Crowley The Paamese Language of Vanuatu.pdf

PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Series B

-

No. 87

THE PAAMESE LANGUAGE OF VANUATU by Terry Crowley

Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY Crowley, T. The Paamese language of Vanuatu. B-87, xii + 280 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-B87.cover ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

PACIFIC LINGUISTICS is issued through the Linguistic Circle of Canberra and consists of four series: SERIES SERIES SERIES SERIES

A B C D

-

Occasional Papers Monographs Books Special Publications

EDITOR: S.A. Wurm ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock, C.L. Voorhoeve, D.T. Tryon, T.E. Dutton EDITORIAL ADVISERS: B.W. Bender University of Hawaii David Bradley La Trobe University A. Capell University of Sydney Michael G. Clyne Monash University S.H. Elbert University of Hawaii K.J. Franklin Summer Institute of Linguistics W.W. Glover Summer Institute of Linguistics G.W. Grace University of Hawaii M.A.K. Halliday University of Sydney E. Haugen Harvard University A. Healey Summer Institute of Linguistics L.A. Hercus Australian National University Nguy�n Bang Li�m University of Hawaii

John Lynch University of Papua New Guinea K.A. McElhanon University of Texas H.P. McKaughan University of Hawaii P. MUhlhliusler Linacre College, Oxford G.N. O'Grady University of Victoria, B.C. A.K. Pawley University of Auckland K.L. Pike University of Michigan; Summer Institute of Linguistics E.C. Polome University of Texas Gillian Sankoff University of Pennsylvania W.A.L. Stokhof National Center for Language Development, Jakarta; University of Leiden E. M. Uhlenbeck University of Leiden J.W.M. Verhaar Gonzaga University, Spokane

All correspondence concerning PACIFIC LINGUISTICS, including orders and subscriptions, should be addressed to: The Secretary PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies The Australian National University Canberra, A.C.T. 2600 Australia. Copyright

@

The Author

First Published 1982 Typeset by Suse Benz

Printed by A.N. U. Printing Service

Covers by Patria Printers

Bound by Adriatic Bookbinders Pty. Ltd.

Maps drawn by Nigel Duffey, Cartography, Department of Human Geography, Research School of Pacific Studies, A.N.U. The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for assistance in the production of this series. This publication was made possible by an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund. National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 0 85883 279 8

TABL E OF CONTENTS P age ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

x

ABBREVIATIONS CHAPTER I :

xi

INTRODUCTION

1 . 1. 1. 2. 1.2.1. 1.3. 1 . 4. 1 . 5. 1.5.1. 1.5.2. 1.5.3.

CHAPTER I I : 2. 1. 2.1.1. 2 . 1. 2. 2.1. 3. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.4. 1. 2.4.2. 2.4.2.1. 2. 4 . 2 . 2. 2.4.3. 2.5. 2.5.1. 2.5.2. 2.6. 2.6.1. 2.6.2. 2.6.2.1. 2.6.2.2. 2.6.2.3. 2.6.2.4. 2 . 6 . 2.5 .

1

Geographic background Outline of recent history Recent history of Paama socio-cultural background Field method Lingui stic background The position of Paamese Paamese dialects Bislama PHONOLOGY

1 1 5 6 7 7 8 8 10 12

Surface oppositions Consonants Vowels Stress An uneconomical system Preliminary discuss ion of boundaries Phonological base Consonants Vowel s Representation of underspecif ied vowels Vowel features Stress Underlying morpheme structure Distribution of segments Distribution of non-stressable vowels Rule component Stress rule Segmental rules operating in all form classes I -Backing E-Backing Homorganic vowel deletion E-Raising E-Deletion

iii

12 12 16 19 19 20 22 22 22 24 25 26 26 26 27 28 28 31 31 32 32 33 34

iv Page Gl ide formation Final vowel deletion and desyllabif ication Medial vowel deletion Consonant Degemination Resolution of nt sequences Resolution of double vowel sequences A-Rais ing Morphologically conditioned rules deal ing with segments Deletion of final -ke E-Prothesis NV-Deletion Summary of rule ordering Justification of analysis Hi storical arguments Arguments for simplicity Al ternations Reduplication REdup REDUp reDUP Vacuous redupl ication Some synchronic implications of phonological change Redupl ication Reanalysis of phonetic process Reanalysis of articles Reanalysis of locative marker Reanalysis of verbal prefix Development of bound form nouns Sandhi phenomena

2.6.2.6. 2.6.2.7. 2.6.2.8. 2.6.2.9. 2 . 6 . 2 . 10 . 2 . 6 . 2 . 11 . 2 . 6 . 2 . 12 . 2.6.3. 2.6.3.1. 2 . 6 . 3 . 2. 2 . 6 . 3 . 3. 2.6.4. 2. 7 . 2.7.1. 2 . 7 . 2. 2 . 7 . 3. 2.8. 2 . 8 . 1. 2 . 8 . 2. 2.8.3. 2.8.4. 2.9. 2.9.1. 2.9.2. 2.9.3. 2. 9 . 4 . 2.9.5. 2 . 9 . 6. 2 . 10 .

CHAPTER I II :

FORM CLASSES

3.1. 3. 1.1. 3.1.2. 3. 1. 3 . 3.1.4. 3.1.4.1. 3.1.4.2. 3.1.4.2.1. 3. 1.4.2.2. 3.1.4.3. 3.1.4.3.1. 3.1.4.3.2. 3 . 1 . 4. 4. 3. 1.4.5. 3 . 1. 4. 5. 1. 3.1. 4 . 5.2. 3.1.4.5.2. 1. 3.1.4.5.2.2. 3 . 1 . 4. 5.3.

Nominals Pronouns Indefinite nominals Possessive nominals Nouns Individual names Location nouns Relative location Absolute location Time nouns Zero-marked time nouns Prepositionally marked time nouns Descriptive nouns Common nouns Free form common nouns Bound form common nouns Suffixed nouns Linked nouns Disparities between formal and semantic c lasses

34 35 37 39 39 40 40 41 41 41 42 43 43 44 45 45 47 47 48 48 49 50 50 51 51 52 52 52 53 58 58 59 59 60 60 61 61 61 61 62 63 63 64 64 65 65 65 66 67

v Page 3.2. 3.2. 1. 3.2.1.1. 3.2.1.1.1. 3.2. 1 . 1 . 2. 3.2.1.2. 3.2.2. 3.2.2.1. 3.2.2.1.1. 3 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 2. 3.2. 2.2. 3.2.2.3. 3.2.2.3.1. 3.2. 2.3.2. 3.2.2.4. 3.2. 2.5. 3.3. 3.3.1. 3.3.2. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.6.1. 3.6.2. 3.6.2.1. 3.6.2.1.1. 3.6.2.1.2. 3.6.3. 3.7. 3.8.

CHAPTER IV :

Verbs Transitive verbs Restricted object Reflexive verbs Non-reflexive restricted ob j ect verbs Free obj ect verbs Intransitive verbs Active verbs Basic motion Cornmon verbs Stative verbs Ambient Verbs Ambient verbs without subj ect Ambient verbs with sub j ect Numeral verbs Deictic verb Adj ectives Predicative adjectives Attributive adj ectives Prepositions Determiners Modifiers Clause level modifiers Phrase-level postmodi fiers Free form modifiers Aspectual modifiers Non-aspectual modi fiers Bound form modifiers Inter j ections Multifunctional forms

THE NOMINAL PHRASE

4.1. 4.1.1. 4 . 1 . 1 . 1. 4 . 1 . 1 . 2. 4.1.1.2.1. 4.1. 1. 2.2. 4.1.1.2. 2.1. 4.1. 1.2.2.2. 4.1.1.2.2.3. 4.1. 1.2.3. 4.1. 1.2.4. 4.1.1.2.4.1. 4.1.1.2.4.1. 1. 4.1.1.2.4.1 . 2. 4.1.1.2.4. 1.3. 4.1.1.2.4 . 1. 3 . 1. 4.1.1.2.4.1.4. 4. 1.1.2. 4.2. 4 . 1 . 1.2.5. 4 . 1. 1.3. 4.1.2.

Simple nominal phrases The head Pronouns Nouns Redupl ication Pre fixation Ai- INST N ( a ) - LaC Ke ( e ) - DIR Suf fixation Compounding Cornmon noun compounds Free form compounds Special compounding forms Bound form compounds The l ink morpheme -i­ Obligatorily compounded forms Verbal compounds Phrasal nouns Other nominal type s Adjuncts

69 69 70 70 70 70 70 71 71 71 71 71 72 72 72 73 73 73 73 74 74 74 74 74 75 75 75 76 76 76 79 79 79 79 82 82 83 83 84 85 85 87 87 87 88 89 91 91 92 93 94 94

vi Page 4.1.2.1. 4 . 1.2.2. 4.1.2.3. 4.1.2.4 . 4.1.2.5. 4.2. 4 . 2 . 1. 4 . 2.2. 4.2.2.1 . 4 . 2.3 . 4.2.3.1. 4.2 . 3.2. 4 . 2.4. 4.2.4.1. 4.2.4.2. 4.2.4.3. 4.2.4.4. 4.2.5. 4.2.4.3. 4.2.4.4. 4.2.5. CHAPTER V :

Determiners Adjectives Indefinite adjuncts Clausal adjuncts Ordering of postposed adjuncts Complex nominal phrases Prepositional construction Linked noun construction The problem of -iSuff ixed noun construction Possess ive suffixes on nouns possessive suffixes on possessive nomina1s Appositional construction Location nouns Terms of address Apposition of specific to generic Phrases expressing measure Shifting of second head Apposition of specific to generic Phrases expressing measure Shifting of second head

THE VERB PHRASE

5.1. 5.1.1. 5 . 1.1.1. 5 . 1.1.2. 5 . 1 . 1.3. 5 . 1.2. 5.1.2.1. 5 . 1.2.2. 5.2. 5.2.1. 5.2.1.1. 5.2 . 1.1.1. 5 . 2.1.1.1.1. 5.2.1.1.1.1.1. 5.2.1.1.1.1.2. 5.2.1.1.1.1.3. 5.2.1.1 . 1.1.3.1. 5 . 2.1 . 1.1 . 1.3.2. 5.2.1.1.1.1.4. 5.2.1 . 1.1 . 1.4.1. 5 . 2.1.1.1.1.4.2 . 5 . 2.1.1.1.1.5. 5.2.1.1 . 2 . 5 . 2.1.2. 5.2 . 1.2.1. 5.2.1.2.2. 5 . 2.1.2.2.1. 5.2.1.2.2.2 . 5 . 2.1.2.3. 5.2.1.2.4. 5.2.1.2.5. 5.2 . 1.2.5.1. 5 . 2.1.2 . 5.2.

Verb roots Root-initial al ternation Al ternation class membership Exemplification Root alternation and redupl ication Root-final alternation Alternation class membership Exemplification Verb phrase head Verb phrase inflection Inflectional prefixes Subject-mood marking The semantics of mood Rea1is Imperative Non-anticipatory moods Potential Prohibitive Anticipatory moods Immediate Distant Mood marking in subordinate clauses Negative marking Inflectional suffixes Bound pronominal objects Object cross-reference Proper objects Common objects The partitive Co-occurrence restrictions on inflectional suffixes Asymmetry in inflectional suffixes Object cross-reference suffixes First person singular objects

95 96 98 99 100 100 100 101 103 104 106 III

114 114 115 115 116 116 115 116 116 118 118 118 121 123 126 126 128 128 128 129 129 129 131 132 133 133 133 134 135 136 137 138 140 142 142 143 143 143 144 144 145 145 146

vii Page 5.2.1.2.5.3. 5.2. 2. 5 . 2 . 2 . 1. 5.2.2.1.1. 5 . 2 . 2 . 1.2 . 5 . 2. 2. 2 . 5 . 2. 2 . 2 . 1. 5.2. 2. 2. 2. 5.2.2.2.3. 5.2.2.3. 5 . 2. 2 . 3 . 1. 5.2.2.3.2. 5 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 3. 5.2.2.4. 5.2.3. 5.2.3.1. 5.2.3.1.1. 5.2.3.1.2. 5.2.3.1.3. 5.2.3.1.4. 5.2. 3.1.5. 5.2.3.1.6. 5.2 . 3 . 2 . 5.2.3.3. 5.3. 5.3.1. 5.3.1.1. 5.3.1.2. 5.3.1.3. 5.3.1.3.1. 5.3.2. 5.3. 2 . 1. 5 . 3 . 2.2 . 5.3.2.3.

CHAPTER VI :

The suf fix -tei Verbal derivation Prefixation Haa- TIMES Ma- STAT Suff ixation -tu DEST Residual transitive suffixes -ni TR Reduplication Non-specific setting/patient function Numeral distributive function Di stribution of reduplication patterns Compounding Minor classes of verbs Root irregularities Kani ' eat/burn ' Risi ' return' Mai , maa , miitaa Haa , hinaa , hiitaa Numeral verbs Interrogative verbs Prefix irregularities Pref ix-root fusion Adjuncts Tightly bound adjuncts Adj ectives Prepositions Verbs Reanalysis of verbal adjuncts as loosely bound Loosely bound adjuncts Copular constructions Modifier adjuncts Cognate obj ects

6.1.1.3. 6.1.2. 6 . 1.2.1. 6.1.2.2. 6.1.2.2.1. 6.1.2. 2. 2. 6.1.2.2.3. 6.1.2.3.

168 169 169 172 173 175

THE CLAUSE

6.1. 6.1.1. 6.1.1.1. 6.1.1.2. 6.1.1.2.1. 6.1.1.2.2.

146 148 148 148 149 149 149 150 151 152 152 154 154 155 156 156 156 156 157 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 164 165

The declarative clause Nominal phrase relationships Nuclear relationships Non-nuclear relationships P repositionally marked relationships Relationships expressed by bound nominal phrases Relationships involving location nouns Mapping of structural relationships onto semantic roles Subj ects Obj ects Verbs without suffixes Re sidual transitive suffixes Reanalysis of eni Non-nuclear relationships

175 175 176 181 181 184 184 186 187 190 190 191 192 195

viii Page 6.1.2.3.1. 6. 1.2.3.2. 6.1.2.3.2.1. 6 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 2. 2. 6.1.2.3.3. 6.1.2.3.3.1. 6.1.2.3.3.2. 6.1.3. 6.1.3.1. 6. 1.3.2. 6 . 1.3.2.1. 6 . 1. 3 . 2.2. 6.1.3.2.3. 6.2. 6.2.1. 6.2.1.1. 6 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1. 6.2.1.1.2. 6.2.1.1.3. 6.2.1.1.4. 6.2.1.2. 6.2.2.

Prepositionally marked relationships Relationships expressed by bound nominal phrases Social control Subordinate possess ion Overlap Social control Subordinate possession Modifier relationships Clause-level modifiers Phrase-level modifiers Aspectual modifiers Deictic modifiers Non-deictic bound modifiers Non-declarative speech acts Interrogatives Yes/no questions Intonation questions Opposite polarity questions Tag que stions Opposite polarity tag questions Content questions Interjections

195 210 211 216 219 219 220 221 221 222 224 226 229 237 238 239 240 240 241 241 242 243

APPENDICES : APPENDIX A : APPENDIX B : APPENDIX C :

PAAMESE NUMERALS 1-60 BASIC LEXICON ILLUSTRATIVE TEXT

245 247 260 265

BIBLIOGRAPHY MAPS : Hap 1 : Map 2 : Map 3 :

Location of Vanuatu in the South-west Pac ific Vanuatu Paama and Lopevi

2 3 4

DIAGRAMS : Diagram 1 : Diagram 2 :

Eastern Oceanic subgrouping Paamese vowel reali sations

8 17

TABLES : Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9: 10 : 11: 12 :

Paamese consonant inventory Paamese vowel inventory Summary of rule ordering Nominal subc lasses Location nouns relating to speaker and addressee Verb subclasses Basic motion verbs Paamese pronouns Pronominal number distinctions Paamese pronominal suffixes Gender-marking possessive suffixes Corresponding free and bound form nouns

12 16 43 59 62 69 71 80 81 104 107 110

ix Page Table 13 : Table 14 : Table 15 : Table 16 : Table 17 : Table Table Table Table Table

18 : 19 : 20 : 21 : 22 :

Table Table Table Table

23 : 24 : 25 : 26 :

Verb root-initial alternation Distribution of verb root forms according to morphosyntactic environment Distr ibution of consonant-initial roots between verb classes Verb root-final alternations Distribution of verb root forms according to morphosyntactic environment Exemplification of root-final alternations Sub j ect-marking prefixes Di stant prefixes Paamese mood categories Subordinate clause mood marking according to main clause mood/polarity marking Ob j ect cross-referencing on the verb Nominal case markers Basic meaning-form correlations at the clause level Yes/no question types

119 119 122 127 127 128 129 130 131 139 146 182 196 239

ACKNOWL E DGEMENTS The completion of this study is of course not only the result of my own hard work . It is the product of the hard work and c o -operation of many . Above all , my sincerest gratitude goes to the people of the island of Paama in Vanuatu . Not only for al lowing me to stay on your island , but for encouraging me to come back ( and back and back) . For adopting me as one of your own , for teaching me something about what it means to be Paamese , and for teaching me to speak your language , such as I managed to learn i t . There are many i n particular I should thank . To the people of Tahal Nesa village : you welcomed an unannounced and nervous stranger , and we found it hard to part . I t was a fantastic twelve months . And to the people of Liro : you persuaded me I could dispense with Bislama . People who worked as language­ helpers , such as Jack Mak i , Avok Aru and Joel Solomon - many thanks . And also to the many story-tellers from all over Paama , too numerous to mention by name . And I must say thank you to the fami lies of Avok Aru , Joel Solomon and Walter Anson , for adopting me as a son , and allowing me to earn my keep . But maybe most of all , I thank people like Mael Gideon , Siti Wilson , Mael Ham , Odil Morris , Joel Morris and all the other ' Tahal Ne sa boys ' - we sure had some good times together . Lok sak ras vabobongin kamitel vasi . And there are others . Like Sister Alison Todd , formerly of the Liro Clinic , who helped get me started , and saved me from a few faux pas. M. et Mme . Bilot de Lehili , de leur hospitalite , leur cuisine fran �aise et leur tol e rance de mon mauvai s fran �ais . Jean-Michel Charpentier , formerly of the Cul tural Centre in Vila , for first introducing me to the Paamese in Vi la . And Kirk Huffman and Jack Keitadi , also of the Cultural Centre , for help in distributing published Paamese stories to the Paamese . I thank Darrell Tryon for pointing me Paama-wards in the f irst place , and f inally (but not least importantly ) , Bill Foley , Bob Dixon , Harold Koch , John Lynch , Ray Cattell , Andy Pawley and Laurie Reid for reading drafts and suggesting revisions to this study . Despite the effort that has been put into making this study of the Paamese language , I recognise , and feel somewhat guilty about the fact that this work will be of l ittle interest to anybody but the professional linguis t . I could imagine the Paamese themselves seeing l ittle benefit in such a work except for the perhaps rather ethereal fact that an outsider has taken interest in ' them ' . The Paamese people themselves repeatedly stated when I was on Paama that they would like to see in permanent written form a body of Paamese literature . Part of my f ieldwork technique involved the recording on tape of stories in Paamese ,

x

xi both traditional and modern , serious and not so serious . S ince the adult population of Paama is overwhelmingly literate in Paamese , I felt obliged to make sure that the present work was not the only published material to appear as a result of my research . Consequently , in 1980 the Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies published in their Oral His tory series (Volume 8, No . 3 ) a fairly long collection of Paamese stories ( in Paamese , with short Engl ish translations) , and the USP Centre of Vila is currently publishing a second collection of stories .

ABBRE V I AT I ONS

abl

ablative

dist

di stant deixis

add

additional

dl

dual

adj

adj ectivaliser

dom

domestic

alv

alveolar

E

English

ar . dat

areal dative

ed

edible

art

article

em

emotion

C

consonant

excl

exclusive

caus

causal

ext

extreme

cert

certain

fern

feminine

cl

clause divider

Fr

French

comm

common

G

gl ide

comp

completive

imm

immediate

comp . fm

compounding form

imp

imperative

compar

comparative

incl

inclusive

const

construct suf fix

inst

instrumental

cop

copula

indef

indefinite

dest

destination

leg

legal

dir

direction

loc

location

dis

distant mood

man

manipulative

xii masc

masculine

Q

question

neg

negative

real

real is

neg . exp

negative expectation

rec

recent completive

nom

nominal iser

reDUP

non-sg

non-singular

final two syl l able redupl ication

NP

nominal phrase

REdup

obj

obj ect

initial syl lable redupl ication

obl

REDUp

obl ique

initial two syl lable redupl ication

obl ig

obligation

ref

referential

obv

obvious

rel

relative

ong

ongoing

rep

repetition

part

partitive/ particularising

sg

singular

sp

pc l

paucal

spatial

stat

stative

pl

plural

sub

Port

Portuguese

subsequent/ subordinator

poss

possessive nominal

tr

transitiviser

pot

potential/potable

tru

truth

prep

prepos ition

V

vowel

prop

proper

1

f irst person

prox

proximate deixis

2

second person

pun . dat

punctual dative

3

third person

purp

purposive

Crowley, T. The Paamese language of Vanuatu. B-87, xii + 280 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-B87.cover ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 .

Geograph i c background

The Republic o f Vanuatu is located in the middle of a triangle formed by drawing a l ine between the Solomon Islands , New Caledonia and F i j i in the south­ west Pacific ( see map 1 ) . Vanuatu has a population of approximately 100 , 000 , which is predominantly dispersed throughout a large number of rural villages . There are only two urban centre s , the capital Vi la (population approx . 17 , 50 0 ) and Santo (population approx . 5 , 000) , i n which the seven o r eight thousand non-indigenous Europeans , Chinese , Vietnamese and other Pacific I sland people mainly l ive . Paama is one of the smallest populated islands in the country , and is located approximately hal f-way along the chain between the larger islands o f Epi and Ambrym ( see map 2 ) . The island itse l f is only about ten ki lometres from north to south and four kilometres from east to we st . It i s very hilly , with a range of hills ris ing to almost 550 m running the entire length of the is land . The total population on the island is about 2 , 000 , which is dispersed through twenty smal l villages concentrated mainly along the less rugged western side ( see map 3 ) . (However , there are an additional 2 , 000 Paamese residing temporarily off the island in the work centres of Vila , Santo and Noumea , and in various copra plantations throughout the country . ) The neighbouring is land o f Lopevi ( see map 3 ) , j ust over f ive kilometre s from Paama , is a n active volcano rising t o over 1 , 40 0 m . There were original ly also three Paame se- speaking vil lages on thi s island with a popUlation total l ing about 150 . The volcano has a history of violent and unpredictable eruption , the last of which took place in the early 1960 ' s . The entire population decided to shift to Ngala on the east coast of Epi , where they now remain and maintain their language .

1.2.

Outl i ne of recent h i story

The first sustained contacts between Europeans and ni-Vanuatu began in the first half of the nineteenth century with the beginning of the sandalwood trade . The first missionaries followed immediately afterwards , evangelising first in the south , and reaching Efate by the middle of the century . The islands in the north were evangelised between then and the end of the century .

1 Crowley, T. The Paamese language of Vanuatu. B-87, xii + 280 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-B87.1 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

2

" K IRIBATI •

PAPUA

NEW

NAURU •

GUINEA

.J

"-

SOLOMON " -- \ ISLANDS . , " , •

VANUATU NEW

TUVALU

•

I t is of course pos sible that a yes/no que stion may receive a response in terms of a morpheme belonging to one of the lexical clas ses described in chapter three . The answer could be for example , one of the fol lowing : Neda i n ge i n gen i n a+da i ng e i n g e+n i +e l sg . real . ignorant . tr . 3 sg 'I don ' t know '

Vahera vaheraa perhaps 'Perhaps '

There are , in addition , some non-linguistic responses frequently used to answer yes/no questions . These are to be considered non-l ingui stic in that they contain segments or intonation patterns not characteristic of any other part of the language . These particular responses are : � ? a ? a

kaa vuo (a ) I don ' t know the answer the answer is so obvious or so embarrasing that no answer will be given

There are four yes/no question structures , each expre s sing the particular attitude of the speaker towards the information being reque sted . Table 26 summarises thi s situation :

TAB L E 26 : Yes/no q u e s t i o n types expectation of truth

desire for truth

-

-

opposite polarity que stion

-

+

tag question

+

-

opposite polarity tag question

+

+

intonation question

240

6.2.1 .1 .1 .

I ntonati on questions

Thi s kind of question h a s the identical constituent order to the corre­ sponding statement , and i s from the statement only in its intonation . The basic intonation of a statement involves a general low ( i . e . neutral ) pitch , with a fall at the end . Thus :

An

�

---------------------

base level --

intonation question however involves a higher pitch , with a sharp rise , and then a fall at the end . Thus :

--------------------�

base level

(These intonation patterns are impre ssionistically rather than empirically determined . This intonational marking of questions of course differs from the Eng l i sh yes/no interrogative intonation pattern , which does not have the final fall after the rise . ) Yes/no questions expressed intonationally are completely neutral with respect to the expectation of the speaker of the truth of the in formation he is a sking about , and to the desire of the speaker for either a positive or a negative response . Thus : Kova ta i ? koo+vaa=te i 2 sg . real . go . comp 'Had you a lready gone ? ' (The que stion mark is used to represent the interrogative intonation just de scribed when there is no other marker of interrogation in the clause . )

6.2.1 .1 . 2.

Oppos i te pol ari ty quest i on s

When the speaker does not want to predetermine the response as either positive or negative , but does nevertheless hope that the response is positive , the question asked is in negative polarity , with the same interrogative intonation as just described . This does not mean that the question necessarily has to be formally negative ( i . e . containing the negative prefix ro- as described in 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) , only that it be semantical ly negative . Thus : K i rongan i a d e i ma u k i + ro+ngan i =a n i + t e i =ma u 2 sg . di s . neg . REDup . eat . part . pr . ev ' Won ' t you have something to eat

nama l ? n+aama l i loc .meeting house first in the meeting house ? '

ma t e l a s i n i ? i s e l tov u e l Onom ono+mo i s e l e tovu e l i ma+t e l a s i +n i +e pos s . man . 2 sg broom 3 sg . real . no t exist l sg . imm . sweep . tr . 3 sg 'Don ' t you have a broom for me to sweep with ? ' Thi s is the normal pol ite way of asking permis sion , as the response is not presupposed , though the desire of the speaker is sti l l expressed .

241 6.2.1 .1 .3.

Tag questi ons

The so-cal led tag question i s expressed b y simply adding the tag aa after the dec larative form of the c lause . The tag has a sharply ri sing intonation , fol lowing a c lause with a normal statement intonation . This kind of interrogative utterance is used when the speaker expects that the response will be in agreement with the information inc luded in the question . There is no expres sion of any desire on the part of the speaker for a particular response however , e . g . a? Ka i k ko tahos aa ka i ko ko+tahos i 2 sg 2 sg . real . good Q 'You 're good, aren ' t you ? '

6 . 2 . 1 . 1 .4.

Koromunaude i a? ko+ro+mu u n a u n e+ t e i aa 2 sg . real . neg . s tupid . part Q 'You 're not s tupid, are you ? '

Oppo s i te pol a r i ty tag questi ons

When the speaker is included in the question , the opposite polarity tag ways in which this can be in meaning .

expecting a response that agrees with the information and when that response is a lso a desired response , question construction is used . There is a number of expres sed , apparently with no apprec iable difference

Firstly , the que stion can be asked with ri sing intonation (without the final fal l as described above) with the disjunction vuo ( o ) /vuo l i , which is followed by the ques tioned material in the opposite polarity to the first occurrence . Thus : Kiha vue k i rova t e i ? vuo ( o ) k i + ro+vaa+t e i k i i +haa 2 sg . dis . go or 2 sg . dis . neg . go . part ' Wi l l you go or not ? ' In the disjunctive part of the que stion , only the verb is repeated , and not its assoc iated arguments except where they are obligatory . Thus : KT h a L i ro vue k i rov a t e i ? 1 i i roo vuo ( o ) k i + ro+vaa+t e i k i i +haa 2 sg . dis . neg . go . part 2 sg . di s . go Liro or ' Wi l l you go to Liro or not ? ' Secondly , the tag can be expressed by the interrogative verb of manner mukavee 'how ' , e . g . hemu kave? vuO Kiha vuo ( o ) he+mu kavee k i i +haa 2 sg . di s . go or 3 sg . di s . how ' Wi l l you go or not ? ' Final ly , the disjunction vuo ( o ) /vuo l i can follow the basic form of the clause with a level intonation ( rather than a falling intonation as in statement final position ) e . g . vue? KT ha vuo ( o ) k i i +haa 2 sg . di s . go or ' wi l l you go or not ? '

242

6.2.1 .2.

Content questions

This type of que stion requires that the addressee give some specific l inguistic information to the speaker . Content questions are expressed by us ing special interrogative constituents in the syntactic slot which would be occupied by the constituent about which information is being sought . Inter­ rogative constituents can either be nominal , verbal or numeral . Interrogative nominals inc lude the fol lowing : a sa a

' asking about nouns with non-human reference '

i se i

' asking about nouns with human reference '

kavee

' asking about location nouns , or which of a number of non-human nouns '

nenga i s e

' asking about time nouns '

Note that there is a second interrogative of place derived from kavee by redupl ication of the initial CV- , of the form kekavee , which asks about location in a general area (whereabouts ) rather than in a specific place . The inter­ rogative kavee also has the specific optional c l itic form - vee when it is used to expre ss the allative , but not when it is used locatively or ablatively . Some examples of interrogative clauses including these constituents are given below : nenga i s ? KTma i r i s nenga i s e k i i +ma i = r i s i 2sg . dis . come . rep when 'When wil l you come back ? '

Koga ko+gaa 2 sg . real . trave l 'Whereabouts do

kekave? kekavee whereabouts you come from? '

( Human names are regarded as having human reference and non-human names non­ human reference for the purposes of interrogation . Thus : i se i ? I sen i s e+ne i se i name . 3 sg who ' What 's his/her name ? '

asa? I s en a saa i s e+ne name 3 sg what 'What 's its name ? ' ) .

The interrogative nominal forms asaa , i s e i and kavee can modify nouns , asking which particular one of a set . The form asaa in this construction appears as the clitic - saa and the form i se i optionally appears as - s e i ( 6 . 1 . 3 . 2 . ) , e.g. kaye aut a u t e kavee p lace where 'which place ? '

s l v sa s i i v i =saa ship . what 'which ship ? ' ..

mo l a t i n s e i mo l a t i n e s e i person . who 'which person ? ' =

(Note that kavee can also fol low a personal name to ask which of a number of different people by the same name , e . g . S i t i kaye s i t i i kaye Siti where 'which Siti ? ' )

243 There are four interrogative verbs : h i se

' asking about numeral verbs '

muka vee

' asking about stative verbs , or the manner in which an action is performed '

kosaa

' asking about actions expressed as intrans itive verbs '

ko se i n i

' asking about actions expres sed as transitive verbs '

(Note that the verbs ko saa and kos e i n i are irregular . See 5 . 2 . 3 . 1 . 6 . ) The form muka vee has a formally similar form mukeka vee expre ssing 'however ' rather than just 'how ' . Thus : Ra i s gosa 7 ra i s e gosaa rioe 3 sg . real . do what 'How is the rioe getting on ? ' Mosa n i ma+saan i +e l sg . imm . give . 3 sg 'How many wi l l I

N i sa k i n i hemu keka ve? n i +s a k i +n i +e he+mu kekavee l sg . di s . do . tr . 3 sg 3 sg . di s . however 'However wil l I do it? '

Ava se i n i 7 vah i s 7 a+va+a se i n i +e va+h i se 3 sg . imm . how many 3pl . imm . do what . 3 sg give ? ' ' Wha t is to be done about it ? '

F inally , we have the interrogative h i s e used to ask about numeral s , e . g . Mo l a t i n eh i s 7 mo l a t i ne eh i s e person how many 'How many people are there ? ' ( Note that the numeral interrogative eh i se and the verbal interrogative h i s e are semantically equivalent . )

6.2.2.

I n terj ec t i on s

I t i s dif ficult to b e sure just what kind o f performative analysis we could propose that would account for any common semantic facts concerning inter j ec tions . Interj ections constitute a spec ial kind of speech act on the basis of the fact that they do not require an addressee ( though usually there is one) , and in that they do not elicit any response , either l inguistic or non-l inguistic , or pass on information to the addre ssee when there is one . Rather , they are nothing more than automatic , emotional responses to some kind of situation . Interj ec tions can be divided structurally into two type s . Firstly , there are those interj ections that have no independent meaning or structure of their own , and are used in spec i fic k inds of c ircumstances . On the other hand , there are those that may comprise either words , phrases or even complete utterances , with independent meanings of the ir own and not used in any spec ific c ircumstances . Interj ections of this kind generally express concepts considered vulgar or obscene , and perhaps constitute a distinct speech act , within the more general speech act of interj ec tions , i . e . swearing . The non-structured inter jections used in spec ific situations that are known are l i sted below , with the c ircumstances that will elicit that particular form :

244 e kove i a u ee ha i n e u e { i na u ) ei a i oo e s u u /es u re ohove

e kove i aue ha i n ue { i na u ) ei aio esu { r ) ohov

, ,

sudden surprise or amazement amused surprise mild surprise mild disfavour or sorrow general surprise physical pleasure mild surprise and disbelief maximum exertion is being put into an effort

Those inter j ections which have non-interj ectional meanings also have extra force s imply because of this non-interjectional meaning , and are considered to be di stinct from all other speech acts in that soc ial tabus regulate when and in the company of whom they may be used . Swearing in Paamese is an extremely produc tive proces s , new constructions being made up according to the speaker ' s own sense of humour . Swearing usually involve s genital and excretory concepts , espec ially for foreskin ( though expl icitly copulatory swearing i s not indulged in except in Bislama ) , as well as some animal s that are considered to be particularly ugly and repulsive . Swearing can also be mild or severe , and often one word wil l be used for another if they have the same initial segments or syllable ( though both are stil l cons idered to be swearing) . (The conf idence of the Paamese concerning swearing was gained by the writer promising not to make public any spec ific examples . Hence the lack of exempl ification in this section . )

APP E N D I X A PAAMESE NUMERALS 1 -60 The system underlying the Paamese counting system is presented in 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . For reference , I have included in this appendix , the numbers one to sixty . 1

Ui i

taa i

2

el u

e l ua

3

etel

e te l u

4

eha t

eha t i

5

el im

e l i ma

6

l a h i Ui i

l a h i = taa i

7

l au l u

l a u + l ua

8

l a u te l

l a u+t e l u

9

l auhat

l a u+ha t i

10

ha l ua l i m

haa l ua l i me

11

un

dan ta i

taa i dana taa i

12

Ui i d a n e l u

taa i dana e l ua

13

Ul i dan e t e l

taa i dana e te l u

14

U i i dan ehat

taa i dana eha t i

15

t a i dan el i m

taa i dana el i ma

16

ta i dan l a h i ta i

taa i dana l a h i = taa i

17

t a i dan l au l u

taa i dana l a u + l ua

18

ta i d a n 1 a u t e l

taa i dana l a u+t e l u

19

t a i dan l a u h a t

taa i dano 1 au+ha t i

20

hanu mau

hanuu ma u

21

ha n u s a y ta i

ha n u u sava taa i

22

hanu s a y e l u

hanuu sava e l ua

23

hanu s a y e t e l

hanuu sava e t e l u

245

246

24

h a n u sav eha t

hanuu savo eha t i

25

h a n u sav e l i m

h a n u u savo e l i ma

26

han u sav l a h i ta i

h a n u u savo l a h i = taa i

27

hanu sav l a u l u

hanuu savo l a u + l ua

28

h a n u sav l a u t e l

hanuu savo l a u + t e l u

29

ha n u sav l a u h a t

hanuu savo l a u+ha t i

30

ha n u sav ha l ua l i m

h a n u u savo ha a l u a l i me

31

h a n u s a v ta i d a n t a i

hanuu savo taa i dane taa i

32

h a n u sav t a i d a n e l u

h a n u u savo taa i dane e l ua

33

h a n u sav ta i dan e t e l

han u u savo taa i dane e t e l u

34

h a n u s a v ta i d a n eha t

ha n u u savo taa i dane eha t i

35

h a n u sav ta i dan e l i m

hanuu savo taa i dane e l i ma

36

hanu sav ta i dan l a h i ta i

h a n u u savo taa i d a ne l a h i = taa i

37

h a n u sav ta i d a n l a u l u

hanuu savo taa i dane l a u + l u a

38

h a n u sav ta i dan l a u t e l

ha n u u savo taa i dane l a u+te l u

39

ha n u s a v ta i d a n l a u h a t

hanuu savo taa i dane l a u+ha t i

40

hanu mau el u

hanuu ma u e l ua

41

h a n u ma u e l u h a n u sav ta i

hanuu ma u e l ua h a n u u savo taa i

42

h a n u ma u e l u hanu sav e l u

h a n u u ma u e l ua hanuu savo e l ua

43

h a n u ma u e l u hanu sav e t e l

h a n u u ma u e l ua hanuu savo e t e l u

44

h a n u mau e l u hanu s a v ehat

hanuu ma u e l ua hanuu savo eha t i

45

h a n u mau e l u hanu sav e l i m

hanuu ma u e l ua h a n u u savo e l i ma

46

h a n u ma u e l u hanu sav l a h i ta i

hanuu ma u e l ua hanuu savo l a h i = taa i

47

hanu ma u e l u hanu sav l a u l u

ha n u u mau e l ua hanuu savo l a u + l ua

48

ha n u ma u e l u hanu sav l a u t e l

hanuu ma u e l ua hanuu s a vo l a u+t e l u

49

ha n u ma u e l u hanu sav l a uha t

hanuu ma u e l ua hanuu savo l a u +ha t i

50

ha n u ma u e l u h a n u sav ha l ua l i m

ha n u u ma u e l ua h a n u u savo haa l ua l i me

51

h a n u ma u e l u h a n u sav ta i dan ta i

hanuu ma u e l ua hanuu savo taa i dane taa i

52

h a n u ma u e l u hanu sav ta i dan el u

hanuu ma u e l ua ha n u u savo taa i dane e l ua

53

h a n u ma u e l u hanu sav ta i dan etel

hanuu ma u e l ua hanuu savo taa i dane ete l u

54

h a n u ma u e l u hanu s a v ta i dan eha t

h a n u u ma u e l ua hanuu savo taa i dane eha t i

55

h a n u ma u e l u hanu sav ta i dan el im

ha n u u ma u e l ua hanuu savo taa i dane el i ma

56

h a n u ma u e l u hanu sav ta i dan l a h i ta i

ha n u u ma u e l ua ha n u u savo taa i dane l a h i = taa i

247 57

ha n u ma u e l u h a n u sav ta i d a n l au l u

h a n u u ma u e l ua h a n u u savo taa i dano l a u + l ua

58

ha n u ma u e l u ha n u sav ta i dan l au te l

h a n u u ma u e l ua h a n u u savo taa i d a no l au+t e l u

59

h a n u ma u e l u hanu sav ta i dan l a uhat

h a n u u ma u e l ua h a n u u savo taa i dano l a u +ha t i

60

h a n u ma u e t e l

h a n u u ma u e te l u

APP E N D I X B BAS I C L E X I CON The following lexicon of approximately four hundred items contains forms that might be of interest to comparative l inguists ( including those who may want to use the material for a lexicostatistical analysis ) . This l i st should be regarded as an updated version of the l i st in Tryon ( 1976) . It is hoped that a more comprehensive Paamese lexicon will be published at a later date . All forms below are entered in their underlying forms , as described in 2 . 4 . Accompanying each , in brackets , is a surface form , to make for ease of comparison between this list and that of Tryon . The following particular points should be noted about the surface forms that are given however : (i)

Verbs are quoted i n the third person singular rea1is form ( 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) .

( ii)

Transitive verbs are quoted with a third person singular bound obj ect (5.2.1.2.1.) .

( ii i ) Suffixed nouns are quoted with a third person singular pronominal posses sor ( 4 . 2 . 3 . 1 . ) . ( iv )

Linked nouns are quoted with the indefinite l inked noun i t ee ( 4 . 2 . 2 . ) .

All other roots are capable of standing independently , and are therefore given in their free surface forms . Information relating to form class is restricted to noting nouns ( n ) , transitive verbs ( tr . vb ) , intransitive verbs ( intr . vb ) and other minor classes such as adj ectives ( adj ) . Unmarked nouns are free form common nouns ( 3 . 1 . 4 . 5 . 1 . ) . Marked nominal categories are either suffixed nouns ( suff . n . 3 . 1 . 4 . 5 . 2 . 1 . ) , l inked noun ( l ink . n . 3 . 1 . 4 . 5 . 2 . 2 . ) , indef inite nominal s ( indef . n . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) , descriptive nouns ( desc . n . 3 . 1 . 4 . 4 . ) , time nouns ( time . n . 3 . 1 . 4 . 3 . ) or location nouns ( loc . n . 3 . 1 . 4 . 2 . ) . The root-initial al ternation c lass membership for verbs is represented by the Roman numeral in brackets ( 5 . 1 . 1 . ) and the rootfinal alternation class by an Arabic numeral in brackets ( 5 . 1 . 2 . ) . Accompanying each form is an English glos s . (Note that some forms are given Bislama transl ations where there is no simple English equivalent , or where the Bislama term is the one most commonly used , even in Engl ish . Refer to Guy ( 1 9 7 5 ) and Camden ( 19 7 7 ) for a discussion of these meaning s . ) This l i st i s arranged alphabetically , with ng being alphabeti sed before n .

248 Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

aahe

{ah }

garden

n. ( comp . fm . ah e )

aa i

{a i }

tree

n . ( comp . fm . a i )

aa l e

(a I )

nangkaZat tree

n . ( comp . fm . a l e )

aama l i

{ ama l }

nakamaZ (meeting house )

n.

aav i

{av}

firewood

n . ( comp . fm . av i )

ahaa

{ahan }

brain

suff . n .

ahaa i

{ a ha i }

stingray

n . ( comp . fm . ha a i )

aha l e

{ a ha 1 }

shooting coconut

n . (comp . fm . ha l e )

ahango

{ a hang }

fire

n . ( comp . fm . hango)

ahatu

{ a ha t }

stone

n. ( comp . fm . ha t u )

ah i e

{ah i }

nakavika tree (MaZay appZe)

n . ( comp . fm . h i e )

ah i l e

{ah i 1 }

"lightning

n.

a h i ne

{a h i n }

fema Ze

desc . n .

ah i s i

{a h i s }

1 . banana 2 . ringworm

n . ( comp . fm . h i s i ) n . ( comp . fm. h i s i )

ah i su

{ ah i s }

bow

n . ( comp . fm . h i s u )

ahue

{ahu }

turtZe

n . ( comp . fm . h u e )

aie

{a i }

fish

n . ( comp . fm . i e )

a i ma s i

{ a i ma s }

nakaemas spirit

n.

a i mo

{a im}

house

n . ( comp . fm . i mo )

ai si 1u

{a i s i l i n }

dorsum

suff . n .

akio

{ak i }

do Zphin

n.

a l aa

{a 1 a }

sail-

n.

a l an g i

{ a l ang }

wind

n . ( comp . fm . 1 a n g i )

a l ango

{ a l ang }

fZy

n . ( comp . fm . l a ngo)

a l au

{a l au }

coast

loc . n . ( comp . fm . l a u )

ale

(al )

trochus

n.

a l eh i s e

{a l e h i s }

centipede

n.

al i

{mua 1 }

waZk

intr . vb (V)

a l oko

{al ok}

Zap Zap (pudding)

n . ( comp . fm. l oko )

a l umu l u

{a l umu l }

earthquake

n.

ama l o

{ ama l }

1 . hunger 2 . reef

n. n.

ama n u

{ama n }

bird

n . ( comp . fm . ma n u )

249

Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

ama t i

( ama t )

tide

n . ( comp . fm . ma t i )

amo l i

(amo I )

orange

n . ( comp . fm . mo I i )

amo t i

( amo t )

snake

n.

amu re

( amu r )

body fat

n.

amu s i

( amu s )

dirty person

desc . n .

a namu

(anam)

mosquito

n.

anatu

(ana t )

nandunde tree

n . ( comp . fm . n a t u )

a n i +ene

( a n i en )

food

n.

ani i

(an i )

green coconut

n . (comp . fm . n i i )

a ra a

(a ra)

nandau tree ("lychee)

n . ( comp . fm . r a a )

a rong i

( a rong )

coconut leaf mat

n . ( comp . fm . ron g i )

a ru l i

(a ru I )

ear

wax

n.

a r um i

(a rum)

bi lge water

n.

a s eme

( a sem)

outrigger

n.

as io

(as i )

kingfisher

n . ( comp . fm . s i 0 )

a soo

( a sOn )

spouse

suff . n .

asue

(asu)

rat

n.

a s u vo

(asuv)

chief

n . ( comp . fm . s uvo)

a t ano

(a tan )

ground

n . ( comp . fm . tano)

a ta s i

(atas)

sea

n . ( comp . fm . t a s i )

a t eh i

( a t eh )

sugarcane

n . ( comp . fm . teh i )

a te l i i

(atel i )

pandanus basket

n.

a t i nu

(at i n )

island cabbage

n . ( comp . fm . t i n u )

a too

( a to )

chicken

n . ( comp . fm . too)

a t uvo

(a tuv )

arrow

n.

a tu vo l o

( a t u vo l )

coconut leaf basket

n.

auhu

(auh)

yam

n.

au l e

(au I )

crayfish

n.

au l a

(au I )

maggot

n.

ausa

(au s )

rain

n . ( comp . fm . u s a )

aute

(au t)

p lace

n . ( comp . fm . u te )

autu

(au t )

louse

n . ( comp . fm . u t u )

250 Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

ava t i o

( a va t i )

moon

n.

ave

( aven )

body

suff . n .

aveka

(avek )

banyan tree

n . (comp . fm . veka )

av i o

( av i )

wild cane

n . ( comp . fm . v i 0 )

avon g i

( avon g )

time

n.

avue

( avu )

grandparent

n.

avu l i

(avu 1 )

cooking ho le

n.

bobong i n i

( bobong i n i )

forge t

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

dem i

(mudem i )

think about

tr . vb . (V , 4 )

ea l o

( ea 1 )

l . sunshine 2 . oak tree

n . ( comp . fm . a l 0) n.

ea s e

( ea s )

chestnut

n . ( comp . fm . a s e )

ea s u

( ea s )

smoke

n.

eau

( ea u )

1 . bamboo 2 . knife

n . ( comp . fm . a u ) n.

e i voroh u s e

(e i vo roh u s )

bush

n.

haa

(va)

go

intr . vb . ( IV)

haa l i

(va 1 i )

sharpen

tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

h a a s u a l eve

( h a s u a l ev )

thumb

n.

ha i

( ha i t e ) (va i )

l.

fruit 2 . weave

l ink . n . tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

ha i ho

(ha i h )

pandanus

n.

ha i n i i n i a s e

( ha i n i n i a s )

kidney

n.

ha i va u l e

( h a i vau l )

ank le

n.

ha n e

( va n )

shoot, copulate

intr . vb . ( IV)

hanuu

(hanu )

person

n.

ha s u

( va s )

give birth

intr . vb . ( IV)

251 Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

hat i

( va t i )

want, l ike

tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

hau l u e

(hau l u )

many, much

indef . n .

hauo

(hau )

hiU

n.

ha u s i

(vaus i )

carry on shoulders

tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

ha v i v i i

( h av i v i )

sma l l ( sg . )

adj .

havunga I i i

( h avunga I i )

cicada

n.

hee

(hen )

hand, foo t

suff . n .

he l a s i

(vel a s i )

step on

tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

hengan i

( henga n ) ( v engan i )

l.

bait 2 . feed

n. tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

hera l e

( v e ra l )

s tuck

intr . vb . ( IV)

hi isi

(vis i )

ask

tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

h i i taa

(vi ta)

go down

intr . vb . ( IV)

hi lei

(v i l e i )

grind

tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

hi I es i

( v i l es )

turn around

intr . vb . ( IV)

h i l i + i +ve

{ h i l i ven )

skin

suff . n .

hi Iu

(v i I ) (h i I i n )

l . cough 2 . head hair

intr . vb . ( IV) suf f . n .

h i naa

( v i na )

go up

intr . vb . ( IV)

h i ree

( h i ren )

neck

suff . n .

h i so

(v i s )

shout

intr . vb . ( IV)

h i tea I i

( v i tea l )

laugh

intr . vb .

h i t en i

( v i t en i )

say

tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

h i tue

(h i tu)

s tar

n.

hol u

(vo I )

dance

intr . vb . ( IV)

ho raa

( h o ra n )

thigh

suff . n .

hu l i

(vu I i )

buy

tr . vb .

( IV , 4 )

hu l i i

(vu I i ) (huI i )

1 . count 2 . dog

tr . vb . n.

( IV , 4 )

hu l u e

(hu l u )

black palm

n.

hus i o

(hus i )

muscle

n.

h u ta

(vu t )

j ump

intr . vb . ( IV)

hu t i

(vut i )

abuse

tr . vb . ( IV , 4 )

h u u sa i

( v u sa i )

tip over

intr . vb . ( IV)

( IV)

252 Underlying Form

surface . Form

Gloss

Form Class

i dou

( i dou )

nandai tree

n.

i ng a a

( i n ga )

nangae (native almond)

n.

i ng i

( i ng i n ) ( i ngite)

l.

Up 2 . rim

suf f . n . l ink . n .

isi

(mi s )

weep

intr . vb . (V)

i se l e

( i se 1 )

broom

n.

i so

( i sen )

name

suff . n .

kaa

(mu ka ) (ga)

1 . jly 2 . different

intr . vb . (V) intr . vb . ( II )

kaa n e

(gan )

sharp

intr . vb . ( I I )

kaa s i

( ga s )

sweet

intr . vb . ( I I )

ka i ho

(ga i h )

hard, strong

intr . vb . ( I I )

ka l i

(muka l i )

scratch

tr . vb . (V , 4 )

kan i

(ngan i ) (ngan )

1 . eat 2 . burn

tr . vb . ( I I I , 4 ) intr . vb . ( I I I )

kas i

(gas i )

wash

tr . vb . ( I I , 4 )

ka t i

(ga t i )

bite

tr . vb . ( I I ; 4 )

kau

( ka u n )

side

suff . n .

kekave l u

( gekave 1 )

crooked

intr . vb . ( I I )

ke l aa

(ge l a )

crawl

intr . vb . ( I I )

ke ra=ke ra

( ke r a k e r )

scabies

n.

k i l el e

(g i l el a)

know

tr . vb . ( I I I , l )

ki 1 i

(g i I i )

dig

tr . vb . ( I I I , 4 )

ko i

(go i )

grate coconut

tr . vb . ( I I I , 4 )

kokoh i

( kokoh T t e )

foam

l ink . n .

ko l e

(gol e )

chase

tr . vb . ( I I I , 4 )

koon o

(gon )

bitter, saUy

intr . vb . ( I I )

kos a a

( kosa )

now, today

time . n .

ko tehe

( goteh )

c losed

intr . vb . ( I I I )

kou

(mukou )

skinny

intr . vb . (V)

kovan g e s e

( kova n g e s )

afternoon

time . n .

kove

(gove)

throw (something) at

tr . vb . ( II I , 4 )

ku l u

(gu 1 )

swim

intr . vb . ( I I )

253 Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

kum i

( g um i )

squeeze

tr . vb . ( I I , 4 )

ku r i

(gu r i )

take

tr . vb . ( I I , 4 )

ku r i I e

( ku r i I )

grasshopper

n.

ku ru

(gu r )

boil

intr . vb . ( I I )

l aa poo

( I i!i po )

fa U over

intr . vb . (VI )

l aa u

( I i!i u )

hunt

intr . vb . (VI )

l ah i

( I ah i )

oarry

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

l amu l i

( I amu l i t e )

body hair

l ink . n .

l amu l i +ve l a a so

( I umu l i ve l a s en )

beard

suff . n .

l an i

( I an)

day l ight

intr . vb . (VI )

I as i

( I a t te )

branoh

l ink . n .

l a se

( I a s en )

male genitalia

suff . n .

I at i

(mu l a t )

sting

intr . vb . (V)

l a t i no

( l at i n)

mother

suff . n .

l au

( I aute)

leaf

l ink . n .

l a u haa

( I auha )

lap lap leaf

n.

l ea to

( I ea t en )

l iver

suf f . n .

l ehe

( I ehe i )

pu U

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

l e i rumu = r umu

( l e i r umu rum)

whale

n.

I engas i

( I en g a s i )

roast meat

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

l es i

( I es i )

see

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

l e tau

( I e ta u )

woman

n.

I etau l i i

( I etau l i )

girl

n.

l evaue

( I evauen )

wing

suff . n .

Iii

( I he)

root

l ink . n .

I i i s el ese

( l i se l es )

a lways

time . n .

I i ng i

( I i ng i )

put, leave

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

I i teta i

( I i teta i )

young man

n.

10

( I en )

interior

suff . n .

l oho

( I oh )

run

intr . vb . (VI )

l oko=h i s i

( I okoh i s )

banana lap lap

n.

l onge

( I on g e )

hear, fee l

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

l on g o

( l on g )

s leepy

intr . vb . (VI )

254 Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

l oo s i I i

( l os i I i )

stare at

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

l uh i

( I u hi )

plant

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

l u ho

( I uhen )

tooth

suff . n .

l um i

( 1 um i )

fo ld

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

l uue

(mu l u )

vomit

intr . vb . (V)

maa

(ma )

come up

intr . vb . (VI )

ma a d e

(mad )

sweat

n.

maa h i

(ma h )

sore

intr . vb . (VI )

ma av i

(ma v )

gecko

n.

ma de

(ma d )

rotten (of wood)

intr . vb . (VI )

ma d i I i

(mad i I )

cold

intr . vb . (VI )

ma ho

(ma h )

healed (of sore )

intr . vb .

ma ho l a

( maho I )

torn

intr . vb . (VI )

ma h u =mahu

(mahuma h )

cloud

n.

ma l i k e l i ko

( ma l i ke I i k )

b lack

intr . vb . (VI )

ma l u

(ma I )

straight, correct

intr . vb . (VI )

ma i

(ma i )

come

intr . vb .

ma i I e

(ma i I )

lefthand side

loc . n .

ma i l e s i

(ma i I es )

nits

n.

ma l eme

(ma l em}

moon light

n.

ma l ou

(ma l ou )

kava

n.

manoono

(manon )

b lack flying fox

n.

man u e

( ma n u )

sore

n.

ma r i

(ma r i t e )

big

link . n .

ma so

(ma s )

cooked

intr . vb .

ma t e

(ma t )

dead

intr . vb . (VI )

ma t e t e l u

(ma t ete I )

thick

intr . vb . (VI )

ma t i I u

(ma t i 1 )

s leep

intr . vb . (VI )

ma tou

(ma tou )

dry coconut

n.

ma t u u

(ma t u )

righthand side

loc . n .

ma u l i

(mau I )

alive

intr . vb . (VI )

mavu l u

(mavu I )

broken

intr . vb . (VI )

mee

(men )

tongue

suff . n .

(VI )

(VI )

(VI )

255 Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

me l aa

(me l a )

ge t up

intr . vb . (VI )

me l aa l aa

(me U i l a )

"light

intr . vb . ( VI )

me l a s i

(me I a s )

heavy

intr . vb . (VI )

me l a u

(me l a u }

scrub turkey

n.

me l i t e

(me l i t )

eel

n.

memau

(mema u )

ashamed

intr . vb . (VI )

me+mee

(meme )

urinate

intr . vb .

mene

( men )

ripe

intr . vb . ( VI )

me ra l e se

(mera l e s )

dead cora l

n.

me rau

(me ra u )

weak

intr . vb . (VI )

me ru=me ru

(me rume r )

wet

intr . vb . (VI )

me sa i

(mesa i )

sick

intr . vb . ( VI )

me se

(mes )

dry

intr . vb . (VI )

me taa l oo

(meta l o )

European

n.

me ta rehe

(meta reh )

door

n.

me t a so

(meta s )

spear

n.

me t a t e

(me t a t )

pimp le

n.

me te+ea l o

(me tea I )

sun

n.

me t e i ma l i

(me te i ma l )

vi l lage

n.

me to

(meten )

eye

suff . n .

m i e t i e te

(mi et i et )

rainbow

n.

m i i taa

(mT t a )

come down

intr . vb . ( VI )

mo l a t i n e

(mo l a t i n }

man

n.

mo re

(mo re i t e )

good

l ink . n .

mo t i

(mo t )

fa l l

intr . vb . (VI )

munge

(mu n g )

uncircumcised man

desc . n .

mu na i

(muna i )

grass

n.

mu n i

(mun i )

drink

tr . vb . ( VI , 4 )

mu u s i

(mu s i )

smel l

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

ng a s i

(mung a s i )

chew

tr . vb . ( V , 4 )

(VI )

2 56 Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

naa

(nan )

faae

suff . n .

natu

(nat i n )

son, daughter

suff . n .

n e n g a n ehe

( n enga neh )

yesterday

time . n .

nesaa

(nesa )

above

loe . n .

netano

( n e ta n )

down

loe . n .

n i nu

(n i n i n )

spirit

suff . n .

nuu

(mu n u )

dive

intr . vb . (V)

oa i

(oa i )

water

n.

oho

(muoh )

white

intr . vb . (V)

00

(On )

penis

suff . n .

orel i

( o re I H e )

egg

l ink . n .

o r e l i +oo

( o r e l i On )

testiales

suff . n .

pa re

( p a re )

tie

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

poa l u

( poa l )

guUy

n.

po l e

( po I )

burnt (of food)

intr . vb . (VI )

pu s i

( pu s i )

kiak

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

raa

( ra n )

b lood

suff . n .

rah i

( rah i n ) ( ra h H e ) ( ra h )

l . snot 2 . membrane 3 . b Zow nose

suff . n . l ink . n . intr . vb . (VI )

ra l i ng o

( ra l i n gen )

ear

suf f . n .

ramu s i

( ramu s i )

Z iak

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

rekau

( rekau )

butterfZy

n.

risi

(ri s)

return

intr . vb . (VI )

saa n i

( sa n i )

give

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

sa1 i

( sa 1 i )

spear

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

saI i i

( sa I i )

squat

intr . vb . (VI )

sa re

( s a re )

fasten

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

257

Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

sau

(mu sau )

sing

intr . vb . (V)

sehe

( s ehe i )

scoop out� open

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

se l u u s i

(sel us i )

speak

intr . vb . (VI )

s i en i

( s i en i )

fiU up

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

s i ho

(mus i h )

have diarrhoea

intr . vb . (V)

si i

(sin) (site) (mus i ) (si) (mu s i )

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

suf f . n . l ink . n . intr . vb . (V) tr . vb . (VI , 4 ) tr . vb ( V , 4 )

s i i +meto

( s ime ten )

tears

suff . n .

s i i se l e

(sisel )

road

n.

si I i

( s i l ite)

descendants

l ink . n .

si Iu

(s i I )

shine l ight

intr . vb . (V)

s i nu

(s in)

dressed

intr . vb . (VI )

s i ta l i

( s i ta l )

emerge

intr . vb . (VI )

soko

( soko i t e )

remain8� crumbs

l ink . n .

sooh i

( s6h i )

catch

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

soon i

( son i )

throw

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

suue

(mu s u )

root up ground (of pig)

intr . vb . (V)

suu=suu

( su s u ) (susu)

1 . breast 2 . suck

n. intr . vb . (VI )

s u uvene

( s Eiven )

pandanus mat

n.

s u va l i

( s uva l i )

resemb le

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

s u vu l u

( s uv u l )

climb down

intr . vb . (VI )

suvunu

( s uvun )

sneeze

intr . vb . (VI)

taa

( ta n )

excrement

suff . n .

taas i I i

(das i l )

disperse

intr . vb . ( I )

t a he l a

( ta h e I ) ( ta he l a i t e )

l . wave 2 . wash of vessel

n. l ink . n .

tah i

(mutah i )

pour

tr . vb . (V , 4 )

tah i n i

(dah i n i )

bury

tr . vb . ( I , 4 )

t a ho

(mu t a h )

open

intr . vb . (V)

t a hoo

(daho)

fat

intr . vb . ( I )

bone juice fart happy retract foreskin

•

258

Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

tahos i

( tahos )

good

intr . vb . (VI )

ta i

(da i )

ahop

tr . vb . ( I , 4 )

ta i nge i nge

( d a i n ge i ng )

ignomnt

intr . vb . ( I )

t a ku l e

( ta ku l )

sago

n.

ta+l a u+a i

( ta l a ua i )

green

adj .

ta+l oko=h i s i

( ta l okoh i s )

ye Uow

adj .

ta l ongo

( da l on g )

listen

intr . vb . ( I , 4 )

tame

( tamen )

father

suff . n .

t amu r e l o

( tamu re 1 )

short

intr . vb . (VI )

tang i s i

( d a ng i s i )

ary for

tr . vb . ( I , 4 )

tano=me l u =me l u

( tanme l ume l )

mud

n.

ta rT penge

( ta r i pen g )

lazy

desc . n .

tau

(mu tau )

defeaate

intr . vb . (V)

taunehe

( tauneh)

thing

n.

taunu

(daun )

dawdle

intr . vb . ( I )

tausa 1 i

( ta u sa l )

sea snake

n.

tave l a h i

( ta ve l a h )

long

intr . vb . (VI )

tavo i

( tavo i )

navel tree

n.

tehe

( d ehe i )

sliae

tr . vb . ( I , 4 )

t e i 1 ang i

( te i l a n g )

sky

n.

t e l aa

( de l a )

burp

intr . vb . ( I )

tel a i

( te l a i )

axe

n.

t e l a i mo

( te l a i m)

home

loc . n .

t e l em i

( d e l em i )

swaUow

tr . vb . ( I , 4 )

tev i

(mu t ev )

swe U up

intr . vb . (V)

t i d i nu

(tidin)

red ants

n.

ti i

(mu t i )

punah

tr . vb . (V , 4 )

t i i saa

(tisa)

bad

intr . vb . (VI)

t i l eve

( t i 1 ev )

dew

n.

ti l i i

(d i I i )

sew

tr . vb . ( I , 4 )

t i no

(tin)

intestines

suff . n .

t i nu

(mu t i n )

hot

intr . vb . (V)

t i on i

( d i on i )

push

tr . vb . ( I , 4 )

tisi

(mu t i s i )

write

tr . vb . ( V , 4 )

t i ve

(mu t i v )

spit

intr . vb . (V)

259

Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

toma n e

{ toma n }

male

desc . n .

too

{do} {mu t o }

l . stay 2 . e lean3 ba ld

intr . vb . ( I ) intr . vb . (V)

too=ma l u

{doma I }

stand

intr . vb . ( I )

too= tano

{d6t an }

sit

intr . vb . ( I )

tovue I i

{ tovu e l }

not exist

intr . vb . (VI )

tuunu

{du n }

ehat3 te l l stories

intr . vb . ( I )

t uvo

{ d uva }

shoot

tr . vb . ( I , 2 )

ua s i

{mu a s i }

hit3 ki l l

tr . vb . ( V , 4 )

uh i

{muh i }

blow

tr . vb . ( V , 4 )

uh i aa

{uh i a }

wi ld yam

n.

u i i ta

{uit}

oetopus

n.

u i i ta = l oho

{ u i ta l oh }

squid

n.

ul i

{mu I i }

rub

tr . vb . (V , 4 )

u l uma tue

{ u l uma t u }

o ld man

n.

umo

{mum}

work

intr . vb . (V)

ungo

{ u n g en }

mouth

suff . n .

u ru l u

{uri l in}

e lbow3 knee

suff . n .

usa

{mu s }

rain

intr . vb . (V)

us i

{ u s i te }

side

l ink . n .

us i I i

{mus i I i }

fo l low

tr . vb . (V , 4 )

ute

(ut)

shore

loc . n .

ut i

{ u t i te}

seed

link . n .

vaa re s e

(va res )

red flying fox

n.

vaa s e+hee

{ v a s ehen }

hee l

suff . n .

vakT l i i

(vak i I i )

eanoe

n.

vako raa

(vako ra )

eoeonut she l l

n.

va l i aa

{ va l i a }

spider

n.

vange

( vangen )

be l ly

suff . n .

vane i

{vane i }

vo leano

n.

va tThose

{ va t i ho s }

paddle

n.

260 Underlying Form

Surface Form

Gloss

Form Class

va t i kee

( va t i ken )

taU

suff . n .

va t i 5 i i

( va t i s i n )

shoulder

suff . n .

va t u

(va t i n )

head

suff . n .

va u 1 u u 1 u

(va u 1 Ci 1 )

thunder

n.

ve i ene

( v e i en )

beach, sand

n.

v e 1 a a so

(ve H i sen )

chin

suf f . n .

vere

(ver)

noisy

intr . vb . (VI )

vetaa

(veta )

breadfruit

n.

v i eke

( v i ek )

water taro

n.

vi 10

( v i 1 en )

vagina

suff . n .

vi5i

(v i s )

finish

intr . vb . (VI)

v i sokono

( v i sokon )

morning

time . n .

v i suvon g i

(v i suvon g )

tomorrow

time . n .

v i to

( v i ten )

nave l

suff . n .

vo i a a u

( vo U iu )

rope

n.

vo 1 a=vo 1 a

(vo 1 avo 1 )

burao tree

n.

vong i en e

( vong i en )

night

time . n .

voo

(va)

s tink, rotten

intr . vb . (VI )

voret i

( vo re t t e )

sma l l

link . n .

voto

( voten )

buttocks

suff . n .

vua s i

(vuas )

pig

n.

v u 1 i mo 1 a s u

( v u 1 i mo 1 a s )

dust

n.

vu 1 i n g a s u

(vu 1 i ngas i n )

nose

suf f . n .

vu s i

( vu s )

finish

intr . vb . (VI )

vu u t i

( vu t i )

proud, show-off

tr . vb . (VI , 4 )

APPEND I X C ILLUSTRAT I V E TEXT As was mentioned in the acknowledgements , a collection of Paamese texts was published in 1980 , and a col lec tion of stories can be read in this volume . I t should be spec ifically pointed out , however , that these stories were not published for ' academic ' consumption , and there are therefore no morpheme by morpheme glosses , nor even any reasonably l iteral English translation .

261 The English translations that do appear in th is volume are basically nothing more than outl ines of the content , of intere st mostly to anthropologists and oral historians perhaps , but not profes sional l inguists . To make some data available to the academic audience , the fol lowing story is presented below for exemplification of structures described in this study . The story was told by Siti Wil son of Tahal Ne sa vil lage . Lok va t i l o+ku vat i +e interior. lsg 3 sg . real . want . 3 sg I want to tel l a story . Tunu enenek va vaa t u u n u+ene=neke te l l story . nom . dist 3 s g . real . go The story goes l ike this . el u . e l ua two

n av i t na+v i t e I sg . real . say

ma h i ten ma+h i ten i Isg . imm . teU

mu kok . mu ko=ke 3 sg . real . thus . prox

Ka i 1 ma r i l a pet amumon hau l u ka i l e hau l u e a+mu umo+n i ma r i + l a pe t e 3pl 3pl . real . do . tr big . aelebration many Many peop le had a big aelebration .

Amua s vua s . a+mua s i v�a s i 3pl . real . ki l l pig They kil led a pig .

Alah i n a + l a h i +n V 3pl . real . aarry . comm They brought food.

Adan i . a+daa n i +e 3p l . rea l bake in hole . 3 sg They baked it in a ho le . .

Mu l mu l e 3 sg . real . exist It stayed there

mu l mu l mu l e mu l e 3 sg . real exist 3 sg real . exist until it was aooked. .

VQ evu s vo ( o ) evu s i until 3 sg . real . finish and the two peop le took

mo l a t i n Na vong ta i n +a von g i taa i mo l a t i n e loc . time one people Onae� there were two peop l e . Ui .

taa one

mu l en mu l e=n i 3sg . real . exist . sp ma s . ma so 3 sg . real . aooked

vo vo ( o ) until

Ad i t i . a+d i i t i i +e 3pl . real . distribute . 3 sg They shared it out .

mo l a t i n e 1 u 1 u g u r mo l a t i ne e l u a l u+gu r i person two 3dl . real . take theirs home .

Amumon i . a+mu umo+n i +e 3pl . real . do . tr . 3 sg They had i t .

ma i . ma i 3 sg . real . aome

Ad an i a+da a n i +e 3pl . real . bake in hole . 3sg They baked it in a hole .

a l ah lein i . a+l a h i 1 e i n i +e 3pl . reaL aarry outwards . 3 sg and removed i t .

tel a i m. t e l a i mo home

a n i en a n i +ene eat . nom

t O n u en ta i . t u u n u +en e taa i te l l s tory . nom one

a vu l . avu l i ho le Auva au+vaa 3pl . real . go They went

Ad i t i a+d i i t i i +e 3pl . real . distribute . 3sg They shared it aU out alalu aa+l a l u e poss . ed . 3dl

LOva l un g a n i . l umu l l u +ng a n i +e l u+mu l e l u u+vaa 3dl . real . go 3dl . real . exist 3dl . real . eat . 3 sg They went and they were eating i t .

l u va l u u+vaa 3dl . real . go

L u n ga n i l u +n gan i +e 3dl . real . eat . 3 sg They ate it�

262 ta taa one

vo l u ngan i l u ngan i vo { o ) l u+ng a n i +e l u+ng a n i +e 3dl . real . eat . 3 sg 3dl . real . eat . 3 sg until until eventual ly one had eaten his . vo an Ngan vo { o ) aa+ne ngan i 3 sg . real . eat poss . ed . 3 sg until He ate until it was finished. ngan ngan i 3 sg . real . eat eaten aU the

ngan ngan i 3 sg . real . eat

va s i n h i l Tven va s i i +nV h i l i + i +ve+ne a l l . conun skin . l ink . body . const skin of the pig .

va s i . va s i i +e aU . 3 sg

vua s . vu a s i pig

an . aa+ne poss . ed . 3 sg

Ngan i vo ngan i +e vo { o ) 3 sg . real . eat . 3sg until He ate it until he had

En vong i en en i vong i en e obl night During the night3

vahan kap i n e . Vit ka p i nee va+haa=n i v i te 3 sg . real . want 3 sg . inun . go . sp toilet He wanted to go to the toilet .

roma t i t te i . ro+ma t i 1 u+te i 3 sg . real . neg . s leep . part he couldn ' t s leep . romu ta u t e i . ro+mu tau+te i 3 sg . real . defecate . part but cou ldn ' t defecate .

ka i ngan ka i e ngan i 3 sg 3 sg . real . eat

Vaen vaa+ene 3 sg . real . go . sp He went there

mi ta Mutau v e ra l . m i i t aa mu tau ve ra l e 3 sg . real . defecate 3 sg . real . come down 3 sg . real . blocked He strained in defecation but it was b locked.

vua s do H i l i ven h i l i + i +ve+n e vu a s i doc skin . link . body . const pig 3 sg . real . stay The pig ·skin was b locking his anus . va va vaa vaa 3 sg . real . go 3 sg . real . go there until sunrise .

vo vo { o } until

aut a u te p lace

ko l en ko l e+nV cOVer . conun

u r uvo t en . u ruvo t e+ne anus . 3 sg

I an . l an i 3 sg . real . day l ight

ta s . va t t e va re i s taa+se va t+tee vaa re i = s e precisely . neg . exp type . indef one . neg . exp in the morning it was still the same .

Mu l mu l e 3 sg . real . exist He s tayed

V i sokon v i sokono morning Very early

va

metea l me te+ea l 0 vaa 3 sg . real . go eye . daylight It went on and the sun went

v T ta mesa 1 vahe kovanges . kova ngese va+he me sa l e v i i t aa 3 sg . real . go down open space 3 sg . inun . cop late afternoon low in the sky ond late afternoon was near.

Va vaa 3 sg . real . go He went to

l es tau l e t tau l e t u l es i 3 sg . real . see cross-cousin see his cross-cousin .

onen . one+nV poss . man . 3 sg

Va v i ten i min mi n i v i ten i +e vaa 3 sg . real . go 3 sg . real . say . 3 sg pun . dat He went and said to his cross-cousin :

uan uan i cross-cousin

vit v i te 3 sg . real . say

"Uan , uan i cross-cousin "Cross-cousin3

onen on e+nV poss . man . 3 sg

1 0k l o+ku interior . lsg I w:1.nt y.ou

263 va t i va t i +t 3 sg . real . want to look at me .

na v i t na+v i t e lsg . real . say "

kova l e s i na u . " ko+va+ l e s i +n a u 2sg . imm . see . lsg

Uan onen one+nV uan i cross-cousin poss . man . 3 sg His cross -cousin said:

vi t "Ma l e s i k en asa?" "E i , l eheha s v i te ma + l e s i +ko en i asaa ei l ehe+haa=se 3 sg . real . say lsg . imm . see . 2 sg caus what exc lamation ldl . inc l . dis . go . neg . exp "What do I have to look at you for ? " "Oh, let 's just go home and tel a i m k i 1 es i es . t e l a i mo k i + l es i +e=se home 2sg . dis . see . 3 sg . neg . exp you can see i t . ha t haa+tu 2sg . imp . go . dest let 's go . " Vit v i te 3 sg . real . say He said:

1 ovaha . 1 1 l o+va+ha ldl . inc l . imm . go

Ki l es k i +l es i 2 sg . di s . see You wiU see

t a unehen . I I t a u n ehe=ene thing . sp something there "

t i ra u s i s . tel a i m gu l a t Luva t e l a i mo g u l aa t i l u u+vaa t i ra u s i s e 3dl . reaLgo home 3 sg . real . remove shorts They went home and he took of his pants .

" K i l es i en en i k i + l e s i +e 2 sg . di s . see . 3 sg sp "Look at my backside .

votok . I I voto+ku buttocks . l sg "

Ka i s ua s u . ka i e sua=sua 3 sg 3 sg . real . bend over He bent over .

vuas Le s h T l T ven l es i h i l i + i +ve+ne v�a s i 3 sg . real . see skin . l ink . body . const pig He saw the pig skin b locking his anus .

dO doc 3 sg . real . stay

Vi t v i te 3 sg . real . say He said:

nenga n e h . vuas vua s i n e n g a n ehe pig yesterday ate some pig .

I I Uan , uan i cross-cousin "Cross-cousin,

ko l en u ru vo tomok . ko l e+n V u r uvo to+mo=ke cover . comm anus . 2 sg . prox up your anus .

kongan ko+n g a n i 2sg . real . eat yesterday you

Taho s , d; hos i 3 sg . real . go So I wi U go

va s i n i t eh hema i va a s i +e n i +tehe hee+ma i 3 sg . di s.come lsg . di s . s "lice sp lit . 3 sg wi U cut through it with i t . " vo t e l voo t e l e glass g las s .

ma i . ma i 3 sg . real . come

San va t i n saa n i va t i +n e 3 sg . real . give head . 3 sg He put his head right at

I ITa ho s , d3hos i 3 sg . real . good "Ok, go there,

ko l en ko l e+nV cover . comm

u ruvo t en . u ru vo t e+n e anus . 3 sg

do Ka i ka i e doc 3 sg . real . stay 3 sg Now it 's b locking

n i ha n i ku r vo t e l n i i +haa n i +ku r i voo t e l e lsg . di s . go l sg . dis . take g lass and bring some glass and I

en i . 1 1 en i +e obl . 3 sg

Va gur vaa gur i 3 sg . real . go 3 sg . real . take He went and brought some

keva t ehe i Navong suas u . n+avong i ke+va+tehe+ i e sua=sua loc . time sub . 3 sg . imm . s lice . 3 sg 3 sg . real . bent over When he was going to cut it, he bent over . v i ta va re i vaa re i v i i t aa precisely 3 sg . real . go down his cross-cousins backside .

ma l u n ma l u= n i 3 sg . real . direct . sp

264 uan uan i cross-cousin

voten vo t e+ne buttocks . const

vua s . vua s I pig

h i l i ven h i l i + i +ve+ne skin . l ink . body . const skin .

v

•

Dehen deh e+nV 3 sg . real . s l ice . comm He cut the pig

onen . one+nv pos s . man . 3 sg

dehe i Dehe i d ehe+ i e dehe+ i e 3 sg . real . sl ice . 3 sg 3 sg . real . s l ice . 3 sg He cut it and cut it until he had cut

dehe i va s i VQ mun a k deh vaa s i +e dehe+ i e vo ( o ) mu n a ke dehe 3 sg . real . s lice spUt . 3 sg 3 sg . real . s lice . 3 sg until when through it, and excrement came down and complete ly mT ta m i i taa 3 sg . real . come down covered his face .

gur gu r i 3 sg . real . take

a ta s . ve a taa=se ve 3 sg . real . cop excrement . neg . exp was nothing but excrement . van vaa=n i 3 sg . real . go . sp on en one+nV poss . man . 3 sg cousin ki l led

atas . atas i sea

ko l ko l e cover

va re i n va a r e i +n i precisely . tr

mua s vua s ta r i s mua s i vua s i taa=r i s i 3 sg . real . ki l l pig one . rep another pig for that business .

h a t tenek . ha t+t ee=neke matter . indef . dist Ka i net i n e k . ka i e n e t i n e=ke 3 sg . rec . prox That ' s a U .

nan . naa+ne face . 3 sg

va re i Loh vaa re i l oho 3 sg . real . run precise ly He ran right down to the

lei n i . Gu l i l e i n i +e gu l i i 3sg . real . bathe outwards . 3 sg He washed it off.

leini Sak sa k i l e i n i +e 3 s g . real . do outwards . 3 sg He settled it until it was

a ta a taa excrement Va t i n va t i +ne head . 3sg His head

v i ta v i i taa 3 sg . real . go down sea .

Ma . maa 3 sg . real . come up He came back .

Uan uan i cross-cousin His cross-

gan gaa=n i 3 sg . real . come from . sp va vaa 3 sg . real . go forgotten .

vu s . vu s i 3 sg . real · finish .

BIBLIOGRAPHY AUSTIN , John L . 1962

How to d o things wi th words .

Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University

Press . AUSTIN , P . K . 1978

A grammar of the Diyari language of north east South Australia . Ph . D . thesi s , Austral ian National University , Canberra .

BAILEY , Charles-Jame s N . 1973

vari ation and linguistic theory .

Arl ington , Virginia : Centre

for Appl ied Linguistic s . CAMDEN , Bill 1977

A descripti ve dictionary :

Bislama to Engl i sh .

Vila , Vanuatu :

Maropa Bookshop . CAPELL , A . 1941

A new Fi jian dictionary .

Suva , F i j i : Government Printer .

CHAFE , Wal lace L . 1970

Meaning and the structure of language .

Chicago : Univers ity of

Chicago Pres s . CHOMSKY , Noam , and Morris HALLE 1968

The sound pa t tern of English .

New York : Harper and Row .

CHUNG , Sandra , and A . TIMBERLAKE forthcorning

Tense , aspect and mood . and syntactic

In Tim Shopen , ed .

Language t ypology

fiel dwork .

CLARK , Ross 1973

Transitivity and case in Eastern Oceanic languages . Lingui stics 1 2 : 5 59-605 .

Oceanic

CODRINGTON , Robert H . 1885

The Melanesian languages .

Amsterdam : The Philo Press .

DIXON , R . M . W . 1972

The Dyirbal

language o f North Queenslan d .

University Press .

265

London : Cambridge

266 FILLMORE , Charles J . 1968

The case for case .

In Emmon Bach and Robert T . Harms , eds 1-88 . New York : Hol t , Rinehart and Winston . Uni versals in lingu i s tic theory ,

FOLEY , Will iam A . 1976

Comparative syntax in Austronesian . California , Berkeley .

Ph . D . the sis, University of

FOX , G . J . 1979

Big Nambas grammar .

PL ,

B-60 .

FRATER , Maurice 1922

London : J . C larke .

Mi dst volcanic fires .

GRACE , George W . 1969

A Proto-Oceanic finder list . 3 9-84 . University of Hawaii .

Working Papers in Linguistics

1/2 :

GUY , J . B . M . 1974a

A grammar of the northern dialect of Sakao .

19 74b

Handbook o f Bichelamar / Manuel d e Bichelamar .

PL ,

B-33 PL ,

C- 3 4 .

RAMP , Eric P . 1 963

A glossary of American technical linguistic usage .

Utrecht :

Spectrum Publishers . JOHNSTON , R . L . 1980

Nakanai o f New Bri tain : PL ,

the grammar o f a n Oceanic language .

B- 7 0 .

KEES ING , R . M . C-3 5 .

1975

Kwaio dictionary .

1977

Kwaio : a gramma tical introduction . University .

PL ,

Mimeo , Australian National

LYNCH , John 1973

Verbal aspects of possession in Melanesian l anguages . Linguistics 1 2 : 69-1 0 2 .

1975

Oral/nasal al ternation and the real is/irrealis distinction in Oceanic . Oceanic Lingui stics 14/ 2 : 87-99 .

1977

Lenakel dictionary .

1978

A grammar of Lenakel .

1982

Towards a theory of the origin of the Oceanic possessive constructions . In Amran Halim, Lois Carrington and S . A . Wurm , eds Papers from the Third Interna tional Conference on Aus tronesian Lingui stics , vol . l : Curren ts in Oceanic , 243-268 . PL , C-74 .

PL ,

C-55 .

PL ,

B-55 .

MILNER , G . B . 1972

Fijian grammar .

Oceanic

Suva , Fi j i : Government Press .

267

OLSON , Mike 1979

The sociolinguistic significance of Barai possessive marker s . I n S . A . Wurm, ed . New Guinea and neighboring areas : a socio­ linguistic l abora tory , 1 1 5 - 1 2 7 . The Hague : Mouton .

PARKER , G . J . 1 968 19 70a

Southeast Ambrym phonology .

Oceanic Lingui stics

7 / 2 : 81 -9 1 .

Morphophonemic s of the inalienable nouns in southeast Ambrym . 9 / 1 : 1 -1 0 .

Oceanic Lingui stics

1970b

Southeast Ambrym dictionary .

PL ,

C-1 7 .

PATON , W . F . 1971

Ambrym (Lonwolwol )

grammar .

PL ,

B-1 9 .

PAWLEY , Andrew 1972

On the internal relationships of the Eastern Oceanic languages . In R . C . Green and M . Kel ly , eds Studies in Oceanic c u l t ure Pacific Anthropological Records No . 1 3 . Honolulu : his tory 3 . Department of Anthropology , Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum .

1973

Some problems in Proto-Oceanic grammar . 1 0 3- 188 .

Oceanic Lingu i s tics

12 :

RAY , S . H . 1926

A compara t i ve s t udy of the Melanesian i s l and languages .

Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . SCHUTZ , Albert J . 1 968

A pattern of morphophonemic alternation in Nguna , New Hebrides . In Papers in Linguistics of Melanesia 1 . PL , A-l 5 : 41 -47 .

1969

Nguna grammar . Oceanic Linguistics Special Publ ication No . 5 . Honolulu : University of Hawaii Pacific and Asian Linguistics Institute .

SILVERSTEIN , Michael 1976

H ierarchy of features and ergativity .

In R . M . W . Dixon , ed . 1 1 2-171 . Canberra : Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies .

Gramma tical ca tegori es in Australian languages ,

SOHN , Ho-min 1975

Woleaian reference grammar . PALl Language Texts : Micronesia . Honolulu : University Press of Hawaii .

SOHN , Ho-min , and B . W . BENDER 1973

A Uli thian grammar .

PL ,

C-2 7 .

TONKINSON , Robert 1968

Maa t vi l lage :

Efa te :

a relocated communi t y in the New Hebri des .

Eugene , Oregon : Department of Anthropology , University of Oregon .

268 TOPPING , Donald M . 1973

Chamorro reference grammar . PALl Language Texts : Micronesia . Honolulu : University Press of Hawaii .

TRUBETSKOY , N . S . 1969

Principles o f phonology . Translated by Christiane A . M . Ba1taxe . Berkeley : University of Cal ifornia Press .

TRYON , D . T . 1972

The languages of the New Hebrides : a checklist and general survey . Papers in Linguistics of Melanesia 3 . PL , A-3 5 : 4 3 -84 .

1973

Linguistic subgrouping in the New Hebrides : a preliminary approach . Oceanic Linguistics 1 2 : 303-351 .

1976

New Hebri des languages :

an internal classification .

PL ,

C-50 .

WAWN , William T . 1973

The South Sea islanders and the Queensland l abour trade .

F irst published London , 1893 . University Press .

Canberra : Australian National

WIERZBICKA , Anna 1972

Semantic primi tives .

Crowley, T. The Paamese language of Vanuatu. B-87, xii + 280 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-B87.1 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

Frankfurt : Athenaeum .