Dahl - On Democracy

Robert A. Dahl – On Democracy (1998) Summary by Felix de Jonh !hi" i" a "ummary # "tarted ma$in intended %or &er"onal u"e only' but # %iured a lot more &eo&le could &ro%it %rom it. !he uality miht not be u& to &ar' a" # haen*t chec$ed %or any "&ellin error". +o,eer' # am con%ident it i" "u%%iciently clear. For any comment"' ue"tion" or addition"' &lea"e i"it thi" lin$ and comment therehtt&-%elixdicit.com/&098 2ha&ter 1- Do 3e Really 4eed A 5uide (&re%ace) (6 not included) 7art #. !he einnin 2ha&ter - 3here and +o, did Democracy Deelo& 2ha&ter :- 3hat ;ie" Ahead/ 7art ##. #deal Democracy 2ha&ter - 3hat #" Democracy/ 2ha&ter uality #- #ntrin"ic >uality 2ha&ter ?- 3hy 7olitical >uality ##- 2iic 2om&etence 7art ###. Actual Democracy 2ha&ter 8- 3hat 7olitical #n"titution" Doe" ;are6Scale Democracy Reuire 2ha&ter 9- @arietie" #- Democracy on Di%%erent Scale" 2ha&ter 1- @arietie" ##- 2on"titution" 2ha&ter 11- @arietie" ###- 7artie" and >lectoral Sy"tem" 7art #@. 2ondition" Faorable and Bn%aorable 2ha&ter 1- 3hat Bnderlyin 2ondition" Faor Democracy 2ha&ter 1:- 3hy Car$et62a&itali"m Faor" Democracy 2ha&ter 1- 3hy Car$et6ca&itali"m +arm" Democracy 2ha&ter 1uro&ean" and American" ali$e. Conte"uieu lauded the "y"tem' the %oundin %ather" o% the BSA ba"ed their "y"tem on thi" ,ithout the role o% a monarch' ,hich in turn &roided a model %or many other re&ublic". D>CO2RA!#GA!#O4- O4 !+> 3AH' B! O4;H O4 !+> 3AH. !he element" %or later democratic belie%" and in"titution"' %aored by local condition" and o&&or o&&ortun tuniti itie" e" in "eera "eerall area" area" o% >uro&e >uro&e ,ere ,ere "timul "timulate ated d by the loic loic o% eua eualit lity y to %orm %orm loca locall a""emb a""emblie lie"' "' in ,hich ,hich %ree %ree men could could &arti &artici ci&at &atee in oer oernin nin' ' to an exte extent. nt. !he con"en con"entt o% the oerned' oerned' initially on taxe"' radually re, into a claim about la," in eneral. 3hen the"e a""emblie" coered a too lare area' &eo&le needed re&re"entation re&re"entation &roided by election. !he"e election" needed to be held on multi&le leel"' %ir"t local' than reional and national' or other intermediate leel". !hi" &roided a ba"e %rom ,hich democratiation could &roceed' but it ,a" only a &romi"e- crucial &iece" ,ere "till mi""in. Fir"t' #neuality &o"ed enormou" ob"tacle" to democracy- di%%erence" bet,een riht"' dutie"' in%luence' &o,er o% "lae" and %ree men' landed and landle""' ma"ter and "erant' men and ,omen' day labor laborer" er" and a&&re a&&renti ntice" ce"'' etc. etc. >en >en %ree %ree men ,here ine ineual ual.. Secon Second' d' exi"t exi"tin in a""embli a""emblie" e" and and &arliament" ,ere a lon ,ay %rom meetin minimal democratic "tandard"' a" they ,ere no match %or the monarch. Re&re"entatie" had only a &artial "ayin in la,ma$in. !hird' re&re"entatie" didn*t re&re"ent the ,hole &o&ulation &o&ulation i.e. men. #n 5reat ritain (18:)' only - Our ordinary citien"' thouh occu&ied ,ith the &ur"uit" o% indu"try' are "till %air Eude" o% &ublic matter"K LMN and in"tead o% loo$in

on di"cu""ion a" a "tumblin bloc$ in the ,ay o% action' ,e thin$ it an indi"&en"able &reliminary to any ,i"e action. !he %inal t,o a""ure that the %ir"t three aren*t coertly inored by "ome member". SOC> 2RB2#A; PB>S!#O4S !hi" i" not the an",er to the ue"tion ,hat i" democracy' but merely a ood "tart. #t "ue"t" a ood many more ue"tion". For in"tance' are the"e criteria a&&licable to a %ull "cale a""ociation' li$e a oernment o% a "tate/ 3e can. !he &rimary %ocu" o% democratic idea" ha" lon been the "tate. !he in"titution" ,e thin$ thin$ o% a" chara characte cteri" ri"ti tic" c" o% democ democra racy cy are &rima &rimaril rily y deel deelo& o&ed ed a" mean" mean" %or democ democrat ratii iin n oernment o% "tate". +o,eer' no "tate ha" eer %ully mea"ered u& to the"e criteria' nor i" li$ely to. !he criter criteria ia &roi &roide de "eric "ericea eable ble "tand "tandard ard"" %or mea"u mea"urin rin  the achie achieeme ement" nt" and and &o""i &o""ibi bilit litie" ie" o% democratic a""ociation. #" it reali"tic to thin$ that an a""ociation could eer %ully meet the"e criteria/ 7robably not. Are they Eu"t uto&ian ho&e"/ #t only &roide" a mea"ure' and can "ere a" uide" %or "ha&in and re"ha&in in"titution" and con"titution" ali$e. #% the criteria ,ould "ere a" u"e%ul uide"' are they all ,e need %or de"inin democratic &olitical in"titution"/ 4o. !here are too many ariable" to an a""ociation ,hich cannot be included. #% one" one" ie," ie," are acce&ted acce&ted ,ithout ,ithout challene' challene' ,hy "hould "hould ,e beliee beliee that democra democracy cy i" de"irable/ de"irable/ And i% not' ,hy "hould ,e beliee in &olitical euallity/ euallity/ #% ,e don*t beliee in euality' euality' ,hy "hould ,e beliee in democracy/

Chapter $: Why Democracy" De mocracy"  Page 44-6& #n thi" cha&ter' Dahl ,ill re%er to democracy a" actual %orm" o% oernment' not the ideal %orm. Democracy &roduce" de"irable con"euence" (%iure xam&le" he name" are Stalin (%ami (%amine' ne' &ri"on &ri"on cam&") cam&")'' +itler +itler (33' (33' +oloca +olocau" u"t)' t)' 7ol 7ot (*"el (*"el%6i %6in%l n%lict icted ed** enoci enocide) de).. 7o&ula 7o&ularr oernment" aren*t %ree o% blemi"he"' and o%ten act unEu"tly or cruelly to,ard &eo&le out"ide their border". !o &reent in%licted harm on &er"on" ,ithin their border"' "u%%rae ,a" extended durin the 19th and th century' becau"e &eo&le ,ere then con"idered eual. +o,eer' couldn*t the maEority in%lict harm on the minority by ,hat i" called the tiranny o% the maEority/ maEority/ !hi" i" not an ea"y an",er' a" eery ado&ted la, or &olicy i" bound to in%lict harm on "ome &eo&le. !he i""ue i" ,hether in the lon run a democratic &roce"" i" li$ely to do le"" harm to the %undamental %undamental riht" and intere"t" intere"t" o% it" citien" than any nondemocratic alternatie. alternatie. ecau"e democratic oer oernme nment nt"" hae hae a bette betterr abili ability ty o% bloc$i bloc$in n abu" abu"ie ie autoc autocrat ratic ic rule' rule' democr democraci acie" e" meet meet thi" thi" reuirement better than other %orm" o% oernment. .  'e(ocracy guarantees guarantees its citi*ens a nu()er of fun"a(enta fun"a(enta rig!ts t!at non"e(ocratic non"e(ocratic syste(s "o not+ an" cannot+ grant . grant . Democracy i" inherently a "y"tem o% riht"' they are the e""ential buildin bloc$" o% a democratic &roce"". !o meet certain "tandard"' li$e e%%ectie &artici&ation' a citien need" the riht to &artici&ate and a riht to ex&re"" their ie,". 4ondemocratic "y"tem" don*t o%%er the"e riht"' becau"e i% they do' they*d become democracie". A &romi"e o% the"e riht" (,hether in ,ritin' la, or con"titution) i" not enouh' they need to be e%%ec e%%ecti tiely ely en%orc en%orced ed and and aail aailabl ablee to citie citien". n". #% not' not' the demo democra cracy cy i" merely merely a %acad %acadee %or %or nondemocratic rule (Ru""iaQ). #% and ,hen many citien" %ail to under"tand that democracy reuire" certain %undamental %undamental riht" or %ail to "u&&ort the in"titution" in"titution" that &rotect tho"e riht"' their democracy i" in daner. !hi" daner i" reduced by a third bene%it. :.  'e(ocracy insures insures its citi*ens a )roa"er )roa"er range of persona persona free"o( free"o( t!an any feasi)e aternative aternative to it, A it,  A belie% in the de"irability o% democracy doe" not exi"t in i"olation %rom other belie%"' but i" &art o% a clu"ter. clu"ter. >en i% the "tate i" aboli"hed (many anarchi"t*" oal)' coercion o% "ome &er"on" by other &er"on"' rou&" or a""ociation" i" li$ely' robbin the %ruit" o% one*" labour and in addition re6 creatin a coercie "tate in order to "ecure their o,n domination. . 'e(ocracy .  'e(ocracy !eps peope to protect protect t!eir on fun"a(enta interests, interests, a"ic human riht" (#.e "urial' "helter' %ood' etc.) i" de"ired by all. !heir order may di%%er %rom &er"on to &er"on' and democracy ma$e" "ure you hae the o&&ortunity to choo"e ,hich oal" are mo"t im&ortant to you. A" J.S. Cill &ut it- o% a" unier"al truth and a&&licability a" any eneral &ro&o"ition" ,hich can be laid do,n re"&ectin human a%%air" i" that the riht" and intere"t" o% eery or any &er"on are "ecure %rom bein di"rearded ,hen the &er"on i" him"el% able' and habitually di"&o"ed' to "tand u& %or them. LMN +uman bein" are only "ecure %rom eil at the hand" o% other" in &ro&ortion a" they hae the &o,er o% bein' and are' "el%6&rotectin. Dahl aree"K een i% included in the electorate' you can*t be certain all your intere"t" ,ill be adeuately &rotected. ut i% excluded' you $no, %or "ure your intere"t" ,ill be harmed by nelect or outriht damae. #nclu"ion  >xclu"ion. PBA;#!H- A CORA; JBD5>C>4! #neuality can be in the ability to ,in a marathon' or in o&&ortunity to ote' "&ea$ and &arti &artici ci&at &atee in oer oernan nance ce.. 3hen 3hen ,e tal$ tal$ about about &olit &olitic ical al eual euality ity'' ,e mean mean to ex&re ex&re"" "" a moral moral  Eudement about human bein"' ,hat ,e beliee ouht to be. 3e ouht to treat all &er"on" a" i% they &o""e"" eual claim" to li%e' liberty' ha&&ine"" and other %undamental ood" and intere"t". Dahl call" thi" intrinsic intrinsic equaity, equaity, #n order to a&&ly thi" to the oernment o% a "tate' a "u&&lementary &rinci&le i" needed- #n arriin at deci"ion"' the oernment mu"t ie eual con"ideration to the ood and intere"t" o% eery &er"on bound by tho"e deci"ion". 3+H 3> S+OB;D ADO7! !+> 7R#42#7;>  Et!ica an" reigious groun"s, groun"s, For a reat many &eo&le it i" con"i"tent ,ith their mo"t ethical belie%" and &rinci&le" (all created eually a" 5od*" children' yadayadayada). Co"t moral rea"onin' mo"t "y"tem" o% ethic"' ex&licitly or im&licitly a""ume "ome "uch &rinci&le. !e eaness of an aternative principe, >ery eneral alternatie i" %ound to be im&lau"ible and unconincin. A claim to intrin"ic "u&eriority (i.e. # am more im&ortant than you) i" buried in our eoti"tical core' but ,hy "hould ,e acce&t that claim %rom other"/ A rou& ,ith enouh &o,er could en%orce their claim literally oer your dead body. !he"e claim" hae mo"tly been "hrouded ,ith a &re6 determination by a *hiher &o,er*.  Pru"ence,  Pru"ence, 5oernment" 5oernment" not only con%er reat bene%it" but can al"o in%lict reat harm. 7rudence dictate" a cautiou" concern %or the manner in ,hich it" unu"ual ca&acitie" ,ill be em&loyed. #t i" "a%er to in"i"t that your intere"t" ,ill be ien eual con"ideration ,ith tho"e o% other"' in %ear o% reolt and re&ercu"ion".  Accepta)iity  Accepta)iity,, A &roce"" that uarantee" eual con"ideration %or all i" more li$ely to "ecure the a""ent o% other" ,ho"e coo&eration you need to achiee your end".

Chapter +: Why Political &'(ality )II*" $ivic $o(petence  Page 6-1 3e are not nece""arily bound to endor"e democracy a" the be"t &roce"" %or oernin a "tate. !+> 2OB4!>R2;A#C OF 5BARD#A4S+#7 !he claim that oernment "hould be turned oer to ex&ert" dee&ly committed to rule %or the eneral ood and "u&erior to other" in their $no,lede o% the mean" to achiee it – 5uardian"' a" 7lato called them – ha" al,ay" been the maEor rial o% democratic idea". !hey deny that ordinary &eo&le are com&etent to oern them"ele". !hey im&ly that *5uardian"* are "u&erior in their $no,lede o% the eneral ood and ho, to achiee it. !here are "ome %ault" to the arument %or 5uardian"hi&. !o deleate certain "ubordinate deci"ion" to ex&ert" i" not euialent to cedin %inal control oer maEor deci"ion". 7er"onal deci"ion" made by indiidual" are not euialent euialent to deci"ion" deci"ion" made and en%orced by the oernment o% a "tate. !o oern a "tate ,ell' reuire" much more than "trictly "cienti%ic $no,lede (ed"- hih moderni"m)' oernin relie" on ethical Eudement" a" ,ell. And to oern a "tate ,ell ta$e" more than Eu"t $no,ledeK you al"o need incorru&tability to $ee& &ur"uin the &ublic ood. ;i$e en Fran$lin "aid- !here are t,o &a""ion" ,hich hae a &o,er%ul in%luence on the a%%air" o% men. !he"e are ambition and aarice' the loe o% &o,er and the loe o% money. ;a"tly' to de"in a uto&ia i" one thin' to brin it about i" uite another.

!+> 2OC7>!>42> OF 2#!#G>4S !O 5O@>R4. #% ,e reEect the ca"e o% 5uardian"hi&' ,e conclude- Amon adult" no &er"on" are "o de%initely better uali%ied than other" to oern that they "hould be entru"ted ,ith com&lete and %inal authority oer the oernment o% "tate. On mo"t matter" ,e beliee adult" "hould be allo,ed to Eude ,hat i" be"t %or hi" or o,n ood or intere"t". 3e "ometime" reEect the &re"um&tion %or &er"on" o% adult ae ,ho are Euded to lac$ a normal ca&acity to loo$ out %or them"ele". !he ue"tion i"' are mo"t adult" com&etent enouh to &artici&ate in oernin the "tate. A F#F!+ D>CO2RA!#2 S!A4DARD- #42;BS#O4. #% you are de&ried o% an eual oice in the oernment o% a "tate' the chance" are uite hih that your intere"t" ,ill not be ien the "ame attention a" the intere"t" o% tho"e ,ho do hae a oice. #% you hae no oice' ,ho ,ill de%end your intere"t" or that o% your rou&/ 4o one ,ill adeuately &rotect them' a" hi"tory ha" "ho,n. J.S. Cill a"$ed-  'oes paria(ent+ paria(ent+ or a(ost any of t!e (e()ers co(posing it+ ever for an instant oo at any question it! t!e eyes of a oring(an !en a su)8ect arises in !ic! t!e a)orers as suc! !ave an interest+ is it regar"e" fro( any point of vie )ut t!at of e(poyers of a)or / 7eo& 7eo&le le "ometi "ometime me"" mi"Eud mi"Eude e their their o,n inter intere"t e"t"' "' but but the &re&o &re&onde ndera rant nt ,eiht ,eiht o% human human ex&erience in%orm" u" that no rou& o% adult" can "a%ely rant to other" the &o,er to oern oer them. Dahl conclude"- Full inclu"ion. !he citien body in democratically oerned "tate mu"t include all &er"on" "ubEect to the la," o% that "tate exce&t tran"ient" and &er"on" &roed to be inca&able o% carin %or them"ele". B4S>!!;>D 7RO;>CS ReEectin uardian"hi& and ado&tin &olitical euality a" an ideal "till leae" "ome di%%icult ue"t ue"tion ion". ". Don*t Don*t citi citien" en" and and oern oernme ment nt o%%ic o%%icial ial"" need need hel& hel& %rom %rom ex&er ex&ert" t"// He" they they do. !heir !heir "&ecialied $no,lede i" undeniably im&ortant %or the %untionin o% democratic oernment". 7ublic &olicy i" o%ten com&lex that no oernment could ma$e "ati"%actory deci"ion" ,ithout hel& %rom ex&ert". #% citien" are to be com&etent' ,on*t they need &olitical and "ocial in"titution" to hel& ma$e them "o/ He"' o&&ortunitie" to ain enlihtened under"tandin o% &ublic matter" are a reuirement o% democracy. !he maEority o% citien" miht "till ma$e mi"ta$e"' ,hich i" ,hy adocate" o% democracy "tre"" the im&ortance o% education. 3hat i% the in"titution" %or deelo&in com&etent citien" are ,ea$' and they don*t $no, enouh to &rotect their o,n alue" and intere"t"/ 3e hae ado&ted intrin"ic euality' ,hich ,e a&&lied to the oernment o% "tate. 3e reEected 5uardian"hi&' but acce&ted %ull inclu"ion. !here%ore' i% the in"titution" %or ciic education are ,ea$' only one "olution remain"- they mu"t be "trenthened. 7erha&" the in"titution" created in the 19 th and th century are no loner adeuate. #% "o' ,e need to create ne, one" to "u&&lement the old one". 2O42;BD#45 2OCC>4!S A4D 7R>@#>3 3e hae barely &ee$ed &ee$ed into the remainin hal%- the the ba"ic in"titution" in"titution" that are nece""airy nece""airy %or adancin adancin  the oal oal o% democra democracy cy'' and the conditi condition" on" ("ocial' ("ocial' economic' economic' and other") that %aour %aour deelo&m deelo&ment ent and maintena maintenance nce o% the democrat democratic ic &olitica &oliticall in"titut in"titution" ion".. 3e*ll ex&lore ex&lore the"e the"e in the %ollo,in cha&ter"' ,here ,e turn %rom oal" to actualitie".

P!,T III Actua 'e(ocracies 'e(ocracies $!apter 19 3hat 7olitical #n"titution" Doe" ;are6Scale Democracy Reuire/  Page 13- Cain ue"tion o% thi" cha&ter- ,hat doe" it mean to "ay that a country i" oerned democratically/ A %e, thin thin to $ee& $ee& in mindmind- thi" thi" mean" mean" lar lare6" e6"ca cale le democr democrac acie" ie" (not (not commi committe ttee") e")'' eery eery actual actual democracy ha" %allen "hort o% the criteria de"cribed in &art ##' and %inally ,e "hould be a,are that in ordinary lanuae ,e u"e the ,ord *democracy* to re%er both to a oal or ideal and to an actuality that i" only a &artial attainment o% the oal. +O3 2A4 3> 4O3/ +o, can ,e determine ,hat in"titution" are nece""airy %or lare6"cale democracy/ 3e miht examine the hi"tory o% countrie" that chaned their in"titution" in re"&on"e to demand" %or a broader &o&ular inclu"ion (ed"- a%ter 188' %or exam&le). Alternatiely' ,e could examine countrie" ,hich are de"cribed a" democratic. !hird' ,e could re%lect on a "&eci%ic country' or rou&" o% countrie"' or a hy&othetical country' in order to imaine ,hat &olitical in"titution" ,ould be reuired in order to achiee democratic oal". All three method" conere on the "ame "et o% in"titution"' ,hich are the minimal reuirement" %or a democratic country.

1.

. :.

.

7O;#!#2A; #4S!#!B!#O4S OF COD>R4 R>7R>S>4!A!#@> 5O@>R4C>4!. Eecte" officas. officas. 2ontrol oer oernment deci"ion" about &olicy i" con"titutionally e"ted in o%%i o%%ici cial al"" elec electe ted d by citi citie en" n".. !hu" !hu"'' mode modern rn'' lar lare6" e6"ca cale le demo democr crat atic ic oe oern rnme ment nt"" are are representative,  :ree+  :ree+ fair an" frequent frequent eections,  >lected o%%icial" are cho"en in %reuent and %airly conducted election" in ,hich coercion i" com&aratiely uncommon.  :ree"o(  :ree"o( of e/pression, e/pression, 2itien" hae a riht to ex&re"" them"ele" ,ithout daner o% "eere &uni" &uni"hme hment nt on &olit &olitic ical al matter matter"" broad broadly ly de%in de%ined ed'' inclu includin din  criti critici" ci"m m o% o%%ic o%%icial ial"' "' the oernment' the reime' the "ocioeconomic order and the &reailin ideoloy.  Access to aternative aternative sources sources of infor(ation, infor(ation, 2itien" hae a riht o "ee$ out alternatie and inde&endent "ource" o% in%ormation %rom other citien"' ex&ert"' ne,"&a&er"' maaine"' boo$"' telecomm telecommunic unicatio ation"' n"' etc. etc. !he"e !he"e alternat alternatie ie "ource" "ource" mu"t not be under under the in%luence in%luence o% the oernment or any &olitical rou&' and &rotected by la,.  Associationa  Associationa autono(y, autono(y, !o achiee achiee their ariou" ariou" riht"' riht"' includin includin tho"e tho"e reured reured %or the e%%ect e%%ectie ie o&eration o&eration o% democrat democratic ic &olitica &oliticall in"titut in"titution ion"' "' citien citien"" al"o hae a riht riht to %orm relatiely inde&endent a""ociation" or oraniation"' includin inde&endent &olitical &artie" and intere"t rou&".  %ncusive  %ncusive citi*ens!ip, citi*ens!ip, 4o adult &ermanently re"idin in the country and "ubEect to it" la," can be denied the riht" that are abailable to other" and are nece""airy to the %ie &olitical in"titution"  Eu"t li"ted. li"ted.

!+> 7O;#!#2A; #4S!#!B!#O4S #4 7>RS7>2!#@> !he"e do not ordinarily arrie in a country all at once' the la"t t,o are di"tinctly latecomer". Bntil the  th  century' unier"al "u%%rae ,a" denied in both theory and &ractice o% democratic and re&ublican oernment. !ime o% arrial and "euence in ,hich they hae been introduced hae aried tremendou"ly. #n older democracie"' election" came %ir"t (>nland 1: th century' BS 1? th.) Durin the 19th century' the %ir"t %ie o% the ba"ic democratic in"titution" (a" ob"ered by de !ocueille in the BS)

,ere con"olidated in more than a doen other countrie"' yet eery,here the "ixth in"titution ,a" mi""in. Bnier"al "u%%rae at the time did not include ,omen' or a%rican6american". #t ,a" not until the th century that in both theory and &ractice democracy came to reuire that riht" to enae in &olitical li%e mu"t be extended. !he"e "ix in"titution" con"titute not only a ne, ty&e o% &olitical "y"tem but a ne, $ind o% &o&ular oernment' a *democracy* that had neer exi"ted. !hi" modern %orm i" "ometime" called  poyarc!a  poyarc!a "e(ocracy (&oly0many' "e(ocracy  (&oly0many' archal0rule' ero *rule o% the many*). #t came about in re"&on"e to demand" %or inclu"ion and &artici&ation. +o,eer' are "ome o% the"e in"titution" no more than &a"t &roduct" o% hi"torical "trule"/ !+> FA2!OR OF S#G> 3hy do ,e only "&ea$ o% lare6"cale democracie"/ democracie"/ ecau"e "mall6"cale' li$e committee"' don*t need a lot o% democracy. A &re"idin "&ea$er may be enouh %or it to run democratic. So ,hat do the in"titution" brin to the table/ 7olit 7olitica icall in" in"tit tituti ution on"" o% o% &oly &olyar archa chall demo democra cracy cy

Sati" Sati"%y %y the %ollo %ollo,in ,in  demo democra cratic tic crite criteri riaa-

>lected re&re"entatie"

>%%ectie &artici&ation 2ontrol o% the Aenda

Free' %air and %reuent election"

@otin >uality 2ontrol o% the Aenda

Freedom o% >x&re""ion

>%%ectie &artici&ation enlihtened under"tandin control o% the aenda

Alternatie in%ormation

>%%ectie &artici&ation enlihtened under"tandin control o% the aenda

A""ociational autonomy

>%%ectie &artici&ation enlihtened under"tandin control o% the aenda

#nclu"ie citien"hi&

Full inclu"ion

3+H (A4D 3+>4) DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> >;>2!>D R>7R>S>4!A!#@>S/ +o, can citien" &artici&ate e%%ectiely e%%ectiely ,hen the 4 become" too numerou" or ,idely di"&er"ed eora&hically eora&hically %or them to &artici&ate &artici&ate in coneniently coneniently in ma$in la," by a""emblin in one &lace/ Or' ho, can citien" control the aenda o% oernment deci"ion"/ Democracy meant to,n6hall meetin"' and re&re"entatie democracy ,a" a contradiction in terminoloy. +o,eer' the arrial o% the nation6"tate meant that the "mall "tate di"a&&eared' due to military "u&eriority o% the nation6"tate. Re&re"entation ,a" nece""airy. 3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> FR>>' FA#R A4D FR>PB>4! >;>2!#O4S/ #% euality in otin i" to be im&lemented' election" mu"t be %ree and %air' %ree o% re&ri"al and all ote" counted eual. #% citien" are to retain %inal control oer the aenda' you can*t elect "omeone %or a 6year term' thu" election" hae to be %reuent. Free and %air i" di"&uted' Fir"t67a"t6!he67o"t or 7ro&ortional Re&re"entation/ #n term" o% %reuency' anythin oer < year" i" too lon' ho,eer' annual ,ould be too "hort. Amon democracie"' the"e term" ary in lenth.

3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> FR>> >7R>SS#O4/ 7artici&ation i" not %ree i% one can*t ex&re"" them"ele" %reely' and they mu"t be able to hear ,hat other" hae to "ay. 2iic com&etence relie" on o&&ortunitie" to ex&re""' learn %rom other"' enae in debate"' read' hear' ue"tion ex&ert"' etc. 2itien" ,ould lo"e their in%luence to control the aenda i% they are not com&etent. 3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> R>PB#R> !+> A@A#;A#;#!H A#;A#;#!H OF A; A;!>R4A !>R4A!#@> !#@> A4D #4D>7>4D>4! SOBR2>S OF #4FORCA!#O4 +o, can citien" auire the $no,lede they need in order to under"tand the i""ue" i% the oernment control" all the im&ortant "ource" o% in%ormation (or any other "inle rou&)/ 2ontrollin the aenda ,ould be im&o""ible' i% they don*t $no, ,hat i" currently on there i% oernment doe"n*t tell them. 3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> #4D>7>4D>4! ASSO2#A!#O4S #% a lare lare re&ub re&ublic lic reui reuire" re" that that re&re re&re"en "entat tatie ie"" be electe elected' d' then then ho, ho, are electi election on"" to be conte"ted/ conte"ted/ An oraniation or &arty ie" a rou& an electoral adantae' they are ineitable. ineitable. !hey are al"o a "ource o% ciic education and enlihtenment. 3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> #42;BS#@> 2#!#G>4S+#7 "ee conclu"ion o% the la"t cha&ter Ju"t a" ,e need "trateie" %or brinin about a tran"ition to democracy in nondemocratic nondemocratic countrie" and %or con"olidatin democratic in"titution" in ne,ly democratied countrie"' "o in the older democratic countrie" ,e need to con"ider ,hether and ho, to moe beyond our exi"tin leel o% democracy.

2+A7!>R 9- @arietie" #. 'e(ocracy #.  'e(ocracy on 'ifferent 'ifferent ;caes  page &-&&1 &-&&1 B! 3ORDS DO CA!!>R authoritarian reime" o%ten claim that their" i" really a "&ecial ty&e o% democracy. ;enin claimed a &roletarian democracy i" a million time" more democratic than any boureoi" democracy. 3hy "hould ,e acce&t tho"e claim"/ 3e are entitled to Eude a country to be a democracy only i% it &o""e" &o""e""e "e"" all o% the the &olit &olitica icall in"ti in"titut tutio ion" n" that that are nece nece""a ""ary ry to democr democracy acy.. Doe" Doe" thi" thi" mean mean that that democr democrati aticc crite criteria ria can can be "ati"% "ati"%ie ied d only only by the %ull %ull "et o% &olit &olitic ical al in"ti in"titut tutio ion" n" o% &olya &olyarch rchal al democracy/ 4ot nece""airily6 !he in"titution" o% &olyarchal democracy are nece""airy %or democratiin the oernment o% the "tate in a lare6"cale "y"tem' "&eci%ically a country. ut they miht be unnece""airy or do,nriht un"uitable %or democracy in "maller unit". 6 !he in"itution" o% &olyarchal democracy ary a reat deal and in im&ortant ,ay" 6 ecau"e the in"titution" are nece""ary doe" not im&ly they are "u%%icient %or democracy. D>CO2RA2H- 5R>> @>RSBS COD>R4 #% the &olitical in"titution" reuired %or democracy mu"t include elected re&re"entatie"' doe" that mean the Athenian democracy ,a"n*t/ y "ayin that' you ,ould "ay the &lane by the 3riht6 brother" i"n*t a &lane becau"e it doe"n*t re"emble any modern aero&lane". Codern Codern democracy democracy ha" t,o thin" thin" the 5ree$" 5ree$" didn*t didn*t haehae- inclu"i inclu"ion' on' and the election election o%

re&re"entatie" ,ith the authority to enact la," (they*d leae it to %ate). !hey created a to,n6meetin democracy' but did not inent re&re"entatie democracy a" ,e under"tand it today. ASS>C;H D>CO2RA2H @>RSBS R>7R>S>4!A!#@> D>CO2RA2H Adocate" o% a""embly democracy ,ho $no, their hi"tory are a,are that a" a democratic deice' re&re"entation ha" a "hady &a"t. #t ,a" a deice u"ed by monarch" could lay their hand" on &reciou" reenue". #n oriin' re&re"entation ,a" not democratic. 2ritic" al"o "tate that in a "mall &olitical unit a""embly democracy allo," citien" o&&ortunitie" to enae in the &roce"" o% oernin them"ele"' ,hich re&re"entatie oernment in a lare unit can*t &roide. 5ien the"e adantae"' ,hy ,a" the older under"tandin o% democracy recon%iured in order to accommodate a &olitical in"titution that ,a" nondemocratic in it" oriin"/ R>7R>S>4!A!#O4 R>7R>S>4!A!#O4 A;R>ADH A;R>AD H >#S!>D +i"tory &roide" &art o% the an",er. Democratic re%ormer" "a, no need to di"card exi"tin re&re re&re"en "enta tati tiee "y"te "y"tem" m"'' they they "im&ly "im&ly belie beliee ed d broad broadeni enin n the elect electora orall ba"e ba"e could could %orm %orm a truly truly re&re"entatie re&re"entatie body that ,ould "ere democratic &ur&o"e". !he broadenin &roce"" eentually led to a re&re"entatie oernment ba"ed on an inclu"ie demo". 3hy didn*t they o&t %or a direct democracy/ ecau"e they concluded it ,a" too lare to democratie. O42> COR>- S#G> A4D D>CO2RA2H 7o&ulation6"ie 7o&ulation6"ie and eora&hical eora&hical "ie hae con"euence". con"euence". Re%ormer" don*t ,ant their countrie" to %all a&art into hundred" o% mini6"tate". ac$ in the day' they didn*t hae the mean" o% communication ,e no, hae ,here ,e can *meet* electronically. Athenian democracy had on it" heiht =. citien"' ,hich led &eo&le at the time to beliee that Athen" had a &oli" to bi %or a a""embly democracy to %unction. A""embly democracy ha" "ome "eere &roblem"6 o&&ortunitie" %or &artici&ation ra&idly dimini"he" ,ith the "ie o% the citien body. 6 altho althou uh h many many more more can can &arti &artici ci&at &atee by li"te li"tenin nin  to "&ea$ "&ea$er" er"'' the maximu maximum m number number o% &artici&ant" in a "inle meetin ,ho are li$ely to be able to ex&re"" them"ele" in "&eech i" ery "mall' &robably T1 6 !he"e %ully &artici&ant member" become' in e%%ect' re&re"entatie" o% the other"' exce&t in otin. 6 !hu"' een in a unit oerned by a""embly democracy' a $ind o% de %acto re&re"entatie "y"tem i" li$ely to exi"t. 6 Het nothin in"ure" that the %ully &artici&atin member" are re&re"entatie o% the re"t. 6 !o &roide a "ati"%actory "ati"%actory "y"tem %or "electin re&re"entatie"' re&re"entatie"' citien" may rea"onably rea"onably &re%er to elect their re&re"entatie" in %ree and %air election". !+> D>CO2RA!#2 ;#C#!S OF R>7R>S>4!A!#@> 5O@>R4C>4!. Re&re"entatie" can*t o%%er enouh time to li"ten to all citien" they re&re"ent. Small6"cale or ;are6"cale' each ha" their o,n clear adantae"' ho,eer they al"o hae inexorable limit" on ciic &artici&ation that a&&ly ,ith cruel indi%%erence to both. !e a of ti(e an" nu()ers9 t!e (ore citi*ens a "e(ocratic unit contains+ t!e ess t!at citi*ens can participate "irecty in govern(ent "ecisions an" t!e (ore t!at t!ey (ust "eegate aut!ority to ot!ers, A FB4DAC>4!A; D>CO2RA!#2 D#;>CCA #% our our oal oal i" to e"tabl e"tabli"h i"h a democr democrati aticc "y"te "y"tem m o% oer oernme nment nt that that &roi &roide de"" maximu maximum m o&&ortunitie" %or citien" to &artici&ate in &olitical deci"ion"' then the adantae clearly lie" ,ith a""embly democracy in a "mall6"cale "y"tem. ut i% our oal i" to &roide maximum "co&e to deal e%%ectiely e%%ectiely ,ith the &roblem" o% reate"t concern concern to citien"' the adantae ,ill o%ten lie ,ith a unit "o

lare a re&re"entatie "y"tem ,ill be necce"ary. SCA;; #S >AB!#FB;' SOC>!#C>S 7olitical "y"tem" don*t nece""airily realie their &o""ibilitie". !o,n meetin" are not &araon" o% &artici&atory &artici&atory democracy. democracy. 3hen citien" $no, the i""ue" on the aenda are triial' they o%ten choo"e to "tay at home. 2ontroer"ial i""ue" brin them out. !o,n meetin" are not dominated by educated and a%%luent &er"on"' rather "tron blie%" and a determination to hae a "ay are "ometime" mono&olied by a "inle "ocioeconomic rou&. B! #55>R #S >!!>R' SOC>!#C>S. !he achille"6heel o% a "mall "tate i" it" military ,ea$ne"". Athenian" couldn*t &re"ere their inde&endence. !he la"t city6"tate re&ublic (@enice) %ell to 4a&oleon ona&arte in 1?9? ,ithout much o% a "trule. #t ,ould ta$e a catacly"mic eent to eradicate the current nation6"tate" %or "mall6"cale democracie" to emere' but een then it only ta$e" the coo&eration o% a %e, to dominate the other"' there%ore recreatin lare6"cale "tate"' %or ,hich they ,ould hae to reinent re&re"entatie democracy. !+> DAR S#D>- AR5A#4#45 ACO45 >;#!>S !he dar$ "ide o% re&re"entatie oernment- citien" o%ten deleate enormou" di"cretionairy authority authority oer deci"io deci"ion" n" o% extraor extraordina dinary ry im&ortan im&ortance. ce. 4ot only to their their re&re"e re&re"entat ntatie" ie"'' but al"o admini admini"tr "trato ator"' r"' burea bureauc ucrat rat"' "' ciil ciil "eran "erant"' t"' Eude Eude"' "' etc. etc. Attac Attache hed d to the the in"ti in"titu tutio tion" n" aimed aimed at "trent "trentheni henin n democra democracy cy come" come" a certain certain nondemo nondemocrat cratic ic &roce""&roce""- barain barainin in amon amon &olitica &oliticall and bureaucratic elite". !he barainin ta$e" &lace ,ithin limit" "et throuh democratic in"titution" and &roce""e"' but the"e are o%ten broad' the &o&ular &artici&ation and control are not al,ay" a" "tron' and the elite" are ery di"crete' hidin their dealin" %rom the &ublic. 2A4 #4!>R4A!#O4A; OR5A4#GA!#O4S > D>CO2RA!#2/ 3on*t national oernment" "im&ly become more li$e local oernment" (much li$e Athen" under under Cace Cacedon don'' or @enice enice under under 4a&ol 4a&oleon eon)) that that are are "ubord "ubordina inate te to democ democrat ratic ic intern internati ation onal al oernment"/ !he challene i" not to halt internationaliation' but to democratie the orani"ation" it come" ,ith. !he >B i" a ood exam&le' %ormally it ha" all democratic in"titution" needed' but it "till ha" a iantic democratic de%icit. ;imit" %or barainin are "et by ,hat neotiator" can et other" to aree to and by con"ide con"iderin rin the li$ely li$ely con"eue con"euence nce"" %or national national and internat internationa ionall mar$et". mar$et". arai arainin nin'' hierarchy and mar$et" determine the outcome". 7olitical leader" ,ould hae to create &olitical in"titution" that ,ould &roide citien" ,ith o&&ortunitie" %or &olitical &artici&ation' in%luence and control rouhly euialent in e%%ectiene"" to tho"e already exi"tin in democratic countrie"' and citien" need to be a" muched concerned and in%ormed ,ith the i""ue" a" they are on national leel. +o, the re&re"entatie" o% a hy&othetical international citien body ,ould be di"tributed i" another &roblem. 4o "y"tem o% re&re"entation could ie eual ,eiht to the ote o% each citien and yet &reent "mall countrie" %rom bein "teadily outoted. #t "eem" unli$ely all crucial reuirement" %or the democratiation democratiation o% international orani"ation" orani"ation" ,ill ,ill be met. #nter #nternat natio ional nal deci"io deci"ion" n" ,ill be made made by the elite" elite" ia bar barain ainin in  – by no mean" mean" democratic. A ROBS! 7;BRA;#S!#2 SO2#>!H 3#!+#4 D>CO2RA!#2 2OB4!R#>S 4o matter ho, "mall a country i"' it need" a rich array o% inde&endent a""ociation" and orani"ation" – a &lurali"tic ciil "ociety. Democratic &rinci&le" "ue"t "ome ue"tion" ,e miht a"$

about the oernment o% any a""ociation6 #n arriin at deci"ion"' doe" the oernment o% the a""ociation in"ure eual con"ideration to the ood and intere"t o% eery &er"on bound by the"e deci"ion"/ 6 Are any o% the member" o% the a""ociation "o de%inetly better uali%ied than other" to oern that they "hould be entru"ted ,ith the %inal authority/ 6 #% the member" are &olitical eual"' "hould the oernment o% the a""ociation not meer democratic criteria/

2ha&ter 1- @arietie" ##. $onstitutions,  Page &&-&2 &&-&2 Do di%%erence" in con"titution" matter/ 4o' ye"' and maybe. Dahl ,ill %ocu" in thi" cha&ter on the con"titutional ex&erience o% older democracie" (ed"- i.e. mo"tly ,e"tern countrie"' exce&t 2o"ta Rica). @ariation ariation"" amon amon them are "u%%ici "u%%icient ent to &roide &roide an idea o% the rane rane o% &o""ibil &o""ibilitie itie". ". +o,eer +o,eer'' con"titutional arranement" o% ne, democracie" aren*t le"" im&ortant' they are crucial in the "ucce" o% democratiation. 2O4S!#!B!#O4A; 2O4S!#!B! #O4A; @AR#A!#O4S AR#A!#O4S Dahl di"tinu di"tinui"he i"he"" bet,een bet,een ritten ritten and and unritten. unritten. An un,ritten con"titution i" a re"ult o% a hihly unu"ual hi"torical circum"tance" in 5' 4e, Gealand and #"rael. 3ritten con"titution" hae become "tandard. A Bi of R>42> DO !+> D#FF>R>42>S CA>/ Do the"e di%%erence" really matter/ !o re"earch thi" you need to loo$ at %ormer democracie"' ,hich ,hich retur returne ned d to an autho authorit ritar arian ian "y"te "y"tem. m. #% there there are are hihly hihly un%a un%aora orable ble circum circum"ta "tance nce"" it i" im&robab im&robable le that democracy democracy could could be &re"er &re"ered' ed' ,hich ,hich no con"tit con"titutio ution n can "ae. "ae. +o,eer +o,eer'' i% the circum"tance" are neither %aourable or un%aourable' the de"in o% the con"tititution miht matter.

2ha&ter 11- @arietie" ###. Parties ###. Parties an" Eectora ;yste(s  page &3-&4& &3-&4& A &olitical land"ca&e i" mo"tly "ha&ed by it" electoral "y"tem and &olitical &artie"' and they exi"t in a ,ide ariety. >;>2!ORA; SHS!>CS 4o electoral "y"tem can "ati"%y all criteria' ,hich i" ,hy they di%%er "o much. !here are trade6 o%%". Prop o%%".  Proportiona ortiona CO2RA!#2 2O4S!#!B!#O4S !he ta"$ o% ,ritin a con"titution i" di%%icult and com&lex' ,hich reuire" a country*" be"t

talent"' yet reuire" the a""ent and con"ent o% the oerned. Dahl mention" %ie &o""ible combination" o% electoral "y"tem" and chie% executie". !e continenta European option9 paria(entary govern(ent it! P< eections, !e Britis! ?est(inster@ option9 paria(entary govern(ent it! :PP eections, !e #; option9 presi"entia govern(ent it! :PP eections, !e >atin A(erican option9 Presi"entia govern(ent it! P< eections !e (i/e" option9 option9 ot!er ot!er co()inat co()ination ions, s, France ha" both an elected &re"ident' and a &rime mini"ter de&endent on the &arliament' elected by a modi%ied F7!7 ,ith a "econd round in ,hich any candidate ,ith more than 1. OF !+> !+ > A;!>R4A!#@>S A;!>R4A!#@>S th durin the    century' the main alternatie" lo"t out in com&etition ,ith democracy. !hey (monarchy (monarchy'' o&en o&en oliarc oliarchy hy'' heredita hereditary ry ari"tocr ari"tocracy acy)) %atally %atally decline declined d in leitim leitimacy acy and ideolo ideoloical ical "trenth. !houh re&laced by nondemocratic alternatie" (%a"ci"m' nai"m) they %louri"hed brie%ly due to their their de%ea de%eatt in 33. 33. Cilita Cilitary ry dicta dictator tor"hi "hi&"' &"' mainl mainly y in latin latin Americ America' a' %ell %ell due to econo economi mic' c' di&lomatic and military (Arentina) %ailure". !he main democratic antaoni"t antaoni"t (BSSR) colla&"ed colla&"ed due to internal decay and external &re""ure". A %inal ictory %or democracy ha" not been achieed' nor ,a" it clo"e' "ee 2hina. Ciddle ea"tern countrie" are "till not democratic a" ,ell a" "ome countrie" ,ho reerted bac$ to nondemocratic reime" a" condition" ,ere not %aourable. !he"e condition" ,ere>""ential condition" %or democracy 1. $ontro of (iitary an" poice )y eecte" officias, 2, 'e(ocratic )eiefs an" poitica cuture,  3, o strong strong foreign foreign contro contro !ostie !ostie to "e(ocracy "e(ocracy Faourable condition" %or democracy4, A (o"ern (aret econo(y an" society 5, ea su)cutura purais( FOR>#54 #4!>R@>4!#O4 democratic democratic in"titution" are le"" li$ely to deelo& in a country "ubEect to interention by another country ho"tile to democratic oernment in that country. For in"tance' Soiet interention &reented 2echo"loa$ia' 7oland and +unary to ain democracy de"&ite %aourable condition". 7re6exi"tin' datin datin  %ar bac$ be%ore be%ore 33. !he BS' BS' a" ,ell' ,ell' ha" ha" a hi"to hi"tory ry o% inter interen enin in in ;atin ;atin America America'' oerthro,in democratically elected oernment" to &rotect their economic intere"t" in the reion' %or in"tance in 5uatamala in 19uro&e. 2O4!RO; O@>R C#;#!ARH A4D 7O;#2> Bnle"" Bnle"" the military and &olice &olice %orce" are under under the %ull control control o% democrat democratica ically lly elected elected o%%icia o%%icial"' l"' democrat democratic ic &olitica &oliticall in"titut in"titution" ion" are unli$ely unli$ely to deelo& deelo& or endure. endure. !he mo"t danero danerou" u" internal threat to democracy come" %rom leader" ,ho hae acce"" to the mean" o% &hy"ical coercionmilitary and &olice. Cilitary and &olice leader" mu"t de%er &o,er to democratic o%%icial". #n central and ;atin America' America' o% the ? oernment"' :rd ained &o,er by mean" other than %ree and %air election"' mo"t o%ten by a military cou&. #n contra"t' 2o"ta Rica ha" been a beacon o% democracy "ince 19CO2RA2H +AS S7R>AD !+ROB5+OB! !+> 3OR;D !he th century turned out to be the *2entury o% Democratic !rium&h*. !hat trium&h "hould be ie,ed ,ith caution. #n many countrie" the ba"ic &olitical in"titution" are ,ea$ or de%ectie. #t i" rea"onable to ,onder ,hether democratic "ucce""e" ,ill be "u"tained in the t,enty6%ir"t century. !he an",er de&end on ho, ,ell democratic countrie" meet their challene". One o% the"e ari"e" directly %rom the contradictory con"euence" o% mar$et6ca&itali"m' 3e*ll "ee ,hy in the next t,o cha&ter".

2ha&ter 1:- 3hy Car$et62a&itali"m %aour" Democracy  page &66-&72 &66-&72 Democrac Democracy y and mar$et6c mar$et6ca&i a&itali tali"m "m hae a loehat loehate6re e6relati lation"h on"hi&. i&. Dahl ,ill "tate "tate < conclu"i conclu"ion"' on"' o% ,hich  ,ill be o%%ered in thi" cha&ter. 1. Poyar 1. Poyarc!a c!a "e(ocracy "e(ocracy !as en"ure" en"ure" ony in countries countries it! a pre-"o(inant pre-"o(inantyy (aret-capitaist  (aret-capitaist  econo(y an" it !as never en"ure" in a country it! a pre"o(inanty non(aret econo(y, !hi" al"o a&&lie" &retty ,ell to &o&ular oernment" oernment" deelo&ed in the city6"tate" city6"tate" o% 5reece' Rome and medieal #taly and the eolin re&re"entatie in"titution" o% northern >uro&e. #t ha" never endured never endured in nonmar$et economie"... but ,hy/ . !is strict strict reati reation on e/ists e/ists )ecause )ecause certain )asic )asic featur features es of (aret-c (aret-capi apitai tais( s( (ae it  favora)e for "e(ocratic institutions, $onversey+ so(e )asic features of a pre"o(inanty non(aret  econo(y econo(y (ae it !ar(fu !ar(fu to "e(ocrat "e(ocratic ic prospe prospects, cts, ;on run mar$et6ca&itali"m ha" ty&ically led to economic ro,th' and economic ro,th i" %aourable %aourable to democracy by cuttin &oerty and im&roin liin "tandard" it hel&" to reduce "ocial and &olitical con%lict". #% con%lict" do ari"e' they can be "oled ,ith the re"ult" o% ro,th (i.e. money) to ma$e a mutually "ati"%actory "ettlement. Car$et6ca&itali"m i" al"o %aourable due to it" "ocial and &olitical con"euence". #t create" a lare middle6cla"" ,ho "ee$ %or education' rule o% la,' &artici&ation' etc. A nonmar$et economy can exi"t in a "im&le economy' ,ith %e, re"ource" or deci"ion". ut in order to aoid chao" in more com&lex "ocietie"' a "ub"titute %or the coordination and control &roided by it" mar$et" are nece""ary. !he only %ea"ible one i" the oernment. !o allocate al "carce re"ource"' oernment need" a detailed central &lan and thu" o%%icial" ma$in it' carryin it out' and en%orcin it. !hi" i" ulnerable to corru&tion' and no "tate ha" &roen to be u& to the ta"$. 2entral &lannin con"ede" all monetairy re"our re"ource ce"" to the oer oernme nment nt'' init initin in them them to con"ol con"olida idate te their their &o,er &o,er ,ith ,ith that that money money'' thu" thu" de"tabiliin democracy. SOC> PBA;#F#2A!#O4S >conomic ro,th i" ho,eer not uniue to democratic countrie"' ho,eer' there "eem" to be corre correla latio tion n bet,e bet,een en the t,o. t,o. 2entra 2entrall &lan &lannin nin  ha" ha" only only been been e%%ic e%%icie ientl ntly y mana manaed ed a" ,artim ,artimee oernment"' li$e 5 and BS in 33# and ##' in ,hich ca"e" the allocation o% re"ource" had a clear

oal and ,ere ,idely "u&&orted by it" citien".

2ha&ter 1- 3hy Car$et62a&itali"m +arm" Democracy  page &73-&7 &73-&7  3, 'e(ocracy an" (aret-capitais( (aret-capitais( are oce" in a persistant persistant confict in !ic! eac! (o"ifies an" i(its t!e ot!er, Car$et6ca&itali"m Car$et6ca&itali"m in ritain by 18 had not only ,on in economic theory' theory' but al"o in &olitic"' la,"' idea"' &hilo"o&hy and ideoloy. +o,eer' ,here &eo&le hae a oice' a com&lete ictory cannot endure. #t brouht ain" %or "ome' but harm to other". Due to the extention o% "u%%rae' "u%%rae' by 188? eery male could ote (in 5). 7eo&le ,ho ot harmed by mar$et6ca&itali"m "ouht &rotection %rom &olitical leader"' leader"' and o&&onent" o&&onent" o% lai""e6%aire lai""e6%aire re, by %ocu""in on the &liht o% the ,or$in cla""e". Car$et6ca&itali"m ,ithout oernment reulation ,a" im&o""ible in a democratic country %or t,o rea"on". Fir"t' Fir"t' the ba"ic ba"ic in"titut in"titution" ion" o% mar$et6c mar$et6ca&it a&itali" ali"m m them"el them"ele" e" reuire reuire exten"i exten"iee oernm oernment ent interention and reulation. 2om&etitie mar$et"' o,ner"hi& o% economic entitite"' en%orcin contract"' &reentin mono&olie"' etc.' de&end on la,"' &olicie"' order" and other oernment action. Second' ,ithout oernment interention and reulation a mar$et economy ineitably in%lict" harm on "ome &er"on" and they ,ill demand oernment interention. >conomic actor" ie little meanin to *the reater ood*' rather inorin it %or "el% ain. +o,eer' i% "ome et harmed' other" "ee ain" to their bene%it". +o, are ,e to Eude ,hat i" de"irable/ !he"e are not Eu"t economic ue"tion"' but al"o moral and &olitical. 2itien" "earchin %or an",e an",er" r" ,ill ,ill ineit ineitabl ably y ra raita itate te to,ar to,ard" d" the ea"ie ea"ie"t "t acce"" acce""ib ible le candi candidat datee %or inter interen enin in'' the the oernment o% "tate. !he outcome o% thi" interention de&end" on the relatie &olitical "trenth o% the antaoni"t" (ed"- cor&oration"). . Because Because (aret-c (aret-capit apitai ais( s( inevita inevita)y )y create createss inequai inequaitie ties+ s+ it i(its i(its t!e "e(ocrat "e(ocratic ic potenti potentia a of   poyarc!a  poyarc!a "e(ocracy )y generating generating inequaities in t!e "istri)ution of poitica resource resources, s, ecau"e o% the"e ineualitie" in re"ource"' "ome citien" ain "ini%icantly more in%luence than other" oer the oernment*" &olicie"' deci"ion" and action". A" a re"ult' citien" are not eual' "eriou"ly iolatin moral %oundation o% democracy.