Critical Thinking Chapter 2
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Critical Thinking Chapter 2...
Description
CHAPTER 2
Recognizing Arguments Argument : some kind kind of quarrel quarrel or shouting match??? match???
Fact and Opinion
Fact = Can be proved or disproved
Opinion = Personal Belief
Fact
Tell who, what, when, where, or how much.
Have a verifiable truth value.
Can be quantified and is specific.
Are supported by evidence .
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"A fact is a thing that is occurred, to exist, or to be true."
Opinion
Tend to be vague. Are personal beliefs or value judgments.
An opinion is a view about a particular issue. It is what the person believes or thinks, and is not necessarily the truth.
Fact Opinion Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam Hanoi is the best city in the world.
IU is a University in Vietnam.
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I love studying at IU.
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Identifying Statements
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A statement is a sentence that can be viewed as either true or false. Put otherwise, a statement is a sentence that makes good grammatical sense when it is prefaced with the words "It is true that…" or "It is false that…“.
What is a statement?
Examples:
Red is a color. (physical statement) Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement) The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic. (evaluative statement)
Non-Examples:
What time is it? (question)
Close the window! (command)
Oh, my goodness! (exclamation)
Statement test: Does it make sense to put “it is true that” or “it is false that” in front of it? If so, it is a statement. If not, it’s not. 8
Identifying Statements Here are some examples of statements: Paris is the capital of France. The South won the American Civil War. Ford makes better trucks than Chevy. Same-sex marriage should be legalized. Each of these sentences is a statement, because each makes an assertion that is either true or false.
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Identifying Statements Not all sentences are statements, i.e., sentences that assert that something is true or false. Here are some examples of sentences that are not statements: How was your summer? (question) Pick up your room! (command) Hi! (greeting) Let's go to the ball game tonight. (proposal) None of these are statements, because none can sensibly be preceded by the phrases "It is true that…" or "It is false that…" 10
Identifying Statements A statement can be expressed by a phrase or a dependent clause rather than as a complete sentence.
Example: Considering Ian's near-perfect SAT scores, he should be able to get into an Ivy League college. In this sentence, the phrase "considering Ian's near-perfect SAT scores" is a dependent clause that is not capable of standing alone as a complete sentence. Nevertheless, the intent of the speaker or writer is clearly to defend one claim ("Ian should be able to get into an Ivy League college") on the basis of another ("Ian made nearly perfect SAT scores"). For critical thinking purposes, therefore, it's important to recognize that there are two statements in this passage, rather than one. 11
Identifying Statements Rhetorical questions should be regarded as statements. Rhetorical questions are sentences that have the grammatical form of questions but are meant to be understood as assertions. Here are some examples of rhetorical questions: Alyssa, you should quit smoking. Don’t you realize how bad that is for your health? The point of such "questions" is not to ask for information, but to make a positive assertion that the speaker or writer expects at least some of his readers or listeners to agree with. For that reason, rhetorical questions should be treated as statements rather than as questions. 12
Identifying Statements Ought imperatives should be regarded as statements. Ought imperatives are sentences that have the grammatical form of imperatives (i.e., commands) but are intended to be understood as “ought statements,” i.e., statements that express a judgment about what ought to be done. Here is an example of a passage that contains an ought imperative: Do not read beauty magazine. They will only make you feel ugly.
“You shouldn’t read beauty magazine.” advice or value judgments
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Tricky statements
Rhetorical question: a sentence that has the grammatical form of a question but is meant to be understood as a statement.
Don’t you know smoking will kill you? • (means: Smoking will kill you.)
How am I supposed to do that? • (means: I can’t do that.)
Ought imperative: a sentence that has the form of a command but is a statement about what ought to be done.
“Do X!” really means “You should do X.” “Don’t blow dry your hair in the tub!” really means “You should not blow dry your hair in the tub.” 14
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
1. Capital punishment is wrong. Ans:Statement
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
2. Can vegetarians eat animal crackers? (George Carlin) Ans: Nonstatement (question)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
3. Ted Williams is the greatest hitter in baseball history. Ans:Statement
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
4. What do you say we stop at the next rest stop? Ans :Nonstatement (suggestion)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
5. Abraham Lincoln was the first president of the United States. Ans: Statement
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
6. Let’s party! Ans: Nonstatement (suggestion or exhortation)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
7. Great! Ans :Statement (This is a brief and emphatic way of saying, "This is great.")
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
8. Keep off the grass. (sign) Ans: Nonstatement (command)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
9. If Sally calls, tell her I’m at the library. Ans: Nonstatement (order or request)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
10. I hope Peter likes his new job. Ans: Statement (You might be lying.)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
11. Can’t you see that pornography demeans women? Ans: Statement (rhetorical question)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
12. Holy cow! Ans: Nonstatement (exclamation)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
13. Please print your name legibly. Ans: Nonstatement (request)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
14. What will it profit a man, if he gains the whole world and forfeits his life? (Matt. 16:26) Ans: Statement (rhetorical question)
Exercise 2.1 I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the following sentences are or are not statements.
15. You want mayo on that, right? Ans: Nonstatement (question)
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Argument
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Assoc. Prof. Ho Thanh Phong
10/14/20163 November 2008
What is an argument?
A Claim Defended with Reasons. Argument - A form of thinking in which certain statements (reasons) are offered in support of another statement (a conclusion). Arguments are composed of one or more premises and a conclusion. Premises are statements offered as reasons for accepting another statement. A conclusion is a statement supported by reasons. 32
Argument- Example
Lawyers earn a lot of money. (Premise)
I want to earn a lot of money. (Premise)
I should become a Lawyer. (Conclusion)
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Identifying arguments
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Assoc. Prof. Ho Thanh Phong
10/14/20163 November 2008
Identifying Premises and Conclusions
TIPS
Look for premise indicators that provide clues when premises are being offered. Examples: because, since, for , given that, as, judging from, and seeing that .
Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when conclusions are being offered. Examples: therefore, thus, hence, so, as a result, accordingly, consequently , and which shows that .
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Identifying Premises and Conclusions
TIPS
If the passage contains no indicator words, try these two strategies:
Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or speaker trying to prove? " That claim will be the conclusion.
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Try putting the word "therefore" before each of the statements in turn. The statement it fits best will be the conclusion.
Identifying Premises and Conclusions
1. No one under eighteen-years-old can vote. 2. Jen is under eighteen-years-old. 3. Therefore, Jen cannot vote.
Arguments are composed of one or more premises and a conclusion. Premises are statements offered as reasons for accepting another statement. A conclusion is a statement supported by reasons. In this example, statements 1 and 2 are premises, and statement 3 is the conclusion. 38
Example
Make a will. Otherwise, the state will determine who gets your stuff. (Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time You Faced the Future?" 2001)
Identify the premise(s) and conclusion in this argument.
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Example Premise: If you don't make a will, the state will determine who gets your stuff. Conclusion: You ought to make a will. The word otherwise often functions--as it does here--as premise indicator. Notice that both the premise and the conclusion have been rephrased slightly. The premise has been rephrased in order to make it a complete sentence. The conclusion has been restated in order to make clear that it is intended as a statement rather than as a command. 40
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What Is Not an Argument?
An argument is a claim defended with reasons .
More precisely, a passage is an argument if and only if: It is a group of two or more statements. One of those statements (the conclusion) is claimed or intended to be supported by the other(s) (the premises).
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What Is Not an Argument?
Notice three important things that follow from this definition: Arguments consist entirely of statements (sentences that it makes sense to regard as either true or false). Questions, commands, and other kinds of non-statements cannot be parts of arguments (Keep in mind, however, that rhetorical questions should be treated as statements.). No single statement is an argument . Arguments always consist of at least two statements.
Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed or intended that one statement follows from one or more other statements in the passage. In other words, a passage is an argument only if the speaker or writer intends to offer evidence or reasons why another statement should be accepted as true.
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What Is Not an Argument?
Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with arguments are:
Reports
A statement or group of statements intended simply to convey information about a subject.
Unsupported statements of belief or opinions
Is a statement or set of statements in which the speaker or writer expresses his or her personal opinion, but offers no reasons or evidence to back up that opinion.
Illustrations
Is a passage intended to provide examples that illustrate or support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that the claim is true.
Conditional Statements
Is an if-then statement . It is an assertion that such-andsuch is true if something else is true.
Explanations
Is a statement or set of statements that seeks to provide an account of why something has occurred or why something is the case.
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What are not arguments
Reports: statements made to convey information.
“More people moved to the south this year.”
“Oil prices dropped today, thus so did gas prices.” • Notice that, even though there is a conclusion indicator, this is still a report.
Unsupported Assumptions: when someone puts forth what they believe but does not intend for any of their statements to support another.
People aren’t afraid of dying; they are afraid of not living.
People like this course because of the professor. 45
• Notice the presence of a premise indicator, but not a premise. Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education
What Is Not An Argument Conditional (“if-then”) statements: e.g.,: If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled. Most common forms: If A then B; B if A. Antecedent: usually, the part that directly follows “if.”
Consequent: Usually, the part that follows “then”
But conditionals don’t always have “if” or “then” 46 Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education
More On Conditional Statements
Conditionals are not arguments, but they can look like them.
If Rhode Island was larger than Ohio, and Ohio was larger than Texas, then Rhode Island would be larger than Texas.
This is a conditional statement; “If the first two things are true, then the third is true.”
If Bob is taller than Chris then Bob is taller than Ann. If Bob is taller than Ann, then Bob is taller then Lori. Thus, if Bob is taller than Chris then Bob is taller than Lori.
Conditional: If I was taller I would play basketball. Argument: I am tall, so I would make a good basketball player.
This is an argument. The latter follows from the two former statements.
Chain arguments: consist of conditional statements.
If A then B. If B then C. Therefore, if A then C. e.g., If Allen moves I will be all alone. If I am all alone then I will be sad. So if Allen moves ILecture will be sad. Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher
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Education
What Is Not An Argument
Illustrations: examples of a claim.
Many wildflowers are edible. For example, daises and day lilies are delicious in salads.
Be careful. Some arguments can look like illustrations because they use “counter examples.”
Many people think that all Star Trek fans are zit faced nerds. But that is not true. For 48 example, Christian Slater is a Star Trek fan Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education
What Is Not An Argument
Explanation: tries to show why something is the case (not argue that it is the case).
Usually offers up a causal explanation for something that is already accepted as true. • Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg. (explanation) • Capital Punishment is wrong because it is murder. (argument)
Explanandum: what is explained (the event).
Explanans: the explanation (the cause). “Explanadum” because “Explanans.”
“I ski because I think it is fun.” (explanation)
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 49should ski because “You it is fun.” (argument) Education
Arguments vs. Explanation (how to tell the difference)
The Common-Knowledge Test
If it points at something that is common knowledge, it is probably an explanation. • Most people don’t present arguments for things people already believe.
Example: “TV is very influential in society because most people watch it.”
The Past-Event Test
If it points at a past event, it is probably an explanation.
Usually people don’t argue “X occurred.”
Example: “The US entered WWII because of Japan’s attack on 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 50 Pearl Harbor.” Lecture Notes ©Education
Arguments vs. Explanation (how to tell the difference)
The Author’s Intent Test: Ask if the person making the statement is trying to “prove” something or explain why something is true.
You want a college degree because you want a better life.
The Principle of Charity Test:
The Principle of Charity: interpret generously (give the author of the statement a break). If what he said would be a bad argument, but it could be interpreted as an example (or explanation) assume it is not an argument.
The Test: If you have a choice between interpreting a statement as a “bad argument” or an “unsatisfactory explanation,” do the Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher 51 latter. A bad argument is Education a worse mistake.
Examples http://vnn.vietnamnet.vn/chinhtri/201006/Cacnuoc-co-IQ-cao-deu-lam-duong-sat-cao-toc914859/
Summary 1. Distinguishing
Fact = Can be proved or disproved
Fact & Opinion
Opinion = Personal Belief
2. What is an Argument?
An argument is a claim defended with reasons.
3. Identifying Premises
Look for premise indicators that provide clues when premises are being offered (e.g. because, since, for).
& Conclusions
Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when conclusions are being offered (e.g. therefore, thus, hence, so). If the passage contains no indicator words, try these two strategies: 1) Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or speaker trying to prove?" That claim will be the conclusion. 2)Try putting the word "therefore" before each of the statements in turn. The statement it fits best will be the conclusion.
4. What Is Not an Argument? 53
Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with arguments are: Reports, Unsupported statements of belief or opinions, Illustrations, Conditional Statements, and Explanations
Any Questions?
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EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions. 1.
When the universe has crushed him man will still be nobler than that which kills him, because he knows that he is dying, and of its victory the universe knows nothing.
(Blaise Pascal, Pensées)
EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
Premise 1: Man knows that he is dying.
Premise 2 : Of its victory the universe knows nothing.
Conclusion: When the universe has crushed him man will still be nobler than that which kills him.
EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions. 2. Rights are either God-given or evolve out of the democratic process. Most rights are based on the ability of people to agree on a social contract, the ability to make and keep agreements. Animals cannot possibly reach such an agreement with other creatures. They cannot respect anyone else’s rights. Therefore they cannot be said to have rights. (Rush Limbaugh, The Way Things Ought to Be)
EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
Premise 1: Rights are either God-given or evolve out of the democratic process.
Premise 2 : Most rights are based on the ability of people to agree on a social contract, the ability to make and keep agreements.
Premise 3: Animals cannot possibly reach such an agreement with other creatures.
Premise 4: Animals cannot respect anyone else's rights.
Conclusion: Animals cannot be said to have rights.
EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
3. You’d better shape up, ’cuz I need a man, and my heart is set on you. (Olivia Newton-John, Grease)
EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
Premise 1: I need a man.
Premise 2: My heart is set on you.
Conclusion: You’d better shape up.
EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions. 4. Since moral responsibility presupposes free-will, since this freedom is not compatible with universal causal determinism, and since universal causal determinism appears to be the case, it seems evident that—contrary to what most people believe—human beings are not morally responsible. (stated but not endorsed in William H. Halverson, A Concise Introduction to Philosophy, 4th ed. [adapted])
EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
Premise 1: Moral responsibility presupposes free-will.
Premise 2 : This freedom is not compatible with universal causal determinism.
Premise 3: Universal causal determinism appears to be the case.
Conclusion: Contrary to what most people believe, human beings are not morally responsible.
EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
5. Our faith comes in moments; our vice is habitual. Yet there is a depth in those brief moments which constrains us to ascribe more reality to them than to all other experiences. For this reason the argument which is always forthcoming to silence those who conceive extraordinary hopes of man, namely the appeal to experience, is forever invalid and vain. (Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The Over-Soul”)
EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
Premise 1: Our faith comes in moments.
Premise 2 : Our vice is habitual.
Premise 3: There is a depth in those brief moments which constrains us to ascribe more reality to them than to all other experiences.
Conclusion: The argument which is always forthcoming to silence those who conceive extraordinary hopes of man, namely the appeal to experience, is forever invalid and vain.
EXERCISE 2.4 I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
1. I ate because I was hungry. 2. He must be home. His car’s in the driveway. 3. I’m trading in my Ford Explorer for a Toyota Corolla because they’re more reliable and get better gas mileage.
EXERCISE 2.4 I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
4. If Christmas is on a Friday, the day after Christmas must be a Saturday.
5. Dinosaurs became extinct sixty-five million years ago, probably as a result of dramatic global cooling that resulted from the impact of a large asteroid. 6. Dogs make better pets than cats because they’re more intelligent and obedient.
EXERCISE 2.4 I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
7. According to baseball statistician Bill James, Stan Musial was a better allaround baseball player than Ted Williams because Musial was, in addition to being a great hitter, a better fielder and baserunner than Williams was.
8. The rich and famous tend not to be happy, welladjusted personalities. Look at Britney Spears.
EXERCISE 2.4 I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
9. I stayed home from school because I was sick. 10. The Cascades mountain range contains many majestic peaks. Mt. Rainier and Mt. Hood, for instance, are both more than ten thousand feet.
EXERCISE 2.4 I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
11. The death penalty costs too much. Allowing our government to kill citizens compromises the deepest moral values upon which this country was conceived: the inviolable dignity of human persons. (Helen Prejean, CSJ, Dead Man Walking ) 12. If there were no maldistribution, if everyone shared equally, and if no grain were fed to animals, all of humanity could be adequately nourished today. (Paul Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich, Betrayal of Science and Reason)
EXERCISE 2.4 I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
13. The British statesman William Gladstone thought that we would all be healthier if we chewed each bite of food precisely 32 times. Why else, he argued, did nature endow us with exactly 32 teeth? (Thomas Gilovich, How We Know What Isn’t So)
EXERCISE 2.4 I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
14. Guys are extremely reluctant to make commitments, or even to take any steps that might lead to commitments. That is why, when a guy goes out on a date with a woman and finds himself really liking her, he often will demonstrate his affection by avoiding her for the rest of his life. (Dave Barry, Dave Barry’s Complete Guide to Guys)
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