i s n o w suffering from i r r e g u l a r sleep patterns, h o t flashes, a n d overall irritability. S h e a l s o c o m p l a i n s a b o u t a r e c u r r i n g t e n d e n c y t o w a r d acid retlux o r h e a r t b u r n , w h i c h w a s d i a g n o s e d b y W e s t e r n d o c t o r s a s a n int l a m m a t i o n o f the e s o p h a g u s . S h e takes m e d i c a t i o n t o r e d u c e s t o m a c h acid, a n d h a s a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d c o n s t i p a t i o n . Visual e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l s a t o n g u e w i t h d e e p c r a c k s , w h i l e p u l s e d i a g nosis s h o w s f l o o d i n g a n d r a p i d p a t t e r n s i n t h e u p p e r r e g i o n s o f the b o d y , while t h o s e r e l a t e d t o the l o w e r h a l f are h o l l o w a n d t h r e a d y . I n t e r m s o f the eight k e y criteria, h e r c o n d i t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a n internal o v e r p r o d u c tion of h e a t ( y a n g ) , c o n n e c t e d to a w e a k n e s s or d e p l e t i o n of yin. T h e c r a c k e d t o n g u e and t h e h o l l o w p u l s e a s well a s t h e n i g h t l y intensification of h o t flashes a n d agitation also i n d i c a t e an overall yin w e a k n e s s . T h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f s y m p t o m s a n d p a t t e r n s , m o r e o v e r , i s typical for women undergoing menopause. Upon questioning, the dominant pathogenic patterns emerge. The patient t e n d s to eat irregularly a n d w i t h h a s t e , s h e likes to d r i n k r e d w i n e at n i g h t a n d t a k e s a rather h e a v y d i n n e r late in t h e e v e n i n g . A l l t h e s e are h e a t - c r e a t i n g patterns: r e d w i n e i s classified a s v e r y w a r m i n g w h i l e irregular, hasty, a n d e s p e c i a l l y late m e a l s t e n d t o w e a k e n moist, c o o l , y i n e n e r g i e s . I n addition, h e r n e r v o u s n e s s a n d e x h a u s t i o n a r e intensified b y professional stress and the fact that s h e is t h e m a i n c a r e t a k e r of an i n v a lid m o t h e r — b o t h d e p l e t i n g i n n e r r e s o u r c e s a n d w e a k e n i n g yin. A m o n g t h e i n n e r o r g a n s , the o n e i m d e r m o s t p r e s s u r e i s t h e k i d n e y s , w h i c h t h r o u g h ; i n g - e s s e n c e i s r e s p o n s i b l e for the s e x u a l m a t u r a t i o n a n d

68 / Medicinal Diets d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p e r s o n , a n d t h u s also i n c h a r g e o f the m e n o p a u s a l transition. I n h e r c a s e , t h e yin qualities o f the k i d n e y s are d i m i n i s h e d , causing normally harmonious and balanced yang potencies to b e c o m e o v e r b e a r i n g a n d rise i n t o t h e heart. T h e heart, c o n n e c t e d t o p s y c h o l o g i cal a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r s o n , r e p r e s e n t s t h e o u t w a r d p e r s o n a l i t y o f the i n d i v i d u a l . In this c a s e , t h e affect on t h e h e a r t is e v i d e n t in t h e p a t i e n t ' s irritability, n e r v o u s n e s s , i n s o m n i a , a n d h o t flashes. H e r t e n d e n c y t o w a r d c o n s t i p a t i o n a n d acid reflux, finally, i n d i c a t e h e a t i n t h e s t o m a c h , e x h a u s t i n g n u r t u r i n g fluids a n d u s i n g u p n e c e s s a r y yin e n e r g i e s . H e r d i a g n o s i s is a d e p l e t i o n of yin in t h e k i d n e y s , s t o m a c h , a n d heart. T h i s h a s c a u s e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f heat, w h i c h i s further intensified b y v a r i o u s n u t r i t i o n a l errors. T h e m a i n t h e r a p e u t i c p r i n c i p l e i s a c c o r d i n g l y to s u p p o r t a n d m o i s t u r i z e yin, c o m b i n e d w i t h a c o o l i n g a n d c a l m i n g of t h e heart. A g a i n , a c u p u n c t u r e , q i g o n g , a n d h e r b s will b e helpful. I n t e r m s of dietetics, the p a t i e n t s h o u l d eat r e g u l a r l y a n d in a c a l m setting, t a k i n g a light e v e n i n g m e a l e a r l y w i t h o u t w i n e . S h e s h o u l d a v o i d anyt h i n g spicy, hot, o r w a r m i n g i n nature, focusing i n s t e a d o n c o o k e d c e r e als with raisins a n d nuts, a n d c o n s u m e relatively m o r e p o r k , squid, a n d tofu w i t h g e n t l e a n d c o o l i n g v e g e t a b l e s s u c h a s a v o c a d o s , s e a w e e d s , a n d t o m a t o e s , as well as fresh, c o o l i n g fruits, s u c h as d r a g o n fruit a n d w a t e r melon (Engelhardt and Nogel 2009, 43-45). C h i n e s e dietary t h e r a p y , t o s u m up, w o r k s w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s of the C h i n e s e diet a n d is c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d to the social realities a n d food a p p e r c e p t i o n in C h i n e s e c u l t u r e . It a l l o w s for g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s a n d o v e r a l l g u i d e l i n e s b u t i s a l s o s t r o n g l y Hnked t o the individual, m o d i fying its p r e s c r i p t i o n s o n the b a s i s o f p e r s o n a l i z e d d i a g n o s i s a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of u n i q u e e n e r g e t i c p a t t e r n s . D a o i s t s fully c o n f o r m to this fund a m e n t a l C h i n e s e dietary s y s t e m a n d follow its g u i d e l i n e s i n m a n y res p e c t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , D a o i s t s a l s o g o b e y o n d m e d i c i n a l diets, a d d i n g their o w n s u g g e s t i o n s a n d m e t h o d s a n d m a t c h i n g t h e m t o the s p e cific social setting a n d c u l t i v a t i o n g o a l s o f i n d i v i d u a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s .

Now, mentally float in emptiness and stillness, let go of worries, rest in nonaction, absorb primordial qi after midnight, practice healing exercises in a calm setting, support and nourish life without fail, take healthy food and efficacious herbs—if you do all this, then a hundred years of vigorous longevity are your proper due. (Yangxing yanming lu 1.1a)

In m a n y w a y s , the w a y D a o i s t s eat is a c o n t i n u a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n of the C h i n e s e m e d i c a t e d diet. T h e y strive t o b e c o n s c i o u s o f s e a s o n a l change, a w a r e o f the n e e d s o f their b o d i e s , focused o n h o w b e s t t o nurture their organs, and alert to c o s m i c and social t a b o o s . W i t h i n this framework, h o w e v e r , D a o i s t s also a i m to set t h e m s e l v e s apart from ordinary society, c r e a t i n g c o m m u n i t i e s that are c l e a r l y distinct. C h o i c e s about dress, attire, p e r s o n a l items,

daily routines, a n d — v e r y i m p o r -

tantly—food selection, p r e p a r a t i o n , and c o n s u m p t i o n all s e r v e as m a r k ers of a c o m m u n i t y set a b o v e and b e y o n d n o r m a t i v e society.i R a t h e r than o n e d o m i n a n t form o f s u c h c o m m u n i t y , m o r e o v e r , t h e r e are several distinct k i n d s of D a o i s t s w h o live, eat, a n d w o r k in different social settings, thus c r e a t i n g a v a r i e t y of lifestyles and e a t i n g habits. A l r e a d y t h e a n c i e n t Taiping jing n o t e s different levels of p r a c t i t i o n e r s . As cited in t h e s i x t h - c e n t u r y Sandong zhunang, it says

1 For detailed studies about such communities, see Goffman 1961; Kanter 1972; Kohn 2003a; Turner 1969. 71

7 2 / Daoist Food [As regards the highest level] Heaven is distant and knows no bounds. If one does not eat wind and qi, how can one travel fast enough to go along fully with the course of Heaven? Thus, to work alongside the spirit-envoys and be associated with them, one must live largely on wind and qi. On the next level, one matches the essences of Earth in one's powers, harmonizes the five types of soil, looks down on mountains and rivers, follows high ridges and enters waterways. One has commerce with the changing patterns of Earth and eats and works together with others. To do so one cannot eat grains. One drinks water and uses herbs and medicinal formulas. On the third level, eating in moderation is the way. Although one does not firmly establish one's form, one eats less than ordinary people and is slightly different from them. Therefore, even those who merely ingest little that passes through their intestines are people who are in the process of attaining Dao. (4. 3a; see Campany 2005,109; Huang 2007, 18). T h i s defines t h r e e levels: h i g h - l e v e l p r a c t i t i o n e r s a t o n e w i t h H e a v e n w h o float freely a l o n g w i t h t h e celestial b o d i e s and live o n l y on p u r e qi, essentially n o t e a t i n g a t all; m i d d l e - l e v e l a d e p t s o n p a r w i t h Earth w h o m a t c h m o u n t a i n s a n d r i v e r s a n d h a v e g i v e n u p o r d i n a r y food, r e p l a c i n g it w i t h vegetal, h e r b a l , a n d m i n e r a l s u b s t a n c e s ; a n d a third kind w h o are still part o f the w o r l d a n d eat o r d i n a r y food b u t d o s o w i t h a w a r e n e s s and in moderation. R e v e r s i n g this order, m o s t D a o i s t s t o d a y a n d i n h i s t o r y b e l o n g t o the third level. L a y f o l l o w e r s a n d m a r r i e d priests, so-called fire-dwelling D a o i s t s (huoju daoshi i ^ J S i l d r ) , m o s t l y of t h e Celestial M a s t e r s school, c o n t i n u e to r e s i d e in o r d i n a r y s o c i e t y and o b s e r v e its rules. O b l i g e d s o cially t o eat w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e , t h e y c o n s u m e essentially e v e r y t h i n g but, as t h e Taiping jing notes, try to be m o d e r a t e a n d c o n s c i o u s a b o u t it ( H u a n g 2 0 0 7 , 2 ) . A s u b c a t e g o r y of this g r o u p , next, c o n s i s t s of priests d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for m a j o r rituals a n d D a o i s t s living in m o n a s t i c institutions. T h e y u s u a l l y o b s e r v e a series o f a v o i d a n c e s , m o s t n o t a b l y o f m e a t , alcohol, a n d the five s t r o n g v e g e t a b l e s ( o n i o n s , garlic, etc.). T h e y a l s o try to c u l t i v a t e a m o r e c o n s c i o u s attitude t o w a r d food and, in their sacrificial b a n q u e t s a n d c e r e m o n i a l m e a l s , m a k e a p o i n t of r e l a t i n g the f o o d to the c o s m o s at large a n d s h a r i n g it w i t h gods, a n c e s t o r s , a n d all beings.

What Daoists Eat / 73 T h e s e c o n d g r o u p ( m a t c h i n g t h e m i d d l e level of the Taiping jing d e s c r i p tion) c o n s i s t s largely o f h e r m i t s , traditionally a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o u n t a i n s and c a v e s b u t also found i n t h e s u b t e m p l e s and h e r m i t a g e s o f m o n a s t i c c o m p l e x e s and, m o r e recently, i n the a n o n y m i t y o f the cities. G o i n g b e y o n d the b a s i c a v o i d a n c e s o f ritually p u r e D a o i s t s , t h e y h a v e g i v e n u p o r d i n a r y food to a large extent a n d live i n c r e a s i n g l y on h e r b a l , vegetal, or m i n e r a l s u b s t a n c e s , like w a l n u t s , c i n n a m o n , or m i c a . C o m b i n i n g this diet with b r e a t h i n g t e c h n i q u e s , h e a l i n g e x e r c i s e s , and m e d i t a t i o n s , they refine their b o d i e s to a subtler level and thus attain a c l o s e n e s s to t h e universal f l o w that g o e s b e y o n d o r d i n a r y living. T h e h i g h e s t a m o n g t h e practitioners, finally, live o n l y on qi. A select s u b g r o u p of h e r m i t s , t h e y p r a c t i c e w h a t is k n o w n formally as bigu Jf^M, w h i c h literally m e a n s " a v o i d i n g g r a i n " b u t in fact i m p l i e s a c o m p l e t e transformation a n d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the qi-hody from a p o s t n a t a l to a prenatal or p r i m o r d i a l constitution. D a o i s t s at this level a r e furthest rem o v e d from o r d i n a r y life. T h e y u n d e r g o a strict r e g i m e n of c u t t i n g out o r d i n a r y food, s o m e t i m e s w i t h the h e l p o f speciflc f o r m u l a s o r c o n c o c tions, w h i l e also training intensely in b r e a t h i n g a n d (^/-guiding e x e r c i s e s t o r e a c h a p o i n t w h e r e t h e y b e c o m e like e m b r y o s , b e i n g n u r t u r e d c o m pletely a n d w i t h o u t a n y o u t s i d e m a t e r i a l s b y t h e G r e a t D a o , t h e c o s m i c e q u i v a l e n t o f the g e s t a t i n g female.

^^eC (Statutes of M y s t e r y M e t r o p o l i s , DZ 1 8 8 ) . T h e text, too, d i v i d e s kitchen-feasts into g r a n d , m e d i u m , a n d lesser, specifyi n g that the so-called T h r e e A s s e m b l i e s {sanhui EL^), i.e., t h e festivals of t h e T h r e e P r i m e s , as well as the b i r t h of a m a l e child qualified for a g r a n d feast. T h e b i r t h o f a f e m a l e c h i l d a n d t h e c e r e m o n i a l p r e v e n t i o n o f d i s e a s e s a n d a v o i d a n c e of d a n g e r s n e c e s s i t a t e d the a r r a n g e m e n t of a m e d i u m event, w h i l e a d e a t h in the f a m i l y or o t h e r p o t e n t i a l l y lifec h a n g i n g e v e n t w a s r e a s o n for a lesser kitchen (12a; K o h n 2 0 0 4 b , 3 9 ) . I n e a c h c a s e , t h e feasts w e r e f o r m a l l y a r r a n g e d b y t h e c o m m u n i t y l e a d e r who, in the beginning of every year and under consideration of recent d e m o g r a p h i c c h a n g e s , w o u l d o r g a n i z e t h e p o p u l a c e into g r o u p s o f ten. W i t h i n e a c h g r o u p , o n e m e m b e r w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e feast m a t e r i a l s for a n o t h e r i n m u t u a l sharing, n o t entirely u n l i k e p o t l u c k s today, b u t distinctly a v o i d i n g t h e u s e o f a n y a n i m a l p r o d u c t s that m i g h t n e c e s s i t a t e killing ( 1 2 a b ; K o h n 2 0 0 4 b , 3 9 ) . T h e " S t a t u t e s " further specify that d u r i n g a g r a n d feast, e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t s h o u l d " r e c e i v e five p i n t s of w i n e and 3 0 0 c a s h ; d u r i n g a m e d i u m feast, four p i n t s of wine, 2 0 0 c a s h , and five c o i n s ; a n d d u r i n g a lesser feast, t h r e e p i n t s of w i n e , 1 0 0 c a s h , a n d 1 0 0 c o i n s " (13b-14a; K o h n 2 0 0 4 b , 40) I n addition, the feast c a m e w i t h the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f p r e s e n t s a n d p l e d g e s t o t h e c e n t r a l priestly a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d the D a o i s t g o d s , t h u s e n s u r i n g p r o t e c t i o n a n d g o o d fortune. A s the text has: When a male child is bom, set up a kitchen-feast for ten people. In the midst of the feast, present 100 pages of petition paper, one set of brushes, one ball of ink, and one writing knife. When a female child is bom, set up a kitchen-feast for five and offer

Food in Ritual / 107 one seating mat, one dust pan, and one broom. [13a] Deliver these taxes one month after the child's birth. Anyone going against this statute and law will be punished by a two-period reduction in reckoning.'' The child will similarly suffer a reduction in reckoning and will not be able to grow up in a parish of the Celestial Masters. His qi will he tied by demons and he will undergo harm to the point of not even being able to reside in the underworld. On the other hand, if treated properly, the child can bring fame to family and self. All these are potentially grave sins that lead to loss of life. (12b13a; Kohn 2004b, 39-40) T h e p r o p e r p e r f o r m a n c e o f the feasts and their v a r i o u s related activities t h u s h a d a m a j o r i m p a c t on t h e social role a n d fate of the p a r t i c i p a n t s . In t e r m s of c o n c r e t e p r o c e d u r e s , the text reaffirms the traditional req u i r e m e n t of initial purification and the n e e d for p r o p e r attire a n d form a l i t y d u r i n g the c e r e m o n y . It says: When the time has come for male and female officers, register disciples, and Daoist followers to participate in a kitchen-feast, in each group of ten the head of the family should undergo fasting and restraint. On the eve of the feast, he should invite the guests, speak the proper words, and encourage them to come in. All this is to be done with dignity and seriousness, not allowing any disturbance or defilement. All sweat should be washed off in a bath, all clothes should be changed —robe and skirt, cap and gown, leggings and breeches. Do not wear a plain skirt or let it show from under your robe, but be of utmost seriousness in your attire. (13b; Kofin 2004b, 40) T h e kitchen-feasts c o n t i n u e d e v e n after D a o i s m w a s i n t e g r a t e d into o n e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d doctrinal structure i n t h e e a r l y T a n g d y n a s t y , a s t h e Yaoxiu keyi d o c u m e n t s . It t o o r e c o g n i z e s t h r e e levels of feasts a n d disting u i s h e s v a r i o u s types, s u c h a s s e a s o n a l ( T h r e e A s s e m b l i e s ) , situational (birth, s i c k n e s s , d e a t h ) , and o c c a s i o n a l ( r e p e n t a n c e , liberation) ( K l e e m a n

" This refers to the belief that the celestial authorities would keep track of people's good and bad deeds and adjust their life-expectancy accordingly. For details, see Kohn 1998b. Depending on the text, a "period" can vary between a hundred days, three hundred days and as many as twelve years (see Yoshioka 1970,190).

108 / What Daoists Eat 2 0 0 5 , 1 5 2 ) . Part of o r g a n i z e d religion rather than p e r f o r m e d in a c l o s e d m i l l e n a r i a n g r o u p , the feasts w o u l d b e a r r a n g e d b y s p o n s o r o r d o n o r a n d run b y professionals. T h e y i n c l u d e d m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y the " k i t c h e n s u p e r v i s o r " (jianchu l a M i ) w h o e x a m i n e d the food, b a l a n c e d r a w a n d c o o k e d materials, m a n a g e d flavors, a n d d e c i d e d o n the order o f dishes; and

the

"group

regulator"

(jiezhong

ffj ^ )

who

checked

the

time,

s o u n d e d t h e c h i m e s for e a c h n e w p h a s e , a n d i n general kept p e o p l e i n line ( K l e e m a n 2 0 0 5 , 1 5 4 ) . T h e feast w o u l d b e j o i n e d b y local p e o p l e w h o served as secondary participants and appreciative audience. They would r e c e i v e the distribution of leftovers, p a r t i c u l a r l y grains, after the e v e n t ( 9 . 1 1 b ) , a p r a c t i c e m u c h like the s h a r i n g of offerings after rituals of univ e r s a l d e l i v e r a n c e {pudu WM), r e q u i e m services (gongde Jtlt^O/ arid o t h e r c e r e m o n i e s t o d a y (see D e a n 2 0 0 0 ) . In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h traditional structures, e a c h feast c a m e w i t h a threed a y p r e p a r a t i o n p e r i o d t h a t i n v o l v e d the c o n f e s s i o n o f sins a n d purification {qingzhai '(n'M) for all m a j o r p l a y e r s and w a s f o l l o w e d by a t h a n k s g i v i n g rite k n o w n as t h e " s t a t e m e n t of m e r i t " {yangong "p^tl) ( K l e e m a n 2005, 153). Throughout, purity had to be maintained by sticking to vegetarian s u b s t a n c e s , a n d there s h o u l d n o t e v e n b e t h e v e r b a l a c k n o w l e d g m e n t of d e s t r u c t i v e a c t i o n s s u c h as killing, h u n t i n g , fishing, or t r a p p i n g (12.2a K l e e m a n 2 0 0 5 , 1 5 4 ) .

T h e s a m e h o l d s also true for the " n o o n p u r g a t i o n " {zhongzhai

at

D a o i s t m o n a s t i c institutions, i.e., t h e m a i n m e a l o f the d a y that w a s — i n a d a p t a t i o n o f B u d d h i s t p a t t e r n s — u s u a l l y h e l d a r o u n d 1 1 a.m. a s part o f a m a j o r c e r e m o n y that also i n c l u d e d s c r i p t u r e r e a d i n g s a n d the f o r m a l s h a r i n g o f food a n d m e r i t s w i t h t h e d o n o r s a n d all b e i n g s . A s d e s c r i b e d in t h e Shishi weiyi, it t y p i c a l l y i n v o l v e d four p h a s e s : ^ (1) p r e p a r a t i o n [separation]: d o n n i n g v e s t m e n t s , c l e a n i n g h a n d s and face, p i c k i n g u p dishes, a n d e n t e r i n g t h e refectory;

5 The events are also described in Zhengyi weiyi jing jE~-tS.iMi (Scripture of Dignified Observances of Orthodox Unity, DZ 791) 9b-10b, 15ab; Qianzhen ke ^ MM (Rules for a Thousand Perfected, DZ 1410) Sab, 29ab; and Fengdao kejie 6.4a7a (sect. 16; trl. Kohn 2004c). The following is a summary of the more detailed account in Kohn 2003a, 123-32.

I

Food in Ritual / 109 (2) initial formalities [liminal p h a s e 1 ] : rites t o t h e D a o a n d d e d i c a t i o n o f the food t o t h e g o d s , a n c e s t o r s , a n d all b e i n g s , a c c o m p a n i e d b y also burning incense and chanting invocations, as well as the correct placem e n t o f d i s h e s a n d the t a k i n g o f seats; (3) the actual m e a l [ l i m i n a l p h a s e 2 ] : r i c e gruel, rice, a n d s e v e r a l different dishes, e a c h a n n o u n c e d a n d h a n d e d a r o u n d b y s e r v i n g m o n k s , a s ritual verses are chanted; (4) c o n c l u d i n g f o r m a l i t i e s [ r e a g g r e g a t i o n ] : r e p e n t a n c e of all rule v i o l a tions d u r i n g t h e m e a l , o b e i s a n c e t o t h e T h r e e T r e a s u r e s , s t a c k i n g o f b o w l s , a n d e x i t i n g the hall ( 9 b - 1 2 a ) . T o b e g i n t h e m e a l s u p e r v i s o r a s c e r t a i n s t h e c o r r e c t t i m e a n d rings t h e bell. D a o i s t s d o n their v e s t m e n t s a n d w a s h their h a n d s , then p i c k u p their d i s h e s p l u s c h o p s t i c k s a n d a s p o o n (lacquer or c o p p e r in t h e old days, m e t a l o r plastic t o d a y ) from special racks. D i s h e s c o n s i s t o f t h r e e b o w l s o f different sizes, m a d e from m e t a l , lacquer, e a r t h e n w a r e , o r p o r celain, d e p e n d i n g on t h e w e a l t h of the institution.'' In addition, in the m i d d l e a g e s D a o i s t s h a d t w o cloths, o n e w r a p p e d a r o u n d the b u n d l e o f dishes, w h i c h w e r e s t a c k e d i n s i d e o n e a n o t h e r , the o t h e r folded i n s i d e it. B o t h c l o t h s w e r e u s e d d u r i n g the m e a l a n d h a d t o b e k e p t perfectly c l e a n , n e v e r u s e d for w i p i n g off s w e a t o r b l o w i n g o n e ' s n o s e ( 8 b ) . O n c e c l e a n e d , g a r b e d , a n d r e a d y , D a o i s t s file i n t o t h e r e f e c t o r y a n d find their p r o p e r p l a c e . T h e y p u t their b u n d l e o f d i s h e s o n the table, b u t rem a i n s t a n d i n g t o p e r f o r m t h e initial f o r m a l i t i e s — b u r n i n g i n c e n s e , b o w ing, and reciting a v e r s e of p r a i s e to t h e H e a v e n l y W o r t h i e s ( 9 b ) . T h e y sit d o w n —on c h a i r s today, on c u s h i o n s at l o w t a b l e s in the m i d d l e a g e s — a n d o p e n the cloth that w r a p s their dishes, s t r a i g h t e n i n g it to s e r v e as a p l a c e mat. T h e y u n p a c k their d i s h e s i n the p r o p e r o r d e r a n d p l a c e t h e s e c o n d c l o t h o v e r their k n e e s t o b e u s e d a s a n a p k i n . T h e y r i n s e their d i s h e s with c l e a r w a t e r that i s h a n d e d a r o u n d (9b). T h u s readied, t h e y offer the p r a y e r - a t - m e a l s , a s e q u e n c e of g o o d w i s h e s for the d o n o r ' s benefit, the e m p i r e , the a n c e s t o r s , a n d all b e i n g s . T h e m e a l itself b e g i n s w i t h t h e s e r v i n g o f grain, f o l l o w e d b y a n u m b e r o f different v e g e t a r i a n dishes, m a d e up of the five classical food g r o u p s . S u b s t a n c e s a v o i d e d i n c l u d e t h e five s t r o n g v e g e t a b l e s as well as any-

^ For a discussion of traditional Chinese eating utensils with numerous illustrations, see Huang 2000, 75-89,104-09.

1 1 0 / What Daoists Eat t h i n g p r o c e s s e d o r n o n r i t u a l . T h e p r e p a r a t i o n , m o r e o v e r , e n s u r e s that t h e food is well b a l a n c e d , e n h a n c i n g h e a l t h and vitality (Yaoxiu keyi 9.14b). E a c h dish i s a n n o u n c e d w i t h its n a m e either b y t h e s u p e r v i s o r o r b y t h e s e r v e r s . As the first s t e a m i n g b o w l s arrive at the tables, the m e d i e v a l liturgy r e q u i r e s t h e c h a n t i n g o f a n i n c a n t a t i o n that p r a i s e s the selfless g i v i n g o f the d o n o r , k n o w n a s t h e " I n c a n t a t i o n for R e c e i v i n g F o o d " (see a b o v e , p. 9 6 ) . It links food w i t h great m e r i t for e v e r y o n e w h o e n g a g e s in its d o n a t i o n , a c h a r i t a b l e act w h i c h l e a d s to h a p p i n e s s n o w a n d a g o o d rebirth later. D a o i s t s p a r t i c i p a t e in this m e r i t by n o t k e e p i n g the food for t h e m s e l v e s b u t p a s s i n g it on ritually to the celestials a n d all b e i n g s , ens u r i n g the w i d e s t p o s s i b l e s p r e a d o f m e r i t a n d reaffirming their role a s i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e t w e e n the c o s m i c r e a l m s . As m o r e food is p a s s e d a r o u n d , a further c h a n t is s u n g w h i c h a g a i n e s t a b l i s h e s the celestial c o n n e c t i o n of the m e a l a n d offers it to all b e i n g s . It runs: This fragrant feast and wondrous offering Above we give to the Heavenly Worthies, In the middle to the perfected and sages. Below to the host of living beings. May all be equally full and satisfied. While good fortune flows to our [generous] donor Like rivers pouring into the sea. (10a; Fengdao kejie 6.6a) A s the c o m m u n i t y eats, e a c h m e m b e r internally v i s u a l i z e s t h e T h r e e O n e s a n d o t h e r g o d s i n t h e b o d y , t h u s a g a i n r a i s i n g the m u n d a n e activity to a h e a v e n l y level. E v e r y o n e is to eat h i s or h e r fill a n d c a n get as m a n y as three helpings, but there is to be no overeating and no scorning of d i s h e s as n o t b e i n g fancy e n o u g h . W h e n e v e r a dish is a n n o u n c e d , r a i s e y o u r b o w l to r e c e i v e it. If y o u prefer n o t to p a r t a k e of it, s i m p l y r a i s e a finger a n d let t h e s e r v e r p a s s b y . W h i l e b e i n g s e r v e d , if y o u desire m o r e , a d v a n c e the b o w l a little; if y o u prefer less, w i t h d r a w it slightly. T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , t o b e n o s p e e c h o n the subject. N o i s e s i n g e n e r a l s h o u l d be k e p t to a m i n i m u m , a v o i d i n g all slurping, s u c k i n g , a n d g u l p ing, a n d n o t c l a t t e r i n g w i t h b o w l s a n d c h o p s t i c k s . S p e e c h i s n o t p r o h i b ited b u t s h o u l d b e c o n t r o l l e d a n d c a l m , a v o i d i n g all e x c l a m a t i o n s o r s h o u t s . E x c e p t i o n s to this rule are e m e r g e n c y situations, s u c h as a m i l i t a r y incident, a flood, a fire, a r o b b e r y , or a s u d d e n d e a t h ( l O b - l l a ) .

Food in R i t u a l / 1 1 1 T h e act of e a t i n g in a t r a d i t i o n a l m o n a s t e r y , therefore, is less a w a y of fulfilling b o d i l y n e e d s t h a n a n active n o u r i s h i n g o f the g o d s a n d all b e m g s , a w a y o f j o i n i n g D a o . T h e p h y s i c a l c o n t r o l o f f o o d intake, b o d y movements, and speech aids recluses in thinking with compassion and s h a r i n g w i t h all b e i n g s . A n y t h i n g t o u c h e d d u r i n g the m e a l i s sanctified and e v e n leftovers are n o t w a s t e d o r t h r o w n o u t b u t g i v e n t o s e r v a n t s , b e g g a r s , s i c k p e o p l e , o r farm a n i m a l s — a l w a y s w i t h the w i s h : " M a y all thus g i v i n g attain g o o d fortune! M a y all t h u s e a t i n g b e free from suffering!" (11a; Fengdao kejie 6.6b). After e v e r y o n e h a s e a t e n t h e i r fill, the c o n c l u d i n g f o r m a l i t i e s b e g i n . H e r e , too, t h e p e r v a s i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f p u r i t y i s m a d e clear. After all h a v e finished eating, t h e y fold t h e c l o t h o n t h e i r k n e e s , r i n s e their d i s h e s w i t h clear w a t e r , s t a c k t h e m b a c k into o n e pile, a n d w r a p t h e m i n the p l a c e m a t c l o t h ( 1 1 a ) . T h e n t h e y u n d e r g o a rite of r e p e n t a n c e , c h a n t i n g t h e following verse: To the Highest Worthies of the ten directions! I^espectfully see here before you This great crowd of disciples. Today, during the presentation of food. We fear that Our hands were smudgy and not clean. Our garb was not properly purified. Our utensils were not pure. Our rice and millet were not sifted. And all manner of things and acts Were not as prescribed by the divine law. May the Three Treasures spread their mercy upon us And widely give us joy and good cheer. (Fengdao kejie 6.6a) F o l l o w i n g this, t h e y c h a n t a p l e d g e o n b e h a l f o f t h e d o n o r t o m a k e further efforts t o w a r d t h e D a o a n d f o r m a l l y s h a r e the rite's m e r i t s w i t h the d o n o r a n d all b e i n g s b y c h a n t i n g t w o a d d i t i o n a l s t a n z a s . T h i s c o n c l u d e d , the r e c l u s e s p i c k u p t h e i r d i s h e s a n d file out o f t h e r e f e c t o r y i n a n ord e r l y m a n n e r , t o a s s e m b l e a t the w a t e r b a s i n for w a s h i n g d i s h e s a n d c l e a n i n g teeth. T h e final r u l e r e g a r d i n g the c e r e m o n i a l m e a l , then, i s that w h i l e l e a v i n g a n d c l e a n i n g up, all s h o u l d m a i n t a i n strict d i s c i p l i n e a n d

I

r e t u r n t o their q u a r t e r s silently, n o t s t a n d i n g a b o u t c h a t t i n g i d l y ( 1 2 a ) . S i m i l a r r u l e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s a l s o a p p l y i n D a o i s t m o n a s t e r i e s o f t h e late i m p e r i a l p e r i o d and, b y e x t e n s i o n , t o d a y . T h e y a r e d e s c r i b e d i n the Q i n g

1 1 2 / What Daoists Eat d o c u m e n t Qinggui xuanmiao a n d r e p o r t e d by Y o s h i o k a Y o s h i t o y o in t h e 1 9 4 0 s ( Y o s h i o k a 1 9 7 9 ) . A s i n t h e m i d d l e ages, s o i n m o d e r n t i m e s m e a l s b e g i n a n d e n d w i t h formal p r a y e r s a n d c h a n t i n g s . M o n a s t i c s s h o u l d a v o i d s p e e c h and l a u g h t e r or limit t h e m s e l v e s to a few soft w o r d s . If y o u do n o t like t h e m e a l , do n o t c o m p l a i n ; after it ends, do n o t sit a r o u n d a n d chat i d l y b u t c o l l e c t b o w l a n d c h o p s t i c k s quietly. D u r i n g t h e m e a l , d o n o t p i c k y o u r teeth, w i p e y o u r m o u t h w i t h the s l e e v e s o f y o u r r o b e , m a k e s m a c k i n g n o i s e s , c l i c k the t o n g u e , s c r a t c h the h e a d , o r p u t s o m e t h i n g a l r e a d y c h e w e d b a c k into the b o w l . S h o u l d y o u d i s c o v e r that t h e rice h a s a s t o n e or s o m e alien grain in it, t a k e it o u t and p l a c e it softly on t h e table, n o t h u r l it on the floor. If there are b u g s in the food, r e m o v e t h e m silently. G e n e r a l l y , a v o i d c a u s i n g t r o u b l e or m a k i n g a stir, n e v e r r e j e c t i n g w h a t i s offered o r c r a v i n g fancy d i s h e s that a r e n o t t h e r e ( Z W 3 6 1 ; 10.603). W h e t h e r i n the m i d d l e a g e s o r today, m o n a s t i c m e a l s are h i g h l y ritualized affairs that —on a s m a l l e r scale a n d w i t h greater r o u t i n e — c o n t i n u e t h e sacrifices a n d feasts o f old. T h e y follow the classical p a t t e r n o f p r e p a ration, m a i n rite, and c o n c l u s i o n ; t h e y p l a c e their p a r t i c i p a n t s in a l i m i nal s p h e r e and a l l o w t h e m to r e a c h for a h i g h e r level of spiritual a w a r e n e s s a n d celestial c o n n e c t i o n . N o t m e r e l y g i v i n g food t o their b o d i e s , D a o i s t s i n t h e ritual m e a l s h a r e food a n d k i n d n e s s with the g o d s a n d all b e i n g s , t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e entire u n i v e r s e h o l i e r a n d purer. T h e standards of good conduct, moreover, express the self-consciousness Daoists are e n c o u r a g e d t o a c q u i r e j u s t a s t h e w a y they c o n s u m e food r e v e a l s their reality a s i n c l u d i n g t h e larger r e a l m o f the c o s m o s a n d the entirety o f living b e i n g s .

A yet different v a r i a n t of ritual food in D a o i s m a p p e a r s in a p r o c e d u r e of m e d i t a t i v e self-cultivation that i n v o l v e s v i s u a l i z a t i o n s a n d i n c a n t a t i o n s as well as t a k i n g c e r t a i n h e r b a l s u b s t a n c e s a n d g u i d i n g c\i t h r o u g h the b o d y . A l r e a d y the Zhuangzi d e s c r i b e s a p e r f e c t e d b e i n g w h o lives on h e a v e n l y n e c t a r a n d celestial m a n n a a n d t o w h o m food a n d c l o t h e s app e a r s p o n t a n e o u s l y (ch. 5 ; M o l l i e r 2 0 0 0 , 6 7 ) . I n its w a k e , G e H o n g m e n t i o n s that i m m o r t a l s , able t o c o n t r o l fire a n d w a t e r , c o u l d also c a u s e celestial d e l i c a c i e s to arrive at a m o m e n t ' s n o t i c e . He calls this p r a c t i c e " t r a v e l i n g k i t c h e n " (xingchu WM), an " i m a g i n a r y cornucopia of wondrous drugs and foods" served by luscious jade maid-

Food in R i t u a l / 1 1 3 e n s that c o u l d feed sixty or s e v e n t y p e o p l e at the d r o p of a h a t {Baopuzi 16; K l e e m a n 2 0 0 5 , 1 4 9 ; Stein 1 9 7 1 , 4 9 0 ) . He also lists a Xingchu / ' i n g f T J i f l l as well as a text c a l l e d Riyue chushi jing B ^

(Sun and M o o n

C o o k i n g ; ch. 19) that p r e s u m a b l y referred t o p r e p a r i n g a n d a b s o r b i n g the e s s e n c e s o f t h e sun and t h e m o o n ( M o l l i e r 2 0 0 0 , 6 6 ) . Practitioners o f H i g h e s t C l a r i t y i n d u e c o u r s e a d o p t e d t h e p r a c t i c e a n d a d d e d the a p p l i c a t i o n o f t a l i s m a n s , t h e v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f specific deities, a n d m e t h o d s t o e x e r t c o n t r o l o v e r the g o d s — b o t h i n t h e b o d y a n d the stars ( R o b i n e t 1 9 8 4 , 1:31-33). T h e b e s t d e s c r i p t i o n s u r v i v e s from a S o n g text called Daodian lun

Jl^Ira

(Daoist Records and Discourses, D Z 1130;

4 . 1 0 b - l l b ) , w h i c h i n c o n t e n t m a y well g o b a c k t o the H a n (Stein 1 9 7 2 , 4 9 1 - 9 2 ) . It d e s c r i b e s a p r a c t i c e c a l l e d " A b s o r b i n g Y e l l o w Qi" {fu huangqi

Wi^Mi) w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f t a k i n g v e g e t a l and m i n e r a l s u b s t a n c e s (such as c i n n a b a r , fungi, h e r b s ) , e n v i s i o n i n g t h e p u r e y e l l o w e n e r g y o f t h e spleen, then m a k i n g deities b r i n g a feast in g o l d e n dishes, t h e i m a g i n a r y c o n s u m p t i o n o f w h i c h p r e v e n t s all feelings o f h u n g e r a n d thirst ( M o l l i e r 2 0 0 0 , 67). B u d d h i s t s , too, t o o k on the t e c h n i q u e from an e a r l y age, the idea of a celestial k i t c h e n {tianchu ^JSf) a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d in the Zhong benqi jing (Sutra of Central Origins and Deeds, T. 196; 3.13), translated in 2 0 7 ( M o l l i e r 2 0 0 0 , 6 8 ) . Later s o u r c e s m e n t i o n that t o a v o i d feelings o f h u n g e r , o n e s h o u l d p r a c t i c e d e e p m e d i t a t i o n and v i s u a l i z e d e i t i e s b r i n g ing h e a v e n l y nectar. T h e c o l o r o f the d i v i n e p o t a g e d e p e n d e d o n t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s merit: if it w a s low, it w o u l d a p p e a r d a r k green; if m e d i u m , red; if superior, white. W h i c h e v e r form it took, a d e p t s s h o u l d t a k e it in t h e m o u t h , feel it m e r g e with their saliva, then s w a l l o w it. It w o u l d feel like s p o n t a n e o u s l y c o o k e d food a n d h a v e a great c e l e s t i a l fragrance (Mollier 2 0 0 0 , 6 9 ) . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e B u d d h i s t k i t c h e n ritual, a s allegedly r e v e a l e d b y the B u d d h a at the t i m e of e n t e r i n g n i r v a n a , a p p e a r s in the Sanchu jing H J g f l l (Sutra of the T h r e e K i t c h e n s ) , a T a n g m a n u s c r i p t d i s c o v e r e d at D u n h u a n g (S. 2 6 7 3 , S. 2 6 8 0 ) . It is further s u p p l e m e n t e d by the Tingchu jing MtIM ( S u t r a of t h e P a v i l i o n K i t c h e n s , in P. 2 6 3 7 ) , a m e d i c a l c o m p e n d i u m w h i c h i n c l u d e s d r u g r e c i p e s that h e l p t o e l i m i n a t e h u n g e r ( M o l l i e r 2 0 0 0 , 52-62. A c c o r d i n g t o this, o n e n e e d e d t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s b e f o r e pract i c i n g the rite, w h i c h w o u l d lead to f r e e d o m from h u n g e r , clarity of spirit.

1 1 4 / What Daoists Eat a n d e x t e n d e d l o n g life: d e v o t i o n t o t h e T h r e e T r e a s u r e s o f b u d d h a , d h a r m a , a n d s a n g h a ; family a n d c o m m u n i t y support; a n d c o n s i s t e n t p r a c t i c e o f the S i x P e r f e c t i o n s ( M o l l i e r 2 0 0 0 , 5 3 ) . O n e s h o u l d t h e n w i t h d r a w to a s o l i t a r y retreat in the m o u n t a i n s , well p r o t e c t e d from n o s y interlopers, w h e r e o n e c o u l d k e e p the m e t h o d secret, s i n c e a n y d o u b t —like i n traditional a l c h e m y — w o u l d c o m p r o m i s e its efficacy. T h e actual p r a c tice i n v o l v e d the s i l e n t c h a n t i n g of a s a c r e d v e r s e (gatha) to t h e five directions, e a c h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a specific b o o n a n d a set n u m b e r of recitations: east

wood

attainment of long life

90 times

south

fire earth

invulnerable to heat

30 times

freedom from hunger

20 times

west

metal

invulnerable to cold

70 times

north

water

freedom from thirst

50 times

center

If d o n e daily, p r e f e r a b l y at the yin h o u r (3-5 a.m.), w h i l e a s s e m b l i n g a n d s w a l l o w i n g saliva, a n d e s p e c i a l l y i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h s t r o n g s e a t e d m e d i t a t i o n a n d t h e p e r s i s t e n t v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f A m i t a b h a , this w o u l d free a d e p t s from all n e e d s o f s u s t e n a n c e ( M o l l i e r 2 0 0 0 , 5 4 - 5 5 ) . T h e text d e s c r i b e s effects m u c h like t h o s e D a o i s t s c l a i m for the p r a c t i c e of bigu, i.e., certain s y m p t o m s of d e h y d r a t i o n in the e a r l y days, then a great s e n s e of v i g o r , f o l l o w e d b y s u p p o r t from celestial e n v o y s a n d t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f perfection. T h e B u d d h i s t m e t h o d r e p r e s e n t s a certain d e g r e e o f internalization o f t h e p r a c t i c e . R a t h e r than v i s u a l i z i n g the d e l e c t a b l e v i a n d s b e i n g p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h h e a v e n l y s p o n t a n e i t y a n d p r e s e n t e d b y celestial m e s s e n g e r s , p r a c t i t i o n e r s s e e the c e n t r a l k i t c h e n a s l o c a t e d i n their o w n b o d i e s . T h e s t o m a c h s e r v i n g as t h e g r e a t s t o r e h o u s e (taicang i^-^), t h e y b r i n g forth i n t e r n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w h i l e c a l l i n g u p o n g o d s a n d c o s m i c p o w e r s for a c t i v e support. A n e v e n m o r e i n t e r n a l i z e d v e r s i o n a p p e a r s i n the D a o i s t Laozi shuo Wuchu jing ^ t F I S E M J I S ( S c r i p t u r e of the F i v e K i t c h e n s as Revealed by Laozi, DZ 763). Edited and c o m m e n t e d by Yin Yin

(zi

S i z h e n z i ^sM^), i m p e r i a l c o u n s e l o r u n d e r X u a n z o n g o f the T a n g a n d abbot of the S u m i n g guan

^ B J I i ( M o n a s t e r y o f Majestic B r i g h t n e s s ) ,

Food in R i t u a l / 1 1 5 this g o e s b a c k t o t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ( M o l l i e r 2 0 0 0 , 6 2 ) a n d i s p a r t o f the m e d i t a t i o n circle a r o u n d S i m a C h e n g z h e n 7 T h e text is a h i g h l y abstract m y s t i c a l p o e m in t w e n t y v e r s e s w h i c h guides a d e p t s t o w a r d a m e n t a l state of d e t a c h m e n t , n o n t h i n k i n g , a n d equanimous perception by cultivating the energy of universal oneness (yiqi — ^ ) a n d m e r g i n g w i t h c o s m i c p e a c e a n d h a r m o n y (taihe #^). This will lead to c o m p l e t e p h y s i c a l satisfaction: " T h e five o r g a n s are a b u n d a n t and full; the five spirits are tranquil and upright." T h i s in turn, m e a n s that all s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e s are c a l m e d a n d all c r a v i n g s a n d d e sires e l i m i n a t e d —including those for food and d r i n k ( l a ) . The work strongly emphasizes mental restructuring over bodily practices, in fact s a y i n g that " a c c u m u l a t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n will n o t get y o u to d e t a c h m e n t " (1. 14, 4 b ) a n d that m e t h o d s of ingestion are u l t i m a t e l y u s e less. As t h e c o m m e n t a r y to " A l l food c o m b i n e s into qi" ( 1 . 1 7 ) says: We receive solidity from earth, coagulate moisture from water, are endowed with warmth by fire, and rely on wind for our breath. These four conditioning factors combine and dissolve constantly, none having any part in the wondrous underlying solidity [of the universe). Therefore they muddle and obscure the energy of universal oneness, confuse and disturb cosmic peace and harmony, and cause the arising of delusory perception. They stir up nothing but corruption and pollution. (5b) O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the recitation o f the s c r i p t u r e i s beneficial, e s p e c i a l l y if c o m b i n e d w i t h intellectual, m e n t a l , and ethical practices: Bow your head and recite the five stanzas of this scripture, and you will easily get the true essentials of cultivating the personal body and protecting life. To complete harmony and encompass universal oneness: penetrate [ultimate] meaning, so you can enter into spirit, sit in oblivion, and let go of brilliance; bring peace to the body, so you can venerate virtue, investigate sensory experience, and nourish yourself forever, (pref. l b )

SBIM0,?£

^ A variant version appears in YJQQ 61.5b-10b: Wuchu jing qifa (Energetic Methods of the Scripture of the Five Kitchens). The methods are also advocated in Sima Chengzheng's Fuqi jingyi lun (see p. 131), notably in the YJQQ edition (57.10-llb). A short summary also appears in its DZ version (9b-10a). See Mollier 2000, 65. For a complete translation and discussion in a meditation context, see Kohn 2010.

1 1 6 / What Daoists Eat F r o m t h e a b s t e n t i o n from food d u r i n g p r e p a r a t o r y p u r i f i c a t i o n t h r o u g h e x t e n s i v e offerings a t h o l y D a o i s t altars a n d c o m m u n a l s h a r i n g d u r i n g festive b a n q u e t s a n d m e a l - t i m e c e r e m o n i e s , the ritual p r a c t i c e o f food h a s t h u s c o m e full circle to c u l m i n a t e a g a i n in a form of abstention, b u t p r e d i c a t e d i n m e d i t a t i v e v i s i o n a n d ritual recitation. T h r o u g h o u t , D a o ists a d o p t c o n c e p t s a n d p r a c t i c e s from m a i n s t r e a m rites a n d B u d d h i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s , y e t — a s a l w a y s — c r e a t e their o w n u n i q u e s y s t e m a n d dev e l o p their m e t h o d s i n u n p r e c e d e n t e d w a y s .

Boundless and far, I am trembling with dread. Sharing primordial fear with spirit: I start absorbing essence and florescence. Replacing food and drink. The Dark Warrior sways beneath me as my mount. The Jade Equalizer serving as my wheels. Above and below without limits, I enter and leave the timeless [spheres]. The hundred ailments leave, and I am healed. Spirit and (\i alone uphold me. {Xuandu liiiven 4ab) T h e u l t i m a t e a n d m o s t a d v a n c e d level o f D a o i s t dietetics i s the c o m p l e t e a v o i d a n c e o f o r d i n a r y food w h i l e living o n p u r e qi, b e i n g u p h e l d b y spirit and t r a n s f o r m i n g into an i m m o r t a l . A l r e a d y t h e Zhuangzi d e s c r i b e s the wondrous m a n of Gushe Mountain: With skin like ice or snow, he is gentle and shy like a young girl. He does not eat the five grains but sucks the wind, drinks the dew, climbs up on the clouds and mist, rides a flying dragon, and wanders beyond the four seas. (ch. 1, Watson 1968, 33; Campany 2005, 105) T h e first t e c h n i c a l m a n u a l s o n h o w t o stop i n g e s t i n g o r d i n a r y foods surv i v e a m o n g the M a w a n g d u i m e d i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s (dat. 1 6 8

B.C.E.),

nota-

b l y the Quegu shiqi W^'^M ( G i v i n g Up G r a i n a n d E a t i n g Qi), w h i c h o u t l i n e s s c h e d u l e d p r o c e d u r e s and d e s c r i b e s h o w t o u s e the h e r b p y r r o 117

1 1 8 / What Daoists Eat sia for b e s t effects ( H a r p e r 1 9 9 8 , 3 0 5 - 0 9 ; E n g e l h a r d t 2 0 0 0 , 8 6 ; C a m p a n y 2 0 0 5 , 1 0 6 ) . S o o n after this, the Heshang gong zhangju M i i f ^ ^ ' t l J ( V e r s e s a n d S a y i n g s of t h e M a s t e r on the River, DZ 6 8 2 ) , the Daode jing c o m m e n tary b y t h e l e g e n d a r y M a s t e r o n the R i v e r (see C h a n 1 9 9 1 ) , d e s c r i b e s the five qi of the i n n e r o r g a n s a n d e m p h a s i z e s their c o n n e c t i o n to t h e spirit a n d m a t e r i a l souls, the y a n g and yin p a r t s o f t h e p e r s o n . T h e t r a n s f o r m a tion into a n i m m o r t a l m e a n s t h e r e f i n e m e n t a n d purification o f the yin parts into i n c r e a s i n g l y y a n g patterns, m o v i n g from solid, e a r t h - b o u n d e n e r g i e s to subtler, m o r e spirit-oriented levels. S i n c e there is u l t i m a t e l y o n l y o n e qi, this is n o t a c h a n g e in s u b s t a n c e b u t in nature, a transfigurat i o n t o w a r d finer e n e r g i e s that v i b r a t e a n d oscillate at a m u c h faster rate. D a o i s t s of the early m i d d l e ages e x p a n d e d this n o t i o n by a d d i n g a m y t h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n t o m e d i c a l e n e r g e t i c s . T h e w o r d shen | $ (spirit) n o l o n g e r j u s t m e a n t " c o n f i g u r a t i v e f o r c e " (Porkert 1 9 7 4 ) , the p o w e r that c o n n e c t s a p e r s o n to H e a v e n a n d original destiny, n o r w a s it j u s t the v a g u e p o w e r o f spirit, w h i c h w o r k s t h r o u g h t h e h u m a n h e a r t a n d signifies the p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l ( K a p t c h u k 1 9 8 3 , 5 8 ) . Rather, shen c a m e to m e a n b o d y g o d s , a m u l t i p l i c i t y of d i v i n e entities that r e s i d e b o t h i n t h e b o d y a n d i n t h e stars, i n h a b i t i n g h a l l s a n d p a l a c e s a n d k e e p i n g t h e e n e r g y lines o p e n ( K o h n 1 9 9 1 ; K r o l l 1 9 9 6 ) . To m o d i f y n u t r i t i o n from E a r t h - b o u n d food to H e a v e n - c e n t e r e d qi, practitioners a c c o r d i n g l y also h a d t o r e p l a c e yin-deities w i t h y a n g - g o d s . D a o i s t s e x p r e s s e d this i n g u i d e l i n e s o n h o w t o e l i m i n a t e the so-called T h r e e W o r m s o r D e a t h b r i n g e r s , n o x i o u s p a r a s i t e s that report flaws a n d failures to the celestial a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and instead m a i n t a i n a firm p r e s e n c e o f the T h r e e O n e s , p u r e g o d s o f D a o , i n t h e b o d / s e n e r g y c e n t e r s . T h e p r o c e d u r e s for d o i n g so, a s m u c h a s the formal e l i m i n a t i o n o f grain from the diet (bigu

i n v o l v e a m u l t i p l i c i t y of practices, m o s t i m p o r -

tantly d i e t a r y c h a n g e s , h e r b a l formulas, b r e a t h control, a n d t h e c o n s c i o u s g u i d i n g of qi, as well as v a r i o u s f o r m s of m e d i t a t i o n , s u c h as the v i s u a l i z a t i o n of deities a n d the a b s o r p t i o n of directional e n e r g i e s . In addition, there are t w o m a j o r d i m e n s i o n s t o t h e practice: t h e r e p l a c i n g o f o r d i n a r y food w i t h qi w h i c h m a i n t a i n s t h e d i g e s t i v e a n d inner-organ s y s t e m w h i l e refining it to subtler levels; a n d t h e u l t i m a t e transformation of n u t r i t i o n t o w a r d p u r e qi w h i c h r e v e r t s t h e s t r u c t u r e t o w a r d a p r i m o r dial level b e f o r e creation. I n o t h e r w o r d s , e l i m i n a t i n g g r a i n s either b y e a t i n g qi {shiqi -^Mi) or by l e a r n i n g to absorb it {fuqi J

Living on Qi / 119

Sau6i

Off '^cff (Zttd

'7fiiut4^

A l r e a d y t h e m e d i c a l c l a s s i c s e m p h a s i z e that the five i n n e r o r g a n s are n o t only the seat of specific b o d y fluids b u t also h a v e a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d spiritual d i m e n s i o n t o t h e m (see P o r k e r t 1 9 7 4 , 1 8 4 - 8 5 ; I s h i d a 1 9 8 9 , 5 2 ; K a p t c h u k 2 0 0 0 , 5 9 - 6 2 ) . T h e Huangdi neijing suwen says: Blood is stored in the liver—the residence of the spirit soul. Nutritive qi is stored in the spleen—the residence of the intention. The pulse is stored in the heart—the residence of the spirit. Qi is stored in the limgs—the residence of the material soul. Essence is stored in the kidneys—the residence of the will. (ch. 2)

'

A m o n g the p s y c h o l o g i c a l aspects, spirit i s t h e m o s t p o t e n t a n d m o s t fundamental, a s s o c i a t e d with the heart, the leader of the o r g a n s a n d seat of the ruler (Ishida 1 9 8 9 , 5 3 ) ; it is t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of p u r e D a o . N e x t are t w o t y p e s of souls, sets of p s y c h o l o g i c a l forces that l i n k t h e p e r s o n to H e a v e n and E a r t h and are d e s c r i b e d a s spirit p o w e r s s u p p o r t i n g the pers o n yet w o r k i n g in o p p o s i t e directions. T h e spirit or c l o u d soul {hun i%) c o n n e c t s p e o p l e to H e a v e n , is y a n g in nature, a n d resides in t h e liver, t h e o r g a n related to a g g r e s s i o n and b e n e v o l e n c e . It g o v e r n s t h e p e r s o n ' s overall attitude to t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d and s u p p o r t s intellectuak artistic, a n d spiritual e n d e a v o r s . At death it returns to H e a v e n , t r a n s f o r m i n g into the ancestral spirit that is w o r s h i p e d on the family altar.i T h e m a t e r i a l or w h i t e s o u l (po 9^) c o n n e c t s t h e p e r s o n to Earth, is yin in quality, a n d resides in t h e lungs, t h e seat of m a t e r i a l e x c h a n g e with t h e w o r l d (Jarrett 2 0 0 6 , 3 0 ) . I t c o n t r o l s b a s i c survival instincts, s u c h as t h e n e e d for food, sleep, a n d sex, and in g e n e r a l m a n a g e s the p h y s i c a l aspect of the individual. At death it returns to Earth by s t a y i n g w i t h the corpse; it is n u r t u r e d in p r o p e r b u r i a l sites and p r o c e d u r e s as well as t h r o u g h sacrifices at t h e t o m b .

' It is also the agent that is called back in the death ritual known as "Summoning the Soul" (chaohun f ^ ^ ) . A shaman or priest climbs to the roof of the house and calls out in all directions to the departed soul to return, depicting each region as dreary and dangerous. The rite, as much as the three-day delay of the burial, makes sure that the soul is not just on temporary leave or the person in a state of suspended animation. For original chants, see Hawkes 1959. For Han beliefs, see Yii 1987. For modern Hong Kong, see Chan and Chow 2006.

120 / What Daoists Eat As the Heshang gong zhangju says, c o m m e n t i n g on the phrase,

" T h i s is

c a l l e d t h e m y s t e r i o u s [ a n d the ] f e m a l e : " Heaven feeds people with the five qi, which enter the organs through the nose and settle in the heart. The five qi are pure and subtle, they cause people to have sentience and spirituality, intelligence and perception, sound and voice, as well as the five kinds of inner nature. They are represented in the spirit soul, which is male and leaves and enters the human body through the nose in order to interact with heaven. Therefore, the nose is "the mysterious." Earth feeds people with the five tastes, which enter the organs through the mouth and settle in the stomach. The five tastes are turbid and heavy, they cause people to have body and skeleton, bones and flesh, blood and pulses, and the six kinds of emotional passions. The are represented in the material soul, which is female and leaves and enters the human body through the mouth in order to interact with Earth. Therefore the mouth is "the female." (ch. 6; see Kohn 2009,163-64) B e y o n d the souls, there are t w o further m e n t a l forces, called will {zhi Icf,; y i n ) a n d intention {yi M; y a n g ) w h i c h function in c l o s e relation to the k i d n e y s a n d spleen. T h e y are specific a s p e c t s o f the m i n d , i.e., t h e general p o w e r o f t h i n k i n g a n d p l a n n i n g i n t h e intention and the m o r e foc u s e d d e t e r m i n a t i o n directed t o w a r d a specific objective in the will. All t h e s e a s p e c t s of the m i n d are in c o n s t a n t interaction a n d c h a n g e , so that c o n s c i o u s n e s s is the i n t e g r a t e d flux of v a r i o u s forces a n d e n e r g i e s . T h e spirit, then, is the m o s t p r i m o r d i a l a s p e c t of the m i n d as it is rec e i v e d from H e a v e n and Earth. T h e t w o k i n d s o f souls are its m o v i n g a n d active d i m e n s i o n s that d e t e r m i n e h u m a n attitudes, t h o u g h t s , and desires, w h i l e will a n d intention a r e its c o n c r e t e e v e r y d a y functions. In g e n e r a l , the yin a s p e c t s are m o r e b o d y - o r i e n t e d , material, and linked w i t h Earth, w h i l e t h e y a n g a s p e c t s are m o r e spirit-oriented, ethereal, and c o n n e c t e d t o H e a v e n . T h u s , t h e intention c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s t h e thinki n g m i n d , w h i l e t h e will i s the t h i n k i n g b o d y . T h e entirety o f b o t h , h o w e v e r different t h e y m a y b e i n v i b r a t i o n a l f r e q u e n c y a n d orientation, makes up h u m a n consciousness. T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n into a n i m m o r t a l b e g i n s w i t h c o n t r o l l i n g t h e will and intention, w h i c h a r e set r a d i c a l l y t o w a r d o t h e r w o r l d l y g o a l s and cut off from e a r t h l y ideals. N e x t , t h e s o u l s are r e f o r m e d , c a l m i n g the instinctual

Living on Qi /111 a n d m a t e r i a l l y - c e n t e r e d desires o f t h e m a t e r i a l soul w h i l e e n h a n c i n g t h e spiritual orientation a n d e n e r g e t i c p u r i t y o f t h e spirit soul. A g a i n , t h e M a s t e r on the River: People sustain the two kinds of souls and thereby obtain life. They should love and nurture them, realizing that joy and hatred cause the spirit soul to vanish while haste and alarm make the material soul leave. The spirit soul resides in the liver, the material soul in the lungs. Indulging in wine and sweet delicacies harms the liver and lungs. Instead people should keep the spirit soul tranquil so that their will can be set on the Dao, and they will be free from trouble. They should maintain the material soul in a state of peace so that they attain long life and can extend their years, (ch. 6)

' '

M e d i e v a l D a o i s t s e x p a n d e d this i d e a b y m u l t i p l y i n g the n u m b e r s o f the s o u l s to three spirit a n d seven m a t e r i a l entities, e n v i s i o n i n g t h e m as b o d y g o d s , a n d p r e s c r i b i n g certain t e c h n i q u e s t o deal w i t h t h e m (see E s k i l d s e n 1998, 49). T h u s t h e Baosheng jing

ik^lm

(Scripture on Preserv-

ing Life, D Z 8 7 1 ) o f the n i n t h c e n t u r y says: The three spirit [yang] souls are located beneath the liver. They look like human beings and all wear green robes with yellow inner garments. Every month on the third, thirteenth, and twenty-third day, they leave the body in the evening to go wandering about. At this time, lie down with your feet up, your head supported by a pillow, and your legs stretched out straight. Fold your hands over your heart, close your eyes, and hold your breath. Click your teeth three times, (lb) T h e n a m e s o f t h e s e p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e a r e "Spiritual G u i d a n c e , " " I n n e r R a d i a n c e , " a n d " D a r k E s s e n c e " ( l a ) . A s s h o w n i n the text, t h e y l o o k n o b l e a n d a p p e a r h u m a n i n s h a p e a n d a r e d r e s s e d i n c o u r d y g a r b . T o s u p p o r t t h e m i n their b e n e f i c e n t activities, t h e text reco m m e n d s p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e s , b r e a t h i n g p r a c t i c e s , a s well a s m e d i t a t i o n s a n d i n c a n t a t i o n s . T r e a t e d i n this m a n n e r , t h e three spirit s o u l s will b r i n g o u t t h e b e s t in p e o p l e a n d t a k e c a r e that " t h e r e is no disaster or affliction [to the p e r s o n ] , a n d all evil d e m o n s are s u b d u e d . T h e b o d y a t p e a c e , y o u attain D a o . T h e n there i s n o m o r e suffering o r p a i n " (2a; I s h i d a 1 9 8 7 , 8 6 ) . T h e i r y i n c o u n t e r p a r t s are t h e m a t e r i a l o r y i n souls, n a s t y a n d evil. T h e y

122 / What Daoists Eat a r e b e a s t l y in s h a p e a n d q u i t e d i s a s t r o u s in their activities.: The seven material souls consist of the energy of yin and of evil. They are basically demons. They can make a person commit deadly evils, be stingy and greedy, jealous and full of envy. They give people bad dreams and make them clench their teeth, incite them to say "yes" when they think "no." They cavise people to lose their vital essence in sexual passion, dissipate it by hankering after luxury and ease. Through them, people waste their original purity and simplicity. (2a) T h e s e souls, far from l o o k i n g like h u m a n b e i n g s , a r e s t r a n g e l y f o r m e d devils, h a v i n g b i r d s ' h e a d s , o n l y o n e leg, tails, a b o m i n a b l e o u t g r o w t h s , a n d t h e like. T h e i r n a m e s are a c c o r d i n g l y nasty: C o r p s e D o g , A r r o w i n A m b u s h , Bird D a r k n e s s , D e v o u r i n g R o b b e r , F l y i n g P o i s o n , M a s s i v e Pollution, a n d S t i n k y L u n g s ( S a b ) .

W h e r e the t h r e e y a n g souls, t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f H e a v e n , therefore g u i d e p e o p l e t o w a r d g r e a t e r g o o d n e s s a n d spiritual t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the s e v e n yin s o u l s , e s s e n t i a l m a t e r i a l a s p e c t s n e c e s s a r y for p h y s i c a l survival, pull t h e m t o w a r d w o r l d l i n e s s , tension, a n d conflict. W h i l e f o l l o w i n g the latter l e a d s to loss of vital e n e r g y , illness, a n d death, c u l t i v a t i n g t h e form e r b r i n g s a b o u t a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o w a r d purity, h e a l t h , a n d l o n g life. D a o i s t i m m o r t a l i t y p r a c t i c e g o e s b e y o n d e v e n this. Its g o a l i s t h e c o m p l e t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e m a t e r i a l souls, the t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n of all instinctual p a t t e r n s , i n t o etheric, spiritual f o r m s o f b e i n g . T h u s , t h e y first c o n t r o l s e x u a l e n e r g i e s ( k i d n e y s , will) a n d food intake (spleen, i n t e n t i o n ) , t h e n m o v e o n t o w o r k w i t h b r e a t h i n g p r a c t i c e s (lungs, m a t e r i a l s o u l s ) a n d e n g a g e i n v i s i o n s o f t h e d i v i n e (liver, spirit souls) t o e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h o n e n e s s w i t h D a o (heart, spirit).

Living on Qi / 123

A further e x p a n s i o n of this d i c h o t o m y w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l is t h e D a o i s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e s i d e n t b o d y divinities that t o o c o m e i n yin a n d y a n g forms. Y i n h e r e m a n i f e s t s i n the so-called T h r e e W o r m s o r D e a t h b r i n g e r s , w h i l e y a n g a p p e a r s a s a set o f g o d s k n o w n a s t h e T h r e e O n e s . T h e earliest m e n t i o n of the T h r e e W o r m s {sanchong EL^k) o c c u r s in W a n g C h o n g ' s EE^t Lunheng fm^I ( B a l a n c e d D i s c u s s i o n s ) of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C.E. H e says: "In the h u m a n b o d y there are t h r e e w o r m s . T h e y c o r r e s p o n d to c r e a t u r e s that live in t h e m a r s h e s b e n e a t h the soil. T h o s e we call l e e c h e s . T h e l e e c h e s g n a w their w a y t h r o u g h the feet o f p e o p l e , j u s t a s t h e three w o r m s g n a w t h r o u g h their i n t e s t i n e s " (16.3; F o r k e 1 9 6 2 , 2:363; K u b o 1 9 5 6 , 1 9 2 ; K o h n 1995, 3 5 ) . T h e T h r e e W o r m s h e r e are real w o r m s , p l a c e d s o l i d l y i n t h e natural w o r l d ; t h e y are l e e c h e s , n o t d i v i n e or d e m o n s . T h e s a m e i d e a is found in the b i o g r a p h y of the p h y s i c i a n H u a T u o ^^Yli in t h e Sanguo zhi ^MJcl^ ( R e c o r d o f t h e T h r e e K i n g d o m s ) o f the third c e n t u r y : " T o e x p e l t h e T h r e e W o r m s , u s e a g r e e n p a s t y p o w d e r m a d e from the l e a v e s of the l a c q u e r tree. T a k e it for a l o n g time, and the three w o r m s will be e x p e l l e d , the five inner o r g a n s will be greatly s t r e n g t h e n e d . T h e b o d y as a w h o l e will feel light, and there will be no w h i t e h a i r " (Weizhi 2 9 ; D e W o s k i n 1983, 1 4 9 ) . A g a i n , the three inner p a r a s i t e s are p l a i n l y p h y s i c a l b e i n g s that c a u s e h a r m t o the p e r s o n , w h o c a n b e c u r e d b y h e r b a l f o r m u l a s . T h i s early m e d i c a l v i e w , s u p p o r t e d b y t h e g r o w i n g b e l i e f i n b o d y gods, d e v e l o p e d into a m o r e r e l i g i o u s v i s i o n in t h e third century. T h e T h r e e W o r m s b e c o m e the T h r e e C o r p s e s (sanshi

HP)—a

term that uses the

w o r d " c o r p s e " i n a c a u s a t i v e w a y a n d t h u s m e a n s a g e n t s that b r i n g a b o u t d e a t h a n d c a n t h u s b e called D e a t h b r i n g e r s . T h e i r n a t u r e takes o n a s u p e r n a t u r a l character. Instead o f m e r e l e e c h e s g n a w i n g o n h u m a n intestines, they are officials of the celestial h i e r a r c h y , p l a c e d in the b o d y t o m o n i t o r h u m a n b e h a v i o r and p u n i s h sins a n d t r a n s g r e s s i o n s . A s the Baopuzi

has: There are Three Deathbringers in our bodies. Although not fully corporeal, they are like our inner energies, like numinous powers, ghosts and spirits. They want us to die early. After our death, they become ghosts and move about at will to where sacrifices and offerings are laid out.

124 / What Daoists Eat On every gengshen [57*] day [of the sbcty-day cycle], they ascend to heaven and file a report on our misdeeds with the Ruler of Fates (Siming W J n j j ) . Similarly during the last night of the month, the Stove God makes a journey to heaven and reports on our behavior. For the more important misdeeds, three hundred days are deducted from our lives. For lesser sins, they take off three days. (6.4b; see Ware 1966, 115-16) W h i l e t h e T h r e e W o r m s thus g r a d u a t e from a m e r e p h y s i c a l i f d a n g e r o u s n u i s a n c e , to d e m o n i c d e a t h b r i n g e r s , their w o r m y n a t u r e is retained in a s e p a r a t e g r o u p o f parasites, k n o w n as the N i n e W o r m s (jiuchong

tlMk)-

M o r e o r g a n i c a n d less d e m o n i c creatures, t h e y are like g e r m s and b a c t e ria yet w o r k w i t h t h e D e a t h b r i n g e r s w h o s u m m o n t h e m t o c a u s e sickn e s s and disease. As t h e Baopuzi says: If you only have a faithful heart and do nothing for your spiritual wellbeing, your life expectancy will be defective and you will come to harm. The Three Deathbringers will take advantage of your weak months and perilous days, of all those hours when your longevity could easily be interrupted or sickness incurred, to summon vicious energies and bring in any parasites they can find. The danger is great for anyone. (15.7a; Ware 1966, 252-53) T h e T h r e e D e a t h b r i n g e r s h a v e , therefore, a d v a n c e d t o m a n a g e r i a l positions. T h e y n o l o n g e r b r i n g h a r m t h e m s e l v e s b u t o r d e r o t h e r n o x i o u s c r e a t u r e s to do so. Illnesses still c o m e from p h y s i c a l p a r a s i t e s that enter t h e b o d y i n a m o m e n t o f w e a k n e s s , h o w e v e r , t h e a g e n c y that instigates this i n v a s i o n is n o w s e p a r a t e and h a s a religious character. W h i l e the religious t r a d i t i o n t h u s s u p e r s e d e s the m e d i c a l , it n e v e r i g n o r e s or aboli s h e s it altogether. D u e to their heightened powers, the expulsion of the Three Deathbringers also t a k e s on a m o r e spiritual significance. E x p e l l i n g t h e l e e c h - w o r m s c a n i m p r o v e o n e ' s h e a l t h a n d raise life e x p e c t a n c y , b u t getting rid o f the D e a t h b r i n g e r s is a p r e r e q u i s i t e for h i g h e r spiritual states. M e r e c o n c o c t i o n s o f leaves, t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y useful, n o l o n g e r suffice. R i t u a l m e a s ures, s u c h a s n i g h t - l o n g vigils, a n d ethical p u r i t y m u s t b e a d v a n c e d , esp e c i a l l y on the gengshen d a y and at o t h e r t i m e s of transition. ^ In addition

2 Holding a vigil on the gengshen night became a major way of eliminating the Three Deathbringers under the Tang. Staying awake prevents them from

Living on Qi / 125 stronger m e d i c i n e s are n e e d e d , p r e f e r a b l y t h e d r u g s of life itself, the elixr s o f i m m o r t a h t y . F o r e x a m p l e , " T a k e p u r e u n a d u l t e r a t e d l a c q u e r and you will e n t e r into c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e gods. M i x it w i t h ten p i e c e s of crab, then t a k e it w i t h m i c a w a t e r or d i s s o l v e d in j a d e water. T h e N i n e "A'orms will d r o p from y o u , a n d all y o u r b a d b l o o d will flow o u t in n o s e b l e e d s " {Baopuzi I L l O b - l l a ; W a r e 1 9 6 6 , 1 9 0 ) . S u n S i m i a o similarly notes in h i s Qianjin fang T ^ ^ f J ( R e c i p e s W o r t h a T h o u s a n d P i e c e s of Gold; ed. Z h o n g h u a shuju) that t h e v e r y first step in e l i m i n a t i n g grains is the r e m o v a l o f the T h r e e W o r m s and p r o v i d e s several r e c i p e s that rely h e a v i l y on digitalis e x t r a c t {dihuang chi i^WM) c o m b i n e d w i t h c l e a r l a c quer {qingqi i f i t ) ( 5 8 . 5 1 1 ) . 3 Present i n m a n y m e d i e v a l D a o i s t texts, the m o s t e l a b o r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the T h r e e D e a t h b r i n g e r s a p p e a r s a g a i n in t h e Baosheng jing. It says: The Upper Deathbringer is called Peng Ju, also known as Ake (Shouter). He sits in the head and attacks the cinnabar field in the Niwan Palace [center of the head]. He causes people's heads to be heavy, their eyesight blurred, their tears cold. He makes mucus assemble in their noses and their ears go deaf. Because of him, people's teeth fall out, their mouths rot, and their faces shrink in wrinkles. He further deludes people so they desire carriages and horses, crave for fancy sounds and sights, and gloat over evil and filth. . . . The Middle Deathbringer is called Peng Zhi, also known as Zuozi (Maker). He enjoys deluding people with the five tastes and makes them greedy for the five colors. He lives in the human heart and stomach and attacks the Scarlet Palace [in the heart, the middle cinnabar field] together with its central heater. He causes people's minds to be confused and for-

leaving the body, so they cannot file their report. If they fail to do so over seven geiigshen nights, they will be fired from their jobs and die. The vigil soon turned into a major social event, complete with multiple forms of entertainment and extensive vegetarian feasts. In addition, the practice was linked with a Tantric protector deity known as Qingmian jingang Qap. Shomen kongo), the Bluefaced Vajrapani. The entire complex was duly transmitted to Japan, where so-called koshin vigils combined with the worship of the god are still held to the present day. See Kubo 1956; Kohn 1995. 3 On the medical use of these substances, see Stuart 1976,150 and 377.

WHU^U i

126 / What Daoists Eat

getful, so that they are full of troubles, dry in saliva and low in energy. Dissipated and melancholy, they follow the false and see things in wrong perspective. .. . The Lower Deathbringer is called Peng Qiao, also known as Jixi (Junior). He lives in people's stomachs and legs and attacks the lower parts of the body. He makes energy leak [through the genitals] from the Ocean of Qi and thereby invites a multiplicity of ills. Attracting the robbers of human intention, he makes people hanker after women and sex. Courageous and zealous only in the pursuit of passion, people suffering from him are blindly attached to things and waste away. They have no way to control themselves and hold on to life. (7a-8b) T h e n i n e w o r m s , i n contrast, are p u r e l y o r g a n i c i n n a t u r e . T h e i r n a m e s are: T w i s t , C o i l i n g , W h i t e , Flesh, L u n g , S t o m a c h , C a u l d r o n , R e d , and S c a v e n g e r W o r m . T h e Baosheng jing d e s c r i p t i o n i n c l u d e s their size (bet w e e n o n e and four inches), t h e h a r m t h e y d o t o w h i c h part o f the b o d y , a n d t h e m o s t o b v i o u s c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s . T h e Baosherig jing also i n c l u d e s their pictures: t h e y l o o k like o r d i n a r y w o r m s o r insects, s o m e l o n g and slithering, o t h e r s r o u n d w i t h leg-like e x t e n s i o n s , yet o t h e r s s p o n g y or crab-like. T h e i r m a i n effect is d e p l e t i o n of t h e p e r s o n ' s qi, b u t t h e y also c a u s e p a i n a n d disease. W h i l e a d e p t s m u s t , therefore, u n d e r t a k e p h y s i c a l , ethical, and spiritual efforts to rid t h e m s e l v e s of the D e a t h b r i n g e r s a n d their m i n i o n s , they s h o u l d a l s o rely o n h e l p from the p u r e g o d s o f D a o , v i s u a l i z i n g t h e m i n their t h r e e elixir fields and m a i n t a i n i n g a s t r o n g c o n n e c t i o n to H e a v e n t h r o u g h t h e m . M o s t i m p o r t a n t h e r e a r e the T h r e e O n e s (sanyi H—), the i m m e d i a t e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of p u r e p r i m o r d i a l qi, the original m a t e r i a l of D a o , from w h i c h all c r e a t i o n springs. U p o n p r o p e r m e d i t a t i o n , they c o m e t o reside i n t h e p e r s o n a n d aid h i s o r h e r spiritual transformation.

Living on Qi / 127 T h e Jinque dijun

sanyuan

zhenyi jing

•^M^'^^^jtM^M-

(Lord

Gold-

t o w e r ' s S c r i p t u r e o f the T h r e e P r i m e s a n d Perfect O n e s , D Z 2 5 3 ) d e scribes t h e m : The Upper One is the Celestial Emperor; He resides in the body's center [in the head]. The Middle One is the Cinnabar Sovereign; he resides in the Crimson Palace [in the heart]. The Lower One is the Primordial King; he resides in the Yellow Court [in the abdomen]. "Together they supervise the twenty-four energies of the body and bring them in accord with the twenty-four deities of Great Tenuity. Through them, these energies combine in the vapor of emptiness and develop into pure spirit. The Three Ones each have a thousand chariots and ten thousand horsemen; they ride in cloud chariots with feathery canopies.... Concentrate firmly on them, and the Three Ones will become visible for you. Once visible, a thousand chariots and ten thousand horsemen will arrive [to escort you on your heavenly journey], (la; Andersen 1980)

' '

T h e s e t h r e e deities r e s i d e o r i g i n a l l y i n h e a v e n and r e p r e s e n t the p r i m o r dial state b e f o r e creation. O n c e called d o w n and a c t i v a t e d in the a d e p t ' s body, t h e y c o m e to c o n t r o l it, raising the entire p e r s o n to a celestial level. Powerful g o o d forces o f D a o , d i v i n e a g e n t s o f longevity, g o o d fortune, a n d i m m o r t a l i t y , they s e r v e t o activate t h e a d e p t ' s h e a v e n l y nature. T h e y help in all that is g o o d a n d holy, a n d assist in t h e ascent to t h e divine. L i k e t h e p u r e g o d s o f D a o w o r s h i p e d i n rituals, t h e y dislike m e a t and the five s t r o n g v e g e t a b l e s and thrive on p u r e foods a n d the ingestion of qi. In their p o w e r t o c o n n e c t t o the g o d s , dietary p r a c t i c e s t h u s d o v e t a i l s m o o t h l y w i t h o t h e r a d v a n c e d spiritual activities, s u c h a s m e d i t a t i o n s a n d rituals.

128 / What Daoists Eat

C h a n g i n g t h e diet t o w a r d i m m o r t a h t y t a k e s p l a c e in a s e t t i n g s e p a r a t e from o r d i n a r y s o c i e t y that is s p e c i a l l y g e a r e d t o w a r d t h e d i v i n e effort. P r e d o m i n a n t l y an i n d i v i d u a l e n d e a v o r , the p r a c t i c e — e v e n if u n d e r t a k e n u n d e r the g u i d a n c e of a m a s t e r —usually t a k e s p l a c e in isolation, be it in t h e distant m o u n t a i n s , on t h e fringes of a m o n a s t i c institution, or in t h e a n o n y m i t y o f the cities. A s a l r e a d y the Fw zhaijie weiyi jing

I^WMffill

(Dignified O b s e r v a n c e s for A r r a n g i n g R e t r e a t s , D Z 5 3 2 ) has:* A Daoist adept distances and cuts himself off from human traces and lives quietly in the mountains. He practices a perpetual retreat and lives alone in a desolate valley. He no longer selects a master of the teaching [as his preceptor] but simply makes his mind converse with his mouth. (Eskildsen 1998, 115) T e x t s v a r i o u s l y e m p h a s i z e t h e n e e d for p h y s i c a l d e t a c h m e n t and o u t l i n e t h e ideal setting of t h e practice. T h i s m e a n s ideally staying in a small, s t a n d - a l o n e h u t w i t h p r o p e r v e n t i l a t i o n a n d light, n o t u n l i k e the o r a t o r y o r quiet c h a m b e r (jingshi i f ^ ) o f the Celestial M a s t e r s o r the tea h o u s e i n J a p a n . S u r r o u n d i n g s s h o u l d h a v e greenery, freshness, a n d q u i e t u d e , a n d b a s i c foods a n d / o r h e r b a l s u p p l e m e n t s s h o u l d b e readily a v a i l a b l e . T h e texts a l s o stress the n e e d t o c o m p l y w i t h c o s m i c p h a s e s b y o b s e r v i n g c a l e n d a r rules a n d d a i l y p r o h i b i t i o n s , t h u s m a k i n g sure that the internal t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f yin a n d y a n g i s n o t h i n d e r e d b y e x t e r n a l patterns. F o r e x a m p l e , the Shesheng zuanlu

( C o m p r e h e n s i v e R e c o r d on

C o n s e r v i n g Life, D Z 578)^ o u t l i n e s the influence o f earth a n d c l i m a t e i n different l o c a t i o n s a n d r e c o m m e n d s that practitioners m a k e regular offerings to the g o d s of W a t e r , Earth, a n d S t o v e . T h e y s h o u l d also b u r y a d e e r antler u n d e r their d o o r s t e p a n d n e a r the toilet t o e n s u r e t h e p r o s p e r i t y n e e d e d for the p r a c t i c e a n d a n o x ' s h o o f n e a r the four c o m e r s o f t h e h o u s e for g e n e r a l g o o d fortune (19a). I n addition, t h e text h a s v a r i o u s travel p r e s c r i p t i o n s , m u c h like those f o u n d i n p o p u l a r a l m a n a c s . E a c h m o n t h d i v i d e s into six different t y p e s o f d a y s , s u c h a s " r o b b e r d a y s , " d u r i n g w h i c h o n e s h o u l d n o t travel a t all.

^ On this fifth-century text of the Numinous Treasure school, see Bokenkamp 1983, 484; Yamada 2000, 235. ^ The text probably dates from the Tang. See Despeux in Schipper and Verellen 2004, 356. For a translation, see Huang and Wurmbrand 1987, 2:75-90.

Living on Qi / 1 2 9 and "official d a y s / ' w h e n o n e c a n m o v e a b o u t w i t h o u t h a r m a n d c o n duct o n e ' s affairs ( 2 3 a ) . In addition, c e r t a i n d a y s are b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r s for travel in specific directions. A l s o , p r a c t i t i o n e r s s h o u l d u s e v a r i o u s forms of m a g i c a l p r o t e c t i o n to e n s u r e their safety, s u c h as d i s c a r d i n g a cup of w a t e r at a certain p o i n t (24a). O n c e t h e setting i s right a n d t h e b a s i c i n s t r u c t i o n s are k n o w n , a d e p t s p u r s u e s e v e r a l different m e t h o d s : r e d u c i n g o r d i n a r y food, t a k i n g h e r b a l c o n c o c t i o n s , g u i d i n g t h e qi t h r o u g h b r e a t h i n g exercises, a n d a b s o r b i n g cosmic

energies

in

visualizations.

Thus

the

Xuanmen

dalun

^f^:k.m

(Great T r e a t i s e o n the G a t e o f A l l W o n d e r s ) , ' ' o u t l i n e s n i n e " d i e t a r y " m o d e s that m o v e from e a t i n g food into b r e a t h i n g a n d m e d i t a t i o n : 1. Coarse eating: grains, "to terminate cravings and desires;" 2. Rough eating: vegetables, "to abandon fats;" 3. Limited eating: no food after noon, "to eliminate confusion and defilement;" 4. Absorbing essences: talisman water and cinnabar efflorescences, "to embody flower stems;" 5. Absorbing sprouts: directional qi, "to change into sprouts;" 6. Absorbing light: sun, moon, stars, "to transform into light;" 7. Absorbing qi: universal energy, "to become qi and wander into the six directions;" 8. Absorbing primordial qi: cosmic energy, "to merge with Heaven and Earth;" 9. Embryo respiration: pure qi of creation, "to become one with Dao." (8a-9a; Eskildsen 1998,116) T o b e g i n D a o i s t s g r a d u a l l y m o d i f y their food intake i n a c c o r d a n c e with the m a j o r food g r o u p s . A s the Taiqing fuqi koujue

MM(Great

C l a r i t y O r a l I n s t r u c t i o n s o n the A b s o r p t i o n o f Qi, D Z 822)^ notes, t h e y first t a k e s i m p l e , g r a i n - b a s e d food to h a r m o n i z e sp\een-qi a n d activate t h e saliva, such a s rice p o r r i d g e , b o i l e d w h e a t d u m p l i n g s , o r c o o k e d b a r ley, often s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h dried m e a t a n d p e p p e r c o r n s . After a f e w w e e k s o f b r e a t h i n g p r a c t i c e and this s i m p l e diet, they c a n s k i p o n e o r t w o m e a l s . T h e y then r e p l a c e the grains with s t e a m e d v e g e t a b l e s , s e a s o n e d w i t h soy s a u c e o r v i n e g a r and e n h a n c e d w i t h m e d i c i n a l h e r b s .

"> This is closely related to or identical with the Xuanmen dayi (DZ 1124), a seventh-century encyclopedia (Schmidt in Schipper and Verellen 2004, 439-40). The edition used is in YJQQ 37. ^ Probably of Tang origin. See Levi in Schipper and Verellen 2004, 369-70.

130 / What Daoists Eat T h i s c l e a n s e s t h e c o l o n and w e a n s t h e b o d y from its n e e d for grains. After a b o u t a w e e k , a d e p t s c a n d o a w a y w i t h t h e v e g e t a b l e s a n d o n l y t a k e their j u i c e . T h r e e d a y s later, food intake is g i v e n up c o m p l e t e l y , b u t liqu i d s — s u c h a s b o i l e d water, w i n e , g i n g e r s o u p , o r v e g e t a b l e j u i c e — a r e t a k e n until s u c h t i m e w h e n r e l i a n c e o n p r i m o r d i a l q i i s c o m p l e t e ( H u a n g and W u r m b r a n d 1987, 60). A n o t h e r o u t l i n e of t h e p r o c e s s a p p e a r s in t h e Taiqing tiaoqi jing 'J^lmMM, I f ( G r e a t C l a r i t y S c r i p t u r e o n B a l a n c i n g Qi, D Z 8 2 0 ) , also o f the T a n g . I t says: Every day at breakfast, eat a little unflavored watery porridge to balance the spleen-^j; and provide sufficient fluids to last you through the day. At noon, eat one or two unflavored slices of bread and maybe some broth that contains onions or scallions. Do not eat them hot, though. If you are himgry in the evening, take a few unflavored dumplings that you have boiled for twenty or thirty minutes. Again, make sure not to eat to fullness but three to five mouthfuls less. It is best always to leave the table with a feeling a slightly empty stomach, ( l l a b ) T h e a m o u n t o f food e a t e n s h o u l d b e r e d u c e d e a c h d a y w h i l e the flow o f saliva i s s u p p o r t e d b y s u c k i n g o n p l u m o r d a t e pits a n d b o d y fluids are m a i n t a i n e d b y d r i n k i n g little sips o f w a t e r . O n i o n s , scallions, a n d m e a t o t h e r w i s e p r o h i b i t e d —serve t o e n h a n c e y a n g e n e r g y . S i m i l a r l y , p e p p e r c o r n s are used: Each time you eat rice, first swallow twenty or thirty raw peppercorns with some water. Only then eat the rice. Should you feel pain or fullness after a meal, you can take ten additional peppercorns. The pepper will move the Triple Heater activity downward and chase out all sorts of bad qi. It will also dissolve any food remnants left behind in the intestines. (12b) T h e initial r e s p o n s e o f t h e b o d y t o this c h a n g e i n diet i s w e a k e n i n g and detoxification. T h e Daoji tuna jing jMStlilftlf ( S c r i p t u r e of t h e F o u n d a t i o n of t h e D a o on E x p e l l i n g [the O l d ] a n d T a k i n g in [the N e w ] ) , in a p a s s a g e that is also t a k e n up in S i m a C h e n g z h e n ' s W],^:^