CSR Notes for Students

Reading Material on CSR 

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 

Reading material developed for CSR subject

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Reading Material on CSR 

Table of Contents

1. Chapter I

:

Development Scenario

3

2. Chapter II

:

Inte nterfa rface between een busin usineess and socie ciety

8

3. Chapter III

:

Mult Multii-St Stak akeh ehol olde derr Mana Manage gem ment ent of CSR CSR

20

4. Chapter IV

:

Trends in CSR programmes

27

5. Chapter V

:

Operationalising CSR – some tips

35

6. Chapter VI

:

Measuring the impact of CSR

40

7. Appendix

:

Bibl Biblio iogr grap aphy hy & Usefu sefull webl weblin inks ks on CSR CSR

45

For any queries contact Prof. Vidyanand Joshi on 9819131969 or on [email protected] [email protected]

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Reading Material on CSR 

Table of Contents

1. Chapter I

:

Development Scenario

3

2. Chapter II

:

Inte nterfa rface between een busin usineess and socie ciety

8

3. Chapter III

:

Mult Multii-St Stak akeh ehol olde derr Mana Manage gem ment ent of CSR CSR

20

4. Chapter IV

:

Trends in CSR programmes

27

5. Chapter V

:

Operationalising CSR – some tips

35

6. Chapter VI

:

Measuring the impact of CSR

40

7. Appendix

:

Bibl Biblio iogr grap aphy hy & Usefu sefull webl weblin inks ks on CSR CSR

45

For any queries contact Prof. Vidyanand Joshi on 9819131969 or on [email protected] [email protected]

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Reading Material on CSR 

Chapter I Development Scenario 1.0 1.0

INTR INTROD ODUC UCTI TIO ON 

The dawn of a new millennium is expected to usher in an era of hope and goodwill, where concerted global action will motivate, develop, and define a comprehensive and integrated vision for the future. We have left behind a century marked by unparalleled rates of population growth and near-calamitous destruction of our natural resources and the environment. However, the acceleration in scientific and technological advancements and the recognition that a good quality of life is the fundamental right of citizens do indicate that all is not lost. Review of India’s Progress

On the positive side, India's democratic political system has endured despite early doubts about the robustness of its basic political institutions. The political system has weathered the challenges posed by civil violence, social unrest and separatist social movements while preserving basic democratic freedoms. The political environment has fostered a vocal and free press, an articulate educated segment and a relatively free exchange of ideas. The Indian economy has developed the capacity to produce a range of goods for domestic consumption. Mass famines and epidemics have been prevented due to effective organization of relief by the central and state governments. The lives of ordinary people have improved on many counts: The average person in India lives longer, is less likely to die in infancy or childhood, is better equipped to resist the depredations of  infectious diseases and is more likely to be literate than fifty years ago. In spite of India's many positive accomplishments, there is a feeling in the global community that India, as a society has not lived up to its potential, given its considerable natural and human resources. Two problems in particular-poverty and population growth-loom large over the horizon. In spite of an impressive expansion of the middle class and an increase in urban living standards, poverty continues to be an endemic problem. Over a third of the population, lives in abject poverty -that is- below the modest poverty-line income established by the Indian government. Although the poverty rate declined since the mid- seventies, the total population living below the poverty line has scarcely changed and remains at around 28.6 per cent of the total population. Further, millions of  people who are not officially poor also suffer from income and food insecurity, as do those living in poverty. Poverty is associated with a host of secondary social problems-high birth rates, lower life expectancy, higher child mortality, chronic malnutrition and illness, child labour, illiteracy, and low economic productivity

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over the lifetime. See Table 4 A ‘Statistical Profile of India’ in the later part of this chapter. Population growth continues to be a problem in spite of recent declines in the birth rate. India's numerous social problems have been discussed at length in academic and official publications. Inadequacies in various areas are routinely identified in official publications such as the Economic Survey and the Five Year Plan reports.

1.3

Tenth Five Year Plans and Millennium Development Goals

In the Tenth Five Year Plan the Planning Commission has outlined India’s human development goals and targets for the next five to 10 years. Most of these are related to and are more ambitious than the Millennium Development Goals 1. The following table provides you with a list lis t of Millennium Development Goals, which have been accepted at a global level.

1.4

SUST SUSTAIN AINAB ABLE LE DEVE DEVELO LOPM PMEN ENT  T 

To achieve the goals of the tenth plan and move towards the goal of sustainable development is the country’s vision. It is true that achieving sustainable development both in the country and at the global level is indeed a daunting task. The primary objective of the sustainable development is to reduce the absolute poverty of the world's poor through providing lasting and secure livelihoods that minimize resource depletion, environmental degradation, cultural disruption and social instability". Sustainable development is defined as a pattern of social and structured economic transformations (i.e. development), which optimizes the economic and societal benefits available in the present, without jeopardizing the likely potential for similar benefits in the future. A primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a reasonable and equitably distributed level of  economic well being that can be perpetuated continually for many human generations. We live in global community that increasingly measures development successes in terms of the well-being of the average citizen. The Human Development Index ranks India in the lowest tier of countries because so many people lack access to basic goods such as education, health, housing and social services. Governments alone cannot handle development issues. Both public and private efforts must be expended to solve the problems identified above. A judicious mix of government and non-government non-gover nment initiatives will have to be worked out to accelerate the pace of development. 1.5

Need for Intervention Intervention of Business Business for Sustainable Sustainable Development  Development 

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Challenges in the 21st Century cannot be tackled by yesterday’s rule of  governance. There is a need to develop new ways of thinking and new approaches to governance at every level of society. It is an accepted fact, that, there are crucial linkages between economic growth, human development, social cohesion and environmental sustainability Today’s world is interdependent where problems of poverty, unemployment, inequality, environmental degradation and social disintegration are concerned because each of them affect various sectors in varying degrees. The trend worldwide is for the barriers between the various sectors to be removed in order to resolve social issues and develop systems based on collaborative and consultative models. 

If business has to be developed, the society needs to be developed, business sector cannot flourish in any country, if the environment required by business is not conducive. Increasing social issues impacts the entire society in general and business in particular because to a large extent business is dependent on the society for its growth and prosperity. The concept of business responsibility to society was not considered when the first factories were established partly because, prior to that time, no institution in society had demonstrated the power necessary for independent action potentially detrimental to society as a whole. From the beginning, industry had such power  but its effects were neither anticipated nor clearly recognized as the industrial system grew. Only recently has the social responsibility issue towards community has come to the forefront. Management Tasks in the Changing Scenario

In the three decades since Drucker’s analysis of the three tasks of management, namely managing business, managing managers and managing workers and work (Drucker, 1963), another management task has been receiving growing attention. Some discuss this task as managing the business environment; others speak of managing the environmental pressures or the social responsibilities of  business. There is a shift both, in the emphasis placed on different tasks and in the nature of the work of many managers. The result of the shift on the validity of  Drucker’s division of the jobs of management is to add a new dimension to business that broadens all the tasks of management. Now, a good manager is expected to include a social or environmental component in the performance of  Drucker’s three tasks. In his book on Management: Task Responsibilities and 

Economic reforms and effective social policy are interlinked. Economic growth is crucial. No country has achieved sustained improvements in living without it. But, investing in people to create human capital – which is the main attribute that people draw on in order to live more productive lives – is equally critical to raising living standards. (World Bank Annual Report, 1995).

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Practices, Drucker (1963), also points out that ‘ None of our institutions exists by itself and is an end in itself’. Everyone is an organ of our society and exists for  the sake of society. Business is exception. Free enterprises are also governed by the legal and moral aspects of the society. Therefore, management can no longer afford to ignore society and its demands. Among the factors responsible for this new emphasis are the cumulative impacts of the accelerating role of change in our industrial society and the reaction of  society to both, the advantages and disadvantages of unparalleled industrial growth. The most fundamental impact on society is from technological and social change. It is not surprising that the rapid rate of change in the industrial world has created not only new cultural and social attitudes but also the need for a new set of relationships between the business firm and the surrounding society. The evolution of modern society and the impact of successful industrial development have created great stress and strains. This situation has brought new dimensions to the tasks of managers and has emphasized the need for  management to reappraise the way that a business enterprise should relate to social demands. IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 

Socially responsible corporations till a few decades back were something of an oxymoron. Social problems were the concern of the state, and businesses argued, that they had nothing to do with it as profitability and social responsibility could never go together. Friedman’s libertarian view of a company’s responsibility towards society echoed this thinking and remained influential for  many years. “There is one and only social responsibility of business,” he wrote in his book Capitalism and Freedom, “ to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, which is to say, engages in open and free competition without deception or  fraud”. This argument did make a lot of sense in a monopolistic, stable and localized economy, and in a society where other stakeholders were relatively less influential. But, then, the rules of the game changed. Markets became global; competition intensified as multinationals swept across borders. Companies got restructured and reengineered. Redundant employees charged re-engineered firms with betrayal and loss of trust, while the existing ones worked under a cloud of uncertainty. Images of gas-poisoned victims and oil-soaked birds in the aftermath of the Bhopal gas disaster and the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska made the world sit up and take notice of the impacts that business could have on the external world. Stakeholders, who have long remained dormant, have stirred awake and are now proving themselves as major forces to be reckoned with. The dent these developments have caused in the bottom line of companies have forced many to think anew about their responsibilities to society. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) towards community has become the business issue of the 21st century!

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Conclusion

The most fundamental impact on society is from technological and social change. Increasing social issues impacts the entire society in general and business in particular because to a large extent business is dependent on the society for its growth and prosperity. Governments alone cannot handle development issues. Both public and private efforts must be expended to solve the problems identified above. A judicious mix of government and non-government initiatives will have to be worked out to accelerate the pace of development. 1.11    

Questions for Study

How far according to you has India progressed? Is there a need for joint action to change the development scenario? Justify What are millennium development goals? What is the objective of the Tenth five-year plan?

Digital Bibliography 

UNDP India: http://www.undp.org.in/ You and Aids: http://www.youandaids.org Development Goals: http://www.developmentgoals.org

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Chapter II Interface between Business and Society 2.0

Introduction

The business enterprise system is the mechanism selected by society to produce and distribute goods and services. Originally, people felt that a business enterprise had fulfilled its social responsibility by surviving and realizing the maximum profit possible. The resources of society could be used by the business enterprise to make profits as long as the enterprise complied with the few rules imposed by governments to check abusive practices. The market system provided the regulation necessary to police the system, and profits provided incentive and insured efficiency. The work ethic and self interest were the guiding principles of the system. By making a profit, business enterprises contributed to a growing, healthy economic system that provided employment and adequate incomes for all. In other words, corporate social responsibility was to operate profitably, and the corporation could not survive without profits, much less play a social role. The practice of business contributing for social development has continued through the ages and as economic political and social conditions changed, the business response to social need also underwent a change. Over  the years there has been a shift from merchant charity to corporate citizenship. (Sundar P. 2000)

First Phase-Merchant Charity

The concept of parting with a portion of one’s surplus wealth for the good of the society is neither modern nor a Western import to India, instead it dates back to the Vedic period. Merchant class was nourished by a social and religious ethic, which put charitable giving 2 high on its list of virtues. Charity or daanam was an ingrained part of the merchant’s life. Merchants provided relief in the times of natural disasters, developed supportive infrastructures like dharamshalas (pilgrim rest houses), bathing ghats, (community bathing areas), panjrapoles (animal refuges), and provided drinking water facilities. They also rendered support in the areas of education, health, preservation of art, and culture. The shift from purely ameliorative charity for religious reasons and causes during the pre 3 industrial era, shifted towards the more Western form of philanthropy along with continuation of contribution to older forms of ch arity. In the period 1850-1914 the period 2

Charity, popularly used term for altruistic giving, implies giving to the poor and those in distress/need. It is not concerned with removing the conditions, which cause distress. It is generally linked to religious belief and teachings. 3 Philanthropy is derived from the Greek word ‘ philien’ (to love) and ‘ anthropos’  (man) means love for  mankind. It is defined as creative use of wealth for the long-term benefit of society, without any expectation of a quid pro quo.

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saw the beginnings of industrialization in India. Like their counterparts in the West, the rich business families began to set up trusts and endow a host of modern institutions such as schools, colleges, hospitals, destitute homes, art galleries, and museums, and preservation and propagation of Indian culture.

Role of Business Leaders

The credit for bringing social responsibility into business community’s consciousness goes principally to business leaders like JRD Tata, Ramak rishna Bajaj, Arvind Mafatlal and Kasturbhai Lalbhai. As champions of free enterprise, they feared that irresponsible behaviour by the business community would lead the government to encroach on its freedom more and more. Meanwhile, Gandhiji’s mantle as the moral guide of India had fallen of Vinoba Bhave who launched the gramdan (gift of village), bhoodan (gift of  land) and sampatidan (gift of wealth) movemen ts to put Gandhi’s ideas of trusteeship into practice. Vinoba wanted businessmen to interest themselves in humanitarian, cultural, educational and other beneficial social activities and inspire them to consider business as a social mission. Vinoba Bhave’s work had the backing of the very political leaders who had opposed the idea of Gandhiji’s trusteeship before Independence. It was clear to Nehru and other political leaders that encouraging class struggle and raising expectations of the depressed classes without the means to meet them would only be to invite trouble (Rolnick 1962). The trusteeship theory therefore was seen as a safer way of bringing social transformation without any violent social upheaval. It reinforced the traditional concepts of charity and thereby the viability of the old social structure, while simultaneously trying to promote the socialist ideal of classless egalitarian society. It was therefore supported by both the capitalists and the government, though many paid lip service to it (IMC, 1963).

2.3

Second Phase- Trusteeship

In the second phase that is 1914-1960, philanthropy was honed by the vision of free, progressive and modern India. Many of the leading businessmen came under the spell of  4 Mahatma Gandhi and his theory of trusteeship of wealth. They contributed liberally to his programmes for removal of untouchability, women’s emancipation a nd rural reconstruction. Along with a new vision for philanthropy, business continued to support and create physical, cultural and social institutional infrastructure. When India became free, the independent state looked to the business community to propel the country to a prosperous future and in the euphoria of independence, the business class, confident of its capabilities, responded both, by creating more wealth and utilizing it for non-business purposes. 4

M.K. Gandhi conceived Trusteeship as a non-violent process to convert private property capitalism into a public property social institution based on social good rather than individual or collective greed. He repeatedly returned to the realm of joint family. Gandhiji envisaged industry as a joint enterprise of labour  and capital in which both owners and workers were co-trustees for society. In his moral theory of trusteeship was enclosed a social policy which was attuned by political expediency. His moral policies and politics were coordinated for the realization of a harmonious social order.

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Third Phase- Declaration of Social Responsibilities of Business

The next shift came in the 1960’s, which ushered in an era of economic and political troubles and saw the business community operating under several constraints. Jai Prakash Narain carried Vinoba’s message forward. In 1965, he was the moving spirit behind the seminar on social responsibilities of business, organized in Delhi b y the India International Centre and the Institute of Gandhian Studies Varanasi. One of the results of  the Conference was the declaration of Social Responsibility of Business. The conference clearly brought out that business has responsibilities towards its stakeholders, which consist of employees, shareholders, government, co nsumers and the community. The relationship between business with its employees, consumers, shareholders, government is legally spelt out. However there is no law, which governs the relationship of the business enterprise with the society/community. The conference felt that business should pay equal attention to the community and understand its importance as a stakeholder. The concept of social responsibility towards the community was broader  than charitable giving for community affairs.

The Delhi seminar was followed by the Calcutta seminar in 1966. At its end it set up a study group to prepare a set of business norms for adoption by the business community; to examine the hurdles in the way of implementation of these norms; and to recommend remedial measures. In its report, the study group examined responsibility under five broad heads viz. responsibility of business towards consumers, the community, employees, shareholders, other businesses and towards the State. One immediate fallout of the conference was that JRD Tata, Ramakrishna Bajaj and other businessmen launched the Fair Trade Practices Association in Bombay in 1966 to codify and implement fair business practices. The state in this period also took on many of the obligations that were traditionally the responsibility of the community and the family, such as care of the sick, destitute, aged, and widows. As government increased the taxes on business, coupled with mistrust of  business, business interest in philanthropy began dwindling. Though the government expected business to support and financially contribute towards state led community development activities, business organizations gave a poor response. Ironically the high tax regime aided by deterioration in business morality led to a large expansion in the establishment of charitable trusts for the purposes of tax planning. The 70’s saw a renewed corporate interest in social concerns and a new element emerged on the philanthropic scene that is corporate philanthropy as distinct from family business philanthropy.

It was not only a concern with ethics which made business shift from building institutions to becoming concerned with grassroots issues at the community level. The shift was in keeping with global trends, which had led to the emergence of the concept of managerial trusteeship. It became clear to business that their survival and continued profitability depended on a more systematic

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involvement in regenerating the local communities which went beyond customer  relations and provision of welfare amenities to its own employees. It was also felt that while massive investment in building up the country’s infrastructure there was little attention paid to basic social amenities like drinking water, schools, dispensaries, and agriculture. This condition activated the rise of voluntary action in the form of NGOs. While the NGOs had the commitment to work, they lacked financial resources. Hence, it exerted pressure on both, the government as well as the private sector to collaborate with them to achieve the goal of social development. This led the government to offer tax concessions to motivate industry to involve itself in the developmental work and assist the work of  voluntary sector. In 1977, section 35CC was introduced into the Income Tax Act to provide for 100% deduction to a company in respect of expenditure incurred by it on approved programmes of rural development.5 It led to a variety of  community involvement activities. This induced many companies to enter the field of rural development. Some contributed to cultural organizations, others adopted schools; still others invested in housing and other community projects, while some others offered job retraining or internships, all of it directed to the whole community. Though the contexts were different, a more constructive engagement with poor communities was undertaken as a response to the grim social situation in India. The post 1980 period saw an upswing in business fortunes due to economic reforms and other factors. The tax incentives given in the seventies were later  withdrawn in 1983-84 as it was being misused. With this, those who were involved in community development with mercenary intentions also stopped their  contributions. Even after tax incentives were withdrawn sensitive business leaders realized that unless the business community contributed to basic developmental needs, its survival would be threatened and it is in their own selfinterest to participate in the nation building effort (Mafatlal A, 1996). One of the first to articulate this was JRD Tata. And as always he led by example. He committed all Tata companies to ethical behaviour and programmes of  community development by amending the Articles of Association of Tata Companies to include a clause that specified companies’ responsibility to all stakeholders including the community. In order to redeem the image, JRD Tata wanted Indian Companies to go beyond conducting themselves as honest citizens. He advised that, “ Apart from donating for good causes we can use our  financial, managerial and human resources to provide task forces for undertaking direct relief and reconstruction measures. This form of public community service could be expanded by the cooperative effort among members of various industries”(JRD Tata 1986). In his advocacy of responsibility towards community Ramakrishna Bajaj and Arvind Mafatlal joined JRD. They felt the business community is an essential ingredient of our democratic society and it has a duty not only to create wealth, but also to promote ethical and social goals of the

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Approved programmes of rural development include construction and maintenance of rural roads; drainage and sanitary systems in rural areas; construction and maintenance of hospitals, dispensaries, and family planning centres; drinking water facilities and so on.

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community. Unless it fulfills both these functions and thereby plays its due role as a responsible section, it will not be able to ensure its own survival. The ethical dimension of wealth creation and the vision of a moral and just society drove many business leaders of the time such as Arvind Mafatlal, to efforts at improving grass roots communities. According to Arvind Mafatlal, apart from monetary donation, contribution of management skills to the development work is essential. Hence he gave Bhartiya Agro Industries foundation both monetary funds and management inputs. He insisted that corporate involvement should promote long term development work in the three ‘A’sAnna (food), Akshar (literacy) and Arogya (health). Spurred partly by the realization that supporting community development is in the interest of business, several business leaders began to advocate the importance of  community as a stakeholder in business. Of this philanthropic giving was only one aspect, the others were more related to more ethical business practice and concern for the physical environment in which the business operated. This period saw a swing from charity and traditional philanthropy towards more direct engagement in the mainstream development concerns of the society. Government of India introduced several tax 6 incentives for making philanthropic donations and pursuing developmental activities 2.6

Fourth phase- Corporate Citizenship

The period from 1990 has witnessed a phenomenal growth in the corporate sector in terms of size, complexity and sophistication. Liberalization has added a new wave of MNCs who have set up their factories in India, either on their own or  in collaboration with Indian companies. Companies have started becoming more and more responsible towards their stakeholders. There is a growing importance of recognizing ‘community’/ society as a stakeholder in business. There is a realization that if social development is neglected, businesses cannot prosper. Government alone cannot handle social issues. If businesses have to be expanded and be made profitable then their active participation in social development is required. Most of the private sector companies have community development programmes at their home locations or in the immediate geographic environment. For instance some of them have set up developmental organizations themselves like Bombay-based Excel Industries have NGOs in rural Kutch. The drought prone hinterlands of Gujarat, for example, have always attracted corporate NGOs. While setting up their headquarters in Bombay and in other parts of the country, Gujarati industrialists have by and large retained a 6

Organizations could claim tax relief for philanthropic activities under sections 80C of the Income Tax Act, 1961. There are specific provisions for deductions in respect of donations for rural development activities under section 80 GGA. (2) (b), and for the National Rural Development Fund under section 80GGA (2) (d). In addition to these incentives, way back in 1977 the Government of India introduced several tax reliefs under section 35CC, which were later on revised in 1985.

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sense of attachment to their home state and many of them have attempted to contribute to its development by setting up sponsored trusts, dedicated to rural development. Bhalla Kora Mathen, the Vice-President of the Narottum Lalbhai Rural Development Fund and the Lalbhai Group Rural Development Fund says, `Though the Lalbhais had always contributed to charity, it was in 1985 that Kasturbhai Lalbhai decided to get directly involved in rural development. He felt that the group's management expertise could be a great asset in this type of  work”. Corporates like the Lalbhais, Mafatlals, Shroffs, L&T, HLL, Deepak Fertilizers have attempted to bring in management professionals into an area that was once the social workers’ concern. Critics of corporate sponsored trusts feel that many corporate NGOs have been content to play a facilitating role, implementing World Bank sponsored projects or the government’s Integrated Rural Development Programme projects. The level of funding from their parent corporates has often been paltry in comparison to their profits (Sundar P, 1984). Managalore Chemicals and Fertilizers (MIF), a UB group company, has been involved in socio-economic development work for several years now. MCF surveyed several villages in the districts of Bellary and Raichur for  implementation of the improved agricultural programmes. Introduction of double cropping, use of balanced fertilizers, better water management, and so on are a few of the achievements which have increased the income of farm families from RS. 4,000 to RS. 10,000 annually. Further down South, SPIC's agro-service centres and rural development centres in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are training farmers in scientific farming and helping them in integrated farming efforts. In fact, the ASC is part of a marketing exercise, in that it retains its market by augmenting its core product - Urea. `No doubt, our service activities have helped us to improve the brand image of our  products,' says a SPIC official. Similarly new MNCs like Coca-Cola India, Motorola, and Pepsi all have initiated community development activities in India to facilitate their acceptance with the local community. MNCs like Procter and Gamble have initiated cause-related marketing and reported to have increased sales through it. They claim that a social attribute added to brand increases the product’s marketability. According to Krishna Rao,(1997) and the IMRB survey (1993) more and more companies are eager to adopt a credo that blends liberal idealism with the more common management precepts to community development. Seventy per cent of  the companies surveyed by IMRB stated that they were into community development for totally selfless reason i.e to fulfill their social responsibilities. Fifty per cent felt concerned for a specific group, and twenty per cent cited the benefit to the organization. The survey on corporate social responsibility conducted b y Partners in Change in 2003 highlights the following findings:

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      

86% agree that corporates have a social responsibility Health and Education were the 2 most chosen sectors for contribution 52% spontaneously mention employees as targets for social development; however, 71% do mention community 19% had a policy on community development- written or unwritten About 70% are involved in Social Development activities- the number goes up amongst those having a written policy Donations remain the most preferred mode. Companies agree that involvement in social activities helps in image building.

Many business Corporations today accept that it is in their self-interest to be more socially aware and to engage in programmes for the benefit of the community. But the number of corporations actually undertaking social responsibility is still very small. It is important to note that the present day corporate involvement arises from the recognition that business can play a direct role in maintaining a stable and healthy community environment, improve the quality of life, effectiveness of institutions, and thereby create a favourable business environment. The goal is to establish a dynamic relationship between communities and business in which both complement each other.

2.7

Post Liberalization and its Impact on Social Development 

Globalization has had a "worrisome impact." Globalization had increased the inequalities between nations. Two hundred and fifty years ago, the richest countries were only five times richer than the poorest. In 1976, Switzerland was 52 times richer than Mozambique and in 2000, it was 508 times richer. (Vajpai A, 2000) In India we are concerned with minimizing the negative effects of social change and development. A list of social problems that seems to bother us would include poverty and inequality in the distribution of wealth, unemployment, hunger, malnutrition, popu lation growth, discrimination, disease, squalor, crime, delinquency, violence, alienation of youth and other sections. The nation is committed to the goal of welfare state: socialistic pattern of society raising the living standards of all the people and the quality of life. The benefits of science and technology are phenomenal but their distribution is unequal. This has resulted in inequalities of wealth and power leading to stresses and strains. No democratic society can function effectively and expect to maintain its dynamism. When the subsystems do not coordinate for solving its problems, social problems will not be solved by governmental action alone. Subsystems should often make compromises and the several groups must maintain pressures and seek to work out acceptable solutions (Bhushan Y.K, 1999). The UN Human Development Report of 2003 notes that India’s expenditure on human priority concerns - basic, education, primary health care, child nutrition, etc. is very low. The report notes, "India is clearly investing far too little in its human capital and it will have to explore several avenues to find additional resources for human investment". One such avenue clearly has to be the corporate sector (Sundar P., 1996). As we endeavour 

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towards a developed India through various reforms, it is worthwhile to recall what the distinguished economist Amartya Sen (1998), said in this regard " The central issue is to expand the social opportunities open to people. In so far as counter-productive regulations and bureaucratic controls compromise the opportunities, the removal of these hindrances must be seen to be extremely important. But the creation of social opportunities on a broad basis requires much more than the 'freeing' of markets. It calls in particular, for expansion of educational facilities, and health care for all and public provisions for nutritional support and security. It also demands a general political, economic, and social programme for reducing the inequalities that blot out social opportunities from the lives of so many hundreds of millions of Indian citizens." The above fact also typifies the global interest in making business and industry more socially responsible, and in forging alliances between it, the government and the noncommercial voluntary sector. This is not surprising because, as an instrument for  development, corporate social action has several inherent strengths; it can access financial resources but also leadership, organizational skills and a pool of trained individuals. Not subject to the pressures of periodic elections, it can take a long-term view of problems and promote durable solutions, though it is limited by fluctuations in profits; and it need not spread itself thin in an effort to please everybody. Though private business philanthropy or social action can never match or supplant the resources or  services provided by the state, its value lies in providing plurality of funding, and in the quality of its support - innovative, flexible and of direct consequence.

2.8

Main Motive for Recognizing Community as a Stake Holder 

The business world's main motive for recognizing community as an important stakeholder and initiating community development activities is long-term educated selfinterest, not altruism. It is largely discussed at various forums that companies act responsibly in large measure because they can do well by doing good. From this perspective, corporate social responsibility towards community becomes a strategy for  gaining competitive advantage and a vehicle that helps business achieve its strategic goals. There are several aspects to corporate social responsibility as a strategy for gaining competitive advantage7. The commercial applicability of a good reputation is one. Companies that act in accordance with principles of good corporate citizenship may reap a reputational dividend. Ensuring that a company has a good reputation in markets where consumers are increasingly socially aware has been proven by experience to be of  considerable economic importance. Some seem to think that you can manage reputational risk largely with smoke and mirrors. They talk dismissively of corporate social responsibility as cheap window 7

Fortunately, companies seem to have realized their folly in hankering after short-term financial gains and have recognized how strategically important it is to be socially responsible. A focus group study of British companies by the Institute of Citizenship Studies' indicated that strategic business interest, market reputation and employee morale were considered as the main reasons for the companies to become socially responsible.

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dressing aimed more at changing perceptions than at improving the reality. But any substantial gap between perceptions and reality - between words and deeds - is not sustainable for long. There is no place to hide in today's interconnected world. A good reputation can therefore basically only be created and maintained by results. Talk is no longer cheap. Words have consequences. Corporations must walk the talk. Otherwise they will have to pay. Corporate social responsibility towards communities today implies both a deeper and a wider engagement than previously with the societies in which companies operate. Through such an engagement companies can gain new insights into these societies and increase their understanding of the environment. This will make them more politically and culturally sensitive. The survival of business and its continued profitability will depend upon a more systematic involvement in regenerating the local communities, which are beyond customer relations (Deshmukh B.G, 1999). The concept of ‘giving’ is itself enlarged and it includes contribution of financial, managerial, organizational and personnel resources to the community. In sum, being a good corporate citizen means contributing back to the same community that generated your profit.

2.9

Difference between Old and New Concept 

The major difference between the older corporate social responsibility practices towards community and the newer concept is that, the former was the result of the personal interest of the philosophy of the founder / owner of the corporation in the latter it is the result of a considered decision by the board and is a part of corporate policy and action. A second difference is that it eschews the older practice of endowing institutions in favour  of programmes of direct involvement in community development.

More recently there has been a belief that business exists for more than profits (or economic goals), with the public expecting something else from business. As a result, the original concept of social responsibility involving the maximization of  profits has been modified. Although profits are to be made, social, as well as economic, goals are to receive attention. Society depends on business to achieve social as well as economic goals, that is, social responsibilities are placed on business. While social responsibility has figured in commercial life over  the centuries, in the modern era increasing pressure has been placed on corporations to play a more explicit role in the welfare of society. This implies that business should have balance in maintaining stakeholder 8 relationships. It should treat all its stakeholders important. The present day corporate involvement arises from the recognition that business can play a direct role in maintaining a stable and healthy community environment, improve the quality of life, effectiveness of institutions, and thereby create a favourable business 8

Business stakeholder- People who have direct and indirect influence over business. For instance, in business, employees, shareholders, consumers, government and community are major stakeholders.

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environment. The goal is to establish a dynamic relationship between communities and business in which both complement each other. For instance financial performance and social investment in education or health may look mutually incompatible in the shortterm but in the long run, it provides the companies with a literate and healthy labour  market and, most important, it enhances the reputation of the company in the minds of  the consumer. Many major corporations consider such investments not only as an act of  `putting back' something to society, but also as the foundation stone for the future benefits of the company. In India, we have the Tata’s Birla’s, Mafatlal’s Lalbhai Group and Bajaj Group who have been engaged in extensive community development activities from the pre-independence period. Social investment reflects the desire of companies to ensure that they are socially responsible and bene ficial. At the same time, it reflects those companies' self-interest to ensure that society is strong and health y. After all, business depends on a prosperous and healthy society for its own prosperity. (Ratan Tata, 1999). Definitions of CSR  There have been many definitions of corporate social responsibility, and rather than giving one, listing the key elements found in various definitions may be more insightful. Buchholz (1991, p. 19) identified five key elements found in most, if not all, definitions.     

Corporations have responsibilities that go beyond the production of goods and services at a profit. These responsibilities involve helping to solve important social problems, especially those they have helped create. Corporations have a broader constituency than stockholders alone. Corporations have impacts that go beyond simple marketplace transactions. Corporations serve a wider range of human values than can be captured by a sole focus on economic values.

According to Wood (1991, p. 695), the "basic idea of corporate social responsibility is that business and society are interwoven rather than distinct entities" and that expectations are placed on business due to its three roles: as an institution in society, as a particular corporation or organization in society, and as individual managers who are moral actors within the corporation. These roles result in three levels of analysis institutional, organizational, and individual and can be expressed in terms of three principles of corporate social responsibility legitimacy, public responsibility, and managerial discretion. The principle of legitimacy refers to society's granting of legitimacy and power to business, and business's appropriate use of that power and the possibility of losing that power. Corporate social responsibility defines the institutional relationship between business and society that is expected of any corporation. Society has the right to grant this power, to impose a balance of power among its institutions, and to define their legitimate functions. The focus is on business's obligations as a social institution, and society takes away power or imposes some sort of sanction o n business if expectations are not met.

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The principle of public responsibility means that business is responsible for outcomes related to its areas of involvement with society. The level of application is organizational, that is the corporation, and confines business's responsibility to those problems related to a firm's activities and interest. This principle includes the view that firms are responsible for solving the problems they create. The nature of social responsibility will vary from corporation to corporation as each firm impacts society's resources in different ways or  creates different problems. The principle involves emphasizing e ach corporation's relationship to its specific social, ethical and political environment. Last, the principle of managerial discretion refers to managers as moral actors who are obliged to exercise such discretion as is available to them to achieve socially responsible outcomes. Discretion is involved, as the actions of managers are not totally prescribed by corporate procedures. The level of application is the individual who has the choices, opportunities, and personal responsibility to achieve the corporation's social responsibility (Wood, 1991, pp. 695-700). Although the topic of social responsibilities of business rose to prominence in the 1970s (Carroll, 1979; Wartick and Cochran, 1985), the first publication specifically on the field dates back to 1953, with Bowen’s “Social responsibilities of the businessman”. In this work Bowen argues that industry has an obligation “ to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of actions which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of society” (Bowen, 1953). Epstein (1987a, 1987b), however, argues that the concept of specific business ethics can be traced further back to certain academics and businessmen in the nineteenth century who promulgated the belief that “private business is a public trust. Bowen (1953) sets the scene in this field by suggesting that the concept of specifically corporate social responsibility emphasizes.

Businesses exist at the pleasure of society and that their behavior and methods of operation must fall within the guidelines set by society; and Businesses act as moral agents within society. This discussion of definitions could be extensive, b ut the purpose is to provide an appreciation for social responsibility. Further understanding of the concept, its ori gins, and its interpretations is achieved by summarizing some of the debate over social responsibility. 2.10

Conclusion

In conclusion the development of business and industry in general and specifically in India has been accompanied by a clear change in the attitudes of society and the business community itself about its obligations to the society and how they need to be expressed. For reasons unconnected with old traditions of c orporate giving, business is steadily being drawn into a new relationship with government and voluntary organizations at local, national and international levels. The chief reasons are the relative decline of the nation state, the contracting role of government, the expanding role of business, and the

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emergence of an organized voluntary sector and a changing intellectual climate within companies.

Questions for Study 

Discuss how business responded to social development in the past. Discuss what is Corporate Citizenship Discuss the benefits a company would derive from community development activities. What is the difference between old and new concept of CSR? References Aga, Rohinton D., Changing the Mindset, Tata McGraw –Hill Publishing Co. Ltd, New Delhi, 1994.

Galliara Meena, Sahaveeryam, Manual for Managing Sustainable Partnerships, Business and Community Foundation, New Delhi, 2000 Iyer, Raghavan, ( 1965) Gandhian Trusteeship in Theory and Practice , Concord Grove Press. Juneja M. M.(1993), The Mahatma and the Millionaire , --Birla : A Biography, Modern Publishers, Hissar, Lala R.M (1992), Beyond the Last Blue Mountain , A Life of JRD Tata , Viking, New Delhi, 1992. Sundar Pushpa, (2000) Beyond Business, Tata Mcgraw Publication, New Delhi

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Chapter III Multi-stakeholder Management of CSR 3.0

Introduction

In the last twenty years there has been a radical change in the companies with regard to globalization and liberalization in content. CSR is recognized as the vital backbone of  the business. The following factors are taken into account for understanding the importance of CSR:      

Globalization and the associated growth in competition; Increased size and influence of companies; Retrenchment or repositioning of government and its roles; War for talent; companies competing for expertise Growth of global civil society activism; Increased importance of intangible assets.

3.1 Stakeholder Management: Stakeholder management is a generally accepted concept in the business community. Greater media exposure, environmental and health related incidents that have caused public anxiety and local community conflict resulting from site management or planning decisions have ensured that effective management of stakeholders has risen up he list of  priorities for company managers. Stakeholders have been defined as: “.. groups and individuals who benefit from or are harmed by, and whose rights are violated  or respected by, corporate actions.”  (Freeman 2001)

Investors Political Groups

Governments

Suppliers

Trade Association

FIRM

Employee

Customers

Communities

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Figure 1 – The stakeholder model of the corporation (Donaldson and Preston 1995) Figure 1 identifies the main stakeholders a company. If business is to be responsible to society, who in society must it be responsible to? Society today consists of a wide range of people who have interests, expectation and demands as to what companies and organizations ought to provide, and the ways in which they should behave. Companies are increasingly embracing these stakeholder groups and individuals, whether by considering or including them in decision-making. The motivation here for businesses to become involved in CSR is to address the wide ranging and constantly changing set of  demands that stakeholders have. The stakeholders concept has continued as a central theme in CSR. Development of the concept has revolved around finding ways to integrate various stakeholders and their  concerns into business activity. Clarkson (1995) spearheaded the ‘Redefining the Corporation’ project, a ten-year endeavor to set out “a process- and dialogue-based approach to treating stakeholders with respect by consistently monitoring their interests and status and taking those into account in corporate decision making.” Donaldson and Preston (1995) created a well-known stakeholder theor y typology to argue for  stakeholder engagement as an essential management tool. 3.2 Corporate Social Performance (CSP): Since the early 1980s a significant body of CSR research has centered around the debate over whether there is a relationship between good Corporate Social Performance (CSP) and strong financial performance, and what kind of relationship there is. Lantos (2001) argues that true CSR, that is strategic CSR, can only be carried out if a company also profits from its ‘good works’.

Today, businesses are becoming increasingly interested in the idea of the ‘Triple Bottom Line’ (TBL). This idea focusses businesses not just on the economic value that they may gain from acting in a certain way, but also on the value that they may accrue to the company’s bottom line by engaging in environmentally and socially beneficial practices. The three ‘lines’ represent the economy the environment and the society (Sustainability, 2002) and are all dependent on each other. Whether companies do (or can) actually take each line into account is difficult to measure as the arguments surrounding whether  companies do benefit financially from being socially responsive are not clear cut. Government agencies and organizations promoting the CSR agenda seem to be convinced that assuming a CSR role will bring financial gain to the business world. Few quotations are stated here to prove this point. “…Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a powerful way of making sustainable competitive profit and achieving lasting value for the shareholder a well as for  stakeholders. CSR and the reporting thereof is a win-win opportunity, not just for  companies and for financial investors but for society at large.” (CSR Europe 2003) “Socially responsible business practices contribute to corporate productivity and  profitability.” ( Business for Social Responsibility 2002)

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Academic research has not been so concrete in its findings. Numerous studies have shown A positive correlation between CSP and profit (Waddock & Graves 1997, Balabanis et al. 1998, Ruf et al. 2001). Balabanis et al. (1998) analyzed the economic performance of 56 large UK companies against measures of CSR performance and disclosure developed by the New Consumer Group. They found that economic performance is related to CSR  performance and disclosure, however relationships were weak and lacked consistency. McWilliams & Siegel (2001) predict that there is a ‘neutral’ relationship between CSR  activity and company financial performance. In their study, they investigated this relationship using a theory of the firm perspective, scale economies and cost-benefit analysis. Their three main conclusions were :The neutral relationship exists because the company that carries out CSR activities will have higher costs but higher revenues, whilst the company that has no CSR activities will have lower costs but also lower revenues, thus profits are equal. Large firms will have lower average costs for p roviding CSR activities than smaller  companies. There is an optimal level of CSR that will maximise profits while satisfying the demand for CSR from multiple stakeholders. The ideal level of CSR can be determined by costbenefit analysis. Wright & Ferris (1997) predict a negative correlation between CSR activities and companies financial performance. Although positive relationships have been found , there are several difficulties inherent in measuring these linkages. One of the main problems is that it is not clear whether social responsibility leads to increased financial performance or whether better pr ofits lead to more funds being available to devote to CSR activities. Another is that profit is an incomplete measure of social performance (Lantos 2001). Yet another is the difficulty of  developing a consistent set of measures that define CSR or CSP. CSP is an important construct because it is ultimately CSP that must be me asured and compared to the financial performance of a firm in order to measure possible casual relationships. Providing concrete evidence to managers of the financial benefits of CSR  should motivate companies to integrate CSR into their business activities. The danger  lies in the fact that the much-wanted TBL so beloved of government and business support organizations must be proved conclusively. At present studies show diverse views. 3.3 Corporate Environmental Management (CEM): While most CSR theory explicitly or implicitly includes responsibility to the natural environment, the past decade has seen more literature focused specifically on corporate environmental management. The increased focus on CEM both reflects and contributes to a growing private-sector  interest in environmentally responsible strategy. Whereas in the 1960s companies tended to cope with environmental crises after they occurred by merely doing damage control, and in the 1970s and 80s companies simply to minimize costs associated with rapidly changing government environmental regulations, the 1990s witnessed companies taking a more active interest in proactive strategies – anticipatin g environmental impacts of 

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operations, taking measures to reduce waste, and taking advantage of business opportunities in the environmental arena. Initiatives such as ‘Total Quality Environmental Management’ emerged to further the notion that environmental concern was good for business (Berry and Rondinelli, 1998). One way of illustrating changes in business approaches toward the environment is the ’ecological footprint’, which surfaces often in popular business and environment-related literature. For instance, the beef industry was widely criticized for systematic clearcutting in the Amazon, drastically altering and endangering the rainforest ecosystem; in other words, its operations left an enormous ecological footprint. The aim of many CEM programs is to reduce or even eliminate the company’s footprint (Hart and Milstein, 1999). 3.4 Consumers: Consumer pressure and damage to the global image of popular  brands is one reason why companies may be motivated to assume the mantle of social responsibility. Much recent pressure has centered on the protection of the environment e.g., campaigns to stop deforestation; other important issues include the protection of  human and animal rights, safeguarding jobs, the inclusion of minorities and the behavior  of companies operating in the developing world. A classic example is that of Shell whose handling of the Brent Spar affair led to widespread consumer boycotts, and whose operations in Nigeria have been widely criticised. These issues motivated the company to issue its first Report to society in 1998.

“ The public demands from us the highest standards of ethical and environmental  responsibility. They expect us to take a long-term interest in the economic and social  well-being of the wider community, including the international community, and reflect  this in sensitive development of the world’s resources” (Shell UK Ltd. Report to Society 1998) The Shell case also illustrates the difficulties that exist in drawing the line between what a company may and may not be responsible for. In Nigeria, Shell was asked by the local community and political institutions to find solutions to local political and societal problems without having the social or political authority to do so. Consumers may often make demands on a company to act in a responsible manner in areas outside the company’s sphere of influence (and indeed outside the consumer’s experience) where they do not actually sell their products. Consumer’s pressure is very strong in the developed world and is likely to increase not decline, especially in the current of concern about public health. 3.5 Risk Management: Risk management has tended to centre on the problems that can be caused by consumer pressures. However, today risk management encompasses a wider range of stakeholders, each of which must be considered if a company is to avoid a variety of pitfalls and protect its reputation. Companies often conduct business in areas where they could be at risk, especially if working in developing nations or with companies with irresponsible practices. CSR activities can be used to mitigate these risks. The increased exposure of companies to the glare of public scrutiny has

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encouraged (or forced) business to be increasingly transparent in their environmental and social disclosures. This has led to a growing trend in environmental and social or  sustainability reporting, and a commitment to improving social performance. The most widely recognized definition of sustainability comes from the 1987 report, ‘Our  Common Future,’ also known as the ‘Brundtland Report,’ of the UN World Commission on Environment and Development. This report defines sustainability as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their  needs.” Sustainability is applicable at both the leve l of the individual firm and the global level. Just as firms are encouraged to make their own operations more sustainable, the business community as a whole is called upon to sustain the global environment and stablize the global economy for the health of future generations. Over the long term this makes good business sense once companies realize sustainability also provides continuing resources for their own operations. Sustainability is inextricably linked to resource usage. A sustainable company does not deplete its raw material or human resources but takes measures to ensure that they will remain consistently available and productive. Accordingly, implementation of the sustainability concept can range from CEM to Human Resources Programs. 3.6 Business ethics: Business Ethics is an academic field unto itself. According to Fieser (2001), “ the field of business ethics examines moral c ontroversies that commonly arise in the business world. These include the social responsibilities of capitalist business practices, the moral status of corporate entities deceptive advertising, insider trading, basic employee rights, job discrimination, affirmative action, whether drug testin g violates privacy, and whistle blowing.” Thus, the defining feature of business ethics is its basis in a moral standard. However, in a global business world, moral standards become increasingly difficult to define as varying cultural and legal standards are brought to bear  on business decisions.

In the private sector, a rich tradition of business ethics practice is already established. Before CSR became well known, corporations were already hiring ethics officers and appointing workplace ethics teams. Operationalization of business ethics is tied in with many other forms of CSR, such as articulation and integration of core values, stakeholder  interactions, social audits and other forms of social-performance measurement and reporting (Business for Social Responsibility, 2001). 3.7 Employees: Many studies have shown that investing in employees can bring direct benefits to a company both financially and in terms of increased employee loyalty and productivity. Such investment can include schemes like provision of childcare facilities, flexible work hours and job sharing. Employee investment in as essential aspect of CSR as the workplace is also the community; especially in smaller companies where a substantial proportion of employees are likely to come from the local community. Involving employees in CSR activities is another way of investing in them. Good social performance also provides companies with a competitive advantage when attracting a skilled work force. Gaining access to highly skilled, high value labour likely

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to be stimulated by, and interested in, companies with well-developed CSR approaches is a strong motivating force. A recent study suggested that applicants are more likely to pursue motivating force. A recent study suggested that applicants are more likely to pursue jobs from socially responsible companies than from companies with poor social performance reputations (Greetings and Turban 2000). The study found that applicants might have a higher self-image when working for socially responsive companies. Examples of companies using their CSP as a means of attracting quality employees include IBM, Microsoft and General Motors. 3.8 Personal values: Companies (and individuals within an organisation) may be motivated to carry out CSR for moral reasons. This approach to CSR is described in the literature as discretionary, voluntary or philanthropic CSR. Voluntary CSR goes beyond the usual economic confines of social responsibility in contributing to the common good at the possible, probable or even definite expense of the business (Lantos 2001). Voluntary CSR does more than just prevent and rectify harms that a company may cause, it assumes the responsibility for societal problems that the compan y has not created. Carroll & Buchholtz (2001) also term this behavior as ‘corporate citizenship’. This approach has been questioned by a number of commentators, famously by Milton Friedman who argued that “The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits" ”1970), and more recently by Lantos (2001) who argues that voluntary CSR lies outside the scope of business responsibility. Why then would companies choose to get involved at this level? The answer lies in the personal values and commitment to principles of  some individuals in business, who argue that it is the fundamentally ‘right thing to do’.

There are likely to be other factors motivating companies to embrace a socially responsible approach, however, the ones discussed above are those currently concerning researchers trying to provide a clearer understanding o f why companies get involved in CSR.

Conclusion It must be appreciated that corporate social responsibility and a corporation's social performance are two of many factors in an extremely complex business environment in which the corporate manager is called upon to operate the business. Various stakeholders are constantly seeking a different role for business in society. Society today c onsists of a wide range of people who have interests, expectation and demands as to what companies and organizations ought to provide, and the ways in which they should behave. Companies are increasingly embracing these stakeholder groups and individuals, whether  by considering or including them in decision-making. The motivation here for businesses to become involved in CSR is to address the wide ranging and constantly changing set of  demands that stakeholders have.

Questions for Study   

According to you what motivates companies to execute its social responsibilities?

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 

Discuss how strategic CSR is different from Ethical CSR? Discuss why business ethics are important

Digital Bibliography

www.sustainability.co.uk/ www.csreurope.og/ www.bsr.org

References 1. Boston College Center for Corporate Community Relations Making the Business Case: Determining the value of Corporate Community Involvement, 2000. 2. Heledd Jenkins and Frances Hines – The Center for business relationships, accountability, sustainability and society working paper series No 4 – Shouldering the burden of CSR: What makes business get committed? Brasr, Ecrc. 3. Rachel Phillips and Lisbeth Claus, “CSR and Global HR: Balancing the Needs of  the Corporation and its Stakeholders”, International Focus, Society for HR Management, 2002. 4. Geoffrey P. Lantos, “The Boundaries of CSR”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 18 No. 7 pp 59-630,2001

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Chapter IV Trends in CSR Programmes 4.1

TRENDS IN PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT 

Just as conditions change and directions shift in the business world, CSR programme trends also develop over time. These trends include branding, core competency fit, partnerships, outsourcing, and integration. First, branding and signature programmes are popular. Developing a brand name or a signature series helps companies in positioning and advertising their values to the public. For instance Times of India lends its name for mobilizing funds to help NGOs. Second, many companies are developing CSR initiatives that deliberately tie in with their core competencies. Product, human resources and equipments are the major competencies of any business house. Companies may volunteer to lend these and contribute in community development activities. For instance paper  companies like Ballarpur Paper Industries will develop forestry programmes because they need wood for their own paper production. Developing forestry is good both for the community as well as for the industry. An educational product company may emphasize education programs. Providing material aid to NGOs may start a base for wider relationship. This help the company to build its own image. See the following box for examples. Providing material aid to NGOs may start a base for wider relationship.

Cadbury India donated old furniture, books, and stationery to the schools run by Zilla Parishad at Talegaon and DoorStep school in Mumbai. Tata Consultancy, Tata Honeywell, and Thermax provided Pentium II computers to Municipal schools for fostering computer literacy. Tata Honeywell has also designed curriculum for computer  education for school children. Third, many companies develop or implement CSR programs through partnerships with external actors. These partners can include local governments and NGOs. These cross sector partnerships are extremely beneficial to all those who are involved. In essence “Partnership is a cross-sector alliance in which individuals, groups or organizations agree to; work together to fulfill an obligation or  undertake a specific task; share the risks as well as the benefits and review the relationship regularly, revising their agreement as necessary .” 

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Successful partnership relies on mutual recognition of the skills and resources that each sector can contribute and the recognition and acceptance of the fact that cross sector partnerships are profitable ventures or are profit centers. Profit centres mean how they could be beneficial to all the stakeholders. For  partnerships to be sustained it is essential that they provide win-win situation to all those who are involved. To the corporates they should be able to contribute to the financial profits and provide a positive environment for growth9. The community tasks undertaken should increase the corporate’s value from shareholders point of view10 and contribute to the societal value 11. To the civil society organizations it should stren gthen its functioning and ability to create an impact, and for the public sector it should aid in achieving its target in the real sense of  the term. To the government cross sector partnerships should benefit in improving its governance by providing specific interventions in managerial and technical areas. For  instance see the example in the box below.

Local Government and Private Sector Partnership Benefits

Mumbai Municipal Corporation (MMC) had approached many corporates and requested them to give their expertise in the area of  waste management systems. Excel Industries Limited agreed to collaborate with MMC on this issue. Excel spotted this opportunity and manufactured compost manure and sold it under the brand name of  ‘Celrich’. This added to the profits of the company and which in turn paid rich dividends to the shareholders. The MMC benefited by getting the environment cleaned up and fulfilling its civic responsibility. The local communities who faced the menace of garbage got a cleaner environment. Community based organizations formed citizens action groups and got training from Excel Industries to prepare compost manure from the garbage collected and developed their  kitchen gardens.

9

Enabling environment for growth means enhance reputation and licence to operate, improve motivation and retention of good quality employees; support strategic market positioning and market entry; increase operational efficiency and quality; promote better risk management and access to financing and enable a more stable society and healthy economy for a company to operate in. 10

Share holder Value: - The financial return that a company earns in the process of producing and delivering products of services, compared to the total cost of financial capital used, and the company’s ability to generate long term cash flows. 11

Societal Value: - The economic social and environmental value that a company adds to its host communities host countries and society in general, in the process of producing and delivering products and services, compared to the societal costs it creates, and the company’s ability to generate long-term benefit flows.

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Cash donations from business make all the difference to a struggling community organization and can help attract further support. Increasingly companies plan donations and activities based on certain issues, which are of concern to them. However there is always scope for finding appropriate partner to work on innovative schemes. Ideas and Innovation can come from all the sectors. What is important is clarity of thought and purpose. (See examples in the box below) Projects based on specific themes initiated by Pvt. sector companies and NGOs.

Mahindra and Mahindra’s has a single focus. All its activities are centered on its philosophy of encouraging education at all levels. It has partnered with various NGOs both in urban and rural areas to spread the message of education. The Infosys Foundation set up by Infosys Technologies provides grants to socially and physically handicapped children for educational purposes and also partners with NGOs and local government in strengthening rural development activities and infrastructure. Cadbury India funds a street children project – for sustaining children’s interest in education. Ranbaxy’s social wing of Ranbaxy community health care society has created an extensive network of social development and communications facilities. It has collaborated with the government, and international agencies to execute its social commitments. Pratham is a registered Public Charitable Trust initiated in 1994. Pratham plays a catalytic role in improving primary education in Mumbai. This role includes developing new low-cost mass-replicable innovative models to address existing problems, motivating teachers and parents, and studying the current system to make it more effective. Pratham and MCGM are active partners in the time-bound effort to achieve universal primary education. Business partners in this process are ICICI, IDBI, British Airways, BEST, and Mahindra’s. The flow of resources of time and goods into voluntary and community groups continues to expand. For example, there are schemes using surplus new goods such as those promoted by Pfizer India Limited, SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceuticals, Kellogs India etc. There is widespread recycling of equipment, from furniture to computers. The benefits are not just one way. In some instances the company is saving disposal costs. In others, despite the increased costs associated with some planned

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disposals, the benefits that arrive in reputation make it worthwhile. Moreover, it may be the start of a wider relationship with a community partner. The good name of an organization is a vital asset, whichever sector it is in. Commercial activity with an image, product or service to market can also build relationship or partnership with a cause, or number of causes for mutual benefit, for example a company may advertise that part of the price of the product will be donated for a social cause. This can be part of their ‘ cause related marketing strategy’ . See the following box for details. Companies adopting this stand feel that a social attribute added to the product influences the consumers brand behaviour and results in increased sales. There has been no official report or  research available on this aspect in India. Cause related marketing Procter & Gamble Hygiene and Health Care India , has launched PROJECT DRISHTI - the first ever Sight Restoration Corporate project undertaken in association with the National Association for the Blind (NAB). Project Drishti will attempt to restore sight to over 250 blind girls from across the country through corneal transplant operations. In association with UNICEF it has announced the launch of ‘OPEN MINDS’-- a special program targeted to support and educate working children. These initiatives are supported by their brands. Part of the sale of their products is contributed towards these initiatives.

The Winning Game demonstrates the growing acceptance that a business can gain competitive advantage by responding to the social, ethical or environmental concerns of consumers. The value for the voluntary sector partner in such an arrangement may include the opportunity to develop awareness of its cause or  message, raise profile, enhance their image, increase membership and generate resources. Corporate management can motivate their employees to render their  talents and skills to NGOs. This can be a very enriching and satisfying experience to both the organizations. See the following box for examples.

Activating active citizenship and exchange of skills

ABB and Hindustan Lever Ltd. depute their management trainees to NGOs for getting them sensitized to the rural ethos, markets and culture. These trainees also contribute and strengthen the managerial aspects of the NGO. Otis Elevators motivates its employees to work with the organizations working for the mentally challenged. Otis worldwide is working for 

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organizing Special Olympics for the Mentally Challenged. This experience has helped the employees to get sensitized to the situation of the mentally handicapped, contribute to the development of NGO activity. This experience has also helped them to improve their work moral and their perceptions both at organisational and individual level. Employees at all levels of Tata companies are encouraged to participate in community development activities. The employee involvements in social activities have benefited not only the community, but also have earned good will for the company and boosted the confidence of the employees. The voluntary sector has valuable skills in areas such as mobilising and motivating volunteers, networking, advocacy campaigning and generating support from financiers and local people. For business people contact with a voluntary or community organisation enables them to learn some of these skills or spot an opportunity for new business activity. For example, Excel Industries Ltd. spotted business opportunity for manufacturing compost manure while aiding Mumbai Municipal Corporation to resolve the garbage issue. Managers in voluntary and community organizations may have had experience in making the most of scarce resources but would benefit from learning more about the structured budgeting and planning models used in business. Or they could benefit from learning about commercial marketing techniques. A mentor  relationship or access to the training that is available within a company can help them to develop relevant skills and a broader perspective. At the same time, voluntary sector leaders find themselves needing new skills in a world of social enterprise and community business. While partnering with business organizations they can benefit from the expertise in areas such as strategic planning, marketing and so on. 4.2

PROMOTION OF CSR

If CSR is to be the fruit of a strategic and sustainable corporate commitment and not a temporary fashion fad, the question arises as to how its contribution to social and economic progress can be promoted, despite its limitations and weaknesses. While a large number of proposals for the promotion of CSR could be made, seven in particular deserve to be highlighted. Promotion a 'CSR-friendly' social dialogue: In the field of employment and working conditions, Foundation research suggests that successful CSR can only exist in conjunction with a strong social dialogue. However, it has also been shown that it is not easy for the traditional players in social dialogue to practice CSR. Incorporation of CSR into the agenda of in-house social dialogue is still minimal - many information/consultation or negotiating procedures ignore it, or 

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deal with it only at a marginal level, while at the same time the company is developing a significant quantity of CSR activities at management level. How can access to information of all on CSR be promoted, so that the existing social dialogue can expand to include these new dimensions? Furthermore, as a result of decentralized production networks, recurrent restructuring mergers and acquisitions, it is increasingly difficult for company boundaries to coincide with the boundaries of social dialogue, whether the latter takes place at company or  sector level. Social dialogue appears to face different options: first, it remains based on a binary model with two actors and two different logics, and appears to exclude any other parties. Second, a dialogue with other stakeholders could be developed in parallel to the social dialogue and bridges built between these dialogues. Third, it could be opened up to multiple logics, but then runs to risk of reducing employees and their representatives to one stakeholder among many, while workers see themselves as the parties most directly involved. The promotion of  an expanded dialogue without weakening the traditional social dialogue is one of  the major challenges in the development of CSR. Rethinking the governance: 'Governance' can be best understood as design and implementation of the rules, processes and practices. In relation to CSR, governance can be applied either at company or at society level. To take company level first, CSR recommends taking on board a diversity of  stakeholders and therefore a multitude of expectations. Taking them into consideration and organizing the necessary processes would mean management adapting the way it works and making trade-offs between the different expectations. However, management receives primarily its mandate from the shareholders. The question is therefore whether executives receive a real 'social mandate' which allows them to commit the company towards other stakeholders and under what terms? Judging by the importance of the personal commitment of managers to CSR, questions might also be asked about the future of these commitments. Looking at society level: because the influence of the companies is not limited to their borders, applying CSR may also affect the way governance is exercised in society by involving companies in the local community in order that companies and society could benefit from a mutual enrichment.

Enabling the actors to play their role: Skills and tools are important to allow stakeholders to play their role properly. However, today the acquisition of these skills by most of the stakeholders and the development of these tools is not sufficient to allow them to act efficiently. Research shows, for example, that the civil society has difficulties in playing its role, either because the actors and their  expectations are not clearly identified or because their members do not have the necessary skills and resources to act properly. Initiatives which already exist that aims at helping the actors both inside and outside the company to play their role, could be reinforced. Examples would be helping the stakeholders to be more structured, more professional and hence more efficient, or creating appropriate

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institutional frameworks which permit stakeholders to meet and discuss CSR matters. Promoting the internal as well as external aspects of CSR: While the external aspects of CSR are important and tend to get a lot of attention due to their visibility, it is essential not to forget the internal aspects. In an economy of  decentralized production and networking companies, issues around job quality and health and safety provisions and working conditions of the employees of  subcontracting companies play a major role in CSR policies. Intensifying the dialogue: Active dialogue with the stakeholders is crucial for the success of CSR. Instead of focusing only on consumers, the research shows that companies generally have a real interest in enlarging the focus to other stakeholders. A new way of doing business based on the management and dialogue with the stakeholders could be promoted. Trust, transparency, internal and external auditing can create and foster successful dialogue and sustainable corporate governance. Local municipalities and national governments, for example, have an important role to play in facilitating partnerships. Fostering CSR among SMEs: Smaller companies have little knowledge of  what CSR is. They often do not posses the human and financial resources required, in particular when it comes to developing tools for reporting on their  CSR practices. For the most part, they regard this prospect as an additional bureaucratic expense.

Moreover, companies employing subcontractors can have a strong influence on their suppliers by compelling them to standardize and label their practices, for  example in the field of quality, safety and the environment, which could result in increased dissemination. Promoting CSR as a tool to anticipate change: The pro-active, preventive approach to restructuring can be beneficial to all the stakeholders. Practices positioned in advance of restructuring can anticipate the effects on employees and prepare them for the coming changes. In this process, relevant prior information and consultation with the parties involved are a prerequisite for  socially successful restructuring. It raises the question of how far socially responsible companies should commit themselves to that approach and which priorities could be used in this approach.

Conclusion

In the business climate of the early 21 st century, there seems to be some identifiable factors that make some companies more responsive to CSR concerns than others. Most of the programmes discussed in this chapter 

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pertaining to the types of corporate programs are not industry-specific; they are activities that can be implemented by nearly any company. We are experiencing a revolution in governance characterized by empowerment and consultative action based on mutual respect and mutual benefit. To this end we need to create innovative strategies and methodologies– which creates win-win situation for all and communicate to others how consultative and collaborative model of  change is really profitable for all. Questions for Study  (1) Discuss the types of programmes that could be developed for promoting CSR  activities.

(2) (3) (4)

Discuss the CSR programme trends with a few examples. What is cross sector partnership? Discuss a few strategies to develop CSR.

4.3

References

1. Philippe Bronchain, “Towards a sustainable CSR”, Luxembourg office for  official publication of the European Communities (2003) 2. Rachel Phillips and Lisbeth Claus, “CSR and Global HR: Balancing the Needs of the Corporation and its Stakeholders”, International Focus, Society for HR Management, 2002.

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Chapter V Operationalizing CSR - Some Tips 5.1 Introduction The Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) frameworks of companies, which are front-runners, have evolved over a period of time. Their specific approaches and strategies are based on the ethical beliefs of the founding fathers, business areas in which the companies operate, the socio-economic environment, and the opportunities emerging over long periods of their existence. As such, it is difficult to provide any standard approach for operationalising CSR. The basic objective of CSR is to maximize the company’s overall impact on the society and stakeholders. Thus, as Business for Social Responsibility stresses, leadership companies see CSR as more than a collection of discrete practices or  occasional gestures, or initiatives motivated by marketing, public relations or  other business benefits. Rather, it is viewed as a comprehensive set of policies, practices and programmes that are integrated through out the business operations and decision-making processes that are supported and rewarded by the top management. It is also important to note the growing evidence dispelling the notion that CSR is only a cost to the bottom line. In the context of enlightened self-interest of business for survival in the ever-growing fierce corporate competitive battle, CSR is seen as critical for protecting reputations, defending attacks, improving bottom line and building business competitive edge. When integrated in the overall business strategy, CSR could be a panacea and protect against sudden corporate downfalls. The above definition of CSR makes it clear that internally CSR requires fundamentally a new approach and outlook.

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5.2 Steps to Operationalize CSR According to India Partnership Forum12 the starting point for CSR practice must be viewed in a holistic context and hence must begin right from the Article of  Association of the firm. The committee appointed by the India Partnership Forum recommends the following steps to operationalise CSR. Step 1) Mainstreaming CSR Vision in the Article of Association Contemporary literature sees CSR as the ‘license to operate’. As such, the very Article of Association of firms must reflect this vision and commitment based on recognition of the interdependence of the enterprise with the well being of the society. The Article of Association will then provide the moral foundation for CSR and serve as the beacon guiding the mainstreaming of CSR in all policies and practices of business enterprises. The following clause in the Articles of Association of Tata Companies may provide a guide: “ The company shall have among its objectives the promotion and growth of the national economy through increased productivity, effective utilization of material  and manpower resources and continued application of modern, scientific and  managerial techniques in keeping with the national aspirations; and the company  shall be mindful of its social and moral responsibilities to the consumers, employees, shareholders, society and the local community.” 

The company may like to further emphasize the values and principles it stands for - to set its own ‘magnetic north’. Step 2) Develop a Written Policy on CSR and Make it Available in the Public Domain This is a crucial step aimed at translating the goals enshrined in the Article of  Association into policies and principles. Towards formulation of a policy framework, the following building blocks may be considered: a) Assessment of the internal environment: Identification of ‘drivers’ and ‘barriers’ of change: It is important to identify the factors within the organization that is driving the change towards a more socially responsible framework. It is equally important to bring to the table the possible internal ‘barriers’ to change. In all cases, the views of employees are of critical significance. Identification/ assessment of the core competencies of the company in the broader socio-economic context . Since one of the key potentialities of CSR lies in harnessing the core competencies available with in the firm, such an exercise is of prime importance. For example, IT competencies have been used very successfully by some firms to develop highly condensed but effective literacy pedagogies. This in turn has opened up new avenues for both the firm and the individuals concerned.

12

The India Partnership Forum (IPF) is a joint initiative of UNDP India and the Confederation of  Indian Industry (CII), which seeks to promote multi-stakeholder dialogue on Corporate Social Responsibility issues and a common understanding of good corporate citizenship particularly through evolution of a common code. The Forum also seeks to promote and pilot new and innovative initiatives in corporate partnership for development.

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b) Building in the strategic business case: While the goal of CSR is maximization of societal returns from business enterprises and does not confine itself to financial profits, long-term sustainability of CSR efforts would depend upon making a strategic business case. This point is also related to CSR being aligned to core competencies discussed above. c) Assessment of the external environment. The following elements are of key importance: The legal context: The legal context which includes the laws, regulations and standards (corporate laws, tax laws, labour laws, environmental regulations, safety regulations, regulations protecting shareholders’ interest, fiduciary responsibility of managers and directors) need to be analyzed in a more holistic framework to delineate the underlying social objectives and purpose. Also, such analysis should bring out the incentives available for undertaking more socially responsible actions by business enterprises. In the context of globalization, not only the national legal context, but also global standards in business ethics and legal standards in trading partner countries acquire paramount importance. Examples are supply chain management codes, vendor policies etc. b) The development context: This would include an analysis of the socioeconomic policy framework. Documents such as the Plan document, budget speeches, national and state human development reports, state development reports, thematic reports by NGOs/ other civil society reports etc would be relevant for identifying the priority socio-economic needs and opportunities at the national and sub-national levels. This will also help identify opportunities for  public-private partnerships for development. Such an analysis could also bring out potential opportunities for business and social entrepreneurship. The human development needs and the sections of the population with low disposable incomes could potentially provide promising opportunities, if business can rethink its strategies. d) Identification and prioritization of opportunities for corporate collaboration in CSR. The above steps in conjunction with a stakeholder  analysis help identify the set of opportunities that exist for corporate collaboration in CSR. The stakeholder analysis must map out the different stakeholders and the matrix of interaction. The first category would cover the immediate stakeholders i.e. the employees, shareholders, supply chain, consumers etc. The second category would cover the proximate stakeholders such as the communities in and around the area of business operations. The third category would be based on a much broader definition of developmental needs and opportunities. e) Putting CSR policy in the public domain: By the very logic of this subject, it is critical to place the policy framework in the public domain. The CSR policy should be publicized in the company’s annual report, website, newsletters and external and internal communications

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Step 3: Translating CSR Policy into Action: An explicit management strategy to translate CSR policy into action is critical. The following steps are imperative: Appointment of a senior executive responsible for CSR under the CEO. Also managerial level officers tasked specifically with social and environmental work should be designated. Formulation of an annual social investment plan. Allocation of specific resources for CSR activities. Preferably, a transparent set of  funding criteria should be defined to ensure stability of funding.

Formulation of an internal assurance system. This is critical for credible CSR performance. Provision of an enabling environment for employee volunteering as this is one of  the surest ways of mainstreaming CSR into the company’s core value system. Formulation of policies to ensure equal access to employment and promotion opportunities across gender and culture, as employees remain the first charge of  socially responsible corporate behavior. Step 4: Reporting, Experience Sharing and Mutual Learning For broadening the impact of individual efforts, sharing of information and expertise are of crucial significance. Towards this, the following steps are recommended: Institution of monitoring systems to track implementation process and evaluating impact and finally, integration of reporting on CSR performance in the Company’s Annual Report. Documenting and dissemination of learning experience. Encouragement of  exchange programmes for professionals. Step 5: External Reporting and Certification Some companies, which have reached an advanced level of CSR compliance, may desire to obtain certification from external rating/certification agencies. There are a number of national and international certification standards and agencies.

Conclusion

The basic objective of CSR is to maximize the company’s overall impact on the society and stakeholders. India Partnership forum recommends several steps that companies need to undertake to operationalize CSR practice including inserting a suitable clause on CSR in the Articles of Association. The Government’s approach to CSR should centre around productivity and competitiveness and on achieving transparency in the market to promote an effective dialogue with stakeholders. The voluntary sector / NGOs have a major  role to play in contributing to the process of social and community development.

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They can advise business/industry in the area of identifying need based developmental projects. Questions for study  

Discuss the steps for operationalising CSR in any organisation.



Discuss the role of government in promoting CSR. Discuss the role of NGOs in helping companies to attain its CSR goals.



References readings: 1. Harsh Shrivastava and Shankar Venkateswaran, The Business For  Social Responsibility - the why, what and how of corporate social responsibility in India, Partners in Change, New Delhi, 2000 2. Ross Tennyson and Luke Wilde, ’The Guiding Hand: Brokering Partnership for Sustainable Development, The Prince of Wales Business Leaders Forum and the United Nations Staff College, 2000

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Chapter VI MEASURING THE IMPACT OF CSR Introduction It is easier to name the many types of programmes and activities under the banner of CSR  that it is to draw quantifiable conclusions about them. Since CSR encompasses both discrete programmes such as employee volunteer projects a nd more nebulous principles like cultural sensitivity, some types are easier to measure than others. Measurement of  CSR can be broken down into three separate categories. First, measuring the order of  magnitude of CSR at the present time: how many companies are implementing some kind of CSR, on what scale, and in what specific ways? Second, quantifying the social and environmental impact of existing programmes - in othe r words, quantifying corporate social and environmental performance (CSP). Third, identifying, measuring, and explaining cause and effect relationships between companies' CSR activities and their  financial performance.

6.1 Measuring current order of magnitude: Since CSR can be operationalized in so many different ways; there are no reliable aggregate numbers available on CSR activity at the present time. The 'Global Reporting Initiative,' a key coalition of corporations, NGOs, accountancy organisations, business associations, and other stakeholders from around the world convened by the United Nations Environment Programme, confirmed in 2001 "there is a need to assess the uptake of CSR practices and aggregate and disaggregate data from various sources"  (White, 2002). More readily available are case studies and some quantitative data on individual types of programmes, collected by companies, governmental organisations, NGO's and coalitions. One notable source is the United Nations Global Compact website, which provides information on CSR measurement in more than 180 countries. 6.2 Measuring corporate social and environmental performance : The current corporate social and environmental performance arena is crowded with a plethora of measurement and assessment tools. Most tools are specific to a program category or type, making comparison and aggregation difficult. While some governments require certain types of reporting, most of the current measurement and reporting regimes are voluntary. For example, the Caux Round Table, which regularly brings together 250 senior business leaders from 25 countries, published its 'Principles for Business' in 1994. This document "seeks to express a worldwide standard for ethical and responsible corporate behavior and is offered as a foundation for dialogue and action by business and  leaders worldwide"  (Caux Round Table, 1994).

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A second example of the private-sector working to develop its own standards is the accounting profession. Accounting firms and professional accou nting societies, including the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, and the Society of Management Accountants of  Canada, have designed frameworks of CSP indicators that companies can voluntarily apply. According to consulting firm KPMG, 35% of the world's 250 largest corporations now issue environmental reports (Kolk, 2000). A final example of private-sector  innovation in the area of standards is the social investing field. Social investing firms have constructed indexes of companies that are screened on social and environmental standards. In particular, KLD Research and Analytics's FDI (Domini 400 Social Index) screens for alcohol, tobacco, gambling, nuclear power, and military contracting involvement, environmental impact, charitable contributions, women and minority directors and managers and other issues. The company's BMSI (Broad Market Social Index) consists of all companies within the Russell 3000 that pass similar screening criteria.

6.3 Determining linkages between social and environmental outcomes and financial performance : Many managers and companies are concerned about social or environmental problems, but still wonder why it should be their  responsibility to get involved. Ultimately, most scholars and observers believe that only a proven cause-and-effect relationship between CSR activities and financial performance can dramatically increase CSR activity. Proving or  demonstrating this linkage is often termed 'making the business case' for  corporate social responsibility. "The search for a link between CSP and financial  performance is a quest that was begun many years ago and is not yet concluded. During the past 25 years, dozens of studies have examined this relationship"  (Roman et al., 1999)

Academic research has employed a plethora of different methods to measure relationships, as discussed in the earlier sections. Often, quantitative measures such as the above-mentioned KLD index and TRI database, company voluntary reporting, company levels of philanthropy, and manager surveys such as the Fortune Magazine Most Admired Companies list, are compared to financial statements. 6.4

Making the business case

a) CSR as a source of competitive advantage: Making the business case involves not only establishing a quantifiable between CSR involvement and financial performance, but also explaining to companies how CSR activities can be conceived as a source of competitive advantage. In other words, what are the specific benefits of CSR programs and activities; how do they contribute to the financial bottom line? Benefits such as cost reduction, human capital, reduced regulations, access to capital, consumer demand, improved business conditions, and new market opportunities are frequently reported.

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b) Cost reduction: Costs can be cut through cleaner, more efficient technologies, recycling, pollution prevention, and other means, Such measures not only reduce input costs in the short-run but also compliance and liability costs in the long run. For example, 3M's 'Pollution Prevention Pays' and Dow Chemical's 'Waste Reduction Always Pays' programs have produced hundreds of millions of dollars in cost savings over the past decade. c) Human capital considerations: Studies have shown that CSR activity increases companies 'ability to attract and retain employees, reduces employee turnover, and increases productivity and quality of work. Greening and Turban (2000) found that prospective job applicants are more likely to pursue jobs from socially responsible firms than from firms with poor social performance reputations. This is an important finding given that a talented, quality workforce becoming an increasingly important source of competitive advantage for firms. d) Reduced regulatory oversight: According to Business for Social Responsibility (2001), "companies that demonstrate they are engaging in practices that satisfy and go beyond regulatory compliance requirements are being given less scrutiny and more free reign by both national and local  government entities. The U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines allow penalties and  fines against corporations to be reduced or even eliminated if a company can show it has taken 'good corporate citizenship' actions and has an effective ethics program in place."  e) Consumer demand: Increasingly, consumers are demanding good behavior on the part of companies; patronizing companies they perceive to be good corporate citizens and boycotting companies with poor reputations. The Internet has allowed for faster and easier consumer access to company information, and websites such as Co-op America's 'The Responsible Shopper' are specifically tailored to assist consumers in altering their buying behavior. Just how sensitive is consumer-buying behavior to the social environmental performance of companies? A 1999 survey showed that two-thirds of U.S. consumers want companies to expand their roles to embrace broader social goals, and that half are paying attention to the social actions of companies (Environics, 2000). A study by McWilliams (2001) confirmed the rise in consumer  sensitivity to corporate social performance, but also found that such sensitivity is tempered by other factors such as product price, advertising, level of disposable income, consumers' tastes and preferences, demographics, and the price of  substitute products.

Several scholars have compared consumer sensitivity to CSR across cultures. Zalka et al. (1997) compared behavior in the U.S., the U.K., and South Africa, and found that consumers in the U.K. were most willing "to boycott and avoid  buying from, investing in or working for irresponsible companies,"  followed by South African and then U.S. consumers. The study also found that in all three countries, women and people with left-leaning political orientations were more

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likely to display sensitivity to companies' social performance. Maignan (2000) found that "consumers in France and Germany appear more willing to actively  support responsible businesses than their U.S. counterparts,"  and a study by Polonsky et al. (2001) showed northern Europeans to display more sensitivity than southern Europeans to corporate citizenship issues. Companies can capitalize on such consumer sensitivity by using social and environmental performance to build their reputation and brand image. One way to do so is through cause marketing, "a strategy designed to promote the achievement of marketing objectives (e.g. brand sales) via company support of  social causes."  Annual spending on cause marketing in the U.S. alone exceeds $ 1billion (Barone, 2000). Other methods are public relations, package labeling, and information on the company website. A proliferation of awards programs in recent years, by which companies are recognized and rewarded for outstanding social and/or environmental performance, have also, helped companies to establish their reputations. In 2003, Lupin26 has come up to the top business world FICCI-SEDF CSR awards. Previous years winners included TISCO (1999), TELCO (2002) and HINDALCO (2002). The other top sic companies in the year  2003 were ITC, WIPRO, Indal, Canara Bank and Gujarat Ambuja Cements. These awards are measuring the contribution. f) Improved conditions for doing business: Strategic community investment, both social and environmental, can enhance the capacity of a local environment over the long-term. Such investment builds the capacity of the local community, yielding concrete benefits such as greater availability of its natural resources, a better-trained workforce, and a consumer market better able to patronize and sustain the business.

6.5

Tata Sustainability Human Development Index 

In India The Tata Council for Community Initiatives (TCCI) with the help of UNDP has undertaken pioneering work in developing a sustainable human development index to benchmark the contributions of Tata Corporates in the spheres of social development and environmental protection. This is indeed a significant step towards systematically measuring the impact of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives of these companies on the ground. UNDP feels privileged to have participated through its Human Development Resource Center in the TCCI initiative, sharing its experience in human development reporting and anal ysis. For more details on Tata Sustainability Index log on to http://indiango.com/tata.pdf 

6.6

Measuring CSR- Resources available

Using standards to measure CSR is not widespread, but a number of  organisations are developing benchmarks to monitor CSR.

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Global Reporting Initiative for reporting on CSR http://www.globalreporting.org/index.htm Business Impact / Winning with Integrity from Business in the Communityhttp://www.business-impact.org/bi2/homes/winning.cfm. This is perhaps the most accessible site around, and has some useful guides on developing and implementing a CSR strategy. However, there is still scope for  trade unionists to improve the models in the Winning with Integrity initiative as it fails to involve trade unions at an early stage – in fact only in the latter stages does it advocate engaging and consulting with workers! SIGMA (Sustainable Integrated Guidelines for Management) http://www.projectsigma.com/SIGMAProject/Links.asp AA1000 framework and the Global Compact http://www.accountability.org.uk/ The organisation behind AA1000 is Accountability the institute of social and ethical accountability. UN Global Compact (www.unglobalcompact.org) provides a number of tools for  businesses to support human rights, labour and environmental standards. International Labour Office (www.ilo.org,www.itcilo.it/english/actrav/telearn/global/ilo/code/main.htm) has a code of conduct for multi-national enterprises and suggest labour standards for  its member nation states. United Nations Environment Programme (www.uneptie.org) produces annual reports on benchmarking the sustainability of corporations.

6.7

Conclusion

The measurement of CSR helps businesses to be tter align organizational responses to the requirements of the stakeholders that they serve. The measurement of CSR will undoubtedly be useful for the CEOs and all the employees who devote precious time and resources in upholding their common commitment to society.

Measurement of CSR can be broken down into three separate categories. First, measuring the order of magnitude of CSR at the present time: how many companies are implementing some kind of CSR, on what scale, and in what specific ways? Second, quantifying the social and environmental impact of  existing programs - in other words, quantifying corporate social and environmental performance (CSP). Third, identifying, measuring, and explaining cause and effect relationships between companies' CSR activities and their  financial performance.

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