Dacca Muslin

Dacca muslin historian William Digby (Prosperous British India) estimated that the population of Dhaka dropped from 200,000 to 79,000 between 1787 and 1817; the export of Dacca muslin to England amounted to 8,000,000 rupees in 1787; in 1817, nil. The fine textile industry, the livelihoods of thousands, and the self-sufficient village economy, were systematically destroyed.Muslin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Woman's muslin dress, Europe, c. 1855. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.2007.211.755. Muslin (/ˈmʌslɨn/ or /ˈmjuˈslɨn/) is a loosely-woven cotton fabric which originated in then India (and now Bangladesh), which was introduced to Europe from the Middle East in the 17th century. It became very popular at the end of the 18th century in France. Muslin is most typically an unbleached or white cloth, produced from carded cotton yarn. It is often used to make sewing patterns, such as for clothing, curtains, or upholstery. Because air moves easily through muslin, muslin clothing is suitable for hot, dry climates. Contents [hide] 1 Etymology and history 2 Uses 2.1 Dress-making and sewing 2.2 Culinary 2.3 Theater and photography 2.4 Medicine 3 References [edit]Etymology and history

Muslin clothes were traded by ancient Greeks from the Indian port town Machilipatnam, which was called Maisolos or Masalia in ancient times. Some believe that the name muslin originated from the name Maisolos.[1] Marco Polo, the famous traveller, visited the Kakatiya kingdom in which Machilipatnam was located and praised the muslins available there.[2] In 1298, Marco Polo described the cloth in his book The Travels. He said that it was made in Mosul, Iraq.[3] Although this view has the fabric named after the city where Europeans first encountered it (Mosul), the fabric is believed to have

originated in Dhaka, which is now the capital of Bangladesh.[4][5] In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic).[5] The word muslin is also used colloquially. In the United Kingdom, many sheer cotton fabrics are called muslin, while in the United States, muslin sometimes refers to a firm cloth for everyday use, which in the UK and Australia is known as calico. In British slang, muslin used to refer to women or femininity, while in nautical slang, muslin can refer to a vessel's sails. [edit]Uses

[edit]Dress-making and sewing

In Advantages of wearing Muslin Dresses! (1802), James Gillray caricatured a hazard of untreated muslin: its flammability.

Marie Antoinette, in 1783, in her famous "muslin" portrait When sewing clothing, a dressmaker may test the fit of a garment, using an inexpensive muslin fabric before cutting the intended expensive fabric, thereby avoiding potential costly mistakes. The muslin garment is often called a "muslin", and the process is called "making a muslin". With the availability of inexpensive synthetic fabrics, which closely resemble the hand (drape and feel) of expensive natural fabrics, a test or fitting garment made of synthetics may still be referred to as a muslin, because the word has become the generic term for a test or fitting garment. Muslin is also often used as a backing or lining for quilts, and thus can often be found in wide widths in the quilting sections of fabric stores. [edit]Culinary Main article: Cheesecloth Muslin can be used as a filter: in a funnel when decanting fine wine or port to prevent sediment from entering the decanter

to separate liquid from mush (for example, to make apple juice: wash, chop, boil, mash, then filter by pouring the mush into a muslin bag suspended over a jug) to retain a liquidy solid (for example, in home cheese-making, when the milk has curdled to a gel, pour into a muslin bag and squash between two saucers (upside down under a brick) to squeeze out the liquid whey from the cheese curd) Muslin is the material for the traditional cloth used to wrap a Christmas pudding. Muslin is used by beekeepers to filter melted beeswax, making it clean and particle-free for sale. [edit]Theater and photography Muslin is often the cloth of choice for theater sets. It is used to mask the background of sets and to establish the mood or feel of different scenes. It receives paint well and, if treated properly, can be made translucent. It also holds dyes very well. It is often used to create night time scenes because when it is dyed, it often gets a wavy look with the color varying slightly, such that it resembles a night sky. Muslin shrinks after it is painted, but it is widely used because it makes an excellent painting surface. In video production as well, muslin can be used as a cheap greenscreen or bluescreen, either precolored or painted with latex paint (diluted with water). It is commonly used as a background for the chroma key technique. Muslin is the most common backdrop material used by photographers for formal portrait backgrounds. These backdrops are usually painted, most often with an abstract mottled pattern. In the early days of silent film-making and up until the late 1910s, movie studios did not have the elaborate lights needed to illuminate indoor sets, so most interior scenes were sets built outdoors with large pieces of muslin hanging overhead to diffuse the lighting. [edit]Medicine

Muslin gauze has also found a use in cerebrovascular neurosurgery. It is wrapped circumferentially around aneurysms or intracranial vessels at risk for bleeding.[6] The thought is that the gauze reinforces the artery and helps prevent rupture. It is often used for aneurysms that, due to their size or shape, cannot be microsurgically clipped or coiled.[7] Muslin a brand

name of pre-colonial Bengal textile, especially of Dhaka origins. Muslin was manufactured in the city of Dhaka and in some surrounding stations, by local skill with locally produced cotton and attained world-wide fame as the Dhaka Muslin. The origin of the word Muslin is obscure; some say that the word was derived from Mosul, an old trade centre in Iraq, while others think that Muslin was connected with Musulipattam, sometime headquarters of European trading companies in southern India. Muslin is not a Persian word, nor Sanskrit, nor Bengali, so it is very likely that

the name Muslin was given by the Europeans to cotton cloth imported by them from Mosul, and through Mosul from other eastern countries, and when they saw the fine cotton goods of Dhaka, they gave the same name to Dhaka fabrics. That the name Muslin was given by the Europeans admits of little doubt, because not only Dhaka cotton textiles, but cotton goods imported by the Europeans from other parts of India like Gujrat, Golconda, etc were also called Muslin.

Fine white muslin (19th century)

Contemporary embroidered muslin

The textile industry of Bengal is very old. Bengal cotton fabrics were exported to the Roman and the Chinese empires and they are mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and by the ancient Chinese travellers. But Dhaka Muslin became famous and attracted foreign and transmarine buyers after the establishment of the Mughal capital at Dhaka. The Muslin industry of Dhaka received patronage from the Mughal emperors and the Mughal nobility. A huge quantity of the finest sort of Muslin was procured for the use of the Mughal emperors, provincial governors and high officers and nobles. In the great 1851 Exhibition of London, Dhaka Muslin occupied a prominent place, attracted a large number of visitors and the British Press spoke very highly of the marvelous Muslin fabrics of Dhaka. The finest sort of Muslin was made of phuti cotton, which was grown in certain localities on the banks of the Brahmaputra and her branches. The other kinds of cotton called bairait and desee were inferior and were produced in different parts of Dhaka and neighbouring areas; they were used for manufacturing slightly inferior and course clothes. The persons connected with the manufacture of cloth, from the cleaner to the maker of thread and the person who did the actual weaving, belonged to a family of weavers, or if the family was small two to three families joined together to manufacture the cloth. The productions of Dhaka weavers consisted of fabrics of varying quality, ranging from the finest texture used by the highly aristocratic people, the emperor, viziers, nawabs and so on, down to the coarse thick wrapper used by the poor people. Muslins

were designated by names denoting either fineness or transparency of texture, or the place of manufacture or the uses to which they were applied as articles of dress. Names thus derived were Malmal (the finest sort), Jhuna (used by native dancers), Rang (of transparent and net-like texture), Abirawan (fancifully compared with running water),Khassa (special quality, fine or elegant), Shabnam (morning dew) Alaballee (very fine), Tanzib (adorning the body), Nayansukh (pleasing to the eye), Buddankhas (a special sort of cloth), Seerbund (used for turbans), Kumees (used for making shirts),Doorea (striped), Charkona (chequered cloth), Jamdanee (figured cloth). The finest sort of Muslin was called Malmal, sometimes mentioned as Malmal Shahi orMalmal Khas by foreign travellers. It was costly, and the weavers spent a long time, sometimes six months, to make a piece of this sort. It was used by emperors, nawabs etc. Muslins procured for emperors were called Malbus Khas and those procured for nawabs were called Sarkar-i-Ala. The Mughal government appointed an officer,Darogah or Darogah-i-Malbus Khas to supervise the manufacture of Muslins meant for the emperor or a nawab. The Malmal was also procured for the diwan and other high officers and for JAGAT SHETH, the great banker. Muslins other than Malmal (or Malbus Khas and Sarkar-i-Ali) were exported by the traders, or some portion was used locally. Weaving was prevalent in the Dhaka district in almost every village, but some places became famous for manufacturing superior quality of Muslins. These places were Dhaka, SONARGAON, Dhamrai, Teetbady, Junglebary and Bajitpur. Dhaka does not need introduction, it is the same place where the capital stands now; Sonargaon is now in Narayanganj district, it was once the capital of Sultan FAKHRUDDIN MUBARAK SHAHand his son (1338-1353), and again capital of ISA KHAN in the Mughal period; Dhamrai is still an important place on the Bangshi river, about 20 miles west of Dhaka; Teetbady is a village in the Kapasia thana of Gazipur district; Junglebary is now in the district of Mymensingh on the eastern bank of the river Brahmaputra; Bajitpur, 15/20 miles away from Junglebary is also in Mymensingh district; Junglebary was for long a residence of the family of Isa Khan. These places manufactured fine quality cloth, because they were situated near the places where cotton suitable for manufacturing Muslins was produced. These were also the places where the headquarters of ruling dynasties, Muslim or Hindu, were established. So the weavers of these places got support and encouragement from the aristocratic class. Dhaka Muslin was in great demand in the national and international markets. The traders were active at Dhaka. Local businessmen procured the cotton goods from theADANGs or manufacturing stations and sent them to Dhaka, where foreign buyers were ready with cash in hand. The foreign traders came from far-off countries like Arabia, Iran, Armenia, in the west, and China, Malaya, Java in the east. Some traders

were busy in inter-provincial trade, while others sent the Muslin to countries outside India. The government officials procured various types of Muslin, which they sent to Delhi for the use of emperors and ministers. When the capital was transferred to Murshidabad, the Muslins meant for the subahdar, diwan and other aristocratic people (like the banker Jagat Sheth) were sent there. In the 17th century, the European companies came and established their settlements in Bengal. Their principal settlements were located near HUGHLI, on the bank of the river Bhagirath; the DUTCH settled at Chinsura, the PORTUGUESE at Hughli, the ENGLISH settled first at Hughli but later shifted to Calcutta and the FRENCH settled at Chandernagore. The Ostend Company also came towards the beginning of the 18th century. They procured Dhaka Muslin, through dalals, paikars and also through their own officials. When they found their export of Muslin extremely profitable, they also established settlements at Dhaka. By the beginning of the 17th and certainly by the middle of that century, the Portuguese trade declined. The Dutch set up their factory at Dhaka in 1663, the English in 1669 and the French in 1682. Formerly Europe used to get the Muslin through Iranian and Armenian merchants, but with the coming of the European companies and the establishment of their settlements in Bengal the export of Dhaka Muslin increased enormously. The volume of the export trade of the European companies increased year to year, so much so that they had to establish settlements and factories at Dhaka proper to feed the increased volume of trade. The imports of European companies had no local markets, so the companies imported hard cash, bullion, to meet the growing demand of Bengal, and particularly of Dhaka. Available estimates show that in 1747 the export of Dhaka cotton goods (chiefly of the fine variety of Muslin), including those procured for the emperor, nawab etc was valued at rupees twenty-eight lakh and a half. The Muslin industry of Dhaka declined after the BATTLE OF PALASHI, 1757; by the end of the 18th century, the export of Dhaka Muslin came down to almost half of that of 1747, and by the middle of the 19th century was valued at less than ten lakh Rupees. The decline of Dhaka Muslin was due to loss of patronage from the Mughal emperors, nawabs and other high officials. The Mughals not only lost their power and prestige but also their buying and spending capacity. With the establishment of the EAST INDIA COMPANY's monopoly over the trade of Bengal after the battle of Palashi, the trade of other European companies and traders belonging to other nationals practically came to a stop. But the most important cause of decline and the ultimate extinction of the Muslin industry was the industrial revolution in England, which introduced modern inventions in manufacture. The costly Dhaka cotton goods, particularly the Muslin, lost in competition with the cheap industrial products of England. [Abdul Karim]

Bibliography James Taylor, A Sketch of the Topography and Statistics of Dacca, London 1840; Dhaka Commissioner's letter dated 2 may, 1844, Board's collection no. 100122, India office Records, London; A Descriptive and Historical Account of Cotton Manufacture of Dacca, by former Resident of Dacca, London 1851; JC Sinha, "The Muslin Industry of Dacca" in the Modern Review, April, 1925; A Karim, "An Account of Dacca, dated 1800" in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Pakistan, Dhaka, vol. VII. No.2, Background Textiles are believed to date from pre-historic times evidence of weaving being traced to a period before 3000 B.C. The word textile refers to a filament or yarn that can be made into fabric or cloth, resulting in the material or textile. The word derives from the Latin 'textiles' originally meant only for woven fabrics, but in later times came to include knitted, bonded, felted and tufted fabrics as well. Traditional handloom textiles began their long journey in the earliest civilizations of India, China and Mesopotamia. Cotton, silk, wool and flex fibre were produced in many regions of the world and the skill and artistry of weaving occupied the imagination and dexterity of those ancient peoples. Fine weaving probably passed from India to Assyria, Egypt and Mesopotamia and later to South Europe. In the subcontinent textiles are hallowed by ritual and spiritual connotation. In ancient philosophies the universe is envisioned as a fabric woven by the gods. A whole range of mystic thought expressed in folklore and folk verse compares the act of weaving, the laying of loom threads as warp and weft, as creation. God is the weaver the fabric is man. The early Indus Valley civilization, which is dated from the Harappa and Mohenjodaro settlements of 2600 B.C. do not provide visible evidence of the making of textiles, but the find of a small shred of cotton cloth stuck to a pottery shard indicates that weaving was part of craft production. Clay and metal seals from the Indus Valley sites depict human figures clothed in shawl like draped garments and loincloths held in position by woven belts and sashes. Historic events of the period from 3000 B.C. to 1800 B.C. analyzed by scholars and anthropologists reflect the trade and cultural exchanges between the inhabitants of the Harrapan and Mohenjodaro region and Babylonia (Mesopotamia). Gold and copper, lead, lapis lazuli stone, turquoises, pearls, shell and bone, fuchsite inlay and jade were probably traded for the products of the Indus Valley settlers, such as cotton textiles, beads, copper tools, timber and precious woods. The Indus (Harrapan) seals seen at Ur and other Mesopotamian cities convincingly corroborate that sea trade between these two regions had commenced as early as 2600 B.C. and continued up to 1800 B.C. Harrapan seals used to seal bundles as merchandise, display cord or sacking (hessein) impressions on the clay seals testify to different weaving techniques. Mesopotamia trade documents, lists of goods and official inscriptions, mentioned Meluhha, the ancient name for the Indus region, thus supporting the archaeological finds of Harrapa and Mohenjodaro. Spindles and spinning whorls have been excavated from the sites of the Indus Valley while the cultivation of cotton and use of sheep's wool has been evidenced from the implements found for processing these fibres. One can deduce that clothes of simplified forms were in use, as seen in the terracotta and stone statuary of figurines such as the Mother Goddess, dancing female and male figures of priests and deities. The number of needles found at the Indus Valley sites evidences that the technique of sewing was practised. The Rig-Veda (1500 B.C.) contains literary references to dress, describing two parts of the worn garment: the vasu (lower garment) and the adhivasa or upper garments. Descriptions of different types of dress for various strata in society are mentioned in the Rig-Veda, leading us to believe that clothes were in use. A garment called atkal described as woven and well fitted is mentioned, while a mantle or cloak called drapi is recorded. Female dancers used the embroidered garment or pesas, and a bride wore the vadhuya at her marriage. The taste for dressing was epitomized in the words suvasas and suvasana meaning well clad. At the excavation sites of the Indus Valley dyeing vats show that the art of fabric dyeing was known and widely used. Certainly from the time of the Rig-Veda weaving and a variety of terms describing different materials are used, such as vasas, vasana and vastra ; words for woof and web 'otu', 'tantu' for yarns or threads and 'tantra' the warp are found in Vedic texts.

It is at this point in history that cotton wool and cotton fibres from Vanga or East Bengal are recorded as important trade items and revenue earners. Marco Polo who traveled through many parts of Asia in 1290 A.D. gave accounts of the fine cotton cultivation and its products. In India the manufacture of textile, especially cotton had become a large industry, where enough was produced for export. Indian cotton textiles continued to be the cynosure among royalty all over Europe, the Middle East and India. Muslin

and

Jamdani

The Indo-Gangetic civilization which grew and developed along the banks of the mighty Ganga-JamunaBrahmaputra, fused into the indigenous culture of the Bengal delta, to provide in an almost unbroken line the heritage we own today. The renowned muslins of ancient Bengal, and the specialty of Dhaka muslin is undoubtedly linked to the genre of the Dhaka weaver's skill and talent, or else how could a loom craft come down over a period of two thousand years? The delicate weaves of the diaphanous material and later the figured muslins or jamdanis can only be explained by the unique inner quality of the Dhaka weavers and their descendants. Even today in the villages of Naopara, Demra and Narayanganj, reside the offspring of these blessed and gifted weavers, living along the same riverbanks and using the same type of bamboo looms to weave their magic. Nowhere else in the subcontinent, or elsewhere in the world, it is believed, has such fabric been woven by the hand of man. The weaving techniques of ancient Bengal, which had been developed into a fine art, have come down to present times in a more or less continuous form. The Greek Chronicler Mesgasthenes visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrocottus) in 325 B.C. and described the garb of the Indians in the court as 'flowered robes of fine muslin'. It can be said that the zenith of muslin production was achieved with the patronage of the great Moghuls. Italian traveller Manrique, in his writings of 1628, describes the patronage of the court of Emperor Shahjahan, and later Emperor Aurangzeb, who received annual tributes of these fine cloths from their Governors in Bengal and which were so special that it cost ten times the price of any other clothes made for Europeans or others in the Empire. We are informed further that muslin merchants in 1887 protested the monopoly of the East India Company's hold on weavers throughout East Bengal (48,000 persons) which was done by issuing permits that prevented the weavers from taking on work for private traders. It is the unique quality of the air at the particular point of conjunction, where the river Sitalakhya branches off from the mighty Meghna. It is said that the grey waters of the Meghna turn to a light yellow colour in the tributary causing the air above it to hold a different dampness. The breezes that waft from the river over the village on its banks (especially the morning air before the sun rises high) give the weaver his `gift of the loom'. The weaver himself is a unique being too. He kept his elementary links with nature. He held on ritualistically to the rising at dawn to start weaving, the fixing of taana and baana (arranging yarns in order) when breezes are light at different hours of the day, the mode of weaving during the monsoon rains, the applying of starch in the dry afternoon air and maintained seasonal time, the season to stop weaving, fold up the looms and attend the village `melas' (trade fair). Even to this day the weavers preserve habits and activities that conform to the rainy season, stormy weather, and the dry winters, keeping their looms in tune with the earth on which it stands. In fact, it is amazing that the shape and design of the bamboo loom placed over a clay floor pit is unchanged over the past centuries. The other factor of vital importance to the uniqueness of Dhaka muslin is the existence of the cotton fibre itself. In the India Office Library in London is a manuscript entitled Textile Fabrics by H.H. Cole, 1877, a catalogue made out in preparation for the Great Exhibition in London at that time. Under paragraph No. 335 it says, `The cotton of which fine Dacca muslin are made is grown in the district and differs from the common cotton plant of Bengal in some particulars, the most important being that the staple of the cotton is

longer, finer and softer. The finest qualities called the photi, which have been cultivated from time immemorial in the districts, are grown in certain localities along the banks of the Brahmaputra and the Meghna. Its superiority has been attributed to the action of the sea, the water of which, mixing with the rivers, which overflow their banks during three months of the year, causes a deposit of silt and sand and this improves and fertilizes the soil. The cotton in the state of kapas, that is, with the seeds and wool unseparated, is cleansed and prepared by the women who spin the yarn. The wool adhering to those seeds is carded with the jaw of the boali fish, the teeth of which being small, curved and closely set, act as a fine comb in removing the loose and coarse fibres of the cotton and all extraneous earth or vegetable matter' The combination of a special raw material in the cotton (kapas) produced in the Dhaka region, the unique atmospheric temperature on the banks of the Meghna, the innate skill of the Dhaka weaver, along with the aesthetic senses of the Muslim patrons at Bengal's capital and the Delhi court, firmly established the name and value of Dhaka muslins by the 16th century. The Dhaka muslins (as a genre of woven loom cloth) were highly prized by this time and it is recorded by Tavernier, historian-traveller from Italy, that the Iranian king Shah Safy (1628-1641) was presented by his ambassador to India a muslin turban 30 yards long, so fine that it could scarcely be felt when held in the hands. By the 1800's English officials of the East India Company had made detailed records of the loom manufacturing industry, acknowledging the masterpieces of muslin production. James Taylor noted in his book that `A skein which a native weaver measured in my presence in 1846 and which afterwards carefully weighed proved to be in the proportion of upwards of 250 miles to the pound'. This signifies the exquisiteness of the cotton yarn used to weave muslin. D.B. Mitra also notes, `Many Europeans have noted the slender and somewhat delicate physical frame of the natives of Dacca, the remarkably fine sense of touch and the nice perception of weight which characterizes their fingers'. Regarding the climate Mitra quotes that `The climate of Dacca was well suited to the manufacture of fine muslins, while that of Birbhum to the manufacture of coarse calico. The heat and climate of Dacca is lower by some degrees than that of the western district of the province'. He also adds that `the reason why the best weavers had settled in Dacca was that the finest kind of cotton was cultivated in the neighborhood of Dacca', and later `the soil of Sonargaon, Kapasia, and Junglebarry possessed all the components necessary for the best cotton ground'. It must be understood that mulmul, the plain white, striped and checked muslins were produced since long on the Dhaka looms in different qualities for the local populace and figured muslins or Jamdani were woven under order for the richer classes. Hence the word 'Mulmul Khas' (special mulmul) and 'SarcareAle' (the great ruler) were coined when mulmul was woven on order for royalty, but mulmul was always a popular material for wearing comfort and beauty. Although fine cottons were also produced at Mosalipotam in South India at this point in time, Dhaka muslins exceeded in delicacy and were far superior in texture, so as to become legendary. For an accurate description of Jamdanis as observed by the British officials, I quote from, 'Hand Woven Textiles of India. "The famous malmal khas or 'King's muslin' could be made in lengths of 10 yards and one yard in width, containing from 1000 to 1800 threads in the warp." These could only be made during the rainy season, the moisture in the air allowing the very fine thread to be woven, and would take a weaver almost five months to complete. How rightly has Dr. Watson said, "With all our machinery and wondrous appliances we have hitherto been unable to produce a fabric which for fineness and utility can equal the woven air of Dacca. More beautiful still are the figured muslinsthe jamdanis, from their complicated designs they have always constituted the most expensive productions of the Dacca looms". The jamdani may be called a product of the shuttle in which the designs are inserted by hand during the process of weaving, and produce the effect of embroidery. As in tapestry weaving, small bobbins or shuttles filled with coloured, gold or silver threads, are passed through the warp, the weaver producing the exquisite designs by the skilful use of the bobbins in the course of the intricate weaving. No wonder the best jamdanis of old are today the prized heirlooms of many a Bengali family. The perfection of embellished muslins called jamdani took place through that extraordinary coming together of three vital forces: material, talent and patronage. The Muslim ruling classes with their Turko-Persian Central Asian combine of sense and style placed a new demand on the weavers. The weavers responded with imagination and dexterity, fulfilling the requirements of their patrons. Persian influence takes dominance over design at this point in history and the Islamic civilization's unique grasp of geometric and abstract motif carries the craft of weaving to new heights. Without doubt it became clear that the ethos, which springs from religious inspiration, led to an outburst of art expression. The unique art of jamdani motif

was thus born and gives proof to the phrase 'divinely inspired expression' as creative weavers used their tools to express their thoughts. At this time also there is a noteworthy breakthrough in innovative design. A distinct moving away from typical Hindu and indigenous motifs took place; the lotus is evidently absent, while the rose, lily, star, sprig and arabesque foliage take over. We also see the angular and geometric outlines taken from glazed tiles, woolen carpet patterns and the enlarged blown-up paisley (kalka) lifted from Kashmir shawls and Persian woven brocades. Designs from Turkish leather saddles, tents (shamiana and kanats) and Muslim architectural lines, bring vitality to the jamdani woven textile design. As we seek to find the cause of the decline of muslin in the 18th century and disappearance by the 19th century we find ample indicators pointing to the loss of this rich cultural heritage. The debilitating actions by the colonizing power had commenced a long while ago as learnt from G.C.M. Birdwood's record: "In 1641 Manchester cottons were still made of wool. But in vain did Manchester attempt to compete on fair free trade principles with the printed calicoes of India, and gradually India chintzes, were so generally worn in England, to the detriment of the woolen and flaxen manufactures of the country, as to excite popular feeling against them, and the Government yielding to the clamor passed the law in 1721 banning wearing of all printed calicoes whatever." The British policy to protect its own textile manufacture led to a general stoppage of import of the fine cottons including muslins from Dhaka. Results of this policy became further obvious by 1793 and I quote, `British policy British skill and British enterprise brought about a commercial revolution, established a new economy and bound India to the heels of the British economy' (N.K. Sinha, Economic History of Bengal, Vol-III) Many factors caused the loss of one of the world's greatest living treasures. The Dhaka muslin, which had been introduced into England between 1666-1670, had by 1787 begun to suffer the negative effects of the mechanized spinning and weaving methods of British manufacture. The Company's trade to Europe, particularly to Versailles, Hamburg and Lisbon was badly affected by the wars England was waging against France. After the French Revolution the demand of muslin cloths at the French court ceased. Another important factor was the export of raw cotton to England, resulting in a severe scarcity of cotton raw material in Bengal; the price of cotton rose sharply leaving the weavers with no margin of profit on their production. The Dhaka weavers who were employed full time in this occupation, became unemployed due to the fall in exports of the finer qualities of mulmul or muslin to Europe, America, Ceylon, Gulf of Persia and Arabia, Manila and China, and the disappearance of Mughal patronage at the court, In the Dhaka arang in 1776 there were 1,600 weavers, but they were suffering under the oppressive `advance loan' conditions of the Company's officials. Sonargaon which in 1833 had a population of 5,000 was the centre for manufacturing flowered muslins (jamdanees) done mainly by Muslim weavers in the town and surrounding villages and numbered about 1,300 weavers, according to the Company registers. The coercive policies of the British through their `gamasters' and `amlas' had begun to take its toll, and weavers had begun moving out of their profession and tried to make a living out of their agricultural land.9 Writing in 1839 James Taylor in his book Topography and Statistics of Dacca noted that the produce of the Dacca looms chiefly consisted of `flowered muslins (jamdanees) and Khasidas (Kasida needle work on muslin) but the quantity was small compared to what it was in former years'. Indeed the population of Dhaka declined as a results of unemployment and D.B Mitra states in 'The Cotton Weavers of Bengal' that `In 1800 the inhabitants on Dacca were 20,00,000, but the total would not be more than 68,038 in 1839'. In fact by the time of the first Great Exhibition of 1851, Dhaka muslins were produced only on orders for the gentry and a small quantity for local markets, as by then the export trade to England had been completely overshadowed by machine made cheap cotton produced in Manchester. Another interesting record at the India Office Library in London is the manuscript of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition: Indian Catalogue 1886. Under the heading Bengal Div XIII, loom embroidered fabrics, silk, cotton and woolen thread: sub section Nos. 239, 264, etc. it is recorded as follow: `From Dacca, loom worked jamdani pieces both white and coloured, No 239 Shahburga chawal-dana piece lent by Nawab Ahsanullah of Dacca ' This account indicated that the patronage of loom fabrics by the Nawab family

continued till very recent times, but the material referred to is jamdani and not the old fine muslin. We may therefore deduce that there was no high quality `Dacca muslin' produced after the 1890's since, by then, the cultivation of cotton had been completely substituted by indigo and jute plantations which the British rulers found a much more lucrative trade item. The fabled muslin disappeared because the unique raw cotton was no longer available. This fact can give culture activists a point to ponder, that if cotton plantations are revived, the gifted Dhaka weavers can still produce the muslin of old ilk Weaving The Dhaka Heritage The heritage of woven handloom silk in Bengal does not compare to the fine cotton muslins in terms of historic or chronological measurement. Silk textiles were available in the last few hundred years from China and other parts of the Indian subcontinent and were used by the aristocracy and landed classes for ceremonies, coronations and weddings. The use of silk for garments has become more popular in the recent fifty years or so. The post war migration of weavers from Uttara Pradesh (U.P. India) to the new state of East Pakistan in 1946-47 transfers the growth of a rich heritage to the soil of East Bengal. It would be useful to recount the ancient lineage of weaving silk cloth, embellished with gold, and silk threads. Woven silk is mentioned in the Yujur Veda of approximately 1500 B.C. Further back in history there are references that trading merchants carried silks and cotton fabrics through the region of Middle, Central Asia and further on to Italy and France. Descriptions of the "gold cloth" of Babylon, Alexandria, Mosul and the Gangetic Valley being carried as gifts to King Herod of Biblical times and the Emperors of Europe is well substantiated in the exotic classical paintings of that luxurious era. Descriptions of the clothes worn by aristocracy and priests in the Mahabharat and Ramayana are replete with examples of "rich silks". The yajur veda records the use of rupari and soneri threads to ornament the fabric and we learn from these ancient manuscripts that special women weavers called "pesaskaris" wove such material, being commissioned by the upper classes. Moghul patronage in the crafts and arts of the subcontinent had made a tremendous impact on the creative process. The silk brocades of Banaras came under this influence, of Persian design in all its richness and grandeur, enhancing the weaver's repertoire. The Moghuls were masters in giving nomenclatures to the artistic products of the local artisans. The Persian language in itself is steeped in descriptive and colourful words or motifs that charm the mind and heart of the viewer. Thus they named Banaras brocades as "dream fabrics" or Kinkwab. European writers later on called these "Kincob" and indeed the gloss and glimmer of the silk fabric created a dream like vision for the eyes. Over the centuries Banaras silks became renowned and the demand led to more centres being opened in other parts of the subcontinent for trade and marketing. Ahmedabad, Auarangabad, Surat, Bhopal, Delhi, Luchnow, Murshidabad and Madras set up weaving centres. The examples of the exquisite loom are hunting scenes of extraordinary finesse depicted in a design named shikargarh. Men's robes, cloaks and shawls had designs named "silver ripples", or maz-char, black motif on off-white silk called "nightingales eyes" or 'bulbul chasm', the moon and star motifchandtara and linear patterns called peacock's neck or murgh-gala. For ladies of the court were delicate motifs likebutidar or flowered patterns, beldar or scroll and vegetal creeper designs, hazarbuti thousand flowers and nargis the narcissus flower. It is interesting to note that some motifs of Moghul textiles are echoed in the fabrics seen in Ajanta fresco paintings of the 5th Century A.D. Traditional indigenous Indian forms were also imbibed on to Benaras silks, so that we find patterns of the swan motif (hangshs/hamsa) and the paisley shape called kalka of Bengal and keri of North India. Banaras Kinkhawabs were further evolved with the mixture of two shades of silk threads giving the effect of light and shade, named dhup-chaon. This cloth was greatly popular among aristocratic ladies who flaunted the changing colours of their dress as they moved about in the daylight. The fame of Banaras silks was duly

documented as some of the unique exhibits. Descriptions detail "a sari in yellow silk gauze with floral scrolls, the border and end piece (anchal) being in thick silver checkered damask, separated by narrow red lines with gold spots placed at intervals". Another exhibit was the "diagonal pattern called tercha bearing stalks and foliage of the scroll type, each composite flower of floret being outlined in gold thread". An art connoisseur of the period Theopbile Gautier wrote about the glory of Banaras brocades as "cloth, which attempted a direct challenge to sunlight the accomplishment of millions of fairies". The culture of the Indo-Gangetic plains has been nurtured by the mighty rivers Ganga and Jamuna. The soft breezes blowing out from the rivers were conducive to keeping the looms and the waft and weft of threads pliable. The romance of the soft pure silks of Banaras had reached Bengal with the advent of Moghul rule. By the 1920's the Banarasi sari became an essential part of the Indian bridal trousseau. The item was supplied as part of the exotic textiles from Uttar Pradesh, India. By the Sarees outlets Market

1930s Dhaka set up its own Banaras Silk Industry Centre in Becharam Dewry, in the old town. were priced at Rs. 150/- and a bridal saree fetched a princely price of Rs. 400/-. The main market were in Sadarghat Market, Islampur of the old town and by the 1960s the posh newly built New near Nilkhet.

One significant stimulus was in the 1940's resulting from political changes, the movement for Independence from the British and finally the desire for a separate homeland for Muslims. The result of these factors brought about the migration of large populations from one region of India to another. Among the first few families who packed up their looms in 1946 and came with high hopes to Dhaka to start a new life was Mohammad Sobhan, father of Mohammad Rafiq whom I met in Mirpur Palli in 2004. They belonged to Cholapur village of Benaras. Some other migrants were the father of Sanaullah Warsi (78 years) who still works at the loom in Mirpur, Liaqat Ali (70 years) and Qayyum (65 years) whose parents reached Dhaka in 1946. From these original inhabitants of Benaras (whose second and third generation families are residents in Mirpur), I was able to obtain valuable information on the weaving processes as well as the names of original designs. Banarasi brocades were woven with the help of jacquard system, depending on the skill of the weaver in line-by-line placement of patterns on the taanaand baana. The paper drawing of the designs would be the guide for the weaver, a matter of extraordinary skill of eye and hand. The master craftsman of Mirpur informed me that silk brocades carried names such as beldar, border designs, forms of creeper design; belbuti, diagonal floral styles and satin-but, thickly embroidered motifs in silk thread embossing. Classical motifs from the Persian storehouse of design were known as jam-e-bahar (trellis patterns) and jam-e-var(Persian paisley) gul-dasta (bouquet or flower vase motif) also referred to as ambros. An overall linear floral ornamentation was called jungala (foliage pattern). As time passed Bengali words came into use such as lata-pata (trellis) prianka (floral) tara-buti (star bud) kalka (paisley),moyur-pakhee (peacock), tiapakhee (parrot). In recent years the influence of film and television media led to naming sari designs after Titanic, Devdas, and Ghar Ghar Ki Kahani. The weavers of Mirpur Palli were commissioned to produce the extravaganza of silk saris worn by Indian actress Aishwarya Rai and her dance troupe in the film Devdas. As is common with most heritage crafts and arts produced in the subcontinent, the Banarasi loom is composed of wooden, bamboo and small metal parts arranged in the earthen pit floor of the Karkhana (factory). There has been no change in the loom since over a thousand years, the only change has been the addition of the jacquard introduced after 1947. A brief description of the process undertaken by the Mirpur weaver was explained by Mohammad Rafiq, a leader among the weaver community and a second generation Banarasi weaver. His wife Razia Sultana Parveen also from a weaver's family, is herself a skilled weaver. However, none of their children have taken up the profession. All are attending school and college. The process of preparing the threads for making saris is long and laborious. A brief description is given below :

1. First high quality silk threads are purchased at an approximate rate of Tk. 1,500 per kg imported from China, India, Pakistan or Thailand. These imported threads come in the form of bales and are put onto wood rollers. 2. From these smaller lengths are cut and taken to spin spools on wooden charkas (wheels) for the baana (weft). 3. The larger spools, lachhis are then sent for dyeing. Special dyeing experts, do this by immersing the threads in boiling pots of soap water for at least one hour, before laying them out to dry. After boiling for over an hour with at least 4 bars of soap in water for a length of two saris, the bundle threads have to be washed in at least four pots of clean water mixed with a thread softener called khararee (digamen). 4. The dyed spools are put onto turai or beams, which look like large rolling pins called belun. 5. The required lengths of threads for the taana (warp) of one or two saries are straightened out and joined if necessary to achieve the required length. The silk threads are fine like hair and they are joined with a powder called madesun made from fine soft ashes (chhai). 6. Once the threads are arranged for the taana, they are fitted at the weaver's end of the loom by speciallsed craftsman, who are not the weavers. The taana-setter knows before hand that the sari has three colours; for example the main ground colour (jomeen) will be black, the border (paar) and end piece (anchol) will be beige and motifs will be of cream shades. The weaver explains the design to the setter referring to patterns such as keridar (paisley) or phoolkoli orkangeevaran. The exchange of information is all verbal and there is no written code or guideline. The skills belong to the craftsman. 7. The dyeing process is fascinating, as 70 yards can be dyed at one time in three colours, for up to five saris with blouse pieces. This is done by using one colour dye up to a given measurement of the threads. 8. For the baana or weft, the loom setter uses the pareta a bamboo rolling pin also called natawa. The thread spools already prepared by the charka workers are kept on the earthen floor near the weaver. Names

of

tools

used

to

weave

Benaras

silk

brocades

are

as

follows:

Turai / belun (roller-beam) Khuta (side posts) Karga (pit) Lappa (horizontal wooden rods) Jacquard (cards perforated with holes for lifting needed threads) Phhana (bamboo read) Makri (upper/roof suspended rods) Gulla or baw of natawa bamboo/wood spool. Tana (steel plate) Rooler (wood roller) Charka (hand spin or cycle wheel) Khalli (iron rods rotated to tighten threads) Charr or birni (thin wire used to tighten threads). Makku or dherki (five inch long flat shuttle piece of buffalo horn used to push threads left or right as needed. Katha or shirki (wood or bamboo flat instrument used to form floral patterns). Nowadays these are made of plastic. Dhaka has become a hub of a great heritage of craft of the subcontinent, the renowned Banarasi brocaded silks. Today the far-flung cousins from the lineage of Banaras weavers are carrying on the legacy in their chosen homeland. The elders speak with nostalgia about their roots, but they are aware of their contribution to the cultural wealth of Bangladesh. The heritage is alive because public patronage is forthcoming and because the weavers of the exotic art-craft are dedicated to passing on the legacy for posterity.

Tribal Textiles Vanga or East Bengal had grown its townships, commerce and industries over the period approximately of 1000 B.C. and the Indo-Gangetic Civilisation had reached fruition, imbibing and fusing with the earlier Indus Valley culture. The Bengali race is a mixture of Mongoloid, Arakanese, Burmese and Assamese peoples with the Aboriginal river, forest and agro-based peoples of old Vanga. The most recent entry of outsiders started in the 8th century A.D. (up to the 12th century) when Buddhist influence was at its height and the great monasteries at Paharpur and Mainamati testify to that influence. The Pala and Sena Dynasty overcame Buddhism and its followers sought safety in the hilly regions of Rangamati, Bandarban, Khagrachari etc. They form some interesting Tribal population of the country. The Tribals of the Chittagong Hill Tracts consist of ten main tribes, belonging to the Chakma, Tripura, Tonchangya, Roeng, Pangue, Tusha, Moru, Khumi, Chak and Khyeyng. Several, but not all of these tribes had a weaving tradition. The Chakmas, an important tribe, who follow Buddhism, produce handloom cloth, which carries an ancient link with tribal or indigenous communities in larger Asia. Weaving in Buddhist tradition holds spiritual and ritualistic overtones. In fact some textiles are considered as sacred, such as those woven to commemorate the death of a person and also those woven for marriage ceremonies. There is a special cloth made of hand spun yarn and woven specially as an act of charity. Such long pieces of fabric are made by Chakma women and hung out in open spaces or forest areas on a tall bamboo, as a gift to the monks. Buddhist monks eat from charity (they do not cook their own food) and also they cannot purchase their garments. They receive gifts of their robes from the community, who hang the material in the open, and any monk whose clothes have worn out can cut off a piece to fulfill the needs of his apparel. The weaving of material for charity in olden times was a religious act, and the raw materials were made of handspun cotton thread, natural dyes. Ritual prayers are offered at the time of weaving. The Chakma Loom: The most well known loom is called Baen. It has twelve main parts, nearly all made from bamboo and the chhaw betal nut tree. The parts are as follows: Biyong, Bau Kati - heel section, Shaugtia bach, Siyang - to keep threads uniform, Tammo bach - beam, Tagalog - beam, Leblebi - heel to set threads of taana, Thur Sama - shuttle of bamboo, Charka - spinning wheel, Chorki - for spinningjhoom threads, Tarchi Cam - Waist belt (of buffalo hide), Rope - for belt and Tarchidori. Names of Designs : Every Chakma girl is taught weaving by her mother and elders. The skill is considered a qualification of a good wife and mother and a spiritual value is given to the art of weaving. At about eight years of age a girl is encouraged to start learning a range of designs, which her mother shows her from an heir-loom woven catalogue. This is called the aalum. There are hundreds of patterns but a good weaver must learn. Some of the most famous designs are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Begum bichi - seed of eggplant. Teen beya - three sticks used to hold threads. Kanjal - snake curve. Bangal Chabugi - small flower. Bago choke - tiger's eye. Chori phool - design on clay water pot. Anaj - pineapple. Tuptupi - aat-bo-lizard's foot. Bourgogaw - like Bangla alphabet letter. Padi cabang gach - king of design.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Aza thang - ducks feet. Chaba Kangel - snake twist. Satacrang - small wild marigold. Thengbala satarang - combined pattern. Majara - cane stool design. Kangara - crab. Sath beya karanga kapya - seven stick. Daush beya - 10 sticks.

Stick counts refer to the number of small sticks inserted in the threads to form the motif. They go up from sixteen to thirty-eight lines in a single pattern. These form the complicated geometric designs of Chakma loom fabric. Recent changes have occurred in the textural quality of Chakma handloom fabrics, with the entry of rayon, machine made threads and gold zari threads. Traditional jhoom handspun yarn has been replaced by Korean cotton yearn. Now dyeing is done with chemical dyes, and the range has therefore increased. Previously red, black, dark green and white were the main colours. Renowned weaver Mrs. Panchatala Khisa who pioneered the craft of weaving tribal textiles for themarket, says she is optimistic regarding the increase of handloom production. She says, "If we move with the times, Chakma tribal textiles have a bright future. Not only do our tribal women feel proud to wear our own dress, but by producing the material for shalwar-kameez, men's fatua, shawls, skirts, waist coats, caps etc. we are attracting the general buyers. There is a growing interest in tribal loom cloth. It is up to us to meet that demand". Manjulika Chakma, the apt daughter of Panchalata Khisha, is also a winner of many national and international awards for her thirty years of dedication to the preservation and development of Chakma tribal textiles. In 1960s and 70s there was no market, but her determination has given recognition to a great heritage and kept it alive. Now there are at least twenty-five loom factories, engaging two thousand workers in the hill tract region. Manjulika Chakma opened the first commercial sales outlet in the 1960's. Tribal women are presently marketing their products in the local'haat', or as vendors going house-to-house creating a new activity of profit for tribal women. With increased demand, Manjulika Chakma mentioned that she markets some of her production through agents. She believes that the future of woven material produced by the tribal people is undoubtedly bright.

I believe that there no one in the world who will be surprise to know that a complete garments can be kept in a small match box and that fabric was Dacca Muslin. you all know that basic raw material for muslin fabric was pure cotton, but the raw material is available and its final products muslin lost (yarn count 200-400). very few people know its technical hurdles for that reasons it lost totally. while doing my masterarbeit in Germany, I came to know some important facts why today our one of the famous heritage lost its presence.

in the next post, i will let you know the technical hurdles behind the disappearance of the heritage. Logged Mostafa Zaman Jr. Member

Posts: 61

Re: Why the Dacca Muslin fabric lost in course of time? « Reply #1 on: October 26, 2011, 12:53:56 AM » I think your next post will be more informative and we are eagerly waiting for that..... Logged Suha Full Member

Posts: 142

Re: Why the Dacca Muslin fabric lost in course of time? « Reply #2 on: October 26, 2011, 09:21:03 AM » Good post Logged Md. Mahfuzur Rahman Senior Lecturer Department of Textile Engineering Daffodil International University fatima Jr. Member

Posts: 74

Re: Why the Dacca Muslin fabric lost in course of time? « Reply #3 on: October 26, 2011, 09:30:40 AM » as far my knowledge,our Muslin fabric was destroyed by the British.they destroyed our own production of cotton (carpus), cut the finger of the manufacturer and did all things what can destroy the rich economy of this sub continent. Logged Fatima Binta Satter Disha Lecturer Textile Engineering AAA Jr. Member

Posts: 75

Re: Why the Dacca Muslin fabric lost in course of time? « Reply #4 on: October 26, 2011, 05:15:50 PM » there is not coincident with the concept of TAJMahala and its consequences after the completion of one of the magnificent wonders in the in the world. I had opportunity to visit one wonder in the world- that is Eiffel Tower in Paris, and i become one of the few fortunate Bangladeshi got all the view of Paris standing upon the tower.-ok, I am sorry I lost the track.

the magnificent mahal was built through giving remuneration to its labors through cutting their fingers. I am not sure what was the logic behind cutting fingers of so many people. but believe me or not what was not happen for Dacca Muslin. the dhaka muslin is possible to make even today, if you know the technical barriers and accordingly take measures.

Dacca muslin is pure cotton fabric, and the cotton has the most surprising properties which no other textile fibers has. that is cotton gain its strength while absorbing water or moisture, while no other textile fibers in the world has such exceptional property.

this property of cotton fiber has given birth of 200-400 cotton yarn. it is true that to convert cotton fiber into such higher count yarn, one must need expertise, devotion, patient and concentration. high humid region is the only place where cotton fiber can be converted into such fine yarn. in this regard humidity (water vapor in air) can play vital role along with fineness of fibers and most importantly expertise.

the second thing is that after converting fiber into yarn, we have to weave, in the ancient time when Dacca muslin was made that was only weave on pit-looom. if you know the construction of any pit-loom than you know that a pit-loom is a loom that is set up in a humid square deep space into ground, which create damp environment in the digger spaced, which is the most important factor for any yarn to weave. because this damp environment where humidity % is higher and high humidity means higher strength to the finest yarn in the world.Once there was the bioscope, with its seductive promise of cartoon glimpses into a world permanently out of reach: "Duniya dekho!" In its 21st century avatar, the bioscope's trained the other way, the little box of wonders situated not in a larger world, but a smaller, less accessible one. It offers enlightened literary tourism for the First World reader, exploring an unknown (or, to use that loaded word, exotic) world, but with respect and the hope of understanding. Monica Ali's Brick Lane is a bioscope story, though to reach this insight you have to discard the accumulated hype that almost buries the book itself under a flood of gossip.

Despite the effective humour, the obvious affection for her characters, Ali leaves us with the sense that, after all, this is just a bioscope show.

Ali is the New New Thing, the new Zadie Smith, the new Rohinton Mistry, consecrated by her presence in Granta's recent list of leading British novelists. More gossip. Ali prefers not to be pigeonholed as 'Asian', and sparked off a controversy when her publicist asked that the (coloured, Asian) Guardian critic Maya Jaggi be replaced by somebody with less, well, ethnic antecedents. Jaggi responded that this was the first time her background had been a factor in a long career; Ali's publicist apologised for the "misunderstanding". So it goes.

All of that is so much baggage: Brick Lane will be remembered or forgotten for its own merits, or the lack of them. There are plenty of those, in both departments.

Nazneen is, to use the words of her husband, Chanu, "an unspoilt girl from the village" when she is uprooted via the instrument of marriage from Bangladesh to the exotic world of Tower Hamlets in London. The circumference of this strange new world is almost as narrow as her life in Mymensingh district, and initially far less colourful. Chanu appears to be unidimensional when you first meet him, "just another obtuse struggling subcontinental male", but he has depth, and a surprising capacity for a muddled tenderness leavens his apparent leanings toward patriarchy.

As they negotiate the deeps and shallows of marriage, occasionally plumbing the unexpected depths that even an arranged liaison can provide, Nazneen emerges from behind the veil of unassuming blandness draped over her features. In an especially poignant episode, the couple discover each other for the first time when they lose their first-born child. Two more children, Bibi and Shahana, will follow, though they cannot excite the same awe in Nazneen's breast, the same sense of allowing her to rediscover the world through her baby's eyes, as did the first, doomed child. As they muddle through their lives, in a world peopled by characters who skate close to the edge of stereotype but don't always overbalance, Ali evokes a grandeur in the everyday that resonates through Brick Lane.

The deus ex machina which draws Nazneen past the lakshmanrekha of her normal life is Karim, a community leader and activist distinguished unfortunately by a tendency to strike Howard Roarkian attitudes. Running in parallel with the ebb and flow of life in and around Brick Lane are the letters that conjure up the hard-knock life of Nazneen's sister, Hasina, back in Bangladesh. Cursed with beauty (yes, this is where things start to get a trifle predictable), Hasina works in a sweatshop, is forced to prostitute herself, discards or is discarded by various male protectors, and writes of these things in a curious patois meant to be either broken English or translated colloquial Bangla, which evokes risibility more often than any other emotion in the reader's breast.

Ali's style is unadorned, almost monotone, but it does set a gentle if unexciting rhythm. She evokes the sights and sounds of Brick Lane dutifully, in the manner of an able, evocative tourist guide, but her real achievement is in depicting the flawed but deeply touching and infinitely complex relationship between Nazneen and Chanu, a weak patriarch and ineffectual dreamer. She holds out the possibility of redemption for them, touches on their lives with a kind illumination. It's more than she does for Hasina, who descends every so often from the oracular voice of women's wisdom into the mawkish with a discernible thump: "All my life I look for one thing only for love for giving and getting and it seem such a

thing full of danger can eat you alive and now I stop the looking it come right up to me and show all it tiny little teeth."

Despite the effective humour, despite the obvious affection for the people whose diverse lives she's trying to illumine, Ali leaves us with the sense that Brick Lane is, after all, just a bioscope show. It provides the illusion of having travelled long distances and seen many distant marvels, explored the lives of strangers with great intimacy. It's a charming illusion, but it makes a poor substitute for reality.Reviving the once-famous muslin industry K.R.N. Swamy

Clothes made of Dhaka muslin are considered the ultimate in luxury.

IN the history of textiles, there is no name more famous than that of Dhaka muslin. In 1875, when Edward VII, the then Prince of Wales, came to Bengal, Sir Abdul Gani of Dhaka ordered 30 yards of the most superior muslin as a gift to the prince. One yard of this fabric weighed barely 10 grams! Even today, among aristocratic families of the Indian subcontinent, dresses of Dhaka muslin are considered the ultimate in luxury. The word ‘muslin’ was derived from the name of the city of its origin, Mosul, in Iraq and through the centuries when India became known as the home of exotic muslins, two Indian cities, namely Masulipatnam in South India and Dhaka in Bengal, became famous for the weaving of this cloth. Their weave was so fine that the Egyptian Pharaohs used them for wrapping mummies. Pliny, the famous Roman historian, refers to one type of Indian muslin known as jhuna, worn by Roman women of high rank to show off the contours of their bodies. Imperial Rome imported large quantities of this fabric, with embroideries done in silver or with silk thread and this muslin was known as kasidah. The variety known as sarkar-e-ala, was used for the turbans of Mughal emperors.

The history of Dhaka muslin is replete with exotic varieties, known as qutn-e-rumi, naubati, yahudi, alizolah and samanderlaher. In the first decade of the 20th century, one thaan (one yard wide, ten yards long) of muslin, known as shama or evening dew, cost Rs 400 or Rs 40 per yard. Till 1813, Dhaka muslin continued to sell in London with 75 per cent profit and was cheaper than the local British make. Alarmed

at this competition, the British imposed 80 per cent duty on the Indian product. But more than the duty, the introduction of the machine-made yarn ruined the muslin trade, as by 1817, English mill-made thread was introduced in Dhaka, at one-fourth the price of the Indian yarn. Till 1821, one of the main problems faced by Dhaka weavers was to go around collecting yarn from the local spinners. This yarn was not of uniform quality. But, with British machinery, yarn of a uniform texture could be obtained and soon the Indian handmade yarn industry closed. In 1840, Dr Taylor, a British textile expert, wrote: "Even in the present day, notwithstanding the great perfection which the mills have attained, the Dhaka fabrics are unrivalled in transparency, beauty and delicacy of texture." The count for the best variety of Dhaka muslin was 1800 threads per inch, while the lesser varieties had about 1400 threads per inch.

Despite producing the costliest fabric in the world, the weavers of Dhaka suffered because of their skill. Dr Taylor states, "Hindu women of the age, varying from 18 to 30 years, were the weavers of superfine quality. But after 30 years, their sight became impaired. The superfine quality could be woven only in early morning or afternoon as otherwise the strong sunlight snapped the threads." During the medieval times, the finest muslin of Dhaka was reserved for the imperial court. The most famous of the weavers were registered as though in royal employ and were not allowed to make muslin for others. In the 17th century, Abbe Rynal, a traveller, had this to say about the weavers: "It was a misfortune to appear very dexterous, because they were then forced to work only for the Government which paid them ill and kept them in sort of captivity." The weavers were paid so little that, during the era when a rupee fetched two and a half maunds of rice, they got only one to one and a half rupees per month. By modern monetary value, this would mean a maximum daily wage of Rs 25 per day. Another unsavoury fact associated with the killing of this Indian industry was that the thumbs and index fingers of many yarn makers were chopped off by the British in order to prevent them from twisting the finer yarns required for the muslins. Washing, pressing and polishing the muslin was one of the specialised tasks of Dhaka’s washermen community. An interesting fact was that the polishing of muslin was done using conch shells and the fabric was not ironed. The best test of the material was that repeated washing made it finer.

Whether the fabulous muslin industry can be revived now, is the question experts are trying to sort out. Unlike the case of many famous handicrafts of the subcontinent, which were revived by the Government of India after Independence, not much attention was paid to the muslin industry. But on a commercial scale, the manufacture of Dhaka, Kasidah and Jamdani fabrics for saris continued. Recently, Bangladesh, West Bengal and other states in India have tried to revive muslin-weaving skills.

According to Rabindranath Saha, a muslin weaver who has won a national award, the revival of the muslin industry has to depend upon the gradual improvement of the quality of the popular and cheaper muslin-based Dhakai, Tangail and Jamadani sarees, which have a great commercial market.

In the town of Kalna in West Bengal, serious efforts are being made to revive the muslin textile industry. In 1947 and later in the 1970s, thousands of Hindu weavers from Bangladesh came to West Bengal. Happily, in the last decade, a visionary by name of Sujay Nag, a senior executive in Tata Iron and Steel Co, has taken the lead to establish a muslin saree centre for weavers in the Kalna town. Efforts are made to coordinate with the muslin industry in Bangladesh, so that both India and our neighbour can reap the benefit.

Today, the modern Indian computer experts are the nation’s pride, just as the skill of the muslin weavers was two centuries ago. The expertise of computer scientists is being made use of to create indigenous but varied intricate designs for the fashionable Dhakai saris. And at the Computer-Aided Design Centre at Krishnagar in West Bengal, there are six IBM workstations with more than 20 traditional weavers working on computer-aided designs.