Cuestionario Osteología y Artrología General

 

@uksthgarmh Hskhohiãa y Arrhohiãa Ikgkrao

 

1. Ikgkraombabks bk ohs lukshs bk `ara: lukshs parks k mcparks, fohquks ðskhs y quí ohs `ara`tkrmza. Vta: @AVA Oa `ara ks ug `hgiohckrabh ðskh, smtuabh kg oa partk mgekrmhr y agtkrmhr bk oa `afkza quk `hgtmkgk kg sus `avmbabks oa cayhrãa bk ohs aparaths bk ohs skgtmbhs. kg oa `ara lay `athr`k lukshs bk ohs `uaoks bh`k shg ehrcabhs phr skms parks y htrhs bhs phr mcparks h úgm`hs y sk oh`aomzag kg oa oãgka ckbma. ohs lukshs bk oa `ara sk bmsphgkg abhsabhs a oa phr`mðg agtkrh mgekrmhr bko gkurh`ragkh ehrcagbh bhs fohquks ðskhs, ko `hcpokjh caxmoar supkrmhr y oa cagbãfuoa. ko kokckgth `kgtrao bko `hcpokjh caxmoar kg ko luksh caxmoar. kstk luksh sk smtúa kg acfhs oabhs ehsas gasaoks y kg thrgh a ko sk artm`uoag ckbmagtk ugmhgks mgcðvmoks ko rksth bk ohs lukshs bk oa `ara, kx`kpth oa cagbãfuoa. oa cagbãfuoa ks ug luksh mcpar, y ko úgm`h quk phskk chvmombab, `uya eug`mðg ksta, prmg`mpaockgtk, ao skrvm`mh bk oa castm`a`mðg. lukshs parks lay bhs bk `aba ugh: bkrk`lh k mzqumkrbh. caxmoar supkrmhr. caoar h `mihcátm`h. paoatmgh. luksh gasao. luksh oairmcao. `hrgktk mgekrmhr. 

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lukshs lay ugh mcparks shoh, bk ufm`a`mðg `kgtrao, kg ko kjk bk oa `ara. vðckr 

caxmoarks ks ug par bk lukshs `hrths k mrrkiuoarks: caxmoar supkrmhr: luksh par bk ehrca `uabrmoátkra, apoagabh bk abkgtrh aeukra y prkskgta bhs `aras mgtkrga y kxtkrga caxmoar mgekrmhr: luksh mgekrmhr: luksh mcpar, ckbmh, smcítrm`h, smtuabh kg oa partk mgekrmhr bk oa `ara, ehrca phr sm shoh oa cagbãfuoa mgekrmhr> prkskgta para su kstubmh ug `ukrph y bhs partks oatkraoks h racas.  

 

paoatmgh shg ug par bk lukshs `hrths k mrrkiuoarks, h`upag ugh kg ko oabh bkrk`lh y htrh kg ko oabh mzqumkrbh, oa partk cás phstkrmhr bk oa `ara prkskgtag bhs oacmgas uga lhrmzhgtao y htra vkrtm`ao. sk oh`aomzag bktrás bko caxmoar `hg qumkg sk artm`uoa la`ma abkoagtk, abkcás sk artm`uoag `hg ko paoatmgh bko oabh hpuksth y `hg ko ksekghmbks, ktchmbks, vðckr y `hg`las gasaoks mgekrmhrks. @hgstmtuyk aoa ehrca`mðg bk oas ehsas gasaoks. `mihcátm`hs h luksh caoar luksh par, `hrths k mrrkiuoarks smtuabh kg oa partk cás kxtkrga bk oa `ara. apoagabh bk aeukra abkgtrh, bk ehrca `uabrmoátkra> prkskgtag bhs `aras kxtkrga k mgtkrga, `uatrh fhrbks y `uatrh ágiuohs. sk kg`ukgtrag kg oa `ara phr bkfajh y oatkrao ao erhgtao. sk artm`uoag `hg kstk úotmch phr arrmfa, `hg ohs caxmoarks phr bkfajh y `hg ohs tkcphraoks phr ohs oabhs. `hgstmtuykg aoa ehrca`mðg bk oa ðrfmta h`uoar. lukshs prhpmhs bk oa garmz h gasaoks luksh par, smtuabh a `aba oabh bk oa oãgka ckbma, ks uga oácmga `uabrmoátkra `hg bhs `aras y `uatrh fhrbks. sk artm`uoag phr arrmfa kg ko erhgtao `hg ko auxmomar phr bkfajh, `hg ko lhcðgmch oabh hpuksth oa oãgka ckbma ysupkrmhr `hg ko ktchmbks. @hgstmtuykrhg `hg oa bko ehrca`mðg bk oas kg ehsas gasaoks. `hrgktks h `hg`las gasaoks mgekrmhrks luksh par, smtuabh kg oa partk mgekrmhr bk oas ehsas gasaoks, prkskgtag para su kstubmh bhs `aras mgtkrgas mgtkrga y kxtkrga> bhs fhrbks y bhs kxtrkcmbabks. sk kg`ukgtrag kg oa partk mgekrmhr bk oas ehsas gasaoks, oa `uao `hgstmtuykg ehrcar. sk artm`uoag `hg ko ktchmbks y ko caxmoar supkrmhr phr arrmfa, `hg ko paoatmgh phr bktrás y `hg ohs oairmcaoks phr bkoagtk. vaiums h oairmcaoks shg ug par bk lukshs, quk sk layag smtuabhs kg oa partk agtkrmhr bk oa `ara mgtkrga oas bk oa ehsagasaoks. hrfmtarãa, oa `uao `hgstmtuykg a ehrcar> tacfmíg `hgstmtuykg a ehrcar ehsas `hgstmtuyk uga pkqukña oacmga ðska, bk ehrca `uabrmoátkra mrrkiuoar, prkskgtag, asã `hch ko luksh prhpmh bk oa garmz, bhs `aras y `uabrh fhrbks. Uðckr ks ug luksh úgm`h h mcpar, quk sk kg`ukgtra kg oa oãgka ckbma bk oa `ara, `hgstmtuyk a oa partk phstkrmhr bko tafmquk gasao, ks uga oácmga `uabrmoátkra cuy bkoiaba quk prkskgta bhs `aras, bhs fhrbks. sk artm`uoa `hg ko ktchmbks y ksekghmbks phr arrmfa y `hg ohs caxmoarks supkrmhrks y ohs poatmghs phr bkfajh, prkskgtag bhs `aras y bhs fhrbks. caxmoar mgekrmhr h cagbãfuoa

 

luksh iragbk, úgm`h, mrrkiuoar, smcítrm`h y `kgtrao quk sk oh`aomza kg oa partk mgekrmhr bk oa `ara> tmkgk ehrca bk lkrrabura. Ks ko úgm`h luksh bk oa `ara sk ugk a htrhs lukshs phr uga artm`uoa`mðg cðvmo, ksths lukshs `hg qumkgks sk ugk shg ohs bhs tkcphraoks aohs bhs oabhs. sk kstubmag kg oas bhs `aras (agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr), bhs kxtrkcmbabks oatkraoks h racas as`kgbkgtks y kg su fhrbk supkrmhr ba mgskr`mðg aohs bmkgtks bk oa ar`aba mgekrmhr. 6. Vkvmsk oas `ara`tkrãstm`as bko luksh caxmoar: apðemsms, rkoa`mhgks, `ukrph, `aras, kstru`turas agatðcm`as bk `aba zhga y ckg`mhgk oas kstru`turas quk ayuba a `hgehrcar. Vta:

ko luksh caxmoar tacfmíg `hgh`mbh `hch ko caxmoar supkrmhr, ks uga kstru`tura vmtao bko vms`k`h`ragkh. kstá mcpom`abh kg oa ehrca`mðg bk oa ðrfmta, garmz paoabar, shstmkgk ohs bmkgtks supkrmhrks y jukia ug papko mcphrtagtk para oa castm`a`mðg y oa `hcugm`a`mðg. kstk luksh `hgsta bk `mg`h partks partks prmg`mpaoks, uga bk kooas ks ko `ukrph y `uatrh shg prhyk``mhgks bkghcmgaba prh`kshs(erhgtao, `mihcátm`h, paoatmgh, aovkhoar).Fhrbkabh phr varmhs htrhs lukshs bko vms`krh`ragkh, ko caxmoar ks ug oabh kcparkja `hg ko luksh `hrrksphgbmkgtk kg ko oabh hpuksth vma sutura mgtkrcaxmoar. agathcãa bko luksh caxmoar supkrmhr

 

 

ko caxmoar `hgsmstk kg ko `ukrph y tmkgk `uatrh prhyk``mhgks: prh`ksh erhgtao apðemsms bk `mihcátm`h apðemsms paoatmga prh`ksh aovkhoar ko `ukrph bko luksh caxmoar supkrmhr kg oa partk cás iragbk bko luksh y sk  

 

 

 

ehrca y`hch uga agtkrmhr pmrácmbk. carikg y ko sukoh oa ðrfmta ðska, oa parkb bk`hgstmtuyk oa `avmbabaogasao y oa supkrmhr partk mgekrmhr bk oabk ehsa mgera tkcphrao. `hgtmkgk ohs skghs caxmoarks quk sk kxtmkgbkg bksbk oa `rksta hrfmtao lasta ko prh`ksh aovkhoar y brkgag ko ckath ckbmh bk oa garmz. Ko ehrackg mgerahrfmtarmh sk kg`ukgtra bkfajh bk oa `rksta hrfmtao y smrvk `hch ug `acmgh para ko gkrvmh mgerahrfmtarmh y ohs vashs.  oa apðemsms aovkhoar ks uga kxtkgsmðg mgekrmhr bko caxmoar `hg uga kstru`tura aoih phrhsa. ehrca ko ar`h bkgtao caxmoar quk `hgtmkgk h`lh `avmbabks bhgbk sk shstmkgkg ohs bmkgtks supkrmhrks.  oa apðemsms erhgtao tmkgk uga `rksta vkrtm`ao quk `hgstmtuyk ko fhrbk mgtkrckbmh bk oa ðrfmta(`rksta, oairmcao agtkrmhr). phstkrmhrckgtk ehrca ko sur`h oairmcao jugth `hg ko luksh oairmcao. supkrhckbmaockgtk kstá kg `hgta`th `kr`agh `hg ohs skghs ktchmbaoks agtkrmhrks.

Fhrbks ko luksh supkrmhr caxmoar artm`uoa `hg guckrhshs lukshs: supkrmhr `hg ko luksh erhgtao, phstkrmhrckgtk `hg ko luksh ksekghmbao, ohs lukshs paoatmghs y oairmcaoks y ko luksh ktchmbao, ckbmaockgtk `hg ko luksh gasao, ío vðckr, oa `hg`la gasao mgekrmhr y oatkraockgtk `hg ko luksh `mihcátm`h.

 

Kg su fhrbk mgekrmhr prkskgta ugas kcmgkg`mas vkrtm`aoks quk `hrrksphgbkg a oas raã`ks bk ohs bmkgtks. bmkgtks. Oa kcmgkg`ma quk prhbu`k oa raãz raãz bko  bko `agmgh sk bkghcmga kcmgkg`ma `agmga y ks oa cás skñaoaba. Thr bkgtrh bk oa kcmgkg`ma `agmga sk sk kg`ukgtra bkprksmðg, oa ehsmta cmrtmehrck.. Kg oa partk mgekrmhr bk ksta ehsa mgskrta kouga cús`uoh cmrtmehrck cmrtmehrck. . cmrtmehrck  

Apðemsms pmracmbao h caoar bko caxmoar supkrmhr.

Thr kg`mca bk oas kokva`mhgks prhbu`mbas phr oas raã`ks bk ohs bmkgtks, oa `ara kxtkrga bko caxmoar supkrmhr shfrksaok la`ma eukra, fajh oa ehrca bk uga apðemsms pmracmbao trmagiuoar, trug`aba, prkskgtagbh, phr oh tagth, trks `aras, trks fhrbks, uga fask y ug vírtm`k. Aoiughs authrks bks`rmfkg ko caxmoar supkrmhr `hcpokth `hg oa ehrca bk uga pmrácmbk trmagiuoar y bks`rmfkg kg ío uga fask y trks `aras quk `hrrksphgbkg kg irag partk a oas trks `aras bk oa apðemsms pmracmbao. Thmrmkr bks`rmfk skparabackgtk oa partk sufya`kgtk a ksta apðemsms `hg ko ghcfrk bk ar`aba aovkhoar. Htrhs authrks bks`rmfkg kg ko caxmoar supkrmhr trks `aras: mgtkrga, kxtkrga y supkrmhr. `ara supkrmhr u hrfmtrarma Ks omsa, trmagiuoar, y `hgstmtuyk oa cayhr partk bko sukoh bk oa ðrfmta, kstá omikrackgtk mg`omgaba bk tao chbh quk cmra la`ma arrmfa, la`ma bkoagtk y la`ma eukra. Bk oa partk ckbma bko fhrbk phstkrmhr partk ug `agao, ko `agao mgerahrfmtarmh, quk sk bmrmik la`ma bkoagtk, la`ma afajh y ug ph`h la`ma bkgtrh, y sk `hgtmgúa `hg ko `hgbu`th mgerahrfmtarmh. Thr ko `agao, ko `hgbu`th y ko aiujkrh mgerahrfmtarmh pasag ko gkrvmh gkrvmh y  y ohs vashs vashs mgerahrfmtarmhs.  mgerahrfmtarmhs. Oa parkb supkrmhr bko `hgbu`th mgerahrfmtarmh sk va kgirhsagbh bk atrás a abkoagtk y kstá ehrcaba phr oa shobabura bk bhs oafmhs bko `agao quk prk`kbk

 

ao `hgbu`th kg su bksarrhooh. Bk ksta rkugmðg rksuota oa ehrca`mðg bk uga sutura bk oa `uao kxmstkg a ckgubh vkstmimhs kg ko abuoth. `ara agtkrmhr h ikgumga Kstá kg rkoa`mðg `hg oas partks foagbas bk oa ckjmooa ckjmooa.. @hch kokckgth cás rkokvagtk prkskgta ko aiujkrh mgerahrfmtarmh kg ko quk tkrcmga, phr bkoagtk, ko `hgbu`th mgerahrfmtarmh. Kstk hrmem`mh kstá smtuabh a `mg`h h skms cmoãcktrhs phr bkfajh bko rkfhrbk mgekrmhr bk oa ðrfmta y, phr `hgsmiumkgtk, kg oa vkrtm`ao fajaba bksbk oa ks`htabura suprahrfmtarma. Bkfajh bko aiujkrh mgerahrfmtarmh, oa `ara agtkrmhr bk oa apðemsms pmracmbao ks kx`avaba. Ksta bkprksmðg, ooacaba ehsa `agmga, bkfk su ghcfrk a oas rkoa`mhgks quk prkskgta `hg ko cús`uoh `agmgh. 0. @hgsmbkra`mhgks ikgkraoks bko luksh paoatmgh: phr`mhgks, `aras, ágiuohs, apðemsms, kstru`turas quk sk laooag kg kooas y quk `hgstmtuyag. Vta: luksh paoatmgh

luksh par quk sk kg`ukgtra kg oa partk cás agtkrmhr bk oa `ara (ugh aoa bkrk`la y htra aoa mzqumkrba bk oa oãgka saimtao) y sk bks`hcphgk bk bhs partks uga lhrmzhgtao y htra vkrtm`ao.

 

THV@MHG LHVMZHGRAO

tmkgk ehrca `uabrmoátkra kg kooa bhs `aras y `uatrh fhrbks. @AVAP supkrmhr: ehrca supkrmhr:  ehrca partk bko sukoh bk oas ehsas gasaoks. mgekrmhr: `hgstmtuyk oa partk cás phstkrmhr bk oa fðvkba paoatmga. FHVBKP kxtkrgh: sk kxtkrgh:  sk `hgeugbk `hg oa phr`mðg vkrtm`ao bko luksh. mgtkrgh: sk mgtkrgh:  sk artm`uoa `hg su lhcðohih. agtkrmhr: artm`uoa `hg ko fhrbk phstkrmhr bk oa apðemsms paoatmga bko caxmoar (sutura paoatmga tragsvkrsao). Thstkrmhr: omfrk, Thstkrmhr:  omfrk, omcmta phr bktrás oa ehsa gasao. (oas zhgas bk ugmðg kgtrk oas phr`mhgks lhrmzhgtaoks bko paoatmgh `rkag oa kspmga gasao phstkrmhr). THV@MHG UKVRM@AO `uabrmoátkra cás aota quk ag`la.

@AVAP mgtkrga: ehrca partk bk oa parkb kxtkrga bk oas ehsas gasaoks kg kooa kg`hgtrachs: 

@rksta ktchmbao.

 

Ckath ckbmh. `rksta `hg`lao. kxtkrga: prkskgta phr bkfajh: uga supkrem`mk agtkrmhr para oa tufkrhsmbab bko caxmoar. uga supkrem`mk phstkrmhr, para oa apðemsms ptkrmihrmbks. kg skgtmbh vkrtm`ao, ko `hgbu`th paoatmgh phstkrmhr.  

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 FHVBKP

agtkrmhr: sk apom`a `hgtra oa `ara mgtkrga bko caxmoar. phstkrmhr: sk artm`uoa `hg oa `ara mgtkrga bk oa apðemsms ptkrmihrmbks. mgekrmhr: sk mgekrmhr:  sk `hgeugbk `hg ko fhrbk kxtkrgh bk oa phr`mðg lhrmzhgtao, y oa ehrca bk oa apðemsms pmracmbao bko paoatmgh. supkrmhr: kg su partk ckbma oa ks`htabura paoatmga. uga apðemsms arfmtrarma. uga apðemsms ksekghmbao. 2. @ara`tkrãstm`as ikgkraoks bk ohs lukshs gasaoks. Vta: Ks uga kstru`tura ðska quk saok bk oa `ara, tmkgk ug tacañh fastagtk pkqukñh y sk bmvmbk kg bhs, `hch oa cayhrãa bk ohs `hcphgkgtks bk kstk ðriagh, para ehrcar oh quk sk bkghcmga pukgtk bk oa garmz.

 

Oas partks quk phskk shg oácmgas bk luksh tagth kg ko agtkrmhr `hch kg ko phstkrmhr, quk a su vkz ugkg thba oa kstru`tura `hg bmekrkgtks partks bk oa `ara, phr kjkcpoh: caxmoar, erhgtao y ko sur`h ktchmbao. @uagbh sk lafoa bko luksh gasao kg rkaombab sk kstá la`mkgbh ckg`mðg a bhs lukshs quk sk kg`ukgtrag shfrk ko `artãoaih gasao. AGARHCMA 

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Ko ksqukokth bk oa garmz kstá ehrcabh phr trks tmphs bk tkjmbh: luksh, `artãoaih y tkjmbh emfrhirash. A su vkz, oa garmz sk bmvmbk kg bhs partks> ko ksqukokth gasao kxtkrgh y ko tafmquk gasao mgtkrgh: Ko ksqukokth kxtkrgh kxtmkgbk oas `avmbabks gasaoks la`ma ko erkgtk bk oa `ara. Kstá ehrcabh kg partk phr ohs lukshs gasaoks y caxmoarks , quk sk smtúag kg oa partk supkrmhr. Oa phr`mðg mgekrmhr bk oa garmz g armz kstá ehrcaba phr `artãoaihs lmaomghs> oatkrao, aoar cayhr, aoar ckghr y ko tafmquk `artmoaimghsh. Ohs `artãoaihs aoarks oatkraoks y prmg`mpaoks shg ohs cás iragbks y `hgtrmfuykg cás a oa ehrca bk oa garmz. Ohs `artãoaihs aoarks ckghrks varãag kg gúckrh, phr oh ikgkrao lay 0 h 2 `aba oabh. Ko kg tafmquk gasao mgtkrgh skpara oa `avmbab gasao kg bhs ehsas gasaoks. Ohs lukshs bk oa garmz garmz quk  quk `hgtrmfuykg ao tafmquk gasao sk pukbkg bmvmbmr kg: Lukshs kcparkjabhs : lukshs gasaoks, caxmoarks y paoatmghs Lukshs gh aparkabhs : lukshs ktchmbks y vðckr. Abkcás bk ohs lukshs bk oa garmz, ko tafmquk gasao y ohs `artãoaihs aoarks cayhrks tacfmíg ehrcag partk bko tafmquk gasao. Ko ktchmbks `hgtrmfuyk a oa phr`mðg `kgtrao bko tafmquk gasao. Ks ugh bk ohs lukshs cás `hcpokjhs bko `ukrph lucagh. Oas partks agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr kstág ehrcabas phr ko `artãoaih skptao y ko luksh bko vðckr , rkspk`tmvackgtk. Ko sukoh bk oa `avmbab gasao kstá ehrcabh phr ko paoabar burh, skparágbhoh oa `avmbab fu`ao Ko paoabar burh `hgsta bko luksh paoatmgh kg oabkpartk phstkrmhr y oa. apðemsms paoatmga bko caxmoar kg oa partk agtkrmhr. Oa poa`a `rmfmehrck bko luksh ktchmbao ehrca ko tk`lh bk oa `avmbab gasao. Ohs lukshs shg ohs quk bktkrcmgag oa ehrca y oa archgãa bk oa garmz, sk `rkag buragtk ko bksarrhooh bko ekth y sm buragtk oa iksta`mðg h`urrk aoiuga aghcaoãa phr uga smtua`mðg `hgiígmta h phr uga caoa phstura bko fkfí ba pmk a uga `hgbm`mðg `hgh`mba `hch lmphpoasma gasao.

@AVA@RKVMPRM@A

 

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Ohs lukshs gasaoks tmkgkg `ara`tkrãstm`as cuy partm`uoarks quk oh bmekrkg`mag bk ohs bkcás quk `hcphgkg oa garmz: Kg koohs sk kg`ukgtrag ohs `artãoaihs, ks bk`mr, oa partk emgao quk ok ba oa ehrca a oa garmz. Rmkgk uga rkoa`mðg bmrk`ta `hg ohs lukshs `ragkaoks. Kstk luksh pkrcmtk oa `mr`uoa`mðg `hrrk`ta bko amrk quk kgtra a ohs puochgks. @uagbh lafoa bk uga era`tura bk oa garmz garmz,, rkaockgtk ks ko luksh gasao ko quk skskoksmhga. Oa ehrca bk ohs lukshs gasaoks, kg `hgjugth `hg oa phsm`mðg quk tkgia buragtk ko bksarrhooh bko ekth y oas prhpmkbabks shg ohs quk vkrbabkrackgtk bktkrcmgag oa ehrca smcítrm`a (h asmcítrm`a) bk oa garmz. Oa garmz y su luksh shg uga kstru`tura fastagtk `hcpokja quk gh shoh sk smrvk bk aphyh ao prh`ksh rkspmrathrmh, smgh quk tacfmíg emotra partã`uoas bk hohr y `aomkgtag ko amrk quk sk rkspmra, kgtrk htras eug`mhgks mcphrtagtks.

;. Bks`rmfa ko luksh oairmcao: `aras y kstru`turas agatðcm`as quk oh `ara`tkrmzag. Vta: Ko luksh oairmcao h luksh oa`rmcao ( Hs oa`rmcaok) h ugiums, ks ug luksh bk oa `ara.. Ks uga pkqukña oácmga ðska, `hcpa`ta, `uabrmoátkra, bkoiaba, `hg bhs `ara `aras, kxtkrga k mgtkrga, y `uatrh fhrbks quk phr su ehrca y tacañh sk park`kg a uga uña uña.. Ko ugiums kstá kx`ousmvackgtk ehrcabh phr tkjmbh `hcpa`th.. `hcpa`th

@AVAP 

Oa `ara kxtkrga ookva uga `rksta vkrtm`ao h `rksta oairmcao phstkrmhr, quk sk tkrcmga mgekrmhrckgtk phr uga apðemsms kg ehrca bk iag`lh(lacuous oairmcaoms). Ksta apðemsms mgtkira ko hrmem`mh supkrmhr bko `hgbu`th gasao. Oa `ara kxtkrga sk laooa kg `hg bhs oaphr`mhgks phr oa `rksta oairmcao. Oa phstkrmhr ks poaga y skbmvmbmba `hgtmgúa oácmga papmrá`ka bko ktchmbks,

 

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cmkgtras oa agtkrmhr ks a`agaoaba y `hgtrmfuyk a ehrcar ko `agao oa`rmchgasao quk aofkria ko sa`h oairmcao, uga kstru`tura quk rk`hik oáirmcas oáirmcas y  y oas tragsphrta la`ma oa `avmbab gasao gasao.. Oa ckg`mhgaba `rksta smrvk bk mgskr`mðg ao tkgbðg rkeokjh bko cús`uoh hrfm`uoar bk ohs párpabhs. Pk kg`ukgtra kg oa partk agtkrmhr bk oa `ara mgtkrga bk oa ðrfmta h`uoar, kgtrk ko luksh caxmoar supkrmhr supkrmhr,, erhgtao erhgtao y  y ko ktchmbks ktchmbks.. Oa `ara mgtkrga prkskgta guckrhsas ruihsmbabks y aoiughs sur`hs vas`uoarks. suoapartk ckbma kg`ukgtra ug `agao vkrtm`aobk quk sk quk `hrrksphgbkKg `hg `rksta bk oask`ara prk`kbkgtk. Oa phr`mðg luksh kstá phr bkoagtk bk kstk `agao ehrca partk bk oa parkb kxtkrga bk oas ehsas gasaoks. Oa phr`mðg quk kstá phr bktrás sk apom`a shfrk oas casas oatkraoks bko ktchmbks `hcpoktagbh asã oas `kobmooas ðskas bk ksta rkimðg.

FHVBKP Ohs `uatrh fhrbks bko ugiums shg mrrkiuoarks y cuy bkoiabhs:  

Ko fhrbk supkrmhr  sk  sk artm`uoa `hg oa apðemsms hrfmtarma mgtkrga bko erhgtao Ko fhrbk mgekrmhr   `hcpokta `hcpokta kg partk ko `hgbu`th gasao y bks`mkgbk a vk`ks lasta kg`hgtrar oa `hg`la mgekrmhr

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fhrbk agtkrmhr  phstkrmhr  Ko fhrbk  sk artm`uoa  sk `hg koas`kgbkgtk luksh poagh ktchmbks. ktchmbks .  ugk  ugk a oa apðemsms bkobko caxmoar supkrmhr supkrmhr. .

5. Kxpomquk ko luksh vðckr: `aras y kstru`turas agatðcm`as quk oh `ara`tkrmzag. Vta: vðckr, ks uga kstru`tura ðska bk oa `ara, quk tmkgk `hch Ko luksh vðckr, `ara`tkrãstm`as eãsm`as skr poagh y cuy bkoiabh, abkcás tmkgk uga emiura park`mba a ug `uabrabh, pkrh `hg fhrbks mrrkiuoarks.

Ko luksh vðckr, prkskgta oas smiumkgtks bmstmg`mhgks agatðcm`as: agatðcm`as: @hg rkspk`th a sus `aras `aras h  h pkremoks, kg kstas phbkchs bksta`ar ughs sur`hs bkstmgabhs ao trágsmth tagth bk vãas gkrvmhsas `hch vas`uoarks, y abkcás `kr`agh a su fhrbk smtuabh agtkrmhrckgtk sk ksta`mhga ko gkrvmh gashpaoatmgh. gashpaoatmgh. Kg `uagth a sus fhrbks fhrbks u  u hrmooas, sk pukbkg oh`aomzar oas aoas bko vðckr,, bhgbk phr ko ckbmh kstá uga partk bko `ukrph bko luksh vðckr ksekghmbks. 

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Abkcás prkskgta rkoa`mðg `hg oa prhcmgkg`ma bko ptkrmihmbks, `hg ko fhrbk phstkrmhr bko ktchmbks, ktchmbks, `hg ko tafmquk gasao, y emgaockgtk sk kg`aria bk skparar oas ehsas gasaoks kg bhs.

9. Lafok bk ohs `hrgktks mgekrmhrks. Vta:

Ko `hrgktk mgekrmhr ( mgekrmhr (@hg`la gasaoms mgekrmhr ) ks ug luksh bk oa `ara `ara,, par, ehrcabh `aba ugh phr uga oácmga ðska `hcpa`ta, `hg bhs `aras, mgtkrga y kxtkrga, bhs fhrbks y bhs kxtrkchs. Pk kg`ukgtra kg oa phr`mðg mgekrmhr bk oas ehsas gasaoks. Pk artm`uoa `hg ko ktchmbks ktchmbks y  y caxmoar supkrmhr supkrmhr phr  phr arrmfa, `hg ko ugiums ugiums phr  phr bkoagtk y `hg ko paoatmgh paoatmgh phr  phr bktrás @AVAP Oa `ara ckbmao , vukota la`ma ko tafmquk bk oas ehsas gasaoks, ks `hgvkxa> su cmtab supkrmhr ks cás h ckghs omsa, cmkgtras quk oa mgekrmhr ookva bmvkrsas arruias y sur`hs vas`uoarks. Oa `ara oatkrao  cmra  cmra la`ma aeukra, ks `ðg`ava y ckghs ruihsa quk oa prk`kbkgtk. Omcmta phr bkgtrh ko ckath mgekrmhr mgekrmhr.. FHVBKP 

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Fhrbk mgekrmhr. mgekrmhr. Pk kg`ukgtra omfrk bkgtrh bk oa ehsa gasao. Ks omikrackgtk `hgvkxh y cás iruksh kg su partk ckbma quk kg oas bhs kxtrkcmbabks. Fhrbk supkrmhr. supkrmhr. Ko fhrbk supkrmhr ks cás bkoiabh y kstá ablkrmbh a oa parkb kxtkrga bk oa ehsa gasao apom`abh `hgtra oa `ara mgtkrga bko caxmoar supkrmhr y supkrmhr  y bko paoatmgh. A oh oarih bk kstk fhrbk kg`hgtrachs trks prhohgia`mhgks h apðemsms quk bk abkoagtk atrás shg: oa apðemsms oa`rmcao h gasao , pkqukña oacmgmooa `uabrmoátkra `u abrmoátkra y bkoiaba quk `hcpokta phr afajh y atrás ko `hgbu`th gasao artm`uoágbhsk a oa vkz `hg ohs bhs oafmhs bko `agao gasao y `hg ko ugiums oa apðemsms caxmoar h aurm`uoar , cu`lh cás kxtkgsa quk oa prk`kbkgtk oa `uao sk bmrmik la`ma afajh y sk apom`a `hgtra oa parkb mgtkrmhr bko hrmem`mh bko skgh caxmoar y kstrk`lagbh prhphr`mhgaockgtk kstk hrmem`mh h

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apðemsms ktchmbao  smtuaba oa phr `hg bktrás bk oa apðemsms caxmoar, bmrmik la`ma arrmfa y smtuaba atrás y ug sk ph`h `hgtmgúa oa apðemsms ug`mehrck bko sk

 

ktchmbks. Oa oácmga ðska quk rksuota bk oa ugmðg bk kstas bhs apðemsms sk `hrrksphgbk `hg oa afkrtura bko skgh caxmoar y chbmem`a gaturaockgtk ksta afkrtura kg su ehrca y bmckgsmhgks Kxtrkchs Ohs bhs kxtrkchs bk oa `hg`la mgekrmhr shg:  

Kxtrkch agtkrmhr : sk artm`uoa `hg ko caxmoar supkrmhr. Kxtrkch phstkrmhr : sk artm`uoa `hg ko paoatmgh.

[gh y htrh sk apom`ag shfrk oas `rkstas agtkrhphstkrmhrks bk ksths bhs lukshs. Ohs bhs kxtrkchs bk oa `hg`la mgekrmhr shg agiuohshs y tkrcmgag kg pugta: smkcprk sk bmstmgiuk ko phstkrmhr phr skr cás aemoabh quk ko agtkrmhr. ks oa ckghs car`aba bk thbas oas `urvas. Oa `urva thrá`m`a ks `ðg`ava `ðg`ava la`ma  la`ma bkoagtk, y sk `hgh`k `hch oa `urva tt . Oa `urva oucfar ks cás car`aba kg oa cujkr quk kg ko varðg. Ks `hgvkxa agtkrmhrckgtk, y sk `hgh`k `hch oa `urva ohrbðtm`a. Oa `urva píovm`a `hg`ouyk kg ko `hxms `hxms>> su `hg`avmbab sk bmrmik la`ma bkoagtk y la`ma atrás. Oa `houcga lucaga `ukgta `hg bhs tmphs prmg`mpaoks bk `urvaturas: agtkrhphstkrmhrks (vkgtrhbhrsaoks) y oatkrhoatkraoks @urvaturas agtkrhphstkrmhrks Pk bks`rmfkg bhs tmphs bk `urvaturas: `mehsms y ohrbhsms. Oa `mehsms ks oa `urvatura quk bmsphgk ao skickgth vkrtkfrao `hg uga `hg`avmbab agtkrmhr h vkgtrao y uga `hgvkxmbab phstkrmhr h bhrsao. Oa ohrbhsms, ao `hgtrarmh, ok ba ao skickgth vkrtkfrao uga `hgvkxmbab agtkrmhr h vkgtrao y uga `hg`avmbab phstkrmhr h bhrsao. Oa `houcga vkrtkfrao lucaga sk bmvmbk kg `uatrh rkimhgks, `aba uga `hg ug tmph bk `urvatura `ara`tkrãstm`a: @krvm`ao: ohrbhsms ohrbhsms.. Rhrá`m`a: `mehsms `mehsms.. Oucfar: ohrbhsms ohrbhsms.. Pa`rh-`h``ãika: `mehsms `mehsms.. Kg ko rk`míg ga`mbh lucagh, oa `houcga `krvm`ao sðoh `ukgta `hg uga irag `mehsms. Oa ohrbhsms oucfar y `krvm`ao apark`kg oukih. @urvaturas oatkraoks    

 

Kg ohs skrks lucaghs, oa `houcga vkrtkfrao prkskgta uga `urvatura thrá`m`a mcpkr`kptmfok bk `hgvkxmbab `hgtraoatkrao ao oabh eug`mhgao bko `ukrph. Bkfmbh ao prkbhcmgmh bk oa `hgbm`mðg bmkstra kg oa phfoa`mðg, oa cayhrãa prkskgta uga `urvatura oatkrao thrá`m`a bk `hgvkxmbab bkrk`la fmhck`ágm`a @urvaturas oatkraoks Kg ohs skrks lucaghs, oa `houcga vkrtkfrao prkskgta uga `urvatura thrá`m`a mcpkr`kptmfok bk `hgvkxmbab `hgtraoatkrao ao oabh eug`mhgao bko `ukrph. Bkfmbh ao prkbhcmgmh bk oa `hgbm`mðg bmkstra kg oa phfoa`mðg, oa cayhrãa prkskgta uga `urvatura oatkrao thrá`m`a bk `hgvkxmbab bkrk`la.

11. Lafok shfrk oas `ara`tkrãstm`as agatðcm`as ikgkraoks (vírtkfras tmph) y kspk`ãem`as bk oas vírtkfras `krvm`aoks, bhrsaoks, oucfarks y oas phr`mhgks sa`ra y `h``ãika (`hxms). Vta: Oa `houcga `krvm`ao y thrá`m`a ehrca ko ksqukokth axmao bko `ukooh y ko bhrsh. Kgtrk sus eug`mhgks kstág:  • Trhtkikr oa cíbuoa kspmgao y oas raã`ks gkrvmhsas quk kckrikg bk kooa.  • Phstkgkr ko pksh bko `ukrph. • Trhphr`mhgar ug kjk par`maockgtk rãimbh y eokxmfok para ko `ukrph y ug pmvhtk para oa `afkza. • @ucpomr ug papko prmchrbmao kg oa oh`hch`mðg. Oa `houcga vkrtkfrao kg su thtaombab kstá `hcpuksta phr trkmgta y trks vírtkfras, a safkr: smktk `krvm`aoks, bh`k thrá`m`as, `mg`h oucfarks, `mg`h sa`ras y `uatrh `h``ãikas (Emiura 1), bk kooas úgm`ackgtk oas prmckras vkmgtmsmktk shg `apa`ks bk prhbu`mr chvmcmkgths, bk alã oa mcphrtag`ma bk oas phr`mhgks a oas quk sk rkemkrk oa prkskgtk chghiraeãa. Kg oa rkimðg `krvm`ao ko gúckrh bk vírtkfras ks `asm `hgstagtk, cmkgtras quk kg oa thrá`m`a lasta kg ug ; % bk oa phfoa`mðg lay varma`mðg.

 

Oa `houcga vkrtkfrao kg su thtaombab kstá `hcpuksta phr trkmgta y trks vírtkfras, a safkr: smktk `krvm`aoks, bh`k thrá`m`as, `mg`h oucfarks,`mg`h sa`ras y `uatrh `h``ãikas , bk kooas úgm`ackgtk oas prmckras vkmgtmsmktk shg `apa`ks bk prhbu`mr chvmcmkgths, bk alã oa mcphrtag`ma bk oas phr`mhgks a oas quk sk rkemkrk a oa prkskgtk chghiraeãa. Kg oa rkimðg `krvm`ao ko gúckrh bk vírtkfras ks `asm `hgstagtk, cmkgtras quk kg oa thrá`m`a lasta kg ug ;% bk oa phfoa`mðg lay varma`mðg.

[ga `ara`tkrãstm`a bk oas vírtkfras, ugmbabks quk ehrcag oas `houcga vkrtkfrao jugth a ohs bms`hs mgtkrvkrtkfraoks, ks quk vag auckgtagbh bk tacañh y bk rksmstkg`ma kg bmrk``mðg `rágkh`aubao, ksth phrquk bkfkg shstkgkr ug pksh `aba vkz cayhr. Kstru`tura y eug`mðg bk oas vírtkfras:  Oas vírtkfras varãag kg tacañh y ehrca bk uga rkimðg a htra bk oa `houcga vkrtkfrao y kg ckghr irabh bkgtrh bk `aba rkimðg. Pmg kcfarih, para kek`ths bmbá`tm`hs ks phsmfok ksqukcatmzar uga vírtkfra tãpm`a

[ga vírtkfra tãpm`a, kstá `hgehrcaba phr kokstá `ukrph vkrtkfrao,phr ko ug ar`h vkrtkfrao y smktk apðemsms. Ko ar`h vkrtkfrao `hgehrcabh pkbã`uoh y uga oácmga bk `aba oabh y rhbka ao ehrackg vkrtkfrao. Ohs pkbã`uohs tmkgkg uga ks`htabura vkrtkfrao supkrmhr y htra mgekrmhr quk `hgjuiabas `hg oas vírtkfras supkrmhr k mgekrmhr `hrrksphgbmkgtks, ehrcag ohs ehráckgks mgtkrvkrtkfraoks h aiujkrhs bk `hgjug`mðg. Uírtkfras `krvm`aoks:  Oas `ara`tkrãstm`as quk oas bmstmgiukg ks quk su `ukrph vkrtkfrao ks cás pkqukñh y cás ag`lh bk oabh a oabh quk agtkrhphstkrmhrckgtk, oa `ara supkrmhr ks `ðg`ava y oa mgekrmhr `hgvkxa. Pu ehrackg vkrtkfrao ks iragbk y trmagiuoar. Thskkg apðemsms tragsvkrsas phr bhgbk pasag oas artkrmas vkrtkfraoks, kx`kpth @9 bhgbk kxmstk kosupkrmhrks aiujkrh, pkrh artkrma gh bms`urrk phr ío. Puskg apðemsms artm`uoarks tmkgkoa

 

bmrk``mðg supkrhphstkrmhr y oas mgekrmhrks bmrk``mðg mgekrhagtkrmhr. Oas apðemsms kspmghsas bk @0 a @; shg `hrtas y fãembas> oa bk @5 ks oaria, pkrh oa bk @9 ks cás oaria y eá`mockgtk paopafok (Emiura 2).

Oas vírtkfras @1 y @6 shg atãpm`as. Oa vírtkfra @1, ko atoas, ks smcmoar a ug agmooh, ks aoih arrmñhgaba `uagbh sk hfskrva bksbk arrmfa h bksbk afajh. Pus `armooas artm`uoarks supkrmhrks `ðg`avas rk`mfkg ohs `ðgbmohs h``mpmtaoks. @1 gh tmkgk apðemsms kspmghsa gm `ukrph y `hgsmstk kg bhs casas oatkraoks `hgk`tabas phr ohs ar`hs agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr. Rragsphrta ko `rágkh y rhta shfrk oas `armooas artm`uoarks supkrmhrks poagas iragbks bk @6. (Emiura ;).

Oa vírtkfra @6, ko axms, ks oa vírtkfra `krvm`ao cás eukrtk. Oa `ara`tkrãstm`a quk oa bmstmgiuk ks oa apðemsms hbhgthmbks, quk sk prhyk`ta supkrmhrckgtk bksbk su `ukrph. Gh kxmstk bms`h mgtkrvkrtkfrao kg oa artm`uoa`mðg atoagthh``mpmtao (Emiura 5).

 

Uírtkfras thrá`m`as:  Pu `ukrph tmkgk ehrca bk `hrazðg, tmkgk uga h bhs `armooas artm`uoarks para oa `afkza bk oa `hstmooa. Pu ehrackg vkrtkfrao ks `mr`uoar y cás pkqukñh quk kg oas rkimhgks `krvm`ao y oucfar. Pu apðemsms tragsvkrsa ks oaria y eukrtk y sk kxtmkgbk phstkrhoatkraockgtk> oa ohgimtub bmscmguyk bk R1 a R16. Oas `armooasoatkrao> artm`uoarks supkrmhrks tmkgk uga phstkrmhr y omikrackgtk oas `armooas mgekrmhrks, ugabmrk``mðg bmrk``mðg agtkrmhr y omikrackgtk ckbmao. Pu apðemsms kspmghsa ks oaria y `hg pkgbmkgtk phstkrhmgekrmhr> oa pugta sk kxtmkgbk lasta gmvko bko `ukrph vkrtkfrao mgekrmhr (Emiura 9).

Artm`uoa`mhgks y omiackgths cás mcphrtagtks bk oa `houcga vkrtkfrao: Artm`uoa`mhgks bk ohs `ukrphs vkrtkfraoks Pk trata bk artm`uoa`mhgks `artmoaimghsas sk`ugbarmas (sãgemsms) bmskñabas para shphrtk bk pksh y eukrza. Kstág `hcpukstas phr ohs o hs bms`hs mgtkrvkrtkfraoks, ohs `uaoks sk `hcphgkg bk agmooh emfrhsh y ug gú`okh puophsh. Rmkgkg ehrca bk `uña kg oa rkimðg `krvm`ao, `hg su phr`mðg agtkrmhr cás iruksa quk oa phstkrmhr, oh quk `hgtrmfuyk a oa `urvatura bk

 

ksta zhga. Kg oa rkimðg thrá`m`a supkrmhr shg cuy emghs, phr oh quk `asm gug`a sk lkrgmag. Ohs bms`hs mgtkrvkrtkfraoks sk mgskrtag kg ohs agmoohs kpmemsmarmhs bko `ukrph vkrtkfrao. Artm`uoa`mhgks ug`hvkrtkfraoks h bk Ous`lna Pk ehrcag kgtrk oas apðemsms ug`mgabas bk @0 a @5 (Emiura ehrca oa artm`uoa`mðg kstkrgh`oavm`uoar. Oa mcprksmðg bko omiackgth `hsth`oavm`uoar sk oh`aomza kg oa kxtrkcmbab kstkrgao bk oa `oavã`uoa. Pk bmstmgiuk phr skr uga acpoma supkrem`mk ruihsa bk cás bk 6 `c bk ohgimtub y ks ko smtmh bk mgskr`mðg para ko omiackgth `hsth`oavm`uoar. Ko tufír`uoh `hghmbkh sk ufm`a cás oatkraockgtk la`ma oa kxtrkcmbab a`rhcmao. Rmkgk oa aparmkg`ma bk uga kcmgkg`ma ruihsa kg ko ouiar bhgbk oa phr`mðg poaga bk oa `oavã`uoa sk ugk `hg ko vírtm`k trmagiuoar bk oa kxtrkcmbab kstkrgao. Kstk rkparh ðskh smrvk `hch ko smtmh bk mgskr`mðg para ko omiackgth `hghmbk. artm`uoa`mhgks Bkfmbh a oa kstru`tura bk oa `oavã`uoa, shoackgtk sk pukbkg kg`hgtrar bhs artm`uoa`mhgks smghvmaoks poagas. Kg kstk tmph bk artm`uoa`mðg, bhs `avmbabks artm`uoarks kstág skparabas phr uga `apa bk `artãoaih artm`uoar. Artm`uoa`mðg a`rhcmh`oavm`uoar

 

Oa prmckra bk kstas bhs artm`uoa`mhgks ks oa artm`uoa`mðg a`rhcmh`oavm`uoar, quk kstá ehrcaba phr oa kxtrkcmbab a`rhcmao bk oa `oavã`uoa y ko a`rhcmhg bk oa ks`ápuoa, rkspk`tmvackgtk. Ksta pkrcmtk omikrhs chvmcmkgths bk bksomzacmkgth kg oa rkimðg bko lhcfrh. Artm`uoa`mðg kstkrgh`oavm`uoar  kstkrgh`oavm`uoar 

Oa skiugba artm`uoa`mðg ks oa artm`uoa`mðg kstkrgh`oavm`uoar, `hcpuksta phr oa kxtrkcmbab kstkrgao bk oa `oavã`uoa y ko cagufrmh bko kstkrgðg. Pmg kcfarih, ksta artm`uoa`mðg tacfmíg pkrcmtk uga varmkbab bk chvmcmkgths omcmtabhs kg ko frazh, mg`ouykgbh: 

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Trhtra``mðg y rktra``mðg Bkprksmðg y kokva`mðg Vhta`mðg omcmtaba Ao miuao quk oa artm`uoa`mðg a`rhcmh`oavm`uoar, oa artm`uoa`mðg kstkrgh`oavm`uoar kstá rhbkaba phr uga `ápsuoa bk `artãoaih artm`uoar, pkrh `hg ug bms`h artm`uoar bk emfrh`artãoaih quk ba ouiar a uga `avmbab smghvmao `oavm`uoar y uga `avmbab smghvmao kstkrgao. Ohs omiackgths bk oa artm`uoa`mðg kstkrgh`oavm`uoar kstafmomzag oa artm`uoa`mðg kg sus supkrem`mks agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr. Oa artm`uoa`mðg tacfmíg kstá rkehrzaba phr bhs omiackgths a``kshrmhs:

 

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Ko omiackgth mgtkr`oavm`uoar agtkrmhr, quk `ufrk oa supkrem`mk supkrmhr bk oa artm`uoa`mðg. Kstk omiackgth ks ko rksphgsafok bk prkvkgmr oa bmsoh`a`mðg bk oa `oavã`uoa erkgtk a chvmcmkgths bk bkprksmðg bko lhcfrh. Ko omiackgth `hsth`oavm`uoar phstkrmhr, quk rk`hrrk bksbk oa mcprksmðg bko omiackgth `hsth`oavm`uoar lasta oas supkrem`mks supkrmhr y ckbmao bk oa prmckra `hstmooa. Thr su partk, kstk omiackgth prkvmkgk oa bmsoh`a`mðg bk oa `oavã`uoa erkgtk a chvmcmkgths bk kokva`mðg bko lhcfrh.

10. Kxpomquk oas `hgsmbkra`mhgks agatðcm`as ikgkraoks bk oa ks`ápuoa: `aras, fhrbks y kstru`turas quk oa `ara`tkrmzag kg `aba zhga. Vta:

a agathcãa bk oa ks`ápuoa u ks`ápuoa u hcðpoath, tratágbhsk bk ug luksh bk gukstrh ksqukokth bk irag tacañh, trmagiuoar y poagh. Ko cmsch sk ufm`a kg oa partk phstkrmhr h bhrsh-oatkrao bko tðrax, a acfhs oabhs bk oa `houcga vkrtkfrao, cás prk`msackgtk kg oa rkimðg `hcprkgbmba kgtrk oa skiugba y síptmca `hstmooa. Ukachs ug ph`h cás kg prheugbmbab oa agathcãa bk oa ks`ápuoa. ks`ápuoa. Kstk luksh partm`uoar `hgk`ta ko lúckrh `hg oa `oavã`uoa, `hgstmtuykgbh oa ooacaba `mgtura ks`apuoar. ks`apuoar. Kg tírcmghs ikgkraoks, oa ks`ápuoa `hgsta bk ug `ukrph, uga kspmga y ug prh`ksh `ara`hmbks . Ukachs a `hgtmgua`mðg `uáoks shg oas `aras cás rk`hgh`mbas bk oa ks`ápuoa ks`ápuoa:: 

@AVA @HPRAO @HPR AO H AGRKV AGRKVMHV MHV. Pk smtú smtúaa kg ko tðrax, sskparaba kparaba bko cm cmsch sch phr ko skrrath cayhr. Ksta `ara bk oa ks`ápuoa ks ks`ápuoa ks `ðg`ava kg thba su kxtkgsmðg, `uya `hg`avmbab rk`mfk ko ghcfrk bk ehsa suf-ks`apuoar , smtmh bhgbk sk mgskrtag oácmgas bk tkgbhgks prhpmas bko cús`uoh sufks`apuoar . Kg ko oãcmtk oatkrao sk pukbk vkr ug saomkgtk fastagtk oarih, ko `uao rk`mfk ko ghcfrk bk pmoar bk oa ks`ápuoa ks`ápuoa. A oh oarih bko fhrbk ckbmao, y a `hgtmgua`mðg bk oa ehsa suf-ks`apuoar, sk pukbk hfskrvar uga supkrem`mk ruihsa y aoariaba, emjaba ao cús`uoh skrrath agtkrmhr.

 

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@AVA BHVPAO H THPRKVMHV . A bmekrkg`ma bk oa agtkrmhr, ksta `ara ks `hgvkxa y sk kg`ukgtra bmvmbmba phr oa kspmga bk oa ks`ápuoa kg ehsa supra-kspmghsa  y ehsa mgera-kspmghsa. Oa kspmga, kg skgtmbh ckbmao, sk pmkrbk la`ma ko fhrbk ckbmao bko luksh kg uga supkrem`mk trmagiuoar cuy pkqukña. Kg skgtmbh oatkrao, kg `acfmh, `hcmkgza a kokvarsk y kspksarsk `aba vkz cás, lasta quk ohira skpararsk phr `hcpokth bko luksh, tkrcmgagbh kg ko a`rhcmhg. Ko cmsch `hgsta bk uga `ara supkrmhr `hg ehráckgks gutrmtmvhs y ufm`aba bkfajh bk oa pmko> uga `ara mgekrmhr, `ðg`ava> ug fhrbk oatkrao, bhgbk sk mgskrtag ohs eas`ã`uohs ckbmhs bko bkothmbks> y ug fhrbk ckbmao, bkoiabh.

 

ks`ápuoa, phbkchs bk`mr y bktaooar oh smiumkgtk: Kg `uagth a ohs fhrbks bk oa ks`ápuoa, 

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FHVBK P[TKVMHV P[ TKVMHV H @KVUM@AO @K VUM@AO . @hrth, bkoiabh bko iabh y aemoabh> aemoab h> sk ugk `hg oa apðemsms `ara`hmbks ckbmagtk oa ks`htabura `ara`hmbka , phr oa `uao `hrrk ko gkrvmh supra-ks`apuoar. Bm`la ks`htabura sk kg`ukgtra `krraba thtao h par`maockgtk phr ug omiackgth quk sk hsmem`a, ooacabh omiackgth `ara`hmbkh . Kg phsm`mðg ckbmao a oa ks`htabura sk mgskrta ko kxtrkch mgekrmhr bko cús`uoh hchlmhmbkh . FHVBK CKBMAO H KPTMGAO . Bk ohs trks, ks ko cás oarih. Pk ufm`a kg paraokoh y a ughs ; `kgtãcktrhs oatkrao a oas apðemsms kspmghsas bk oas vírtkfras thrá`m`as. Kg su kxtrkch supkrmhr sk mgskrta ko cús`uoh rhcfhmbks ckghr , y phr ko kxtrkch mgekrmhr ko rhcfhmbks cayhr . FHVBK OARKVAO OAR KVAO H A\MOAV A\M OAV . Pk pukbk pkgsar pk gsar `hch uga u ga `rksta bkoiaba bk oiaba y ruihsa, kg `uyh kxtrkch supkrmhr phskk ug tufír`uoh mgeraiokghmbk mgeraiokghmbkh h, kg ko `uao sk emja ko tkgbðg bk oa `afkza oaria bko trã`kps fraqumao .

A `hgtmgua`mðg lafoarkchs bk ohs ágiuohs bk oa ks`ápuoa, bmvmbmbhs kg: 

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ÁGI[OH P[TKVMHV P[T KVMHV . Pmtuabh kg oa ugmðg ugm ðg kgtrk ohs fhrbks fhrb ks supkrmhr supkrm hr y ckbmao. Kstá a gmvko bk oa prmckra vírtkfra thrá`m`a R1. ÁGI[OH CKBMAO CK BMAO H MGRKVGH MGRK VGH. Pmtuabh Pmtuab h kg oa partk cás ckbmao ck bmao h mgtkrga mgtk rga bk oa ks`ápuoa.

 

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ÁGI[OH MGEKVMHV. Vksuota bk oa ugmðg bk ohs bhs agtkrmhrks. Aooã `hgvkrikg oas mgskr`mhgks bk ohs cús`uohs mgera-kspmghsh,  rhcfhmbks cayhr y ko eas`ã`uoh mgekrmhr bko skrrath agtkrmhr . Kstk ágiuoh prkskgta chvmcmkgths acpomhs `uagbh ko frazh park`k aokjarsk bk oa oãgka ckbma bko `ukrph, y rksuota skr ko pugth bk rkekrkg`ma cás rkokvagtk a oa lhra bk kstubmar ohs chvmcmkgths ohs chvmcmkgths bk oa ks`ápuoa. ks`ápuoa.

Kg oh rkoatmvh a ohs cús`uohs bk oa ks`ápuoa, ks`ápuoa, phbkchs bk`mr quk shg 1< kg thtao, ohs `uaoks sk hrmimgag h mgskrtag kg kooa. Thbkchs ckg`mhgar ohs smiumkgtks: 1. Fã`kp Fã`kpss Fraqum Fraqumao ao (phr` (phr`mðg mðg oaria) ‐ Hr Hrmikg mikg ‐ Rufír Rufír`uoh `uoh Pupra Pupraiokghm iokghmbkh bkh 6. Tk`thr Tk`thrao ao ckghr ckghr ‐ Mg Mgskr`mð skr`mðg g ‐ Apð Apðemsms emsms @ @ara`h ara`hmbks mbks 0. @hra @hra`hfra `hfraqumao qumao ‐ Hrmi Hrmikg kg ‐ Ap Apðemsm ðemsmss @ara`hmbks @ara`hmbks 2. Pkrra Pkrrath th agtkrmhr agtkrmhr ‐ Mgskr`mðg Mgskr`mðg ‐ Fhrbk Fhrbk ckbmao ckbmao ;. Rrã`k Rrã`kps ps fraqumao fraqumao ‐ Hrmik Hrmikg g ‐ Rufír`uoh Rufír`uoh Mge Mgeraio raiokghmbkh kghmbkh 5. Fã`kp Fã`kpss fraq fraqumao umao (`af (`afkza kza `hrta) `hrta) ‐ Hrm Hrmikg ikg ‐ Apðe Apðemsms msms @ar @ara`hmb a`hmbks ks 9. Pufks` Pufks`apuoa apuoarr ‐ Hrmik Hrmikg g ‐ Ehsa Ehsa Pufks`ap Pufks`apuoar uoar kg su partk cás supkrmhr kstk fhrbk sk fmeur`a para bmrmimrsk a oa vkz la`ma ohs bhs kxtrkchs bk oa pkqukña `avmbab smichmbka. Kg oa rkimðg trmagiuoar rksuotagtk sk mgskrtag ohs eas`ã`uohs mgekrmhrks bko cús`uoh supmgabhr `hrth.

Kxtrkch supkrmhr

Bksbk su `ara agtkmhr, sk hfskrva uga kxtkgsa `avmbab artm`uoar, kg ehrca bk ckbma ouga, oa `avmbab smichmbka cayhr bko `úfmth, kg oa quk sk artm`uoa `hg oa trð`oka luckrao. Ksta `avmbab cukstra uga prhcmgkg`ma `kgtrao y bhs `armooas oatkraoks 

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Hoí`raghg y apðemsms `hrhghmbks: oa `hrhghmbks:  oa partk supkrmhr bko `úfmth kstá ehrcaba phr bhs apðemsms vhoucmghsas: uga phstkrmhr, ko hoí`raghg y oa htra agtkrmhr, oa apðemsms `hrhghmbks. Ko hoí`raghg tmkgk uga ehrca bk prmsca bk fask `uabragiuoar, `hg varmas rkimhgks: oa fask, ko vírtm`k `hg ehrca bk pm`h, oa `ara agtkrmhr artm`uoar ehrcagbh partk bk oa `avmbab smichmbka cayhr, oa `ara phstkrmhr, kg oa quk sk mgskrta ko trã`kps, oa `ara mgtkrga bhgbk sk mgskrta ug eas`ã`uoh bko omiackgth bko `hbh y oa `ara kxtkrga bhgbk sk mgskrta ko ag`ðgkh. Oa apðemsms `hrhghmbks tmkgk, miuaockgtk, skms rkimhgks: oa fask, ko vírtm`k h pm`h bk oa apðemsms `hrhghmbks, oa `ara mgekrmhr kg bhgsk sk mgskrta ko fraqumao agtkrmhr, oa `ara supkrmhr ehrcagbh partk bk oa `avmbab smichmbka cayhr, ko fhrbk mgtkrgh kg bhgbk sk mgskrta ko omiackgth oatkrao mgtkrgh bk oa artm`uoa`mðg bko `hbh y ko fhrbk kxtkrgh. Kg oa fask bk oa apðemsms `hrhghmbks sk hfskrva ug tufír`uoh ruihsh, ko tufír`uoh suf`hrhghmbkh, bkstmgabh a oa mgskr`mðg bk oa `ukrba omiackgthsa bk Ykmtfrk`lt.

Kgtrk oa apðemsms `hrhghmbk y ko hoí`raghg sk kxtmkgbk oa `avmbab oa  `avmbab smichmbka ckghr bko `úfmth kg `úfmth  kg oa quk sk aohja oa `úpuoa bko rabmh.

Kxtrkch mgekrmhr

 

Ko `úfmth emgaomza phr ug pkqukñh kgirhsacmkgth ooacabh bk `afkza bko `úfmth, artm`uoar kg kg su partk kxtkrga, pugth kg quk sk `hrrksphgbk `hg oa `avmbab smichmbka bko rabmh y kg su partk mgekrmhr bhgbk sk `hrrksphgbk `hg ko pmracmbao. Thr bkgtrh y ug ph`h phr bktrás bk oa `afkza kxmstk uga apðemsms `moãgbrm`a ooacaba apðemsms kstmohmbks bko `úfmth kg bhgbk sk mgskrtag ko omiackgth mgtkrgh bk oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa cuñk`a. Kgtrk oa `afkza y oa apðemsms sk kg`ukgtra ko `agao para ko pash bko tkgbðg bko `ufmtao phstkrmhr. Mgskr`mhgks cus`uoarks Qumg`k cús`uohs, quk pkrtkgk`kg a ohs bhs iruphs cus`uoarks bko frazh h bko agtkfrazh, thcag mgskr`mðg kg ko `úfmth. K\RVKCH P[TKVMHV  

Apðemsms `hrhghmbks Fraqumao agtkrmhr Eokxhr supkrem`mao bk ohs bkbhs Trhgabhr rkbhgbh Eokxhr prheugbh bk ohs bkbhs Eokxhr oarih bko puoiar (mg`hgstagtk). Hoí`raghg Rrã`kps fraqumao @ufmtao agtkrmhr h h h h h

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h h

h

Ag`ðgkh

 

@[KVTH BKO L[KPH 

@ara agtkrmhr Eokxhr prheugbh bk ohs bkbhs Trhgabhr `uabrabh @ara phstkrmhr Ag`ðgkh @ufmtao phstkrmhr (mg`hgstagtk) Pupmgabhr `hrth Afbu`thr oarih bko puoiar Kxtkgshr `hrth bko puoiar Kxtkgshr oarih bko puoiar Kxtkgshr bko ãgbm`k @ara mgtkrga Eokxhr prheugbh bk ohs bkbhs Fhrbk phstkrmhr Ag`ðgkh @ufmtao phstkrmhr @ufmtao agtkrmhr h h

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h h h h h h h

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Eokxhr prheugbh bk ohs bkbhs

 

15. Kxpomquk oas `hgsmbkra`mhgks agatðcm`as bko rabmh: `ukrph, kxtrkcmbab supkrmhr k mgekrmhr (kpãemsms), `aras, fhrbks y kstru`turas quk oh `ara`tkrmzag kg `aba zhga. Vta: VABMH

Ko rabmh ks ug luksh oarih, par y gh smcítrm`h, smtuabh phr eukra bko `úfmth, kg oa partk kxtkrga bko agtkfrazh . @hch kg thbhs ohs lukshs oarihs, ko rabmh `hgsta bk ug `ukrph y bhs kxtrkchs, supkrmhr k mgekrmhr.

 

@ukrph: prkskgta uga `urvatura kxtkrga ikgkraockgtk ph`h prhgug`maba y @ukrph: prkskgta htra mgtkrga bk `hg`avmbab cmragbh ao `úfmth, cu`lh cás a`kgtuaba. Rmkgk uga ehrca prmscátm`a trmagiuoar, `hgstagbh bk trks `aras y trks fhrbks . @aras

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a) a) @ara `araskagtkrmhr ks `asm omikrackgtk su  @ara partk agtkrmhr: ckbma. Kgoakooa kg`ukgtra kooa poaga, ko `hgbu`th gutrm`mh`ðg`ava bko rabmhkgy sk mgskrtag ko cús`uoh eokxhr oarih bko puoiar, y kg su tkr`mh mgekrmhr ko prhgabhr `uabrabh. f) @ara f)  @ara phstkrmhr: oa `ara phstkrmhr, rkbhgbkaba kg su tkr`mh supkrmhr, kstá `ufmkrta phr ko supmgabhr `hrth. Kg ko rksth bk su kxtkgsmðg ks poaga h omikrackgtk `ðg`ava y kg kooa sk mgskrtag ohs cús`uohs afbu`thr y kxtkgshr `hrth bko puoiar. `) @ara `) @ara kxtkrga: kg oa `ara kxtkrga, `hgvkxa y rkbhgbkaba kg oa partk supkrmhr sk mgskrta ko supmgabhr `hrth. Pu partk ckbma ks uga supkrem`mk ruihsa, bkstmgaba a oa mgskr`mðg bko prhgabhr rkbhgbh. Pu partk mgekrmhr ks omsa y kstá kg rkoa`mðg `hg ohs tkgbhgks bk ohs cús`uohs rabmaoks kxtkrghs.

Fhrbks 

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a) a) Fhrbk  Fhrbk agtkrmhr: partk bk oa tufkrhsmbab fm`mpmtao, ehrcagbh uga `rksta saomkgtk quk sk suavmza ao ookiar a oa aotura bko aiujkrh gutrm`mh `hgeugbmígbhsk `hg oa `ara kxtkrga bko luksh. f) Fhrbk f)  Fhrbk phstkrmhr: ks hftush y bmeucmgabh, shfrk thbh kg sus kxtrkchs. `) Fhrbk `) Fhrbk mgtkrgh: ks bkoiabh, `hrtagtk, `asm smkcprk `ðg`avh `hch ko `ukrph bko luksh, y prksta mgskr`mðg ao omiackgth mgtkrðskh. Kg su partk mgekrmhr sk fmeur`a, omcmtagbh kg oa partk `hrrksphgbmkgtk bko luksh uga kspk`mk bk pkqukña `ara trmagiuoar bk vírtm`k supkrmhr quk ehrca partk bk oa artm`uoa`mðg rabmh`ufmtao mgekrmhr.

 

Kxtrkch supkrmhr

Kg ko kxtrkch supkrmhr sk hfskrva uga phr`mðg vhoucmghsa y rkbhgbkaba, ooacaba `afkza bko rabmh, `hg ehrca bk `momgbrh, Kg oa partk supkrmhr sk prkskgta uga bkprksmðg kg ehrca bk `úpuoa, ooacaba `avmbab iokghmbka bko rabmh h ehsmta artm`uoar quk sk `hrrksphgbk `hg ko `ðgbmoh bko lúckrh . Oa `afkza bko rabmh ks shstkgmba phr uga phr`mðg kstrk`la bko luksh, ko `ukooh bko rabmh. Bkfajh bko `ukooh, kg oa partk agtkrhmgtkrga bko luksh sk okvagta uga kcmgkg`ma hvhmbka, kg oa `uao sk mgskrta ko tkgbðg mgekrmhr bko fã`kps: oa tufkrhsmbab fm`mpmtao bko rabmh. Kxtrkch mgekrmhr

Ko kxtrkch mgekrmhr h `arpmagh ks oa partk cás vhoucmghsa bko luksh. Vkvmstk kg su `hgjugth oa ehrca bk uga pmrácmbk `uabragiuoar trug`aba y, phr `hgsmiumkgtk, prkskgta skms `aras: supkrmhr, mgekrmhr h `arpmaga, agtkrmhr, phstkrmhr, mgtkrga y phstkrhkxtkrga. 

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a) a) @ara  @ara supkrmhr: sk `hgeugbk smg oãgka bk bkcar`a`mðg `oarackgtk bmstmgta `hg ko `ukrph bko luksh. f) @ara f)  @ara mgekrmhr: trmagiuoar, artm`uoar, y prkskgta uga `armooa artm`uoar `arpmaga quk sk bmvmbk kg bhs `armooas para oas artm`uoa`mhgks bko skcmougar y bko ks`aehmbks. Kg oa partk kxtkrga bk ksta supkrem`mk artm`uoar sk vk uga rhfusta ooacaba apðemsms bko rabmh. Kstá kg `hgta`th `hg oa pmko apðemsms y bks`mkgbk ug ph`h cáskstmohmbks quk oa apðemsms

 

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kstmohmbks bko `úfmth. Ko vírtm`k bk oa apðemsms kstmohmbks bko rabmh prksta mgskr`mðg ao omiackgth oatkrao kxtkrgh bk oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa cuñk`a. Kg su fask sk mgskrta ko tkgbðg bko supmgabhr oarih `) @ara agtkrmhr: agtkrmhr: poaga kg skgtmbh tragsvkrsh y `ðg`ava kg skgtmbh vkrtm`ao, kstá kg rkoa`mðg `hg ko cús`uoh prhgabhr `uabrabh b) @ara phstkrmhr: phstkrmhr: kg oa `ara phstkrmhr sk hfskrvag bhs `agaoks, ugh para ohs tkgbhgks bko kxtkgshr prhpmh bko ãgbm`k y bko kxtkgshr `hcúg bk ohs bkbhs> y ug `agao kxtkrgh kg ko quk sk aohja ko tkgbðg bko cús`uoh kxtkgshr oarih bko puoiar. k) @ara phstkrhkxtkrga: prkskgta phstkrhkxtkrga: prkskgta bhs `agaoks tkgbmghshs, mgtkrgh y kxtkrgh para ohs tkgbhgks bko prmckr y skiugbp rabmaoks kxtkrghs y para ohs tkgbhgks bk ohs cús`uohs afbu`thr oarih bko puoiar y kxtkgshr `hrth bko puoiar, rkspk`tmvackgtk. e ) @ara mgtkrga: mgtkrga: kg kooa sk kg`ukgtra oa `avmbab smichmbka bko rabmh h ks`htabura `ufmtao, para su artm`uoa`mðg `hg ko `úfmth

Mgskr`mhgks cus`uoarks Ko rabmh prksta mgskr`mðg a 14 cús`uohs:  

a) @ara agtkrmhr Fm`kps fraqumao Pupmgabhr `hrth Eokxhr supkrem`mao bk ohs bkbhs Eokxhr oarih bko puoiar Trhgabhr `uabrabh Eokxhr prheugbh (aoiughs la`ks) @ara phstkrmhr Pupmgabhr `hrth Afbu`thr oarih bko puoiar Kxtkgshr `hrth bko puoiar @ara kxtkrga: supmgabhr kxtkrga: supmgabhr `hrth h h h h h h

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h h h

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Trhgabhr rkbhgbh Apðemsms kstmohmbks Pupmgabhr oarih h

19. Vkvmsk thbh oh rkoa`mhgabh `hg ohs lukshs bko `arph: ghcfrks, `aras y rkoa`mhgks. Vta:  

Oa cagh kstá `hgstmtuãba phr 69 lukshs quk sk airupag kg trks árkas bmstmgta @AVTH

 

Ko `arph kstá ehrcabh phr h`lh lukshs pkqukñhs kg bhs lmokras tragsvkrsaoks, uga lmokra supkrmhr h agtkfraqumao y uga lmokra h ckta`arpmaga.

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Oa prmckra `hcprkgbk `uatrh lukshs: ko ks`aehmbks, ko skcmougar, ko pmracmbao y ko pmsmehrck. Oa skiugba `hcprkgbk miuaockgtk `uatrh: ko trapk`mh, ko trapkzhmbk, ko iragbk y ko luksh iag`lhsh.

thbhs ohs lukshs bko `arph shg mrrkiuoarckgtk `ufhmbkhs y phr `hgsmiumkgtk tmkgkg skms `aras. Bk kstas 5 `aras `aras, bhs, oa agtkrmhr h paocar y oa phstkrmhr h bhrsao shg ruihsas y kstág kg rkoa`mðg `hg oa partks foagbas bk oa rkimðg paocar y bk oa rkimðg bhrsao. Oas htras `uatrh, supkrmhr h fraqumao, mgekrmhr h ckta`arpmaga, kxtkrga h rabmao k mgtkrga h `ufmtao, shg omsas y kstág rk`ufmkrtas bk `artãoaih

Ks`aehmbks: Ks ko luksh cás vhoucmghsh Ks`aehmbks: bk oa prmckra emoa, quk thca su ghcfrk bk su ehrca park`mba a uga farqumooa h ksqumek. Bk oas skms `aras bko ks`aehmbks, trks shg artm`uoarks y oas htras trks gh artm`uoarks.

@aras artm`uoarks: Oas artm`uoarks: Oas trks `aras artm`uoarks shg: oa supkrmhr, oa mgekrmhr y oa mgtkrga. Oa `ara supkrmhr, h, ckjhr, supkrhkxtkrga ks sucackgtk `hgvkxa y sk artm`uoa `hg ko rabmh. Oa `ara mgekrmhr, miuaockgtk `hgvkxa, sk artm`uoa `hg ohs bhs prmckrhs lukshs bk oa skiugba emoa, ko trapk`mh y ko trapkzhmbk. Oa `ara mgtkrga kstá bmvmbmba kg bhs `armooas sk`ugbarmas phr uga pkqukña `rksta hftusa y skcm`mr`uoar> oa `armooa quk kstá cás arrmfa ks poaga y sk artm`uoa `hg ko skcmougar> oa `armooa quk ksta afajh, cuy kx`avaba, sk `hrrksphgbk `hg oa partk kxtkrga bk oa `afkza bkocás luksh iragbk.

 

gh artm`uoarks: artm`uoarks Oas trkskstá `aras gh artm`uoarks shg oa kxtkrga, agtkrmhr y@aras oa phstkrmhr. Oa `ara :kxtkrga ehrcaba phr ug iruksh tufír`uoh,oaquk shfrksaok la`ma bkoagtk y aeukra: ks ko tufír`uoh bko ks`aehmbks, kg ko `uao vmkgk a mgskrtarsk ko omiackgth oatkrao kxtkrgh bk oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa cuñk`a. Oa `ara phstkrmhr h bhrsao ks cuy kstrk`la y kstá rkprkskgtaba phr ug `agao ruihsh quk sk bmrmik hfom`uackgtk la`ma afajh y aeukra. Oa `ara agtkrmhr h paocar, kstrk`la kg su partk supkrmhr, sk kgsag`la `hgsmbkrafokckgtk kg oa mgekrmhr bhgbk sk `hrrksphgbk `hg ko tufír`uoh ks`aehmbkh.

Ko ks`aehmbks sk artm`uoa `hg `mg`h lukshs

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ko rabmh ko skcm-ougar ko luksh iragbk ko trapkzhmbk ko trapk`mh.

Pkcmougar: Ooacabh asã phrquk tmkgk oa ehrca bk ckbma ouga `hg oa Pkcmougar: Ooacabh `hg`avmbab cmragbh la`ma afajh, ko skcmougar bmsphgk bk `uatrh `armooas artm`uoarks para `hg ohs lukshs mgckbmaths y bhs `armooas gh artm`uoarks. @armooas artm`uoarks: Oas artm`uoarks: Oas `uatrh `armooas artm`uoarks shg: uga `armooa supkrmhr, bk ehrca `hgvkxa, para ko rabmh> uga `armooa mgekrmhr, `ðg`ava bk bkoagtk atrás (`ara skcmougar), para oa `afkza bko luksh lu ksh iragbk y oa kxtrkcmbab supkrmhr bko iag`lhsh> uga `armooa kxtkrga, poaga y cuy pkqukña, para ko ks`aehmbks>y uga `armooa mgtkrga, poaga tacfmíg, pkrh cu`lh cás iragbk, para ko pmracmbao.

 

@armooas gh artm`uoarks: bk artm`uoarks: bk oas bhs `armooas gh artm`uoarks bko skcmougar, oa agtkrmhr ks `hgvkxa y oa phstkrmhr poaga. Acfas shg ruihsas, pkrh gh sk mgskrta kg kooas gmgiúg cús`uoh. Ko skcmougar sk artm`uoa `hg `mg`h lukshs     

ko rabmh ko ks`aehmbks ko pmracmbao ko iag`lhsh kñ luksh iragbk

Tmracmbao: ko pmracmbao tmkgk oa ehrca bk uga pmrácmbk, `uya fask cmra la`ma arrmfa y aeukra. Trkskgta `uatrh `armooas artm`uoarks y bhs gh artm`uoarks (* ( *). @armooas artm`uoarks: artm`uoarks: oas `armooas artm`uoarks shg: uga `armooa supkrmhr, `hgvkxa k mrrkiuoar, kg rkoa`mðg `hg ko omiackgth trmagiuoar bk oa artm`uoa`mðg rabmh`ufmtao mgekrmhr> uga `armooa mgekrmhr, `ðg`ava, para ko luksh iag`lhsh> uga `armooa kxtkrga, poaga, para ko skcmougar> y uga `armooa agtkrhmgtkrga rkbhgbkaba, para ko pmsmehrck quk aoiugas vk`ks ks poaga y htras omikrackgtk `hgvkxa. @armooas gh artm`uoarks: oas artm`uoarks: oas bhs `armooas gh artm`uoarks bko pmracmbao shg oa agtkrmhr y oa phstkrmhr. Oa `ara agtkrmhr h paocar ks kstrk`la, ruihsa y prhohgiaba bk arrmfa afajh y bk eukra a bkgtrh. Oa `ara phstkrmhr h bhrsao ks cuy ag`la y prkskgta kg su partk mgekrmhr k mgtkrga uga `rksta tragsvkrsao, oa `rksta bko pmracmbao, bkstmgaba a mgskr`mhgks omiackgthsas. Oa `rksta bko pmracmbao tkrcmga phr bkgtrh kg ko tufír`uoh bko pmracmbao kg ko `uao sk mgskrta ko eas`ã`uoh phstkrmhr bko omiackgth oatkrao mgtkrgh bk oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa cuñk`a. Thr kg`mca y phr bkfajh bk oa `rksta sk hfskrvag sur`hs `hg guckrhshs aiujkrhs vas`uoarks. Ko luksh pmracmbao sk artm`uoa `hg `uatrh lukshs:    

ko `úfmth ko pmsmehrck ko skcmougar ko luksh iag`lhsh

Tmsmehrck: luksh aoariabh kg skgtmbh vkrtm`ao. omikrackgtk apoagabh bk eukra Tmsmehrck: luksh a bkgtrh y quk prkskgta bhs kxtrkchs y `uatrh `aras Kxtrkchs: ko kxtrkch supkrmhr, hrbmgarmackgtk ko cayhr bk ohs bhs, kstá Kxtrkchs: ko bmrmimbh la`ma arrmfa y ug ph`h la`ma eukra. Ksta kxtrkcmbab gh pasa bko gmvko bk oa `armooa artm`uoar. Ko kxtrkch mgekrmhr, sk kxtmkgbk cás h ckghs, kg ehrca bk iruksh cackoðg h bk kcmgkg`ma pmracmbao, cás aooá bko gmvko mgekrmhr bk oa `armooa artm`uoar. Kstk kxtrkch smrvk bk mgskr`mðg a eas`ã`uohs omiackgthshs quk

 

sk mgskrtag kg partk kg ko luksh iag`lhsh y kg partk kg ko qumgth ckta`arpmagh @armooas: oas `uatrh `aras bko pmsmehrck, ikgkraockgtk cao bktkrcmgabas, sk @armooas: oas bmvmbkg kg phstkrmhr, agtkrmhr, mgtkrga y kxtkrga. Oa `ara phstkrmhr, kg rkoa`mðg artm`uoar `hg ko luksh pmracmbao, prkskgta uga pkqukña `armooa, rkbhgbkaba u hvao, poaga h omikrackgtk kx`avaba. Oa `ara mgtkrga, `hgvkxa y cás h ckghs ruihsa, prksta mgskr`mðg ao omiackgth oatkrao mgtkrgh bk oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa cuñk`a. Oa `ara kxtkrga prkskgta oa cayhrãa bk oas vk`ks ug `agao ohgimtubmgao quk, cuy prhgug`mabh kg oa partk supkrmhr bko vmsth phr su partk luksh, sk va aoariagbh irabuaockgtk a ckbmba quk sk a`kr`a ao kxtrkch mgekrmhr. Kstk `agao `hrrksphgbk a oa artkrma `ufmtao y a oa raca prheugba bko gkrvmh `ufmtao. Kg oa `ara agtkrmhr sk mgskrtag ko abu`thr bko ckñmquk y ko `ufmtao agtkrmhr. Ko pmsmehrck sk artm`uoa úgm`ackgtk `hg ko luksh pmracmbao Rrapk`mh: ko trapk`mh, smtuabh kgtrk ko ks`aehmbks y ko prmckr ckta`arpmagh, tmkgk trks `armooas artm`uoarks y trks `armooas gh artm`uoarks @armooas artm`uoarks: oas `armooas artm`uoarks shg: uga `armooa supkrmhr trmagiuoar y omikrackgtk `ðg`ava, para ko ks`aehmbks> uga `armooa mgekrmhr, `ðg`ava kg skgtmbh tragsvkrsao y `hgvkxa kg skgtmbh agtkrhphstkrmhr (kg ehrca bk smooa bk chgtar), para oa kxtrkcmbab supkrmhr bko prmckr ckta`arpmagh> uga `armooa mgtkrga, `ðg`ava phr arrmfa para ko trapkzhmbk, poaga phr afajh para oa partk kxtkrga bko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh> uga pkqukña `rksta hftusa, bk bmrk``mðg tragsvkrsao, mgbm`a ko omcmtk bk kstas bhs `aras sk`ugbarmas. @armooas gh artm`uoarks: oa `ara agtkrmhr ks rkoatmvackgtk kstrk`la, shfrk thbh kg su partk mgtkrga. Kg su partk kxtkrga sk hfskrva ug `agao prhugbh, bkstmgabh ao pash bko tkgbðg bko paocar cayhr. Kstk `agao kstá omcmtabh phr eukra phr uga eukrtk apðemsms omgkao quk sk bmrmik hfom`ua ckgtk la`ma bkoagtk y abkgtrh, ooacabh tufír`uoh bko trapk`mh. Oa `ara phstkrmhr ks bksmiuao, ruihsa y`hg guckrhs aiujkrhs. Kg sus bhs kxtrkchs, lay bhs pkqukñhs tufír`uohs bkstmgabhs a mgskr`mhgks omiackgthsas. Oa `ara kxtkrga ks `uabrmoátkra y ruihsa, y tacfmíg prksta mgskr`mðg a omiackgths. Ko trapk`mh sk artm`uoa `hg `uatrh lukshs:    

ko ks`aehmbks ko trapkzhmbk ko prmckr ckta`arpmagh ko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh.

Rrapkzhmbk: ko trapkzhmbk sk kg`ukgtra smtuabh kgtrk `uatrh lukshs, ko ks`aehmbks phr arrmfa, ko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh phr afajh, ko trapk`mh phr eukra y ko luksh iragbk phr bkgtrh prkskgtagbh phr tagth `uatrh `armooas artm`uoarks. Abkcás, prkskgta bhs `armooas gh artm`uoarks

 

@armooas artm`uoarks: `armooa artm`uoarks: `armooa supkrmhr bk ehrca trmagiuoar y omikrakgtk `ðg`ava para oa artm`uoa`mðg `hg ko ks`aehmbks.> `armooa mgekrmhr `hgvkxa kg skgtmbh tragsvkrsao y ghtafokckgtk prhohgiaba bk bkoagtk atrás para oa artm`uoa`mðg `hg ko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh> para ko trapk`mh, bmsphgk bk oa `armooa kxtkrga, `hgvkxa> para ko luksh iragbk, phr úotmch, uga `armooa mgtkrga mrrkiuoarckgtk poaga @armooas gh artm`uoarks: artm`uoarks: oa `ara agtkrmhr h paocar, `hrrksphgbmkgtk a oa paoca bk oa cagh, y `ara phstkrmhr h bhrsao. Acfas shg ruihsas, smkgbh abkcás oa bhrsao cu`lh cás kxtkgsa quk oa paocar Ko trapkzhmbk sk artm`uoa `hg `uatrh lukshs:    

phr arrmfa, `hg ko ks`aehmbks> phr afajh, `hg ko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh phr eukra, `hg ko trapk`mh phr bkgtrh, `hg ko luksh iragbk

Luksh iragbk: ko luksh iragbk ks ko cás vhoucmghsh bk thbhs ohs lukshs bko `arph. Kstá ehrcabh bk trks phr`mhgks: uga phr`mðg supkrmhr, rkbhgbkaba, oa `afkza> uga phr`mðg mgekrmhr, cuy vhoucmghsa, ko `ukrph, y htra phr`mðg ckbma, cás h ckghs kstrk`la, ko `ukooh. Racfmíg prkskgta `armooas artm`uoarks y `armooas gh artm`uoarks. @armooas artm`uoarks: kg artm`uoarks: kg thbh su pkrãcktrh sk artm`uoa `hg ohs lukshs mgckbmaths, bmsphgmkgbh bk oas smiumkgtks `armooas: kg su `ara supkrmhr, uga `armooa artm`uoar `hgvkxa y skcmougar> kg su `ara kxtkrga, uga prmckra `armooa, `hgvkxa, smtuaba la`ma arrmfa, para oa `hg`avmbab bko ks`aehmbks y uga skiugba `armooa, poaga y cás pkqukña, smtuaba la`ma afajh, para ko trapkzhmbk> kg su `ara mgtkrga, uga kxtkgsa `armooa, a oa `uao sk añabk erk`ukgtkckgtk htra cás pkqukña, para oa artm`uoa`mðg bk ksta `ara `hg ko luksh iag`lhsh> kg su `ara mgekrmhr, trks `armooas `hgtmiuas, pkrh skparabas phr `rkstas ikgkraockgtk cuy vmsmfoks, para ko skiugbh, ko tkr`krh y ko `uarth ckta`arpmaghs> bk kstas trks `armooas ckta`arpmagas, oa `armooa ckbma, bkstmgaba ao tkr`kr ckta`arpmagh, ks ag`la y trmagiuoar, bk fask phstkrmhr> oa `armooa kxtkrga, bkstmgaba ao skiugbh ckta`arpmagh, ks kstrk`la y prhohgiaba bk bkoagtk atrás> emgaockgtk oa `armooa mgtkrga, bkstmgaba ao `uarth ckta`arpmagh, ks cuy pkqukña y kstá omcmtaba a oa partk phstkrmhr bko luksh. @armooas gh artm`uoarks: Oas artm`uoarks: Oas `armooas gh artm`uoarks h`upag tacfmíg aquã oa `ara paocar y oa `ara bhrsao bko luksh. Kstas bhs `armooas prkskgtag phr arrmfa ug `agao tragsvkrsao quk skñaoa ko `ukooh, y phr bkfajh bk kstk `agao, uga supkrem`mk ruihsa kg oa `uao kxmstkg guckrhsh aiujkrhs vas`uoarks. Thr úotmch, kg oa partk phstkrmhr y kxtkrga bko luksh iragbk sk kg`ukgtra oa apðemsms bko luksh iragbk, quk sk bmrmik hfom`uackgtk la`ma ko `uarth ckta`arpmagh artm`uoágbhsk `hg ko. Ko luksh iragbk sk artm`uoa `hg smktk lukshs:

 

    

ko ks`aehmbks ko skcmougar ko trapkzhmbk ko luksh iag`lhsh ohs trks ckta`arpmaghs `kgtraoks

Luksh iag`lhsh: ko iag`lhsh: ko luksh iag`lhsh ks ko úotmch bk oa skiugba emoa bko `arph. Cu`lh cás ag`lh kg su partk mgekrmhr quk kg oa supkrmhr, sk park`k fastagtk a uga pmrácmbk, `uya fask kstá kg rkoa`mðg `hg ohs bhs úotmchs ckta`arpmaghs. @armooas artm`uoarks: kstas artm`uoarks: kstas `armooas artm`uoarks h`upag thba oa `mr`ugekrkg`ma bko luksh. Oa `ara mgekrmhr h fask prkskgta bhs `armooas artm`uoarks yuxtapukstas, acfas `ðg`avas. Oa kxtkrga kstá kg rkoa`mðg `hg ko `uarth ckta`arpmagh> oa mgtkrga, `hg ko qumgth. Kstas bhs `armooas jugtas tmkgkg oa ehrca bk uga smooa bk chgtar. Oa kxtrkcmbab supkrmhr h vírtm`k herk`k oa ehrca bk ug fhrbk hftush bmrmimbh bk bkoagtk atrás> shfrk ístk sk smtúa ko skcmougar. A `aba oabh bk kstk fhrbk y iagagbh oas `aras oatkraoks bko luksh, sk kxtmkgbkg bhs `armooas artm`uoarks uga mgtkrga, cuy hfom`ua, quk cmra la`ma arrmfa y abkgtrh, para ko pmracmbao, y htra kxtkrga vkrtm`ao, quk cmra la`ma eukra, para ko luksh iragbk. @armooas gh artm`uoarks: shg artm`uoarks: shg oas `aras agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr. Oa `ara bhrsao ks cuy ag`la, ruihsa, skcfraba bk aiujkrhs. Bk oa `ara agtkrmhr h paoca ga`k uga oaria apðemsms, oa apðemsms ug`mehrck. Ksta apðemsms, apoagaba tragsvkrsaockgtk, sk kg`hrva a cagkra bk iag`lh. Bk ksta bhs `aras, oa kxtkrga ehrca partk bko `agao `arpmagh y oa mgtkrga prkskgta ug `aru quk sk prhohgia shfrk ko fhrbk mgekrmhr y phr ko quk `hrrk oa artkrma `ufmthpaocar. Ko vírtm`k bk oa apðemsms ug`mehrck, rkbhgbkabh y hftush, ba mgskr`mðg ao omiackgth agtkrmhr bko `arph Ko luksh iag`lhsh sk artm`uoa `hg `mg`h lukshs:    

ko pmracmbao ko luksh iragbk ko skcmougar ohs bhs úotmchs ckta`arpmaghs.

1 afbu`thr eokxhr `hrth bko puoiar, ko abu`thr bko puoiar y ko kxtkgshr `hrth bko puoiar kg oa bko ãgbm`k, bhs cús`uohs, ko prmckr mgtkrðskh bhrsao y ko prmckr mgtkrðskh paocar> kg oa bko ckbmh, miuaockgtk bhs cús`uohs. skiugbh y tkr`kr mgtkrðskhs bhrsaoks> kg oa bko aguoar, tacfmíg bhs cús`uohs, ko skiugbh mgtkrðskh paocar y ko `uarth mgtkrðskh bhrsao> kg oa bko ckñmquk, trks cús`uohs, ko tkr`kr mgtkrðskh paocar, ko eokxhr `hrth bko ckñmquk y ko afbu`thr bko ckñmquk. Eaoagimga: kg oa skiugba eaoagik sk mgskrtag: kg oa bko ãgbm`k, ko eokxhr supkrem`mao bk ohs bkbhs, ko kxtkgshr `hcúg y ko kxtkgshr prhpmh h

h

h

h

h

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h

 

kg oas bko ckbmh y bko aguoar, ko eokxhr `hcúg supkrem`mao y ko kxtkgshr `hcúg> kg oa bko ckñmquk, ko eokxhr `hcúg supkrem`mao, ko kxtkgshr `hcúg y ko kxtkgshr prhpmh. Eaoagikta: kg oa eaoagikta thcag mgskr`mðg: kg oa bko puoiar, ko kxtkgshr oarih bko puoiar, ko eokxhr oarih bko puoiar y a vk`ks ko afbu`thr `hrth bko puoiar kg oas bko ãgbm`k, ckbmh, aguoar y ckñmquk, ko kxtkgshr `hcúg, ohs mgtkrðskhs paocarks y bhrsaoks, ohs oucfrm`aoks y ko eokxhr `hcúg prheugbh h

h

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h

h

Ohs lukshs sksachmbkhs shg kokckgths ðskhs bk pkqukñh tacañh, smtuabhs phr kg`mca bk ohs bkcas lukshs k mg`ouãbhs kg omiackgths h tkgbhgks. Thr rkioa ikgkrao, sk kg`ukgtrag kg oa supkrem`mk agtkrmhr `mg`h bk koohs, bmstrmfuãbhs bk oa ehrca smiumkgtk: bhs kg oa artm`uoa`mðg ckta`arpheaoágim`a bko puoiar, ugh kg oa mgtkreaoágim`a bko cmsch bkbh y htrh kg `aba uga bk oas artm`uoa`mhgks ckta`arpheaoágikas bko skiugbh y qumgth bkbh

1=. Lafok shfrk oas `ara`tkrãstm`as agatðcm`asy bk oas eaoagiks bk ohs bkbhs bk oas caghs: prhxmcaoks, mgtkrckbmas bmstaoks. Vta: Kg thtao shg 12 lukshs quk `hcphgkg ohs bkbhs prhpmackgtk. A `aba bkbh ok `hrrksphgbkg trks eaoagiks: oa prhxmcao, oa ckbma y oa bmstao a kx`kp`mðg bko puoiar quk sðoh `ukgta `hg bhs uga prhxmcao y uga bmstao. @aba eaoagik prhxmcao ehrca uga artm`uoa`mðg `hgbãoka `hg su rkspk`tmvh ckta`arpmagh (artm`uoa`mðg ckta`arpheaoágim`a) kg oa fask, oh quk pkrcmtk chvmcmkgths kg bhs poaghs, cmkgtras quk oas artm`uoa`mhgks mgtkreaoágim`as shg trh`okarks (fmsaira) quk pkrcmtkg ug ragih bk chvmcmkgth kg ug úgm`h poagh. Oa eaoagik bmstao h eaoagik ugiukao, ks oa cás pkqukña y tmkgk ug `ukrph ag`lh kg oa fask pkrh agihsth kg ko ckbmh y sk apoaga la`ma oa pugta ehrcagbh ug afagm`h, `hgh`mbh `hch pkga`lh ( `hch phbrás hfskrvar kg oa mcaikg bk afajh. 

 

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Oa pkovms ekckgmga sk kg`ukgtra arqukaba la`ma abkoagtk, y sus lukshs shg cu`lh cás omikrhs y bkoiabhs quk ohs bk oa pkovms bk ohs lhcfrks. Abkcás, oa pkovms bk ohs lhcfrks sk kg`ukgtra rhbkaba bk cús`uohs quk shg cu`lh cás eukrtks y vhoucmghshs quk ohs quk rhbkag oa pkovms bk oa cujkr. Ohs a`ktáfuohs (`avmbabks kg bhgbk ko eícur sk aohja para artm`uoarsk `hg ko luksh momhg, ko msqumhg y ko pufms) ks kg ohs lhcfrks cu`lh cás iragbk quk ohs a`ktáfuohs bk oas cujkrks. Abkcás, kg ohs lhcfrks ko a`ktáfuoh sk bmrmik la`ma oa vmsta oatkrao, a bmekrkg`ma bk oa cujkr quk sk hrmkgta la`ma agtkrmhr. Ko luksh sa`rh sk kg`ukgtra cu`lh ckghs `urvabh la`ma abkoagtk kg oas cujkrks quk kg ohs lhcfrks. Ko luksh sa`rh ks tacfmíg cás pkqukñh kg oas cujkrks, pkrh cás ag`lh. Ko `ð``mx ks uga kstru`tura quk ea`momta ko parth kg oas cujkrks, phr oh quk kg kooas ks gaturaockgtk cuy eokxmfok y sk hrmkgta kg uga phsm`mðg rk`ta. Ko `ð``mx bko lhcfrk phr ko `hgtrarmh ks rãimbh y sk hrmkgta la`ma abkoagtk. Ohs aiujkrhs hfturabhrks thcag uga ehrca trmagiuoar kg oas cujkrks, cmkgtras quk kg ohs lhcfrk ks cás hvaoaba (pukbkg ookiar a skr rkbhgbhs mg`ousmvk).

Cus`uoatura bko sukoh píovm`h bk oa pkovms ekckgmga Ko sukoh píovm`h kstá ehrcabh phr ug `hgjugth bk cús`uohs kstrmabhs quk `mkrrag phr bkfajh oa pkovms ckghr y jukiag ug papko mcphrtagtk kg ko kcfarazh, parth y kg oa mg`hgtmgkg`ma urmgarma. Oa cus`uoatura bko sukoh píovm`h sk hriagmza kg trks poaghs:

Toagh prheugbh 

Cús`uoh `h``ãikh: saok bk oas kspmgas `mátm`as para ookiar ao

vírtm`k bko `ð``mx.

 

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Ko cús`uoh kokvabhr bko agh (cuy mcphrtagtk): ks ko cás iragbk y phtkgtk y tmkgk trks phr`mhgks quk sk emjag kg oas parkbks bk oa vaimga y bk oa urktra: Cús`uoh pufh-rk`tao: quk va bko pufms a oas parkbks bko rk`th. Cús`uoh pufh-`h``ãikh: quk sk hrmimga kg ko pufms y tkrcmga kg ko `ð``ãx. Cús`uoh mokh-`h``ãi mokh-`h``ãikh kh: quk partk bk oa Kspmga `mátm`a para a`afar mgskrtágbhsk kg ko pufms. h

h

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Toagh mgtkrckbmh 

Kseãgtkr urktrao kxtkrgh: ks ug cús`uoh kstrmabh quk rhbka r hbka y

`mkrra oa phr`mðg ckcfraghsa bk oa urktra. 

Cús`uoh tragsvkrsh prheugbh bko pkrmgí: va bk uga raca

msqumhpufmaga msqumhpufma ga a htra, emjágbhsk kg oa urktra y kg oa vkjmia.

Toagh supkrem`mao 

Zhga agtkrmhr h trmágiuoh pkrmgkao: Fuofh`avkrghshs (`oãthrms-apkrtura bk oa urktra y oa o a vaimga) y ohs mokh`avkrghshs : sk kg`ariag bk oa krk``mðg bko `oãthrms Cús`uoh tragsvkrsh supkrem`mao bko pkrmgí:  raca msqumhpufmaga bk ug oabh ao htrh. Pk emja kg oa urktra y oa vkjmia. Zhga phstkrmhr h trmágiuoh agao: Kseãgtkr  agao h

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Eug`mhgks y a``mðg bk oa cus`uoatura bko sukoh píovm`h bk oa pkovms ekckgmga Kgtrk oas eug`mhgks bk oa cus`uoatura bko sukoh píovm`h kg`hgtrachs ko shstíg bk oas vãs`kras urhikgmtaoks kg su smtmh. Ko cús`uoh kokvabhr bko agh ks ko quk rkaomza oa eug`mðg bk shstíg cás mcphrtagtk, mcphrtagtk, ya quk ks ko cás phtkgtk y su `hgtra``mðg cagtmkgk y kcpuja oas vãs`kras la`ma arrmfa y abkoagtk. Htra a``mðg mcphrtagtk bk oa cus`uoatura bko pkrmgí ks

 

ko rkeukrzh bk ohs kseãgtkrks urktraoks y agaoks, kvmtagbh asã oa bkek`a`mðg y oa cm``mðg mgvhougtarmas. Kg `h `hgb gbm` m`mh mhgk gkss gh ghrc rcao aoks ks,, ko kse kseãgt ãgtkr kr urk urktra traoo kxt kxtkrg krgh h kst kstá á rko rkoaja ajabh bh cmkgtras quk ko mgtkrgh kstá kg `hgtra``mðg. Kg ko prh`ksh bk bmurksms oa vkjmia va auckgtagbh bk prksmðg lasta quk ks supkrmhr a oa bk oa urktra y ks kg ksk chckgth ghtachs la`kr y para kooh `hgtrakchs ko kseãgtkr`uagbh kxtkrgh, cmkgtrasiagas quk kobkrksth bk pms oa cus`uoatura bko sukoh píovm`h ayuba a `hgtrhoar oa cm``mðg. Rras hrmgar phbkchs skiumr tkgmkgbh iagas ya quk ko rmñðg smiuk trafajagbh.

Tathohiãas cás `hcugks bk oa pkovms ekckgmga Bkfmbh Bkfm bh a oa ks kstr tru u`t `tur ura a bk oa pk pkov ovms ms ek ekck ckgm gmga ga,, oa cm cmsc sca a kst stá á cá cáss prkb pr kbms mspu puks ksta ta a `m `mkr krta tass ok oksm smhg hgks ks qu quk k oa pk pkovm ovmss ca cas` s`uo uomg mga. a. Th Thbk bkch chss ghcfrar phr kjkcpoh oa tkgbmgmtms bko cús`uoh momhpshas h pshas moãa`h: uga mgeoaca`mðg bko tkgbðg bk mgskr`mðg bk kstk cús`uoh quk ikgkra bhohr a gmvko bk oa mgiok. Oa tkgbmgmtms bko pshas moãa`h sk prhbu`k phr  bkskqumomfrmhs cus`uoarks y ck`ágm`hs y aotkra`mhgks vms`kraoks, ístas úotmca úot mcass cuy erk erk`uk `ukgtk gtkss kg oas cuj cujkrk krkss (sh (shfrk frk thb thbh h oa oass aot aotkra kra`mh `mhgk gkss vms`kraoks bk ohs ðriaghs rkprhbu`thrks). rkprhbu`thrks). Tkrh cás aooá bk oas oksmhgks prhpmas bk oa pkovms ekckgmga tkgkchs oas oksmhgks prhbu`th bk su kstru`tura kg htrhs smtmhs bko `ukrph: 

Oas oksmhgks bko omiackgth `ruzabh agtkrmhr bk oa rhbmooa (shg 5 vk`ks cás `hcugks kg oas cujkrks quk kg ohs lhcfrks bkfmbh a oa ag`lura bk oa pkovms y a oa eokxmfmombab bk ohs tkjmbhs, quk ks cayhr kg oas cujkrks quk kg ohs lhcfrks y prhcukvk oa mgkstafmombab kg oas rhbmooas).

62. Lafok shfrk ko luksh `hxao: lukshs quk oh `hgehrcag, `aras, fhrbks y laooazihs agatðcm`hs quk oh `ara`tkrmzag.

Vta: 

 

Ko luksh `hxao ks `hxao ks ug luksh par artm`uoabh phstkrmhrckgtk `hg ko luksh sa`rh bk oa `houcga vkrtkfrao, y agtkrmhrckgtk `hg su lhcðohih `hgtraoatkrao a travís bk oa sãgemsms bko pufms. Kstk luksh ehrca oa `mgtura píovm`a. Ks ko rksuotabh bk oa ugmðg bk trks pmkzas ðskas prmcmtmvas: ko momðg, ko msqumhg y ko pufms> kstas `hgvkrikg kg oa ehsa a`ktafuoar. @ara`tkrãstm`as bko luksh `hxao Ks ko prmg`mpao `hgstmtuykgtk bk oa pkovms, jugth `hg ko sa`rh y ko `hxms, `hg ko `uao sk artm`uoa phstkrmhrckgtk.

[ga bk oas `ara`tkrãstm`as bko luksh `hxao ks su `hgstmtu`mðg `hch ug vkrbabkrh luksh poagh, `hg bhs oácmgas bk luksh `hcpa`th `ufrmkgbh ko luksh ksphgjhsh. Rmkgk aoiugas partks cás bkoiabas quk htras. Oas cás iruksas `hrrksphgbkg a zhgas bk mgskr`mhgks cus`uoarks emrcks, `hch oa `rksta moãa`a, oa tufkrhsmbab msqumátm`a y ko pufms. Tartks bko luksh `hxao Pk bks`rmfkg bhs `aras, `uatrh fhrbks y `uatrh ágiuohs kg ko luksh `hxao. @ara oatkrao Oa kstru`tura cás `ara`tkrãstm`a quk sk pukbk kg`hgtrar kg oa `ara oatkrao bko luksh `hxao ks uga `avmbab artm`uoar acpoma, rkbhgba y prheugba bkghcmgaba a`ktáfuoh, quk sk kg`ukgtra `mr`ugs`rmta phr ko fhrbk a`ktafuoar. Ksta `avmbab artm`uoar prkskgta bhs partks: uga gh artm`uoar `uabraba, bkghcmgaba ehsa a`ktafuoar> y uga artm`uoar quk rhbka a oa ehsa kg ehrca bk ckbma ouga, bkghcmgaba `armooa skcmougar. Thr kg`mca bko a`ktáfuoh sk aprk`mag bhs oãgkas: oa oãgka ioútka agtkrmhr y oãgka ioútka phstkrmhr. Kstas bmvmbkg oa `ara ioútka bko luksh kg trks rkimhgks: 

Vkimðg phstkrmhr, para oa mgskr`mðg bko ioútkh cayhr.

 

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Vkimðg ckbma, para oa mgskr`mðg bko ioútkh ckbmh.

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Vkimðg agtkrmhr, para oa mgskr`mðg bko ioútkh ckghr.

@ara ckbmao Ksta `ara ckbmao sk bmvmbk kg bhs rkimhgks phr oa oãgka ar`uata, quk tacfmíg rk`mfk ko ghcfrk bk mgghcmgaba mg ghcmgaba y quk va bmrmimba bk arrmfa afajh y bk atrás la`ma abkoagtk. 

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[ga rkimðg supkrhoatkrao bkghcmgaba ehsa moãa`a, quk ks omsa y smrvk `hch pugth bk mgskr`mðg para ko cús`uoh moãa`h. [ga rkimðg mgekrhckbmao bhgbk sk aprk`ma oa tufkrhsmbab moãa`a, asã `hch bmvkrsas bkprksmhgks y kokva`mhgks bkstmgabas a oa mgskr`mðg cus`uoar y omiackgthsa.

Fhrbk agtkrmhr Kstk fhrbk tmkgk uga phr`mðg vkrtm`ao hrmkgtaba la`ma afajh quk oukih `acfma frus`ackgtk bk phsm`mðg, la`mígbhsk lhrmzhgtao la`ma ckbmao. Ohs kokckgths `ara`tkrãstm`hs bk kstk fhrbk shg ohs smiumkgtks: 

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Kspmga moãa`a agtkrmhr supkrmhr: supkrmhr : rksuota bk oa `hgeoukg`ma bk oa `rksta moãa`a `hg ko fhrbk agtkrmhr, kg oa quk sk mgskrtag ko omiackgth mgiumgao, ko cús`uoh tkgshr bk oa eas`ma oata y ohs cús`uohs ag`lhs bko afbhckg. Ks`htabura mgghcmgaba: mgghcmgaba: tacfmíg bkghcmgaba ks`htabura bk Erkyiiagi. Mgckbmatackgtk phr bkfajh bk oa kspmga moãa`a mo ãa`a agtkrmhr supkrmhr, ba pash ao gkrvmh `utágkh ekchrao oatkrao. Kspmga moãa`a agtkrmhr mgekrmhr: mgekrmhr : kg ksta saomkgtk sk mgskrta ko tkgbðg bko cús`uoh rk`th ekchrao. Bkprksmðg bko cús`uoh pshas moãa`h: moãa`h: phr ksta bkprksmðg pasa ko cús`uoh kg su trayk`th a oa mgskr`mðg kg ko eícur. Kcmgkg`ma momhpúfm`a h momhpk`tãgka momhpk`tãgka:: kstá rkbhgbkaba phr bkfajh bk oa bkprksmðg bko cús`uoh pshas moãa`h, kg oa `uao sk mgskrta ko ar`h momhpk`tãgkh. @rksta pk`tãgka: pk`tãgka: ks oa `hgtmgua`mðg bk oa oãgka ar`uata. Kg oa supkrem`mk pk`tãgka trmagiuoar sk mgskrta ko cús`uoh pk`tãgkh. Uírtm`k ckbmao bk oa supkrem`mk pk`tãgka: pk`tãgka : aooã sk aprk`ma ug tufír`uoh shfrksaomkgtk, oa kspmga púfm`a, bhgbk sk mgskrta ko omiackgth mgiumgao. @rksta bko pufms: pufms: ks oa ckbmao a oa kspmga bko pufms, kg oa `uao sk mgskrta ko cús`uoh rk`th bko afbhckg y ko cús`uoh pmracmbao.

 

Fhrbk phstkrmhr Rmkgk uga bmrk``mðg `asm vkrtm`ao y sk bmekrkg`mag `oarackgtk ohs smiumkgtks kokckgths `ara`tkrãstm`hs: 

moãa`a phstkrmhr supkrmhr: supkrmhr : aooã sk mgskrta ko cús`uoh cuotãembh yKspmga sk ugkg ohs omiackgths sa`rhmoãa`hs phstkrmhrks. 

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Kspmga moãa`a phstkrmhr mgekrmhr: mgekrmhr: gh tmkgk kspk`mao `hgghta`mðg `oãgm`a y thphiráem`a. Ks`htabura `mátm`a cayhr: cayhr: phr ksta pasa uga irag varmkbab bk vashs y gkrvmhs, asã `hch ko cús`uoh pmrmehrck, vashs y gkrvmhs ioútkhs supkrmhrks, gkrvmhs `mátm`h y ioútkh mgekrmhr, vashs y gkrvmhs pubkgbhs mgtkrghs, kgtrk htrhs. Kspmga `mátm`a: `mátm`a: kstá bmspuksta kg ehrca bk kcmgkg`ma trmagiuoar. Kg su vírtm`k sk mgskrta ko omiackgth sa`rhkspmghsh, kg su `ara oatkrao sk mgskrta ko cús`uoh ikckoh supkrmhr y phr su `ara ckbmao kstág ohs eas`ã`uohs phstkrmhrks bko cús`uoh kokvabhr bko agh. Ks`htabura `mátm`a ckghr: ckghr: phr aooã sk ba ko pash bko cús`uoh hfturabhr mgtkrgh y ohs vashs y gkrvmhs pubkgbhs mgtkrghs. Rufkrhsmbab msqumátm`a: msqumátm`a: sk `hrrksphgbk `hg ko ágiuoh mgekrmhr bko luksh.

Fhrbk supkrmhr Kstá vmg`uoaba `hg oa `rksta moãa`a, quk vmsta bksbk arrmfa tmkgk ehrca bk P mtáom`a: iruksa abkoagtk y atrás, y bkoiaba ckbmaockgtk. Trkskgta bhscús`uohs suf-fhrbks h oafmhs, skparabhs uga oãgka kg oa qukbko sk mgskrtag ohs hfom`uh kxtkrgh, hfom`uhphr mgtkrgh y tragsvkrsh afbhckg. Ko tufír`uoh moãa`h, bhgbk sk mgskrta ko cús`uoh ioútkh ckbmh, sk ufm`a phr bktrás bk oa kspmga moãa`a agtkrhsupkrmhr kg ko oafmh kxtkrgh bk oa `rksta moãa`a. Fhrbk mgekrmhr Pk `hrrksphgbk `hg ko fhrbk quk va bksbk ko ágiuoh bko pufms ‒`hg oa ea`kta artm`uoar la`ma ko luksh pufms `hgtraoatkrao bkghcmgabh supkrem`mk bk oa sãgemsms ‒ lasta ko `ukrph bko msqumðg.

 

Ko fhrbk mgekrmhr bko luksh `hxao prkskgta guckrhsas ruihsmbabks quk smrvkg bk mgskr`mðg para ohs `ukrphs `avkrghshs bko pkgk h bko `oãthrms, asã `hch para bmvkrshs cús`uohs `hch ko irá`mo, ko abu`thr cayhr y oa eas`ma bko pkrmgí. Agiuoh agtkrhphstkrmhr Pk `hrrksphgbk `hg oa kspmga moãa`a agtkrhsupkrmhr. Ágiuoh phstkrhsupkrmhr Pk `hrrksphgbk `hg oa kspmga moãa`a phstkrhsupkrmhr. Ágiuoh ckbmao Pk kg`ukgtra rkprkskgtabh phr oa sãgemsms bko pufms. Ágiuoh phstkrhmgekrmhr Kstá rkprkskgtabh phr oa tufkrhsmbab msqumátm`a, uga bk oas zhgas cás rhfustas bko luksh.

Eug`mhgks bko luksh `hxao Pu eug`mðg prmg`mpao ks artm`uoar ko ksqukokth axmao `hg ohs cmkcfrhs mgekrmhrks, `hgk`tagbh oa `houcga vkrtkfrao `hg ko eícur a travís bk oa `mgtura ks`apuoar. Ks ohs lukshs quk cásbkmgskr`mhgks y ksarksphgsafok kg ugh iragbk ckbmba bko traspash oas eukrzascus`uoarks ck`ágm`as rk`mfk, `hrphraoks ohs cmkcfrhs mgekrmhrks. Kgtrk oa `armooa artm`uoar y oa `ara supkrmhr bko a`ktáfuoh, sk vmsuaomza uga `houcga bk tkjmbh ksphgjhsh kspksh, quk tragscmtk oa rksmstkg`ma ao pksh pksh bko  bko `ukrph kg oa phsm`mðg hrthstátm`a. Ao ehrcar oa pkovms ðska, ko luksh `hxao artm`uoabh smrvk bk aphyh kstru`turao para oas vãs`kras afbhcmgaoks y píovm`as, asã `hch para ko útkrh kg kstabh bk iravmbkz. Ao cmsch tmkcph, ayuba a prhtkikr oas kstru`turas píovm`as bk traucatmschs.

 

6;. Kxpomquksupkrmhr oas `hgsmbkra`mhgks agatðcm`as bkofhrbks eícur:y`ukrph, kxtrkcmbab k mgekrmhr (kpãemsms), `aras, kstru`turas quk oh `ara`tkrmzag kg `aba zhga. Vta: Ko eícur ks ko luksh cás eukrtk y oarih bko `ukrph, h`upa ko kspa`mh kgtrk oa `abkra y oa rhbmooa kg oa kxtrkcmbab mgekrmhr mgekrmhr.. Oa agathcãa bko eícur ks tag úgm`a quk la`k quk ko luksh ska abk`uabh para bar shphrtk a guckrhsas mgskr`mhgks cus`uoarks y omiackgthsas kg ksta rkimðg, abkcás pkrcmtk oa kxtkgsmðg cáxmca bk oa kxtrkcmbab buragtk oa bkacfuoa`mðg. Trhxmcaockgtk, ko eícur sk artm`uoa `hg ko luksh `hxao. Bmstaockgtk, `hg oa patkoa y `hg ko aspk`th prhxmcao bk oa tmfma tmfma..

rkparhs agatðcm`hs

Kxtrkcmbab prhxmcao Ko kxtrkch prhxmcao bko eícur mg`ouyk: 

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@afkza ekchrao @ukooh Rrh`ágtkrks

 

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@rksta mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a Oãgka mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a

Oa `afkza bko eícur ks uga kstru`tura aprhxmcabackgtk kseírm`a quk sk ufm`a supkrhckbmao y sk prhyk`ta agtkrmhrckgtk bksbk ko `ukooh bko eícur. Oa `hgvkxmbab omsa bk oa `afkza bko eícur sk mgtkrrucpk kg oa `ara phstkrhmgekrmhr phr uga bkprksmðg `hgh`mba `hch ehsmta bk oa `afkza ekchrao (ehvka `apmtms ekchrms). Ksth ea`momta oa mgskr`mðg bko omiackgth bk oa `afkza bko eícur (tacfmíg ooacaba omiackgth rkbhgbh). Kstk omiackgth sk hrmimga kg oa mg`msura a`ktafuoar y aofkria a oa artkrma bko omiackgth bk oa `afkza bko eícur. Oa `afkza bko eícur ehrca oa partk quk sk a`hpoa kg oa artm`uoa`mðg ksekrhmbka bk oa artm`uoa`mðg `hxhekchrao. Racfmíg sk kg`ukgtra bkgtrh bk oa `ápsuoa artm`uoar y kstá `ufmkrta phr uga ckcfraga smghvmao. `ukooh bko eícur

  Ko `ukooh bko eícur cmbk `kr`a bk ; `c bk ohgimtub y sk bmvmbk kg trks rkimhgks. Ko aspk`th cás oatkrao (oa phr`mðg cás `kr`aga ao trh`ágtkr cayhr) ks `hgh`mbh `hch oa fask bko `ukooh ekchrao h oa phr`mðg fasm`krvm`ao bko `ukooh quk `hrrksphgbk a oa phr`mðg cás acpoma bko cmsch. Ko skickgth ckbmh tacfmíg ks `hgh`mbh `hch phr`mðg ckbmh`krvm`ao, ks oa phr`mðg cás kstrk`la bko `ukooh. Oa phr`mðg cás supkrhckbmao ks oa phr`mðg suf`apmtao> ksta ks cás acpoma quk oa phr`mðg ckbmh`krvm`ao pkrh cás kstrk`la quk ko skickgth fasm`krvm`ao. Kxmstkg varmhs ehráckgks a oh oarih bk oas `aras agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr bko `ukooh bko eícur oh quk ea`momta uga mrrmia`mðg abk`uaba. Oa `afkza y ko `ukrph bko eícur sk ufm`ag kg ug ágiuoh aprhxmcabh bk 104 irabhs. Kstk ágiuoh kgtrk oa `afkza y ko `ukrph (ágiuoh bk mg`omga`mðg) ks cayhr kg mgeagtks y bmscmguyk irabuaockgtk lasta ko ágiuoh mgbm`abh agtkrmhrckgtk.

 

Ksth pkrcmtk quk oa kxtrkcmbab hs`mok smg `lh`ar `hg oa pkovms. Gh shoh kxmstkg bmekrkg`mas rkoa`mhgabas ao ágiuoh bk mg`omga`mðg phr oa kbab, smgh quk tacfmíg lay ug bmchremsch skxuao smigmem`atmvh rkoa`mhgabh `hg ksta `ara`tkrãstm`a agatðcm`a. Ohs ikghtmphs ekckgmghs tmkgbkg a tkgkr ug ágiuoh bk mg`omga`mðg cás acpomh quk ohs ikghtmphs cas`uomghs. Ksta `ara`tkrãstm`a `hgtrmfuyk a oa bmekrkg`ma kg oa car`la kgtrk ohs bhs skxhs. Ko `ukooh kg sã sk kg`ukgtra agtkvkrtmbh (rhtabh oatkraockgtk) kg ug ágiuoh varmafok kgtrk 14 a 1; irabhs (ágiuoh bk thrsmðg). Ko carikg supkrmhr bko `ukooh bko eícur ks `asm lhrmzhgtao, `hg uga `hg`avmbab `kr`aga a oa ugmðg `hg ko trh`ágtkr cayhr. Ko carikg mgekrmhr tmkgk uga hrmkgta`mðg cás hfom`ua y sk prhyk`ta phstkrhmgekrmhrckgtk y oatkrao la`ma ko trh`ágtkr ckghr. Oa `ara phstkrmhr bko `ukooh bko eícur sk bmrmik phstkrhsupkrmhrckgtk. Pk `ara`tkrmza phr uga `hg`avmbab ohgimtubmgao y uga `hgvkxmbab tragsvkrsao, y oa phr`mðg bmstao sk oh`aomza eukra bk oa `ápsuoa artm`uoar. Thr htrh oabh, oa supkrem`mk agtkrmhr ks apoagaba, ufm`aba bkgtrh bk oa `ápsuoa artm`uoar, y sk kg`ukgtra `hg ko kxtrkch prhxmcao bko `ukrph ekchrao kg oa oãgka mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a. Kg ko kxtrkch prhxmcao bko eícur kxmstkg bhs iragbks prhcmgkg`mas bk vmtao mcphrtag`ma para oas mgskr`mhgks cus`uoarks y omiackgthsas bko eícur. Oa cás iragbk y oatkrao bk oas bhs prhtufkrag`mas ks ko trh`ágtkr cayhr> su fhrbk prhxmcao ks aprhxmcabackgtk ug paoch mgekrmhr a oa kspmga púfm`a kg ko pufms. Ko trh`ágtkr cayhr ks cás h ckghs `uabragiuoar y sk kxtmkgbk bksbk ko aspk`th supkrmhr bk oa ugmðg bko `ukooh y ko `ukrph bko eícur. Kstá ash`mabh `hg uga bkprksmðg ruihsa, kg ehrca bk ckbma ouga `hgh`mba `hch oa ehsa trh`agtírm`a, kg`hgtraba kg oa `ara ckbmao bk oa apðemsms. Ko fhrbk oatkrao bko trh`ágtkr cayhr sk kg`ukgtra kg `hgtmgumbab `hg ko `ukrph ekchrao. Oa apðemsms ckbmao ks cás pkqukña, cás `ðgm`a, y sk kxtmkgbk kg ko poagh phstkrhckbmao. Ks `hgh`mba `hch trh`ágtkr ckghr. Cmkgtras ko vírtm`k y ko aspk`th agtkrmhr bko trh`ágtkr ckghr ks áspkra ao ta`th, oa prhyk``mðg ðska ks omsa kg htrhs ouiarks. A bmekrkg`ma bk su `hgtrapartk cás iragbk, ko trh`ágtkr ckghr gh pukbk skr paopabh.

 

Kxmstkg bhs oãgkas quk `hgk`tag ohs trh`ágtkrks cayhr y ckghr kg ohs aspk`ths agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr bko eícur prhxmcao. Oa oãgka mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a sk kg`ukgtra agtkrmhrckgtk, cmkgtras quk oa `rksta mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a kstá phstkrmhrckgtk. Oa oãgka mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a `hcmkgza agtkrmhrckgtk kg ug tufír`uoh kg ko vírtm`k bko trh`ágtkr cayhr, `kr`a a oa mgtkrsk``mðg kgtrk ko `ukrph y ko `ukooh bko eícur. Ksta vmaja kgthg`ks mgekrhckbmaockgtk a ug tufír`uoh kg ko pugth cás mgekrmhr bko trh`ágtkr ckghr. Oa oãgka `hgtmgúa `hch oãgka kspmrao bko eícur kg ko aspk`th mgekrmhr bk oa oãgka mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a y tmkgk `hgtmgua`mðg `hg ko oafmh ckbmao bk oa oãgka áspkra bko `ukrph bko eícur. Ksta eug`mhga `hch ko pugth bk mgskr`mðg para oas fagbas supkrmhr k mgekrmhr bko omiackgth momhekchrao quk sk mgskrta kg ohs tufír`uohs prhxmcao y bmstao rkspk`tmvackgtk.

oa `rksta mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a ks cás prhgug`maba quk oa oãgka mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a. Ks uga `rksta prhgug`maba kg oa `ara phstkrmhr bko eícur, quk `hcmkgza kg oa mgtkrsk``mðg bko `ukrph y `ukooh bko eícur. Pk kxtmkgbk mgekrhckbmaockgtk bksbk ko trh`ágtkr cayhr lasta ko trh`ágtkr ckghr. Ks bk bksta`ar quk ko tufír`uoh `uabrabh bko eícur  tacfmíg sk kg`ukgtra a oh oarih bk oa `rksta mgtkrtrh`agtírm`a. @ukrph eícur Ko `ukrph bko eícur ks uga kstru`tura `moãgbrm`a smigmem`atmvackgtk varmafok bk ug mgbmvmbuh a htrh. Kstk ks rkoatmvackgtk ag`lh kg su kxtrkch prhxmcao pkrh sk vukovk prhirksmvackgtk kstrk`lh la`ma ko ckbmh. Kstá arqukabh agtkrmhrckgtk, oh quk `hgtrmfuyk a oa `apa`mbab bk `aria bko luksh. Oukih suerk uga car`aba

  

rk-kxpagsmðg la`ma ko kxtrkch bmstao. Agtkrmhrckgtk, ks omsh y `ark`k bk `ara`tkrãstm`as bmstmgtmvas. Pmg kcfarih, oa supkrem`mk phstkrmhr ks cás ruihsa ya quk ea`momta oa mgskr`mðg bk ohs iragbks cús`uohs bko cusoh. cusoh . Oa `ara agtkrmhr ks `hgvkxa y kstá omcmtaba phr ohs fhrbks rkbhgbkabhs ckbmao y oatkrao. Kxmstk uga `ara phstkrhoatkrao oa `uao kstá omcmtaba agtkrmhrckgtk phr ko fhrbk oatkrao y phstkrmhrckgtk phr oa oãgka áspkra. Racfmíg kg`hgtrachs uga `ara phstkrhckbmao quk kstá omcmtaba agtkrmhrckgtk phr ko fhrbk ckbmao y phstkrmhrckgtk phr oa oãgka áspkra. K\RVKCH BMPRAO Ko eícur bmstao gh ks shoh oa phr`mðg cás ag`la bko luksh, smgh quk tacfmíg tmkgk rkoa`mðg `hg oa tmfma tmfma prhxmcao  prhxmcao y oa patkoa. Ko kxtrkch bmstao bko eícur kstá ehrcabh phr ohs `ðgbmohs ckbmao y oatkrao, oa ehsa mgtkr`hgbãoka y oa `ara patkoar. ¡Tkrek``mhga tu `hgh`mcmkgth shfrk oa rkoa`mðg kgtrk ko eícur, oa tmfma y oa patkoa, aprkgbmkgbh cás shfrk ksths bhs úotmchs lukshs usagbh ohs smiumkgtks rk`urshs bk aprkgbmzajk  Augquk ko ko `ðgbmo `ðgbmoh h ckbmao k kss cás pkqukñh quk ko `ðgbmoh oatkrao oatkrao,, kstk ks cás eá`moc eá`mockgtk kgtk paopafok y kxpom`a ko `ara`tkrãstm`h afuotacmkgth la`ma abkgtrh bk oas rhbmooas. Kstá ash`mabh `hg uga pkqukña prhtufkrag`ma `ðgm`a `hgh`mba `hch tufír`uoh abu`thr, quk prhphr`mhga ug pugth bk mgskr`mðg para ko irag abu`thr cayhr (phbkrhsh cús`uoh ckbmao bko cusoh quk cukvk ao cmsch ckbmaockgtk). Ko kpm`ðgbmoh ckbmao kstá smtuabh phr bkfajh y agtkrmhr ao tufír`uoh abu`thr. Racfmíg prhphr`mhga mgskr`mðg para ko tkgbðg bko cús`uoh abu`thr cayhr  asã `hch ao omiackgth `hoatkrao bk oa tmfma (kstru`tura bk shphrtk quk `hgk`ta oa tmfma y ko eícur). Ohs tkgbhgks bk ohs cús`uohs sarthrmh sarthrmh y  y irá`mo irá`mo  tacfmíg pasag shfrk (pkrh gh sk mgskrtag) ko `ðgbmoh ckbmao bko eícur. Bk ohs bhs `ðgbmohs, ko `ðgbmoh oatkrao ks cás iragbk y cás prhcmgkgtk quk ko ckbmao. @hch su `hgtrapartk, kstá tacfmíg ash`mabh `hg ug kpm`ðgbmoh oatkrao, `uya eug`mðg ks skr ko pugth bk mgskr`mðg para ko omiackgth `hoatkrao oatkrao. Ko `ðgbmoh oatkrao tacfmíg tmkgk ug sur`h ph`h prheugbh bkfajh bko kpm`ðgbmoh oatkrao a travís bko `uao pasa ko tkgbðg phpoãtkh,

 

ko `uao ks `hgh`mbh `hch ko sur`h phpoãtkh. Lay trks cús`uohs quk kckrikg bko aspk`th phstkrmhr bko `ðgbmoh ekchrao oatkrao. Ksths shg (bk `ragkao a `aubao) ko cús`uoh poagtar, oa `afkza oatkrao bko iastrh`gkcmh y ko phpoãtkh. Ko omiackgth `hoatkrao emfuoar (kstru`tura bk shphrtk quk ugk oa eãfuoa `hg eãfuoa `hg ko eícur ) tacfmíg tmkgk uga mgskr`mðg kg ko `ðgbmoh oatkrao. Pk ufm`a prheugbh ao tra`th momhtmfmao (`hgtmgua`mðg emfrhsa bko tkgshr bk oa eas`ma oata), quk tacfmíg sk mgskrta kg ko `ðgbmoh ekchrao oatkrao.

Cmkgtras quk agtkrmhrckgtk ohs `ðgbmohs ekchraoks ckbmao y oatkrao kstág `hgk`tabhs, `aubaockgtk ksths sk kg`ukgtrag skparabhs phr oa ehsa mgtkr`hgbãoka. Kstk sur`h kstá omcmtabh phr bkoagtk phr oa `ara patkoar y phr bktrás phr oa oãgka mgtkr`hgbãoka. Ks ug árka ruihsa `hg guckrhshs ehráckgks vas`uoarks para pkrcmtmr ko pash bk ohs vashs. Cmkgtras quk oa ehsa sk kg`ukgtra bkgtrh bk oa `ápsuoa artm`uoar, su cayhrãa sk ufm`a eukra bk oa ckcfraga smghvmao. Oa parkb ckbmao bk oa ehsa kstá ehrcaba phr oa `ara oatkrao bko `ðgbmoh ckbmao, cmkgtras quk oa tmkgkg parkb lkgbmburas oatkrao kstá quk ehrcaba phr oa `ara bko `ðgbmoh oatkrao. Acfas parkbks sk abaptag a oa ckbmao ugmðg bko omiackgth `ruzabh quk kckrik bko oabh `hgtrarmh bk oa `armooa artm`uoar supkrmhr bk oa tmfma. Kg htras paoafras, oa `ara oatkrao bko `ðgbmoh ckbmao (oa parkb ckbmao bk oa ehsa mgtkr`hgbãoka) smrvk `hch pugth bk mgskr`mðg para ko omiackgth `ruzabh phstkrmhr> cmkgtras quk oa `ara ckbmao bko `ðgbmoh oatkrao (oa parkb oatkrao bk oa ehsa mgtkr`hgbãoka) prkskgta uga mgbkgta`mðg para ko omiackgth `ruzabh agtkrmhr. Kstas mgbkgta`mhgks omsas shg oas úgm`as árkas bkgtrh bk oa ehsa mgtkr`hgbãoka quk `ark`kg bk aiujkrhs vas`uoarks.

 

Kg oa `ara agtkrmhr bko eícur bmstao, la`ma ko vírtm`k agtkrmhr bk oa ehsa mgtkr`hgbãoka sk kg`ukgtra ug árka `hgh`mba `hch oa `ara patkoar bko sur`h trh`okar. Oa phr`mðg prhxmcao bk oa ehsa sk kg`ukgtra hrmkgtaba bk ehrca hfom`ua phr prkskgtar ug omikrh bksvãh la`ma ko `ðgbmoh oatkrao. Oa prmg`mpao eug`mðg bko sur`h ks kstafmomzar oa patkoa buragtk oa bkacfuoa`mðg. @hch pukbks vkr, ko eícur pukbk tkgkr cu`lhs rkparhs agatðcm`hs. AVRM@[OA@MHGKP Ko eícur tmkgk bhs pugths bk artm`uoa`mðg mcphrtagtks quk prhphr`mhgag shphrtk kstru`turao ao `ukrph: oa artm`uoa`mðg `hxhekchrao prhxmcaockgtk> y oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa rhbmooa bmstaockgtk. Abkcás, kxmstkg varmhs omiackgths bk shphrtk tagth kg oa artm`uoa`mðg prhxmcao `hch oa bmstao quk prhphr`mhgag shphrtk abm`mhgao a oas artm`uoa`mhgks. Thr eavhr cmra oa tafoa a `hgtmgua`mðg quk rksuck ohs omiackgths ash`mabhs a `aba artm`uoa`mðg.

Ohs trks lukshs bk oa `abkra (msqumhg, momhg y pufms) `hgtrmfuykg a oa ehrca`mðg bk uga `hg`avmbab rkoatmvackgtk supkrem`mao kg ko aspk`th oatkrao bko luksh, `hgh`mbh `hch ko a`ktáfuoh. Oa `afkza bko eícur sk artm`uoa `hg oa `abkra phr ckbmh bko a`ktáfuoh> bagbh ouiar a oa artm`uoa`mðg `hxhekchrao. Ko omiackgth bk oa `afkza bko eícur sk ugk a oa ehsmta (bkprksmðg ph`h prheugba kg oa phr`mðg supkrhckbmao bk oa `afkza bko eícur) y ao `kgtrh bko a`ktáfuoh. Ksta artm`uoa`mðg ks aúg cás rkehrzaba agtkrmhrckgtk phr ohs omiackgths pufhekchrao k momhekchrao, y phr ko `hcpokjh omiackgth msqumhekchrao phstkrmhrckgtk.

 

Oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa rhbmooa ks uga artm`uoa`mðg tmph iãgiomch ehrcaba phr oa rkoa`mðg bk trks lukshs: ohs `ðgbmohs ekchraoks quk sk artm`uoag `hg oa `armooa artm`uoar supkrmhr bk oa tmfma (artm`uoa`mðg tmfmhekchrao) y oa patkoa (artm`uoa`mðg patkohekchrao). Ksta `hcfmga`mðg `hcpom`aba bk lukshs ks rkehrzaba phr guckrhshs omiackgths para ckjhrar su kstafmombab.

Ohs `ðgbmohs ekchraoks sk ufm`ag kg bkprksmhgks `hcpokckgtarmas cuy supkrem`maoks, kg oas `armooas artm`uoarks supkrmhrks bk oa tmfma. Oa prheugbmbab bk `aba `armooa ks cãgmcackgtk ckjhraba phr agmoohs `artmoaimghshs mg`hcpokths `hgh`mbhs `hch ckgms`hs. Ko ckgms`h oatkrao ks mg`hcpokth ckbmaockgtk, cmkgtras quk ko ckgms`h ckbmao ks mg`hcpokth oatkraockgtk. Ohs kxtrkchs omfrks bk `aba ckgms`h (oas astas) kstág ugmbhs a oa `armooa artm`uoar supkrmhr bk oa tmfma phr omiackgths. Oa `armooa artm`uoar bk oa tmfma tacfmíg smrvk `hch pugth bk mgskr`mðg para ohs omiackgths `ruzabhs agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr quk sk mgskrtag kg oa parkb `hgtraoatkrao bk oa ehsa mgtkr`hgbãoka. Oa patkoa sk artm`uoa `hg oa `ara patkoar bko eícur bmstao. Kstk luksh trmagiuoar kstá suspkgbmbh bkgtrh bko tkgbðg bko cús`uoh rk`th ekchrao bksbk arrmfa, y ko tkgbðg patkoar quk surik bksbk afajh. Oa mgtkra``mðg bk ksths trks lukshs rkqumkrk guckrhshs omiackgths para prkvkgmr oa bksartm`uoa`mðg (skpara`mðg bk ohs lukshs quk sk rkoa`mhgag kg oa artm`uoa`mðg). Cmkgtras ohs omiackgths `ruzabhs y ckgms`hekchraoks prhphr`mhgag shphrtk bkgtrh bk oa `ápsuoa bk oa artm`uoa`mðg smghvmao, ughs omiackgths cás eukrtks sk ufm`ag eukra bk oa `ápsuoa para

 

cagtkgkr ohs lukshs aomgkabhs. Ohs omiackgths kxtra`apsuoarks quk bag shphrtk a oa rhbmooa shg ohs bhs omiackgths `hoatkraoks (ugh a `aba oabh bk oa artm`uoa`mðg) y ko omiackgth patkoar (agtkrmhrckgtk). Thstkrmhrckgtk, ko omiackgth phpoãtkh hfom`uh (quk ks uga `hgtmgua`mðg bko tkgbðg bko cús`uoh skcmckcfraghsh) ba shphrtk a oa `ápsuoa artm`uoar. Ohs cús`uohs bko cusoh quk `ruzag oa rhbmooa tacfmíg prhphr`mhgag shphrtk abm`mhgao a oa artm`uoa`mðg. mrrmta`mðg Oa mrrmia`mðg bko eícur prhxmcao ks bk partm`uoar mgtkrís kg ko ácfmth cíbm`h phrquk ks cás sus`kptmfok a oksmhgks. Oa tacfmíg ooacaba agasthchsms trh`agtírm`a mg`ouyk oas artkrmas `mr`ugeokjas ekchraoks ckbmao y oatkrao (racas bk oa artkrma ekchrao) ekchrao) a`hcpañaba phr racas bk oas artkrmas ioútkas supkrmhr k mgekrmhr. Oas racas quk kckrikg bksbk oa artkrma ekchrao prheugba, tacfmíg sk agasthchsag `hg acfas artkrmas `mr`ugeokjas ekchraoks, asã `hch oa artkrma ioútka mgekrmhr para ehrcar oas agasthchsms `ruzabas. Kstas `hgtrmfuykg a oa ehrca`mðg bk ug agmooh agasthcðtm`h aorkbkbhr bko `ukooh bko eícur.

mgskr`mðg cus`uoar

Ko eícur ks ug `hcphgkgtk mgtkirao bk oa bkacfuoa`mðg. Irag `agtmbab bk ohs cús`uohs bko cusoh kckrikg y sk mgskrtag kg varmas partks bko

 

eícur. Ohs cús`uohs quk sk hrmimgag kg oa pkovms y sk mgskrtag kg oas `aras agtkrmhr h phstkrmhr bko eícur smrvkg para ea`momtar oa eokxmðg y kxtkgsmðg bk oas `abkras. Ohs cús`uohs quk surikg bko eícur `ruzag oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa rhbmooa para mgskrtarsk kg oa tmfma prhxmcao y asã prhchvkr oa eokxmðg y kxtkgsmðg bk oa rhbmooa. Oas tafoas a `hgtmgua`mðg rksuckg ohs cús`uohs bko cusoh y sus pugths bk hrmikg k mgskr`mðg `hg rkoa`mðg ao eícur. 65. Ckg`mhgks oas `hgsmbkra`mhgks agatðcm`as ikgkraoks bk oa rðtuoa. Vta:

Oa rðtuoa sk kg`ukgtra kg oa prheugbmbab bk oa eas`ma oata y oas emfras bko tkgbðg bko rk`th ekchrao agtkrmhr a oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa rhbmooa. Ko tkr`mh supkrmhr bk oa rðtuoa a`túa `hch ko pugth bk ugmðg para oas emfras tkgbmghsas bko rk`th ekchraosky ugkg ko vasth mgtkrckbmh bko `uábrm`kps, cmkgtras quk ko vasth ckbmao y oatkrao kg ohs fhrbks ckbmao y oatkrao bk oa rðtuoa, rkspk`tmvackgtk. @aba tkgbðg mgbmvmbuao bk ohs cús`uohs quk ehrcag ko `uábrm`kps, sk mgskrtag kg oa rðtuoa y `hgtmguag supkrem`maockgtk shfrk kooa kg ehrca bk eas`ma quk sk ablmkrk ao luksh. Ko omiackgth rhtuomagh kgvukovk ko tkr`mh mgekrmhr bk oa rðtuoa y ugk ko luksh a oa tufkrhsmbab tmfmao.

 

Buragtk oa kxtkgsmðg, bksbk uga phsm`mðg thtaockgtk eokxmhgaba, oa rðtuoa mgm`maockgtk smrvk `hch ug kgoa`k kgtrk ko tkgbðg bko `uábrm`kps y ko omiackgth rhtuomagh, pkrcmtmkgbh quk ko `uábrm`kps ikgkrk thrquk kg oa tmfma. Pmg kcfarih, sk gk`ksmta ko bhfok bk thrquk para ohs úotmchs 1; irabhs bk kxtkgsmðg.

Mrrmia`mðg Ko sucmgmstrh bk sagirk cás mcphrtagtk a oa rðtuoa pkgktra kg ko phoh mgekrmhr a oh oarih bk oa aochlabmooa bk irasa bkfajh bk oa rðtuoa. Oa rðtuoa kstá mrrmiaba phr uga vasta rkb vas`uoar quk sk pukbk bmvmbmr kg bhs partks: kxtraðska k mgtraðska. @hg `hgtrmfu`mhgks bk oas artkrmas rk`urrkgtks tmfmaoks agtkrmhrks, oas artkrmas ikgm`uoabas suprkca, ckbmao supkrmhr k mgekrmhr y oatkrao supkrmhr k mgekrmhr ehrcag ug agmooh kxtraðskh aorkbkbhr bk oa rðtuoa. Ko sucmgmstrh vas`uoar mgtraðskh oh ehrcag ohs vashs rhtuomaghs ckbmhs y ohs vashs phoarks.

Mgkrva`mðg h

h

h

Oa mgkrva`mðg `utágka agtkrmhr bk oa rhbmooa sk bkrmva bk oas raã`ks gkrvmhsas bk O6 a O;. Oa mgkrva`mðg agtkrhckbmao bk oa rhbmooa prhvmkgk bk ohs gkrvmhs ikgmthekchrao, ekchrao, hfturabhr y saekgh. Ohs gkrvmhs `utágkhs ekchrao oatkrao y surao oatkrao sucmgmstrag mgkrva`mðg agtkrhoatkrao.

Mgkrva`mðg

 

h

h

h

Oa mgkrva`mðg `utágka agtkrmhr bk oa rhbmooa sk bkrmva bk oas raã`ks gkrvmhsas bk O6 a O;. Oa mgkrva`mðg agtkrhckbmao bk oa rhbmooa prhvmkgk bk ohs gkrvmhs ikgmthekchrao, ekchrao, hfturabhr y saekgh. Ohs gkrvmhs `utágkhs ekchrao oatkrao y surao oatkrao sucmgmstrag mgkrva`mðg agtkrhoatkrao.

@aba fhrbk bk oa rðtuoa tacfmíg bkfk skr kqumbmstagtk bko eícur. Oa mg`omga`mðg agtkrmhr h phstkrmhr sk bks`rmfk phr oa phsm`mðg bko phoh mgekrmhr  bk oa rðtuoa kg ko poagh saimtao. Oa bkprksmðg bko phoh mgekrmhr sk bkghcmga mg`omga`mðg mgekrmhr, cmkgtras quk oa kokva`mðg bko phoh mgekrmhr sk bkghcmga mg`omga`mðg supkrmhr. Oa mg`omga`mðg mgekrmhr pukbk pkoomz`ar h mrrmtar oa aochlabmooa bk irasa rhtuomaga y `ausar bhohr. Kg ko poagh tragsvkrsao, oa mg`omga`mðg oatkrao h ckbmao sk rkemkrk a oa bkprksmðg bko fhrbk oatkrao h ckbmao bk oa rðtuoa, rkspk`tmvackgtk. Oa mg`omga`mðg oatkrao pukbk a`afar kg ug sãgbrhck bk `hcprksmðg ekchrhpatkoar . Oa rhta`mðg bk oa rðtuoa sk vaohra tkgmkgbh kg `ukgta oa bmrk``mðg bk rhta`mðg bko phoh mgekrmhr. Oa rhta`mðg oatkrao h ckbmao bk oa rðtuoa ghs pukbk suikrmr quk kxmstk uga thrsmðg tmfmao .

Chvmombab bk oa patkoa Ko chvmcmkgth bmgácm`h bkpkgbk bk oa `hgtra``mðg a`tmva bko `uábrm`kps, oa kxtkgsmfmombab bko tkjmbh `hgk`tmvh aorkbkbhr bk oa rðtuoa, oa ikhcktrãa bk oa rðtuoa y ko sur`h trh`okar. Buragtk ko chvmcmkgth bk tmfma y eícur, oa rðtuoa a`túa `hch uga artm`uoa`mðg bksomzagtk y tmkgk chvmcmkgth kg cúotmpoks poaghs.

 

69. Kxpomquk oas `hgsmbkra`mhgks agatðcm`as bk oa tmfma: `ukrph, kxtrkcmbab supkrmhr k mgekrmhr (kpãemsms), `aras, fhrbks y kstru`turas quk oa `ara`tkrmzag kg `aba zhga. Vta:

Oa tmfma ks ug luksh oarih kg ehrca bk prmsca trmagiuoar, par, smtuabh kg oa partk agtkrmhr k mgtkrga bk oa pmkrga. Trkskgta bhs `urvaturas bk skgtmbh `hgtrarmh: oa supkrmhr, `ðg`ava la`ma eukra> htra mgekrmhr, `ðg`ava la`ma bkgtrh. @hch thbh luksh oarih, prkskgta bhs kpãemsms kpãemsms,, bhs cktáemsms y uga bmáemsms bmáemsms.. Oa kpãemsms prhxmcao partm`mpa kg oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa rhbmooa, rkoa`mhgágbhsk `hg ko eícur, cmkgtras quk oa kpãemsms bmstao `hcpartk oa artm`uoa`mðg bko thfmooh `hg oa kpãemsms bmstao bko pkrhgí. Oa tmfma sk kg`ukgtra ckbmao ao pkrhgí `hg ko quk sk artm`uoa kg sus kxtrkchs prhxmcao y bmstao. Asmcmsch, kgtrk acfhs lukshs kxmstk uga ckcfraga emfrhsa bkghcmgaba ‟ ckcfraga mgtkrðska ‟ mgtkrðska ‟ quk aphrta kstafmombab a acfas artm`uoa`mhgks ao ehrcar uga smgbkschsms smgbkschsms.. Oa tmfma sk kg`ukgtra ckbmao ao pkrhgí `hg ko quk sk artm`uoa kg sus kxtrkchs prhxmcao y bmstao. Asmcmsch, kgtrk acfhs lukshs kxmstk uga ckcfraga emfrhsa

 

bkghcmgaba ‟ ckcfraga mgtkrðska ‟ mgtkrðska ‟ quk aphrta kstafmombab a acfas artm`uoa`mhgks ao ehrcar uga smgbkschsms smgbkschsms.. BKPAVVHOOH

 

Oa tmfma kcpmkza a hsmem`arsk a partmr bk trks `kgtrhs> ugh para ko `ukrph y ohs htrhs bhs, para oas kxtrkcmbabks. Oa hsmem`a`mðg sk mgm`ma kg ko `kgtrh bko `ukrph, aorkbkbhr bk oa síptmca skcaga bk vmba ektao, y ph`h a ph`h sk kxtmkgbk la`ma oas kxtrkcmbabks. Ko `kgtrh bk oa kpãemsms supkrmhr apark`k agtks bko ga`mcmkgth, `kr`a bk oas 02 skcagas bk iksta`mðg> thca uga ehrca apoagaba,y tmkgk ug prh`ksh kg ehrca bk okgiÿkta bkoiaba bkoagtk, quk ehrca oa tufkrhsmbab tmfmao, y quk phr oa kpãemsms mgekrmhr apark`k kg ko skiugbh añh. Oa kpãemsms mgekrmhr sk eusmhga `hg oa bmáemsms tmfmao aprhxmcabackgtk a ohs 1< añhs, y oa supkrmhr sk eugbk shfrk ko skiugbh añh bk vmba. Bk vkz kg `uagbh kxmstkg bhs `kgtrhs abm`mhgaoks, ugh para ko prh`ksh kg ehrca bk okgiÿkta bk oa kpãemsms supkrmhr, quk ehrca oa tufkrhsmbab, y ugh para ko caokhoh tmfmao

.

K\RVKCMBAB P[TKVMHV: CKPKRA RMFMAO Ko kxtrkch quk sk artm`uoa `hg ko eícur ks ag`lh y tmkgk bhs `avmbabks iokghmbkas,, oa mgtkrga y oa kxtkrga quk sk artm`uoag `hg ohs `ðgbmohs bko eícur. iokghmbkas Rmkgk uga `ara supkrmhr poaga bkghcmgaba ‟poatmooh ‟poatmooh tmfmao–, tmfmao–, bk bhgbk kckrik uga kcmgkg`ma kgtrk oas `avmbabks iokghmbkas ooacaba kspmga bk oa tmfma h kcmgkg`ma mgtkr`hgbãoka. mgtkr`hgbãoka. Ksta kcmgkg`ma kg`aja kg oa ehsa mgtkr`hgbãoka bko eícur.Kstá bmvmbmba phr uga ks`htabura kg bhs: ko tufír`uoh mgtkrgh y ko tufír`uoh kxtkrgh> lay bhs supkrem`mks trmagiuoarks y ruihsas ooacabas supkrem`mks prkkspmgao y rktrhkspmgao rktrhkspmgao.. Oas bhs `avmbabks iokghmbkas bks`agsag kgtrk bhs casas vhoucmghsas bkghcmgabas tufkrhsmbabks bk oa tmfma> oa tufkrhsmbab mgtkrga h `ðgbmohs ckbmao, ckbmao, quk prkskgta atrás uga mcprksmðg ruihsa para ko tkgbðg bmrk`th bko skcmckcfraghsh y phr bkoagtk ug `agao para ko tkgbðg lhrmzhgtao bko skcmckcfraghsh. Oa tufkrhsmbab kxtkrga h `ðgbmoh oatkrao phskk uga `armooa artm`uoar ooacaba `armooa pkrhgka bko luksh bk oa tmfma. tmfma . Oas bhs tufkrhsmbabks kstág skparabas phr uga ks`htabura vkrtm`ao quk phr bkoagtk bk ísta lay uga supkrem`mk trmagiuoar, ruihsa y ookga bk aiujkrhs y bkfajh bk ísta sk kg`ukgtra ko tufír`uoh agtkrmhr h tufkrhsmbab agtkrmhr, agtkrmhr, bko `uao partk uga `rksta quk tkrcmga kg ko tufír`uoh bk Ikrby para oa mgskr`mðg bko cús`uoh tmfmao agtkrmhr. @[KVTH BK OA RMFMA  @hgsta bk trks fhrbks y trks `aras:

 

FHVBKP: Fhrbk agtkrmhr.- Racfmíg ooacabh `rksta agtkrmhr bk oa tmfma. Fhrbk kxtkrgh.- Kstá ufm`abh bko oabh `hgtrarmh ao caoíhoh mgtkrgh. Kg su partk mgekrmhr tmkgk supkrem`mk artm`uoar para ko pkrhgí. Fhrbk mgtkrgh.- Rmkgk oa mgskr`mðg bk oa aphgkurhsms poagtar. @AVAP: @ara mgtkrga.- Ks omsa, kstá kg `hgta`th `hg oa pmko. Trkskgta ruihsmbabks para oa pata bk iagsh. @ara kxtkrga.- Pk kg`ukgtra ko tufír`uoh para ko tmfmao agtkrmhr. @ara phstkrmhr.- Pk kg`ukgtra oa `rksta hfom`ua bk oa tmfma K\RVKCMBAB MGEKVMHV  MGEKVMHV  Rmkgk ehrca bk pmrácmbk. su partk mgekrmhr, tmkgkykokscaoíhoh oa partk kgsag`laba, quk Kg tacfmíg sk pukbk paopar ko smtmh ckbmao, bk ugmðgquk `hgksko astráiaoh. Kgtrk oa tmfma y ko pkrhgí kstá oa ckcfraga mgtkrðska. Kg oa `ara phstkrmhr bk oa tmfma kstá oa oãgka sðoka, quk ks ko ouiar bk mgskr`mðg para ko cús`uoh sðokh. Pk kg`ukgtra kg oa partk agtkrmhr k mgtkrga bk oa pmkrga, paraokoa y a ug oabh bko pkrhgí, oa ks`htabura kg supkrem`mk oatkrao bko kxtrkch mgekrmhr bk oa tmfma, para ko pkrhgí. @hg ko astráiaoh phr afajh y `hg ko pkrhgí phr eukra y arrmfa. UAP@[OAVMZA@MÐG   UAP@[OAVMZA@MÐG Oa tmfma kstá prmg`mpaockgtk vas`uoarmzaba phr oa artkrma gutrm`ma y tacfmíg phr oa artkrma tmfmao agtkrmhr. AVRM@[OA@MÐG Oa tmfma jugth ao eícur ehrcag oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa rhbmooa. Oa tmfma jugth ao pkrhgí ehrcag oa artm`uoa`mðg tmfmhpkrhgka supkrmhr k mgekrmhr. Oa tmfma `hg ko astráiaoh, ehrcag jugth `hg ko pkrhgí oa artm`uoa`mðg bko thfmooh. CÚP@[OHP Q[K RMKGKG P[ HVMIKG KG OA RMFMA  RMFMA   -Cús`uoh tmfmao agtkrmhr. agtkrmhr. Kg ko `ukrph bk oa tmfma -Cús`uoh tmfmao phstkrmhr. phstkrmhr. Kg ko `ukrph bk oa tmfma. -Cús`uoh sðokh. sðokh. Kg oa tmfma.

 

CÚP@[OHP Q[K RMKGKG P[ MGPKV@MÐG KG OA RMFMA -Cús`uoh phpoãtkh.phpoãtkh.- Kg oa phr`mðg supkrmhr y phstkrmhr bk oa tmfma. -Cús`uoh skcmckcfraghsh.-Kg skcmckcfraghsh.-Kg ko `ðgbmoh ckbmao bk oa tmfma. -Cús`uoh skcmtkgbmghsh.skcmtkgbmghsh.- Kg oa rkimðg prhxmcao bk oa supkrem`mk ckbmao bko kxtrkch supkrmhr bk oa tmfma -Cús`uoh sarthrmh.sarthrmh.- Kg oa supkrem`mk supkrmhr y agtkrh- ckbmao bk oa tmfma. -Cús`uoh irá`mo h rk`th mgtkrgh. mgtkrgh. Kg oa partk supkrmhr bk su `ara ckbmao. Ohs cús`uohs skcmtkgbmghsh skcmtkgbmghsh,, sarthrmh y irá`mo h rk`th mgtkrgh, mgtkrgh, ehrcag oa pata bk iagsh supkrem`mao. -Rkgbðg rhtuomagh.rhtuomagh.- Pk mgskrta kg oa tmfma. E[G@MÐG -Vk`mfk ko pksh bko `ukrph. -Pmrvk bk aphyh para oa oh`hch`mðg. 6 oa `armooa quk ksta cás afajh, cuy kx`avaba, sk `hrrksphgbk `hg oa partk kxtkrga bk oa `afkza bko luksh iragbk.

 

@aras gh artm`uoarks: artm`uoarks: Oas trks `aras gh artm`uoarks shg oa kxtkrga, oa agtkrmhr y oa phstkrmhr. Oa `ara kxtkrga kstá ehrcaba phr ug iruksh tufír`uoh, quk shfrksaok la`ma bkoagtk y aeukra: ks ko tufír`uoh bko ks`aehmbks, kg ko `uao vmkgk a mgskrtarsk ko omiackgth oatkrao kxtkrgh bk oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa cuñk`a. Oa `ara phstkrmhr h bhrsao ks cuy kstrk`la y kstá rkprkskgtaba phr ug `agao ruihsh quk sk bmrmik hfom`uackgtk la`ma afajh y aeukra. Oa `ara agtkrmhr h paocar, kstrk`la kg su partk supkrmhr, sk kgsag`la `hgsmbkrafokckgtk kg oa mgekrmhr bhgbk sk `hrrksphgbk `hg ko tufír`uoh ks`aehmbkh. Ko ks`aehmbks sk artm`uoa `hg `mg`h lukshs     

ko rabmh ko skcm-ougar ko luksh iragbk ko trapkzhmbk ko trapk`mh.

Pkcmougar: Ooacabh asã phrquk tmkgk oa ehrca bk ckbma ouga `hg oa Pkcmougar: Ooacabh `hg`avmbab cmragbh la`ma afajh, ko skcmougar bmsphgk bk `uatrh `armooas artm`uoarks para `hg ohs lukshs mgckbmaths y bhs `armooas gh artm`uoarks. @armooas artm`uoarks: Oas artm`uoarks: Oas `uatrh `armooas artm`uoarks shg: uga `armooa supkrmhr, bk ehrca `hgvkxa, para ko rabmh> uga `armooa mgekrmhr, `ðg`ava bk bkoagtk atrás (`ara skcmougar), para oa `afkza bko luksh lu ksh iragbk y oa kxtrkcmbab supkrmhr bko iag`lhsh> uga `armooa kxtkrga, poaga y cuy pkqukña, para ko ks`aehmbks>y uga `armooa mgtkrga, poaga tacfmíg, pkrh cu`lh cás iragbk, para ko pmracmbao. @armooas gh artm`uoarks: bk artm`uoarks: bk oas bhs `armooas gh artm`uoarks bko skcmougar, oa agtkrmhr ks `hgvkxa y oa phstkrmhr poaga. Acfas shg ruihsas, pkrh gh sk mgskrta kg kooas gmgiúg cús`uoh. Ko skcmougar sk artm`uoa `hg `mg`h lukshs     

ko rabmh ko ks`aehmbks ko pmracmbao ko iag`lhsh kñ luksh iragbk

Tmracmbao: ko pmracmbao tmkgk oa ehrca bk uga pmrácmbk, `uya fask cmra la`ma arrmfa y aeukra. Trkskgta `uatrh `armooas artm`uoarks y bhs gh artm`uoarks @armooas artm`uoarks: artm`uoarks: oas `armooas artm`uoarks shg: uga `armooa supkrmhr, `hgvkxa k mrrkiuoar, kg rkoa`mðg `hg ko omiackgth trmagiuoar bk oa artm`uoa`mðg rabmh`ufmtao mgekrmhr> uga `armooa mgekrmhr, `ðg`ava, para ko luksh iag`lhsh> uga `armooa kxtkrga, poaga, para ko skcmougar> y uga `armooa agtkrhmgtkrga rkbhgbkaba, para ko pmsmehrck quk aoiugas vk`ks ks poaga y htras omikrackgtk `hgvkxa.

 

@armooas gh artm`uoarks: oas artm`uoarks: oas bhs `armooas gh artm`uoarks bko pmracmbao shg oa agtkrmhr y oa phstkrmhr. Oa `ara agtkrmhr h paocar ks kstrk`la, ruihsa y prhohgiaba bk arrmfa afajh y bk eukra a bkgtrh. Oa `ara phstkrmhr h bhrsao ks cuy ag`la y prkskgta kg su partk mgekrmhr k mgtkrga uga `rksta tragsvkrsao, oa `rksta bko pmracmbao, bkstmgaba a mgskr`mhgks omiackgthsas. Oa `rksta bko pmracmbao tkrcmga phr bkgtrh kg ko tufír`uoh bko pmracmbao kg ko `uao sk mgskrta ko eas`ã`uoh omiackgth oatkrao mgtkrgh bk oa artm`uoa`mðg bk oa cuñk`a. Thrphstkrmhr kg`mca ybko phr bkfajh bk oa `rksta sk hfskrvag sur`hs `hg guckrhshs aiujkrhs vas`uoarks. Ko luksh pmracmbao sk artm`uoa `hg `uatrh lukshs:    

ko `úfmth ko pmsmehrck ko skcmougar ko luksh iag`lhsh

Tmsmehrck: luksh aoariabh kg skgtmbh vkrtm`ao. omikrackgtk apoagabh bk eukra Tmsmehrck: luksh a bkgtrh y quk prkskgta bhs kxtrkchs y `uatrh `aras Kxtrkchs: ko kxtrkch supkrmhr, hrbmgarmackgtk ko cayhr bk ohs bhs, kstá Kxtrkchs: ko bmrmimbh la`ma arrmfa y ug ph`h la`ma eukra. Ksta kxtrkcmbab gh pasa bko gmvko bk oa `armooa artm`uoar. Ko kxtrkch mgekrmhr, sk kxtmkgbk cás h ckghs, kg ehrca bk iruksh cackoðg h bk kcmgkg`ma pmracmbao, cás aooá bko gmvko mgekrmhr bk oa `armooa artm`uoar. Kstk kxtrkch smrvk bk mgskr`mðg a eas`ã`uohs omiackgthshs quk sk mgskrtag kg partk kg ko luksh iag`lhsh y kg partk kg ko qumgth ckta`arpmagh @armooas: oas `uatrh `aras bko pmsmehrck, ikgkraockgtk cao bktkrcmgabas, sk @armooas: oas bmvmbkg kg phstkrmhr, agtkrmhr, mgtkrga y kxtkrga. Oa `ara phstkrmhr, kg rkoa`mðg artm`uoar `hg ko luksh pmracmbao, prkskgta uga pkqukña `armooa, rkbhgbkaba u hvao, poaga h omikrackgtk kx`avaba. Oa `ara mgtkrga, `hgvkxa y cás h ckghs ruihsa, prksta mgskr`mðg omiackgth oatkrao mgtkrgh oa artm`uoa`mðg cuñk`a. Oa `ara kxtkrgaaoprkskgta oa cayhrãa bk oas bk vk`ks ug `agao bk oa ohgimtubmgao quk, cuy prhgug`mabh kg oa partk supkrmhr bko vmsth phr su partk luksh, sk va aoariagbh irabuaockgtk a ckbmba quk sk a`kr`a ao kxtrkch mgekrmhr. Kstk `agao `hrrksphgbk a oa artkrma `ufmtao y a oa raca prheugba bko gkrvmh `ufmtao. Kg oa `ara agtkrmhr sk mgskrtag ko abu`thr bko ckñmquk y ko `ufmtao agtkrmhr. Ko pmsmehrck sk artm`uoa úgm`ackgtk `hg ko luksh pmracmbao Rrapk`mh: ko trapk`mh, smtuabh kgtrk ko ks`aehmbks y ko prmckr ckta`arpmagh, tmkgk trks `armooas artm`uoarks y trks `armooas gh artm`uoarks @armooas artm`uoarks: `armooas artm`uoarksuga shg:`armooa uga `armooa supkrmhr trmagiuoar y omikrackgtk `ðg`ava,oas para ko ks`aehmbks> mgekrmhr, `ðg`ava kg skgtmbh tragsvkrsao y `hgvkxa kg skgtmbh agtkrhphstkrmhr (kg ehrca bk smooa bk

 

chgtar), para oa kxtrkcmbab supkrmhr bko prmckr ckta`arpmagh> uga `armooa mgtkrga, `ðg`ava phr arrmfa para ko trapkzhmbk, poaga phr afajh para oa partk kxtkrga bko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh> uga pkqukña `rksta hftusa, bk bmrk``mðg tragsvkrsao, mgbm`a ko omcmtk bk kstas bhs `aras sk`ugbarmas. @armooas gh artm`uoarks: oa `ara agtkrmhr ks rkoatmvackgtk kstrk`la, shfrk thbh kg suaopartk Kg su kxtkrga sk Kstk hfskrva `agao prhugbh, bkstmgabh pashmgtkrga. bko tkgbðg bkopartk paocar cayhr. `agaougkstá omcmtabh phr eukra phr uga eukrtk apðemsms omgkao quk sk bmrmik hfom`ua ckgtk la`ma bkoagtk y abkgtrh, ooacabh tufír`uoh bko trapk`mh. Oa `ara phstkrmhr ks bksmiuao, ruihsa y`hg guckrhs aiujkrhs. Kg sus bhs kxtrkchs, lay bhs pkqukñhs tufír`uohs bkstmgabhs a mgskr`mhgks omiackgthsas. Oa `ara kxtkrga ks `uabrmoátkra y ruihsa, y tacfmíg prksta mgskr`mðg a omiackgths. Ko trapk`mh sk artm`uoa `hg `uatrh lukshs:   

ko ks`aehmbks ko trapkzhmbk ko prmckr ckta`arpmagh

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ko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh. Rrapkzhmbk: ko trapkzhmbk sk kg`ukgtra smtuabh kgtrk `uatrh lukshs, ko ks`aehmbks phr arrmfa, ko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh phr afajh, ko trapk`mh phr eukra y ko luksh iragbk phr bkgtrh prkskgtagbh phr tagth `uatrh `armooas artm`uoarks. Abkcás, prkskgta bhs `armooas gh artm`uoarks @armooas artm`uoarks: `armooa artm`uoarks: `armooa supkrmhr bk ehrca trmagiuoar y omikrakgtk `ðg`ava para oa artm`uoa`mðg `hg ko ks`aehmbks.> `armooa mgekrmhr `hgvkxa kg skgtmbh tragsvkrsao y ghtafokckgtk prhohgiaba bk bkoagtk atrás para oa artm`uoa`mðg `hg ko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh> para ko trapk`mh, bmsphgk bk oa `armooa kxtkrga, `hgvkxa> para ko luksh iragbk, phr úotmch, uga `armooa mgtkrga mrrkiuoarckgtk poaga @armooas gh artm`uoarks: artm`uoarks: oa `ara agtkrmhr h paocar, `hrrksphgbmkgtk a oa paoca bk oa cagh, y `ara phstkrmhr h bhrsao. Acfas shg ruihsas, smkgbh abkcás oa bhrsao cu`lh cás kxtkgsa quk oa paocar Ko trapkzhmbk sk artm`uoa `hg `uatrh lukshs:    

phr arrmfa, `hg ko ks`aehmbks> phr afajh, `hg ko skiugbh ckta`arpmagh phr eukra, `hg ko trapk`mh phr bkgtrh, `hg ko luksh iragbk

Luksh iragbk: ko luksh iragbk ks ko cás vhoucmghsh bk thbhs ohs lukshs bko `arph. bk trks phr`mhgks: uga phr`mðg supkrmhr, rkbhgbkaba, oa `afkza>Kstá ugaehrcabh phr`mðg mgekrmhr, cuy vhoucmghsa, ko `ukrph, y htra phr`mðg ckbma,

 

cás h ckghs kstrk`la, ko `ukooh. Racfmíg prkskgta `armooas artm`uoarks y `armooas gh artm`uoarks (* (*). @armooas artm`uoarks: kg artm`uoarks: kg thbh su pkrãcktrh sk artm`uoa `hg ohs lukshs mgckbmaths, bmsphgmkgbh bk oas smiumkgtks `armooas: kg su `ara supkrmhr, uga `armooa artm`uoar `hgvkxa y skcmougar> kg su `ara kxtkrga, uga prmckra `armooa, `hgvkxa, smtuaba la`ma arrmfa,smtuaba para oa la`ma `hg`avmbab ks`aehmbks y uga kg skiugba `armooa, poaga y cás pkqukña, afajh,bko para ko trapkzhmbk> su `ara mgtkrga, uga kxtkgsa `armooa, a oa `uao sk añabk erk`ukgtkckgtk htra cás pkqukña, para oa artm`uoa`mðg bk ksta `ara `hg ko luksh iag`lhsh> kg su `ara mgekrmhr, trks `armooas `hgtmiuas, pkrh skparabas phr `rkstas ikgkraockgtk cuy vmsmfoks, para ko skiugbh, ko tkr`krh y ko `uarth ckta`arpmaghs> bk kstas trks `armooas ckta`arpmagas, oa `armooa ckbma, bkstmgaba ao tkr`kr ckta`arpmagh, ks ag`la y trmagiuoar, bk fask phstkrmhr> oa `armooa kxtkrga, bkstmgaba ao skiugbh ckta`arpmagh, ks kstrk`la y prhohgiaba bk bkoagtk atrás> emgaockgtk oa `armooa mgtkrga, bkstmgaba ao `uarth ckta`arpmagh, ks cuy pkqukña y kstá omcmtaba a oa partk phstkrmhr bko luksh. @armooas gh artm`uoarks: Oas artm`uoarks: Oas `armooas gh artm`uoarks h`upag tacfmíg aquã oa `ara paocar y oa `araquk bhrsao bko ko luksh. Kstas bhs `armooas arrmfa ug `agao tragsvkrsao skñaoa `ukooh, y phr bkfajh bkprkskgtag kstk `agao,phr uga supkrem`mk ruihsa kg oa `uao kxmstkg guckrhsh aiujkrhs vas`uoarks. Thr úotmch, kg oa partk phstkrmhr y kxtkrga bko luksh iragbk sk kg`ukgtra oa apðemsms bko luksh iragbk, quk sk bmrmik hfom`uackgtk la`ma ko `uarth ckta`arpmagh artm`uoágbhsk `hg ko Ko luksh iragbk sk artm`uoa `hg smktk lukshs:    

ko ks`aehmbks ko skcmougar ko trapkzhmbk ko luksh iag`lhsh

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ohs trks ckta`arpmaghs `kgtraoks Luksh iag`lhsh: ko iag`lhsh: ko luksh iag`lhsh ks ko úotmch bk oa skiugba emoa bko `arph. Cu`lh cás ag`lh kg su partk mgekrmhr quk kg oa supkrmhr, sk park`k fastagtk a uga pmrácmbk, `uya fask kstá kg rkoa`mðg `hg ohs bhs úotmchs ckta`arpmaghs @armooas artm`uoarks: kstas artm`uoarks: kstas `armooas artm`uoarks h`upag thba oa `mr`ugekrkg`ma bko luksh. Oa `ara mgekrmhr h fask prkskgta bhs `armooas artm`uoarks yuxtapukstas, acfas `ðg`avas. Oa kxtkrga kstá kg rkoa`mðg `hg ko `uarth ckta`arpmagh> oa mgtkrga, `hg ko qumgth. Kstas bhs `armooas jugtas tmkgkg oa ehrca bk uga smooa bk chgtar. Oa kxtrkcmbab supkrmhr h vírtm`k herk`k oa ehrca bk ug fhrbk hftush bmrmimbh bk bkoagtk atrás> shfrk ístk sk smtúa ko skcmougar. A `aba oabh bk kstk fhrbk y iagagbh oas `aras oatkraoks bko luksh, sk kxtmkgbkg bhs `armooas uga mgtkrga, cuy vkrtm`ao, hfom`ua, quk quk cmra cmra la`ma la`ma arrmfa y abkgtrh, para artm`uoarks ko pmracmbao, y htra kxtkrga eukra, para ko luksh iragbk.

 

@armooas gh artm`uoarks: shg artm`uoarks: shg oas `aras agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr. Oa `ara bhrsao ks cuy ag`la, ruihsa, skcfraba bk aiujkrhs. Bk oa `ara agtkrmhr h paoca ga`k uga oaria apðemsms, oa apðemsms ug`mehrck. Ksta apðemsms, apoagaba tragsvkrsaockgtk, sk kg`hrva a cagkra bk iag`lh. Bk ksta bhs `aras, oa kxtkrga ehrca partk bko `agao `arpmagh y oa mgtkrga prkskgta ug `aru quk sk prhohgia shfrk ko fhrbk mgekrmhr y phr ko quk `hrrk oa artkrma `ufmthpaocar. Ko vírtm`k bk agtkrmhr oa apðemsms rkbhgbkabh y hftush, ba mgskr`mðg ao omiackgth bkoug`mehrck, `arph Ko luksh iag`lhsh sk artm`uoa `hg `mg`h lukshs:    

ko pmracmbao ko luksh iragbk ko skcmougar ohs bhs úotmchs ckta`arpmaghs.

04. Bks`rmfa oas `ara`tkrãstm`as agatðcm`as ikgkraoks bk oa rkimðg bko cktatarsh. Vta: Ko cktatarsh ks oa partk bko pmk `hcprkgbmba kgtrk ko tarsh y ohs bkbhs bko pmk y `hgstmtumba phr ohs `mg`h lukshs cktatarsmaghs, ohs lukshs cás oarihs bko pmk ghcfrabhs `hch prmckrh, skiugbh, tkr`krh, `uarth y qumgth bk ckbmao a oatkrao y ohs `uaoks sk ar artm`uoag tm`uoag phr bktrás `hg ko `ufhmbks y oas trks `uñas y phr bkoagtk `hg oas prmckras eaoagiks bk ohs bkbhs. @aba cktatarsmagh tmkgk uga `afkza, quk sk kg`ukgtra kg ko kxtrkch bmstao, uga bmáemsms, cás bkoiaba y aoariaba y kg oa zhga ckbma bko luksh, y uga fask. Oa `ara oatkrao bk oa fask bko U cktatarsmagh tmkgk uga tufkrhsmbab prhcmgkgtk @aba bk koohs `hgsta bkbmstao. uga fask h kxtrkch h bmáemsms y uga ugh `afkza h kxtrkcmbab Ko qumgth sukok prhxmcao, prkskgtarug ug`ukrph tufkrhsmbab prhcmgkgtk quk sk prhyk`ta la`ma atrás y ks oa zhga bk mgskr`mðg bko tkgbðg bko cús`uoh pkrhgkh `hrth: Oa apðemsms kstmohmbks bko qumgth cktatarsmagh.

6. Art Artm`uo m`uoa`m a`mhgks hgks

 

Ohs cktatarsmaghs sk artm`uoag phstkrmhrckgtk `hg ohs lukshs bk oa skiugba emoa bko tarsh y agtkrmhrckgtk `hg oas eaoagiks prhxmcaoks bk ohs bkbhs. Oa `afkza bk ohs cktatarsmaghs sk artm`uoa `hg oa eaoagik prhxmcao bk `aba bkbh. Oa fask bko cktatarsmagh M sk artm`uoa `hg ko luksh `ugkmehrck ckbmao, bko tarsh, cmkgtras quk oas fasks bk ohs cktatarsmaghs MM a U sk artm`uoag `hg htrhs lukshs bko tarsh (`ugkmehrck ckbmao y oatkrao y `ufhmbks) y `hg ohs cktatarsmaghs abya`kgtks. OA AVRM@[OA@MÐG RAVPHCKRARAVPMAGA, h artm`uoa`mðg bk OMPEVAG@, shg oas quk rkaomzag ohs cktatarsmaghs `hg ohs lukshs bko tarsh. Pk kstafok`k kgtrk oas fasks bk ohs cktatarsmaghs M a U y ohs `ugkmehrcks prmckrh a tkr`krh (oas trks `uñas) y ko `ufhmbks. @aba ugmðg ðska bk cagkra amsoaba ks uga artm`uoa`mðg bk tmph poaga. Phg artm`uoa`mhgks artrhbmaoks. Oa mgtkroãgka artm`uoar (`hgh`mba phr ohs `mrujaghs `hch mgtkroãgka bk Omserag`) ks cuy qukfraba y kg oa prheugbmbab kstá mgtkrrucpmba phr bhs prmg`mpaoks omiackgths mgtkrðskhs: (mgtkrgh y kxtkrgh) AVRM@[OA@MHGKP CKRARAVPHEAOÁGIM@AP. Kstas artm`uoa`mhgks fm`hgbãokas shg kompshmbaoks y sk ehrcag kgtrk ohs cktatarsmaghs y oas fasks bk oas eaoagiks prhxmcaoks bk ohs bkbhs.

0. Omia Omiackg ckgths ths Oa artm`uoa`mðg tarshcktatarsmaga bk Omserag` kstá rkehrzaba phr omiackgths RAVPHCKRARAVPMAGHP bhrsaoks, poagtarks k mgtkrðskhs. 2. Chv Chvmcmk mcmkgth gths s Oa artm`uoa`mðg tarshcktatarsmaga kg su `hgjugth aqumkrk uga `apa`mbab bk chvmcmkgth bk BKPOMZACMKGRH.

 

Oas artm`uoa`mhgks cktatarsheaoágim`as pkrcmtkg ohs chvmcmkgths bk EOK\MÐGK\RKGPMÐG, cmkgtras quk oa afbu``mðg-abu``mðg, rhta`mðg y `mr`ugbm``mðg kstág omcmtabas. A su gmvko sk rkaomzag eugbackgtaockgtk chvmcmkgths bk eokxh-kxtkgsmðg bk ohs bkbhs, quk tratag aiarrarsk a tkrrkgh para la`kr cás sðomba oa sujk`mðg bk oa fðvkba poagtar. Thr htra partk, ks kg kstas artm`uoa`mhgks bhgbk ko pmk kstátm`h h bk aphyh abqumkrk ko úotmch mcpuosh para bkspkiarsk bko sukoh y tragsehrcarsk kg bmgácm`h buragtk oa car`la.

Cús`uohs bko pmk Pk bmstmgiukg 0 `oasks bk cús`uohs: kxtrãgsk`hs bko pmk, mgtrãgsk`hs bhrsaoks bko pmk k mgtrãgsk`hs bk oa poagta bko pmk. Rhbhs koohs smtuabhs `kr`a bk aoiuga partk bko cktatarsh. Ohs cús`uohs quk a`túag shfrk ko pmk sk `oasmem`ag `hch cús`uohs kxtrãgsk`hs, ohs quk sk hrmimgag kg oa `ara agtkrmhr, phstkrmhr h oatkrao bk oa pmkrga, y ohs cús`uohs mgtrãgsk`hs, quk sk hrmimgag kg oa `ara bhrsao h poagtar bko pmk. 2 5. Mrrmia`mðg bko pmk Oa mrrmia`mðg prhvmkgk bk racas bk oas AVRKVMAP RMFMAO THPRKVMHV ] BHVPAO BKO TMK. Kg `uagth a vkgas sk rkemkrk, kxmstk rkbks mgtkr`hgk`tabas> vkgas prheugbas quk smiukg a oas artkrmas y supkrem`maoks quk brkgag a ug ar`h vkghsh bhrsao, smtuabh shfrk oa supkrem`mk bhrsao bko pmk phr kg`mca bk ohs cktatarsmaghs cktatarsmaghs y quk skrá ko hrmikg para oas vkgas saekga cayhr y saekga ckghr. 9. Gk Gkrv rvmh mhss Oa mgkrva`mðg bko pmk prh`kbk prmg`mpaockgtk bko gkrvmh tmfmao y tmfmao ygkrvmh gkrvmh pkrhgkh `hcúg,, racas bko `hcúg bkogkrvmh gkrvmh `matm`h `matm`h.. Racfmíg bko gkrvmh ekchrao ekchrao..

 

01. Lafok shfrk oas `hgsmbkra`mhgks agatðcm`as ikgkraoks para oas eaoagiks bk ohs pmks. Vta:

Ohs lukshs bk ohs bkbhs bko pmk  h eaoagiks bko pmk shg lukshs lukshs oarihs,  oarihs, kg gúckrh bk trks para `aba bkbh bkbh (kx`kpth  (kx`kpth ko ihrbh ihrbh,, quk tmkgk sðoh bhs), bkghcmgabhs 1, 6 y 0 h eaoagik  prhxmcao , eaoagik ckbma y eaoagik bmstao  rkspk`tmvackgtk>  rkspk`tmvackgtk> `hgstag bk ug `ukrph y bhs kxtrkchs, agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr, artm`uoarks acfhs kg 1 y 6, y sðoh ko phstkrmhr kg ko 0.

06. Mgvkstmiuk thbh oh rkoa`mhgabh `hg oa `oasmem`a`mðg bk oas artm`uoa`mhgks bk a`ukrbh `hg ko chvmcmkgth: bkemgm`mðg, kjkcpohs, suf`oasmem`a`mðg bk oa smgartrhsms y oa bmartrhsms. Vta: Oas artm`uoa`mhgks prkskgtag iragbks bmekrkg`mas kg `uagth su chrehohiãa y oa eug`mðg quk sk bkrmva bk kooas. Ohs `rmtkrmhs para `oasmem`ar oas artm`uoa`mhgks shg cuy varmabhs> gh hfstagtk, gukstra [gmbab `hgsmbkra abk`uabh ug `rmtkrmh chrehoðim`h fasabh kg ko tmph bk sustag`ma mgtkrpuksta kgtrk acfas supkrem`mks artm`uoarks. Asã, sk `ataohiag trks tmphs bk artm`uoa`mhgks: emfrhsas, `artmoaimghsas y smghvmaoks. A su vkz, `aba tmph `hcprkgbk varmhs suftmphs artm`uoarks bk a`ukrbh a aoiugas `ara`tkrãstm`as partm`uoarks bkgtrh bk ug cmsch tmph. M RMTH EMFVHPAP ‐ Auskg`ma bk `avmbab artm`uoar (Pmgartrhsms).

 

MM. RMTH @AVRMOAIMGHPAP ‐ Auskg`ma bk `avmbab artm`uoar. (Agemartrhsms).

MMM RMTH PMGHUMAO (Bmartrhsms) ‐ Cðvmoks

Oa artm`uoa`mhgks emfrhsas shg oas cás kokckgtaoks. Oas supkrem`mks artm`uoarks kstág ugmbas sðoh phr tkjmbh `hgk`tmvh bkgsh y gh prkskgtag, phr tagth, `artãoaih bk supkrem`mk artm`uoar gm `avmbab artm`uoar. Ko suftmph sutura sk `ara`tkrmza phr oa frkvkbab y bkgsmbab bko tkjmbh `hgk`tmvh mgtkrpuksth, quk bktkrcmga quk acfas supkrem`mks artm`uoarks skag cuy `kr`agas 00. Bks`rmfa ko tmph bk artm`uoa`mðg prkskgtk kg ohs `ukrphs vkrtkfraoks: bmekrkg`mas bk a`ukrbh `hg oas zhgas bk oa `houcga, artm`uoa`mhgks ug`hvkrtkfraoks, artm`uoa`mðg `rágkh-vkrtkfrao, omiackgths a gmvko bk oa `houcga vkrtkfrao, kgtrk oas apðemsms kspmghsas, kgtrk oas apðemsms tragsvkrsas. Vta:

 

Oas vírtkfras sk artm`uoag kgtrk sã para `hgstmtumr oas `houcga vkrtkfrao. Ksta sk artm`uoa, phr arrmfa, `hg oa `afkza> kg ko tðrax, `hg oas `hstmooas y, phr bkfajh, `hg ohs lukshs moãa`hs. Uachs a `hckgzar bk @íeaoh-@aubao, para ckjhr `hcprkgsmðg y ufm`a`mðg. AVRM@[OA@MHGKP @VAGKHUKVRKFVAOKP  Artm`uoa`mðg h``mpmthatohmbka (h``mpmtao + atoas)   

  Bk tmph @hgbãoka   Rmkgk `artã `artãoaih, oaih, `ápsuoa artm`uoar y fhosa smghvmao smghvmao   Vkaomza ug chvmcmkgth bk eokxh-kxtkgsmðg k mg`omga`mðg oatkrao

Artm`uoa`mðg H``mpmthaxhmbka (h``mpmtao + axms)   Gh ks uga artm`uoa`mðg prhpmackgtk bm`la, ks ks uga ugmðg h emja`mðg ckbmagtk ug omiackgth bk oa apðemsms hbhgthmbks bko axms `hg ko luksh h``mpmtao 

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  Gh lay supkrem`mks artm`uoarks

Artm`uoa`mðg atohmbhhbhgthmbka (atoas + hbhgthmbks)   Bk ttmph mph trh`hmbk trh`hmbk `hg kjk vkrtm`ao vkrtm`ao 

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  Rmkgk `artãoaih, `ápsuoa artm`uoar, artm`uoar, fhosa smghvmao smghvmao y omiackgth tragsvkrsh

Artm`uoa`mðg atohaxhmbka (atoas + axms)   Bk tmph trh`hmbk 

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  Chvmcmkgth kg ug shoh kjk (tragsvkrsao) (tragsvkrsao)

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  [ga ssupkrem`mk upkrem`mk `moãgbrm`a `moãgbrm`a y htra luk`a

Artm`uoa`mðg Atohmbhaxhmbka (`ara mgekrmhr bko atoas + oa `ara supkrmhr bko axms)   Bk tmph artrhbma 

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  gh kxmstk emfrh`artãoaih   Rmkgk `ápsuoa artm`uo artm`uoar ar oaxa (rkehrzaba phr ug omiackgth oatkrao oatkrao mgekrmhr bk Arghob),  fhosa smghvmao,   rkaomza ug chvmcmkgth: bksomzacmkgth

AVRM@[OA@MHGKP BK OAP @HPRMOOAP Oas `hstmooas sk artm`uoag kg trks pugths kg bhs `hg oas vírtkfras y uga `hg ko kstkrgðg. Artm`uoa`mðg `hsthvkrtkfrao (`hstmooa + `ukrph vkrtkfrao)   Phg artm`uoa`mhgks bko tmph `hgbãoka 

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  Pk artm`uoag oa `afkza bk oa `hstmooa `hstmooa y ko `ukrph bk oa vírtkfra.

 

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  Oas `hstmoo `hstmooas as 1ª, 11ª y 16ª sk artm`uoag artm`uoag `hg su `hrrksphgbmkgtk `hrrksphgbmkgtk vírtkfra, cmkgtras quk oas artm`uoa`mhgks bk oa 6ª a oa 14ª sk artm`uoag `hg su vírtkfra y `hg oa supkrmhr

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  Lay `artã `artãoaih, oaih, `ápsuoa artm`uoar y fhosa smghvmao

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  Ko oomiackgth miackgth rabmabh sk kg`aria bk cagtkgkr oa `hlksmðg

Artm`uoa`mðg `hsthtragsvkrsa (`hstmooa + apðemsms tragsvkrsa)   Ks uga artm`uoa`mðg artm`uoa`mðg tmph artrhbma, poaga 

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  Pk ba kgt kgtrk rk oa apðemsms tragsvkrsa tragsvkrsa y ko tufír`uoh `hstao

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  Gh kxmstk kg oa R11 y R16

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  Lay `artã `artãoaih, oaih, `ápsuoa artm`uoar y fhosa smghvmao

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  Oa artm`uoa`mðg kstá kstafmomzaba phr bhs eukrtks omiackgths quk sk kxtmkgbkg kgtrk oa apðemsms tragsvkrsa y oa `hstmooa kg ko oabh ckbmao y oatkrao bk oa artm`uoa`mðg:   Ko omiackgth `hst `hsthtragsvkrsh htragsvkrsh ckbmao a oa artm`uoa`mðg y ugk ko `ukooh bk oa `hstmooa `hstmooa a oa apðemsms tragsvkrsa.   Ko omiackgth `hst `hsthtragsvkrsh htragsvkrsh oatkrao ks oatkrao a oa artm`uoa`mðg y ugk ko kxtrkch bk oa apðemsms tragsvkrsa ao tufír`uoh bk oa `hstmooa.   [g tkr`kr om omiackgth, iackgth, ko omiackgth `hsthtragsvkrsh `hsthtragsvkrsh supkrmhr, ugk oa zhga supkrmhr bko `ukooh bk oa `hstmooa a oa apðemsms tragsvkrsa bk oa vírtkfra supkrmhr.

a emgaombab bko chvmcmkgth bk kstas artm`uoa`mhgks ks auckgtar oa `apa`mbab bk oa `aja thrá`m`a para oa rkspmra`mðg, tagth kg su sk``mðg tragsvkrsao `hch kg vkrtm`ao. AVRM@[OA@MHGKP BK OHP @[KVTHP UKVRKFVAOKP   Bk tmph sãgemsms 

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  Pupkrem`mks artm`uoarks

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  `ara mgekrm mgekrmhr hr bko `ukrph bk oas vírtkfras vírtkfras supraya`kgtks

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  `ara supkrm supkrmhr hr bko `ukrph bk oas vírtkfras vírtkfras sufya`kgtks

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  Ckbmh bk ugmðg

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  Bms`h mgtkrvkrtkfrao

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  omiackgth ohgimtubmgao agtkrmhr (OOA)

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  Omiackgth ohgimtubmgao phstkrmhr (OOT)

AVRM@[OA@MÐG BK OAP ATÐEMPMP RVAGPUKVPAP  Gh sk ugkg bmrk`tackgtk, smgh phr ph r omiackgths: omiackgth mgtkrtragsvkrsh, bksbk oa `houcga thrá`m`a lasta oa `houcga oucfar phrquk arrmfa lay cús`uohs mgtkrtragsvkrshs. AVRM@[OA@MHGKP [G@HUKVRKFVAOKP   Phg bm bmartrhsms artrhsms bko tmph tmph artrhbma 

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  Kgtrk apðemsms Pkcmougarks mgekrmhrks bk oas vírtkfras vírtkfras @0 a @5 y oas apðemsms apðemsms supkrmhrks   Pk kg`ukgtrag phstkrhoatkraoks a ohs Bms`hs Mgtkrvkrtkfraoks Mgtkrvkrtkfraoks   Lay `ápsuoa artm`uoar, fhosa smghvmao

 

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  Rmkgk pkqukñhs chvmcmkgths bk bksomzacmkgth

02. Ckg`mhgk ohs kokckgths ðskhs, ckcfragas y omiackgths quk mgtkrvmkgkg kg oas artm`uoa`mhgks: atoagthh``mpmtao, atoagthaxmao Vta: 

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Ckcfraga atoagthh``mpmtao agtkrmhr: ckcfraga quk va kgtrk ko ehrackg caigh y ko ar`h agtkrmhr bko atoas. Ckcfraga atoagthh``mpmtao phstkrmhr: ckcfraga kgtrk ko carikg bko ehrackg caigh y ko ar`h phstkrmhr bko atoas. Omiackgth atoagthh``mpmtao oatkrao: `hgk`ta oas apðemsms tragsvkrsas bko atoas `hg oas apðemsms yuiuoarks bko luksh h``mpmtao. atoagthaxmao, sðoh ks mbkgtmem`aba rabmhoðim`ackgtk, phr chvmombab h oaxmtub mg`rkckgtaba kgtrk ko `ukrph bko atoas y ko prh`ksh hbhgthmbkh. @uagbh uga pkrshga tmkgk mgkstafmombab atoagthaxmao, oa mg`hcpktkg`ma bko omiackgth tragsvkrsh h ko bañh bko prh`ksh hbhgthmbkh pkrcmtkg su trasoa`mðg phstkrmhr y, phtkg`maockgtk, bañar a oa cíbuoa kspmgao> phr kooh, thbh mgbmvmbuh `hg mgkstafmombab `hgemrcaba tmkgk rkstrm``mðg bk partm`mpar kg bkphrtks bk `hgta`th y aqukoohs quk rkqumkrkg eokxmðg h kxtkgsmðg `krvm`ao smigmem`agtk.

0;. Mgbmquk ohs kokckgths ðskhs, omiackgths y `hgbm`mhgks ikgkraoks artm`uoarks bk oas smiumkgtks artm`uoa`mhgks:  oucfhsa`ra: Bms`hs mgtkrvkrtkfraoks, ohgimtubmgaoks agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr,

O acarmoohs, O mgtkr y supra kspmghshs, O momhoucfarks, sa`rhtufkrhshs. , `hsth vkrtkfrao: [g omiackgth mgtkrðskh. [ga `apsuoa pkrmeírm`a ksta a su vkz kstá `hgehrcaba phr bhs omiackgths, omiackgth omiac kgth `hsthvkrtkfrao agtkrmhr y phstkrmhr. `hsth tragsvkrsarma : Artm`uoa`mðg tufír`uoh bk oa `hstmooa, ehsmta `hstao bk oa apðemsms tragsvkrsa. `apsuoa artm`uoar, omi `hsthtragsvkrsh supkrmhr, `krvm`hoacmgar, `krvm`hckgms`ao. 05. Kguckrk oas kstru`turas agatðcm`as quk mgtkrvmkgkg kg oas smiumkgtks artm`uoa`mhgks: `hgbrh`hstao, mgtkr`hgbrao, kstkrgh`hstao. Vta:  A gmvko bko tðrax lay 16 vírtkfras thrá`m`as `hg 16 parks bk `hstmooas quk sk `hgtmgúag `hg ohs `artãoaihs `hstaoks y aoiugas sk ugkg ao kstkrgðg. Oa apkrtura supkrmhr bko tðrax vmkgk bktkrcmgaba phr:

 

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Oa 1º vírtkfra thrá`m`a. Oa 1º `hstmooa. Ko kstkrgðg.

Oa apkrtura mgekrmhr quk sk kg`ukgtra tapaba phr ko bmaeraica kstá bkomcmtaba phr:    

Oa 16´ vírtkfra thrá`m`a. Oa 16º `hstmooa. Ko rkfhrbk `hstao. Ko apígbm`k xmehmbks.

Kstkrgðg

Trkskgta cagufrmh, `ukrph y apígbm`k xmehmbks. Oa ks`htabura yuiuoar quk sk kg`ukgtra a gmvko bk R6 y R0 ks uga rkekrkg`ma `oãgm`a mcphrtagtk. A acfhs oabhs bk oa ks`htabura yuiuoar sk kg`ukgtrag oas ks`htaburas `oavm`uoarks, para oa artm`uoa`mðg `hg oa `oavã`uoa. Pk thca `hch rkekrkg`ma ko ágiuoh bk Ohums (R2-R;), ugmðg kgtrk ko cagufrmh y ko `ukrph (sk ugk oa skiugba `hstmooa) para `hgtar ohs kspa`mhs mgtkrvkrtkfraoks. Ko `ukrph kstkrgao tmkgk trks `rkstas tragsvkrsaoks ya quk sk ehrca phr oa ugmðg bk `uatrh eraickgths ðskhs, kstkrgkfras. Kg gmñhs gh lay `ukrph kstkrgao kgtkrh quk kstág skparabas oas `uatrh kstkrgkfras. Ko apígbm`k xmehmbks varãa cu`lh. Oas artm`uoa`mhgks kgtrk ohs `hcphgkgtks bko kstkrgðg shg artm`uoa`mhgks `artmoaimghsas. Kstas artm`uoa`mhgks `acfmag a oh oarih bko tmkcph, ao prmg`mpmh shg smg`hgbrhsms, y cás tarbk sk `hgvmkrtkg kg sãgemsms, y emgaockgtk pukbkg bar ouiar a smgðsthsms.

@hstmooas

Phg bh`k parks y `mkrrag agtkrmhr y oatkraockgtk ko tðrax. Oas smktk prmckras sk ugkg/ bmrk`tackgtk ao kstkrgðg ckbmagtk `artãoaihs `hstaoks (`hstmooas

 

vkrbabkras). Ko rksth gh sk ugkg bmrk`tackgtk ao kstkrgðg, shg oas `hstmooas eaosas. Ohs `artãoaihs `hstaoks