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PREMI ÈREPARTI E :I NTROD ODUCTI ON ALAPHI HI LOSOP OPHI E
DEUXI EMEPARTI E:LAVI E SOC OCI ALE
1-Lasoci ét é A - ut rui 2-Nat ur eetcul t ur e 3-Lel angage 4-LeTr avai l 5-L’ Ét at 6-Consci enceeti nconsci ent 7-Lamor al e TROI SI EME PARTI E :ESTHE HETI QUE 1-LeBeau L’ ar t 2QUATRI EME ME PARTI E: EPI STEMO MOLOGI E
nt r oduct i on 1-I 2-Lemyt heetl amagi e 3Lessci encesexpéri ment al es 4-Lessci encesl ogi cof orme mel l es 5-Lessci enceshumai nes CON ONCLUSI ON
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PREMI ÈRE REPARTI E:
I NTRO RODUCTION ALA PHI HI LI SOP OPHI HI E Laphi l osophi eestunmo modedeconnai ssancet r èsanci en,pui squ’ on ème l af ai tr emo mont erau6 si ècl eavantJésusChri st .Cet t edi sci pl i neaj ouéunr ôl e t r èsi mport antdansl epr ogr èsdesi déesetl edével oppeme mentdesci vi l i sat i ons humai nes. Par adoxal eme ment ,el l e ne j oui tpas de nos j our s,d’ une gr ande consi dér at i on.Cer t ai nsen arr i ventmême meàsedema manderdebonnef oiàquoi sertl aphi l osophi e. Enf ai t ,c’ estquenot r eépoquees tcel l edu t ri omp mphel asci encee tde l at echni que.Devantl espr ouessessci ent i fiquesett echnol ogi ques,on r amè mène t outàunedi mensi on mat éri el l e,eton mesur et outàl ’ aunedel ’ effic fficaci t éetdu bi en êt r e mat éri el . Act uel l ement l es soci ét és humai nes sont f ort ement domi mi néesparl ema mat ér i al i sme mel ai ssantai nsipeu depl aceàl aphi l osophi equi , poursapart ,f ai tpi èt refigur e. Parai l l eur s,un gr and nomb mbr edepr éj ugésetd’ i déespr éconçues pèsent sur ce doma mai ne du savoi r .En effet ,on const at e que beaucoup de per sonnes r egar dent l a phi l osophi e comm mme un court chemi n quimène à l ’ at héi sme me,à l af ol i e,à l a mar gi nal i t é.D’ D’ aut r es n’ y voi ent qu’ un di scour s hermé mét i que,pédant ,abst r ai tetspécul at i fquin’ apport eri enàl ’ homm mme. Mai senvéri t é,det el spoi nt sdevuenet r adui sentquel ’ i gnorance du comm mmun des mort el s sur l e st at ut ,l e sens et l a val eur du di sc our s phi l osophi que.En effet ,i lconvi entd’ ét udi erd’ abord cet t edi sci pl i neavantde pouvoi rport erunj ugeme mentquisoi tval abl e.
I -QU’ EST CE QUE LA PHI HI LOS OSOP OPHI HI E? Cet t equest i on nousamè mèneàt ent erdedél i mi t erl aphi l osophi e,or cet t ederni èresemb mbl erebel l eàt out edéfini t i on st ri ct eetabsol ue,carel l enese l ai ssepasemb mbri gaderdansl esf r ont i èr espr éci ses.En out r e,l aphi l osophi ene pré t end pas apport er une r éponse ou bi en des r ecet t es t out es f ai t es aux f
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1-EMERGENCE DE LA PH HI I LO OS SO OP PH HI I E:Uneruptureavecl emythe. Avantl ’ avèneme mentde l a phi l osophi e au 6ème si ècl e en Gr èce,l es homm mmessesontposédesquest i ons,onti nt er r ogél emo mondeetontdonnédes r éponses.Lescr oyances,l a magi e,l esmy myt hes,l esconnai ssancesemp mpi ri ques sont aut ant de r éponses que l ’ homm mme a apport ées à son pr opr e ques t i onneme ment avant qu’ i l ne soi t en mes ur e de produi r e une r éponse r at i onnel l e.Cet t ederni èr epeutêt r eappr éhendéecomm mmeunerupt ur ed’ avecl e myt hequiconst i t uej usquel àl edi scour sdomi mi nant .Lemy myt heestun genr ede connai ssancequin’ expl i quepasr éel l eme ment ,quir acont epl ut ôt .C’ estun r éci t sacréquir acont edesél éme ment squiontdonnéau monde,gr âceàl ’ i nt erv ent i on deDI DI EU etdesêt r essurnat ur el s. C’ estpour quoiparrapportau myt he,l orsquel aphi l osophi eapparaî t , l emy myt hesepr ésent ecomm mme«évei ldusomm mmei ldel ’ i mmobi l i sme memy myt he»sel on Geor gesGu Gusdorf . Cependant ,i lf autsegarderdecr oi r el aphi l osophi eestnéecomm mme parenchant eme ment ,«exni ni l o» .En f ai t ,son éme mer genceestpr épar éeparun ensemb mbl ed’ él éme ment s.Lapr at i quedel aphi l osophi edansl esci t éesgr ecques,l e dével oppeme mentde l ’ écr i t ur e,l es condi t i ons économi mi ques,l e comm mmer ce,l es apport scul t ur el svenusdel ’ I nde,del ’ Egypt eanci enne,del aChi ne. Les phi l osophes ne r acont entpas,i l s s’ emp mpl oi entà expl i quer ,à r endr ecomp mpt eau monde,ens’ appuyantnon pl ussurl esdi mi nut és,mai ssur l esrai sonshumai nesuni queme ment .Cet t erai son devi entl api er r eangul ai r ede l amai son etdel aconnai ssancehumai nequ’ el l eveutr endr ei nt el l i gi bl e. C’ estai nsiquel espremi mi er sphi l osophes«physi ci ens»vontessayer d’ él aborerl ’ expl i cat i on r at i onnel l e d’ ordrecosmo mol ogi que etnat ural i st e en se basantsurdespri nci pesr at i onnel sdet ypesmat éri al i st es. Thal ès:expl i quel aréal i t éavecpourpri nci pel ’ eau
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Pl us t ar d,Pyt hagor er end compt e du monde en s’ appuyantsurl es nomb mbr esmai s,c’ estHér acl i t ed’ Ephèsequir et i entsurt outl ’ at t ent i on.Quant i l f ai tduchangeme mentl ’ él éme mentexpl i cat i fdumondeendécl arant:Pant ar ei«t out s’ écoul er i ennedeme meur e.Lemê même mehomm mmenesebai gnej ama mai sdeuxf oi sdans l e même me fleuve» . Pour l ui ,l e changement et l e confli t sont des f act eur s f ondame ment auxdu f onct i onneme mentdu monde;( l ej ouretl a nui t ,l ’ or dr eetl e désordre,l ebi enetl ema mal ,l ’ amouretl ahai neet c. ) A ces phi l osophes mi l ési ens s’ opposent l es El éat es comm mme Parmé méni dequiestl et héori ci en etquis’ opposeà Héracl i t e.D’ apr èsl ui ,cequi changen’ estpasréel ,cequiestr éelestaudel àduchangeme ment ,c’ estl ’ êt r equi esti mmobi l e,ét er nel ,homogène,etsour ce de véri t é.On peutci t eraussi Empédocl ed’ Agri gent eavecsat héori e. Pourl ui ,Les4él éme ment spri nci pesdel ’ uni verssont:( eau,ai r ,t err e, f eu);Leuci ppeetDémo mocri t equidonnent unet héori ema mat éri al i st eoù l aréal i t é estcomp mposéedevi dedansl equelseme meuventdescorpuscul esappel ésat ome mes; Anaxagor e quif ai t du « nous » phi l osophi e de l ’ i nt el l i gence l e pri nci pe ordonnat eurdel ar éal i t éetl acour seuni ver sel l edeschoses. Tous ces phi l osophes qual i fiai entausside pr ésocr at i ques vont al i ment erl ar éflexi on j usqu’ àSocr at equiestconsi dér ét r èssouventcomm mmel e véri t abl epèr edel aphi l osophi e. Socrat esedéma marquedesanal ysesmat éri al i st esetdesexpl i cat i ons nat ur al i st esdel ’ uni ver sdonnéparsespr édécesseur s.I lseconsacreàl ’ homm mme sel on sadevi se«connai st oit oi même me» .I lchangedemét hoded’ i nvest i gat i on parr apportauxphysi ci ens,eti ls’ appui esurl e«di al ogue»surl adi scussi on. Par l at echni que de l a « ma maï eut i que » Socr at e pose cont i nuel l eme ment des quest i onsàcesconci t oyenspourl esme meneràl adi scussi onetàl aréflexi on afin d’«accoucher»l eurespri t .I lparvi entaussiàdécouvri rl euri magi nat i on afin desepr épar eràcherc herdel avéri t é. I lr épèt ei nl assabl eme ment«t outcequej esai sc’ estquej enesai sri en, mai scel aj el esai s» . Sousl ecompt edel ’ i r oni e,Socrat ef ai ten sort equel eshomm mmes
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On voi tdonc qu’ avec Socr at el a phi l osophi e estune humi l i t é i nt el l ect uel l e.Ces pr emi mi er s pas de l a phi l osophi e ai nsiesqui ssée,i lf aut préci serl esmul t i pl essensquel ’ on peutat t ri bueràcet t edi sci pl i ne.
2-SI GNI FICATI ON DE LA PH HI I LO OS SO OP PH HI I E Quelquesoi tl ’ angl esousl equelappr éhendel aphi l osophi e,cet t e der ni èr esepr ésent ei nvari abl eme mentcomm mmeuneent r epri sedel ’ espri tr omp mpant avecl emo mondesurnat ur el ,pourent r erdansl emo mondespi ri t uel .L’ espri ts’ él ève parr apportau senscomm mmunetauxmu mul t i pl esél éme ment sdel avi equot i di enne. C’ estaussil anécessi t éd’ évi t erl esi l l usi ons,l esf aussesévi dences; cequePl at on appel l e«l ’ opi ni on » .Gr âceà l ’ act i vi t ér éflexi vedel a rai son,l a phi l osophi evaàl aquêt edel aconnai ssancef ondée,l ar echer chedel avér i t é. Tout ef oi s,mal gr é cet t e uni t é phi l osophi que,i len r est e pas moi ns que ces di sci pl i nesadesmul t i pl esaccept i ons,etdesf orme mesqu’ el l eaeu àr evêt i rau coursd’ hi st oi re.
A.LA PHI LOSOPHI E COMME AMOUR DE LA SAGESSE Laphi l osophi eai nsidéfini edécoupesonsensét ymo mol ogi que,quiest l e sens l e pl us anci en,mai s aussil e pl uscour ant .Ce t er me r éuni t2 mot s grecs:phi l ei n( amour )etsophi a( sci enceousagesse) .C ‘ estdonsl ’ amourdel a sci ence ou de l a sagesse.La phi l osophi e s’ i dent i fie al ors aux dési r s de l a sagesse, ce qui i mpl i que une r echer che ou une quêt e. Dès l ’ ori gi ne l a phi l osophi eestl ’ i ndi ced’ unmanque,d’ unbesoi ns’ i lf autcombl eretsat i sf ai re. Sous l er appor t ,l a phi l osophi e appar aî t comm mme l a sci ence que l ’ homm mme éprouvesurson i gnor ance etson dési rd’ accéderà l a connai ssance parl a médi at i ondel arai son. Parai l l eurs,cett edi sci pl i nepeutêt resai si esel on deuxdi rect i ons: l aconnai ssanceetl esavoi rd’ unepart;l apr at i quedecesavoi rou l esavoi r f ai red’ aut repart . Cesavoi rf ai reest nsavoi rêt reou bi en nsavoi rvi vre;end’ at res
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phi l osophi eunema mani èr edevi vr e,unemo modedevi e.Cel ai nt égr é«l amaî t ri sede soi»quiexi gel adomi mi nat i on del apenséesurl ecorpsetl espassi onsquisont sinécessai r eaubonheurdel ’ homm mme. La sagesse au sens phi l osophi que n’ est pas l a somm mme des expér i ences de l a vi e( exemp mpl e :l e sage af ri cai n) ,e tne r evendi que pas l a per f ect i on l orsqu’ on parl e de l a sagesse di vi ne.La t r adi t i on r apport e que Pyt hagor erécusal equal i ficat i fde«Sophos»( sage)pourl uipr éf érercel uide« phi l osophos.L’ ami edel asagesse:«j esui sphi l osophe!Non pasquel qu’ unqui pr ét endposséderl asagesse,mai sunhomm mmequis’ efforcever sel l e!I ln’ yapas d’ aut r esagequeDI EU. Ce passage l ai sse à comp mprendr e que l a sagesse n’ es tpas une possessi on,mai suneacqui si t i on pr ogr essi veetperma manent e.Cequiestl epl us i mport ant ,cen’ estt antl ’ obj ect i f ,quidu rest en’ estj amai sat t ei nt ,c’ estpl ut ôt l emo moyen depoursui vrecetobj ect i f .I ls’ agi tdel ’ effortrenouvel éde cetél an dynami mi que de l ’ homm mme sur l e chemi n i nfini de l a sagesse et du per f ect i onneme mentphi l osophi que.C’ estpour quoi ,l a sagesseestuneconquêt e del ’ homm mme. Une t el l e anal yse per metd’ i ndi querque l a phi l osophi e estune ent r epri se pl ei ne d’ humi di t é comm mme on l a per çoi t chez Pyt hagor e et chez Socrat equirépét ai tl at ouj ours«t outcequej esai s,c’ estquej enesai sri en» .
Lasagessesocr at i queestcont i nuéeparson di sci pl ePl at on dontl a phi l osophi er eposesurl at héori edesi dées.Pourcephi l osophe,i lexi st eun « monde sensi bl e »;l e monde desapparencesetdesi l l usi ons,etl e «monde i nt el l i gi bl e» ,cel uidel aréal i t é,desessences,desi déespuresetét ernel l es,de l avéri t éetdel al umi ère. Dansl aRépubl i que,Pl at on i l l ust r ecet t econcept i on dansl ef ameux myt hedel acaverne. Supposons, nous di t Pl at on, une caverne obscur e où des pri sonni er ssonten chaî nedepui st ouj our s,un f eu al l umél eurperme metdevoi r
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connu l a véri t éetl ar éal i t é,phi l osophi edesessences,desi déespur es,i lva r et ournerpourai derses comp mpagnons de l a caver ne à se l i bér er .Mai s ces derni er sl et r ouventét r angeetl epr ennentpourunf ou.Lacaver neobscur eest l ’ aut r emonde,l espri sonni er ssontl eshomm mmesetl epri sonni erl i bér éestl e bi en l e phi l osophe.I li mport e donc que l es hommes qui t t ent l e «monde sensi bl e» ,l esi l l usi ons,despassi onsetdel amat i èr e,pouraccéderau monde i nt el l i gi bl edel aréal i t é,del avéri t éetdel asagesse.Ma Mai scomm mmentyaccéder? . Sel on Pl at on,i lf autser essouveni r .En effet ,l ’ homm mmeestcomp mposé d’ uneâme meetd’ uncorps;orcet t eâme meappart i entau mondei nt el l i gi bl e.Quand un homm mmenaî tcel a veutdi r equ’ uneâme mequiasé j ournédansl emo mondedes i dées pur es etdes essences ét er nel l es,vi ents’ i ncarner dans l e corps.Ce f ai sant ,l ’ âme me oubl i et outce qu’ el l e savai t .Ma Mai sl ’ homm mme peutr et r ouverl e monde i nt el l i gi bl e par un effortde cont emp mpl at i on,de r essouveni r .C’ estl a t héori e derémi mi ni scence.I ls’ agi tde f ai reun effortde l ’ él évat i on i nt el l ect uel pourse souveni r«di al ect i que ascendant e »etd’ ai derl es aut r es homm mmes à connaî t r el avéri t é«di al ect i quedescendant e.Cet t esagessepl at oni ci ennedoi t per met t r eàl ’ homm mmedeseme met t r esurl avoi edubonheur . Denomb mbr eusesécol esdesagessesontfleuridansl ’ ant i qui t éavec pour obj ect i fr endr el es homm mmes heur eux.On peutci t erl e st oï ci sme me qui l ’ uni ver sestr égl éparun ordrepr éét abl iparDI DI EU quigouver nel et out ,etqui envoi el esévèneme ment squiarri ventdef açoni nél uct abl e.L’ homm mme,enf acedel a nécessi t énepeutri en changer .I lnepeutagi rqu’ en cequiconcernesar ai son en accept antl eschosest el l esqu’ el l esarr i vent ,en ét antconf orme meàl ’ harmo moni e del ’ uni vers.Cel ava l uiconf érerl i bert éetbonheur .Mai ss’ i ln’ accept epasl a nécessi t é,i lset rouveal orsdansl acont r ai nt eeti ldevi entmal heur eux.
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heur eux.Etpourcel a«dupai n,del ’ eau etunpeudepai l l esuffisent .» Pourl esadept esdu Scept i ci sme me,l ebonheurexi gedesavoi r f ai r e une«épochée»phi l osophi que;c’ est àdi r eunesuspensi on du j ugeme ment .Pour l esScept i ques,i ln’ yapasdevéri t ésabsol ues,i ln’ yaquedesvéri t ésrel at i ves, ét antdonnéqu’ on peutt ouj our sopposerunevéri t éàuneaut r evéri t é.Enf ai t e, t outdépenddel ’ homm mmeetsel on Pr ot agoras«l ’ homm mmeestl ame mesur edet out es choses.I lf autdèsl orspr at i querl edout een s’ abst enantdet outj ugeme ment .Ce quif ai tqu’ on n’ estpl usbal l ot t écont i nuel l eme mentent r edesvéri t éscont r ai r es. Ondevi entst abl ee theur eux. Les di sci pl es des maî t r es du Cyni sme me cher chent à vi vr e« conf ormé méme mentàl anat ur e» .I l sveul entsat i sf ai r et outl epl ai si rnat ur elent out e l i ber t é,sans se souci erdes convent i ons moral es ets oci al es quiger mentl e bonheurdeshommes. Pourl esSophi st es,l asagesseconsi st eàsemont r erhabi l eparl e r ai sonneme mentetparl a pensée,à savoi rconvai ncr esanst r op f ai r ecas del a véri t é.Socr at ea t r op combat t u sesphi l osophesau nom del a véri t éetdel a mor al e. Tout es l es écol es de sagesse ontpourobj ect i fd’ i ndi queren quoi consi st el esouver ai n bi en quiestsour cedebonheur ,etqu’ on acqui ertparl a connai ssanceetl a maî t ri sedesoi .L’ exi st encehumai nedoi tsesoumet t r eau savoi retàl aprati quedecesavoi r .
B.LA PHI LOSOPHI HI E COM OMME CON ONNA NAISSANCE DE LA TOT OTALI TE ETSYSTEME MEDE DEPENSEE
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i gnore raucunef orme medeconnai ssance,c’ estpour quoiAri st ot eaffirma mai t:«l e phi l osophe c’ estcel uiquipossède l at ot al i t é du savoi rdans l a mesur e du possi bl e» . Son maî t r ePl at on avai tdéj ài ndi quél er apportét r oi texi st antent r el a phi l osophi eetl asci encequant i lécri vi tau seui ldeson académi mi e:«Quenul n’ ent rei cis’ i ln’ estpasgéomètr e» . On voi tdoncqu’ i lexi st ai tcomm mmeun espri tencycl opédi quedansl a phi l osophi edupasséetqu’ i lét ai ti ncarnéaupl ushautpoi ntparAri st ot edonc l ’ aut ori t éi nt el l ect uel l e s’ exer ça j usqu’ au XVI e si ècl eà t raversl ’ ensei gneme ment scol ast i que. Au XVI I e si ècl eencor e Descart esdéfini ssai tl a phi l osophi e aussi dans ce t t e mét aphor e :«Tout el a phi l osophe es tcomm mme un ar bre donc l es r aci nes sontl a mét aphysi que,l et r onc estl a physi que etl es br anches qui sort entdecet roncestl esaut r essci ences» . Laphi l osophi eestdoncuneconnai ssancegénér al edel at ot al i t édu r éel l e qui est él abor ée per sonnel l eme ment . A cet effet i l convi ent que l es connai ssancessoi entprésent éesent antqu’ ensemb mbl ed’ i déescohér ent espour pourv oi rf ai r eun t out .En d’ aut r est er mes,l a phi l osophi epr end l af orme medu syst ème meconst rui tparc haquephi l osopheetsel on l ’ époqueoù i lvoi tl ej our .En effetchaque phi l osophe const rui tun syst ème me quil uiper metd’ or donnerl es connai ssancesafind’ appr éhenderr at i onnel l eme mentl ’ homm mmeetl ’ uni ver s. L’ aspectsyst éma mat i quedel aconnai ssancees ti mport ant .I lsat i sf ai t l apenséehumai nedési r eusedel ogi queetdecomp mpr éhensi on.Ai nsil‘ homm mme
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Pourt antdepui sHegeletMaxe tEngel sl aphi l osophi esemb mbl eavoi r per ducetaspectsyst éma mat i queett ot al i santdel aconnai ssanceausuj etdur éel . Sansdout ec’ estàcausedespr ogr èsi mport ant setcont i nuel sdel asci ence.I l devi ent pr esque i mpossi bl e de sui vr et ous l es acqui s de l a sci ence pour él aborer une t héori e phi l osophi que syst éma mat i que en r appor t avec l e dével oppeme mentdessci encesetdest echni ques.C’ estpour quoil esphi l osophes sel i mi t entdepl usenpl usàdesanal ysesphi l osophi quessurunou pl usi eur s aspect sdur êve.I lnecher chepl usàr endr ecomp mpt edur éeldanssat ot al i t é.On peutdi r equel a phi l osophi e,quis’ estpr ésent éed’ abor d comm mmeamo mourde l a sagesseet ,en sui t ecommeconnai ssancesyst éma mat i quedel at ot al i t édu r éel , prendunaut r evi sagequ’ i lconvi entdepercevoi r:cel uideréflexi on cri t i que.
C.LA PHI LOSOP OPHI E COM OMME QU QUESTI ONNE NEME MENT ET RE REFLEXI XI ON CRI TIQUE Eneffet ,l aphi l osophi epeutêt r ecomp mpri seaussicomm mmel ’ at t i t ude i nt err ogat i vedel ’ homm mmeau suj etdu r éel .En f ai t ,l ’ êt r ehumai n n’ exi st epas dans l e monde comme un si mpl e spect at eur cont empl antl e spect acl e des chosesetdesévèneme ment s,quisesui ventetsedér oul entdevantl ui .I lposeun r egar di nt err ogat i fsurl ’ uni ver s,sursonenvi r onneme mentetsurl ui même me,cari l es tf ondament al eme mentun êt r e doué de consci ence.En t antque t el ,i lse r et r ouveenper manencedevantl anécessi t édeposerdesquest i onsparr apport àsonexi st ence,àl anat ur e,àl ’ ori gi nedumonde. En r éal i t éf aceau monde,l ’ homm mmes ’ ét onne;ai nsipourSocr at e« s’ ét onner ,l a phi l osophi e,n’ a pas de ori gi ne » .Mai s cetét onneme mentn’ estni béatniempi ri que;i lesti nt el l i gent Jean paulVERNANTcomment antl ’ ori gi ne
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Eneffet ,l ’ uni ver sn’ estpast r anspar entàl aconsci encehumai ne.I l nesel ai ssepascomp mpr endr esanseffortderéflexi on.Ceder ni erdoi tdépasser l eni veau emp mpi ri queou obj ect i fdel aconnai ssance,pourseme met t r esurl ar out e devéri t é,avecpouri nst rumentl ar ai son etl ar éflexi on. Cependanti lne f autpas cr oi r e que l es sol ut i ons qu’ apport el a phi l osophi e sont des r éponses défini t i ves etabsol ues.En phi l osophi el es r éponsessontr el at i ves.C’ estcequeme metenr el i efcepassagedeKa Kar lJasper«l a phi l osophi eset r ahi tel l emême mel orsqu’ el l edégénèreendogmat i sme me c’ est àdi r e en un savoi rmi mi seen f ormu mul e,défini t i f ,comp mpl et .Fai r edel aphi l osophi e,c’ est êt r e en r out e,l es quest i ons en phi l osophi e sontpl us essent i el l es que l es r éponsesetchaquer éponsesoul èveunenouvel l equest i on.» Laphi l osophi eneser édui tpasàunesomm mmedeconnai ssancesou deréponses.El l esef ai tval oi rparl ’ apt i t udeàsavoi rsoul everl esquest i onset poserdes pr obl ème mes.Ce quif ai tdi r e à Ort ega y Gasset:«l a phi l osophi e n’ exi st eninesej ust i fieparl ecaract èreval abl edesessol ut i ons,mai sl ’ aspect i nexor abl edesespr obl ème mes.»Savoi rposerl espr obl ème mesconst i t ueal orsune desf onct i onneme ment s.A cesuj et ,Ber t r andRusseli ndi queque:«Laval eurde l a phi l osophi edoi tt ouj our srési derdansson caract èr ei ncer t ai n même me»On peutdi r e que l ’ ent r epri se phi l osophi que cont i entune sort e «d’ i nqui ét ude » i nt el l ect uel l equif ai tquel ar éflexi on estt ouj oursouvert epar cequ’ el l enese sat i sf ai tpas d’ une r éponse défini t i ve.En effetl ’ espri thumai n ne peutpas r égl er ,unebonnef oi spourt out e,l ’ ensemb mbl edesquest i onsquiseposentaux homm mmes au fil de l ’ hi st oi r e ou du t emp mps. Dès l or s, l ’ espri t cri t i que est nécessai r epourapport ercont i nuel l eme mentdesr éponsesmei l l eur es.Cetespri t cri t i queaunepartval eurcapi t al eaussibi en pourl epr ogr èsdel aphi l osophe
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La Philosophie Production Mbaarmi.com – Centre 1 Vélingara " Téléphone : 33.997.12.1 " !"mail # mcoumar9$%ahoo.&r
r ai son àbon esci entc’ estàdi r edef açonj udi ci eusepourat t ei ndr el avéri t éde l ar éal i t é. Dans cet t e opt i que, Emi l e BREHI ER sout i ent qu’ «i l n’ y a de phi l osophi el àoù i ln’ yadepenséerat i onnel l ec’ est àdi r eunepenséecapabl e decri t i quere tdef ai r eeffortpoursej ust i fierpardesr ai sons» .On peutdonc t i r erl aconséquencequel aphi l osophi een f ai santl apr omo mot i on del apensée, cont ri bue à cel l e de l ’ êt r e humai n en t antqu’ i lun êt r e doué de r ai son.I l mont r el a déma marche à emp mprunt erpourparveni rà desposi t i onsr at i onnel l es. Ai nsi ,l a phi l osophi ei nt err oge t out l er éel:l es f ai t s,l es événeme nt s,l es comp mport eme ment s,l esi déesetl eval eur s.El l el est r adui tdevantl et ri bunaldu « l ogos»ou encorecel uidel ar ai son afind’ enj ust i fierl ebi enf ondé. SiHegelconsi dèr el aphi l osophi ecomm mmeunespi r al edecer cl edont l e derni er cont i ent et dépasse l es précédent s. De Descart es consi dèr e l a phi l osophi ecomm mmeun arbr edontl esr aci nessontl amét aphysi quel et r oncl a physi queetl esbr anches l es di ffér ent esaut r es sci encesdontl es pri nci pal es sontl amé médeci ne,l amé mécani queetl amo moral e. Du poi ntde vue de Hegel ,l a phi l osophi e doi tavoi rpourt ache d’ i nt erpr ét erl emo monde. C’ estpourquoii ldi t:«en t antquepenséedu mo mondeel l e( l a
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pouvoi r s ét abl i s qu’ i l ssoi entde l ’ ordr e pol i t i queéconomi mi que t r adi t i onnelet même mer el i gi eux.En cel a,l a phi l osophi er ef er meun aspectsubver si f .Cel aest surt outdu àsadi mensi on cr i t i quequidér angebeaucoupl espouvoi r sét abl i s. En effet ,l aphi l osophi ef ondel eschosesen l ’ homm mmec’ est àdi r een sar ai son pourat t ei ndr el avéri t équinecorr espondpast ouj our sàcel l edeshomm mmesdu pouvoi r . Kantquantàl uir amè mènel aphi l osophi eàquat r equest i onsàsavoi r quepui sj esavoi r?Qu Quedoi sj ef ai r e?Quem’ m’ est i lpermi mi sd’ espér er?En fin Qu’ estceque l ’ homm mme.Ai nsichezKa Kant ,l a phi l osophi e peutserame menerà l ’ ant hropol ogi e En derni èreanal yse,l at achepri nci pal edel aphi l osophi econsi st een l ’ épanoui ssementdel ’ homm mmeenl er endantcapabl edepenserr at i onnel l eme ment etde savoi rut i l i serl ’ espri tcri t i que pourrévél erl a véri t é.I lestquesti on de r éfléchi re tdebi en pensere tnon d’ accumul erdesconnai ssances.Etcomm mme l ’ i ndi quentf orbi en l espr oposd’ E.Kant ,«I ln’ yapasdephi l osophi equel ’ on pui sseappr endr e,onnepeutqu’ appr endr eàphi l osopher»
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Dansl ’ ant i qui t é,l a phi l osophi erepr ésent ai tl esavoi rparexcel l ence; pui squ’ el l er enf er mai t aussi bi en l a physi que ( sci ence) l a mét aphysi que, l ’ est hét i que,l ’ ét hi queetl al ogi que.Avecl anai ssancedessci encesmo modernesau 17 s. ,l e champ mp de l a phi l osophi e s’ est r édui t e pr ogressi veme mente tel l e est désormai s consi dér ée comm mme l a sci ence de l ’ homm mme ou encor à en cr oi r e Ari st ot e,«l asci encedescausespr emi èr es.A.Compt eavai tmêmepr édi t«l a mortde l a phi l osophi e » mai s el l e subsi st ej usqu’ à pr ésent e ts ubsi st er a t ouj our st ant que l es homm mmes r est er ont des suj et s pensant s etdes êt r es agi ssant s.El l eent r et i endr aaussit ouj our sdesrapport savecl asci ence.
Q QU U’ ESTCEQU QUELA SCI ENC NCE? Comp mposée dans l a pér i ode ant i que des mat hémat i ques de l a physi queetdel ’ ast r onomi mi e,l asci enceét ai ti nt égréedansl a phi l osophi e.Les homm mmesde sci encesetdes mat héma mat i ci ens ét ai entaussides phi l osophes. ( Thal ès,Pyt hagor e,Descart es,Lei bni z,Pascalet c…) …) .Les sci ences pr ennent i ndépendanceàpart i rdu 17s.El l ef onct i onnedema mani èr eaut onome meetét udi e de mani èr e exact e,obj ect i ve etpr éci se l er éel .Not ons d’ abord que l er éel dési gnel anat ur el esphénomè mènesnat ur el s:C’ est àdi r el amat i ère.L .Lasci ence
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mat i èr e. Cet t e obj ect i vi t é est due à l a di st ance exi st ant e ent r el e suj et connai ssant( savant )estl ’ obj etconnai ssabl e( l amat i ère) .Engénéral e,dansl es sci ences,l echer cheurou l esavantnes’ i mpl i quepasen t antqu’ i ndi vi du dans l ’ obj et qu’ i l veut connaî t r e. L’ homm mme ou l a mat i èr e ét ant i ndi ffér ent ,l a subj ect i vi t éestpresquenul l e. Dans l e pr ocessus d’ acqui si t i on de l a connai ssance sci ent i fique,i l i mport ederespect erl espri nci pesd’ uni t é,degénéral i t é,d’ uni versal i t é en un motderat i onal i t é:Afindepasnui r eàdesl oi setàdest héori esi mper sonnel l es et uni ver sel l es.Les homm mmes de sci ence about i ssent donc à des r ésul t at s concordant spar cequel esr ègl esder at i onal i t ésontr espect ées:obj ect i vi t é,« di scur si vi t é» ,cohér ence,e t c.Ai nsil es sci ent i fiques peuventêt r e unani mes dans l a concl usi on. Tel l es que l es connai ssances sont r at i onnel l es et véri fiabl es. Tout ef oi s,l esr ésul t at ssci ent i fiquesnesontpasdéfini t i f s;cari lya t ouj our sdesr echer chesetdespr ogr èsensci ence.Lespr ogr èsd’ appr of ondi rou d’ él ar gi rcequiestdéj àconnuaupl andevéri t é. Comm mme l a sci ence, l a phi l osophi er echer che l ar at i onal i t é et
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val eur s,au ni veau ét hi que( mor al e) cequef ai tj ust ementl a phi l osophi e.En out re,l aphi l osophi en’ ét udi epasl esf ai t sen t antquetel ,d’ ai l l eursel l en’ apas d’ obj etpropre.El l es’ occupedet outcequif ai tpart i edel ar éal i t éetnon des part i esdel aréal i t écomm mmac’ estl ecas en sci ence. Laphi l osophi er apport e t outf ai te tt out econnai ssanceàl ’ êt r ehumai n etl ar ai son.C’ estai nsiquel a sci enceesti nt erprét éedef açon cri t i queparl aphi l osophi epourl ecomp mpt ede l ’ êt r ehumai n.D’ unecert ai nemani èr e,el l econst i t uel aconnai ssancegénér al e quet ent ed’ uni fiert ousl esf ai t sdansl acomp mpr éhensi on gl obal eetcohér ent e, parr apportà l a final i t é ou à une val eurdonnée.De cepoi ntde vue,l a phi l osophi eaun aspectmoralou ét hi que.Parr apportàl asci ence,el l esef ai t al ors di scour s cri t i que ;c’ estce quif ai tdi r e à V.Jankél évi t ch que «l a phi l osophi eestl a consci encedessci ences» .EtcequiqueRABELAI S ai tpu di r e«sci encesansconsci encen’ estquerui nedel ’ âme. Laphi l osophi ei nt ervi entl àoù l asci enceset ai tdansl edoma mai ne desval eursetdel afinal i t édel ’ exi st ence. Lesmo mot i vat i onsetl esangoi ssesdel ’ homm mmesontpri sesenchargepar l aphi l osophi een t antquemét aphysi que.On di tal or squel asci enceposel a quest i ondu«comm mment» etl aphi l osophi eposel aquest i ondu«pour quoi» .
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ét abl i ssent des r apport s de col l abor at i on et subi ssent des i nfluences r éci pr oquesdansl epr ocessusdecl ari ficat i ondel ar éal i t é. C’ est ai nsi que l a physi que d’ Ari st ot e ét ai tl arge de par sa mét aphysi que.E Kantsurl abasedesprogr èsdel aphysi quemo moderneavecN. COPERNI C( l ’ hél i ocent ri sme meremp mpl acel egéocent ri sme me) ,vaf ai r et r oi scri t i ques au pl anphysi que( moral econnai ssanceetEst hét i que) . Le Phi l osophe et épi st émo mol ogue, G. G. Bachel ar d dans son ouvr age i nt i t ul éLaf orma mat i on del ’ Espri tsci ent i fique quel essavant s,dansl eurt r avai l derecher che,doi ventdépasserun cert ai n d’ obst acl es«épi st émo mol ogi que»afin de per met t r el espr ogrès` s sci ent i fiques. Descart es (mét aphore de l ’ arbre»
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auj our d’ hui ,sous des f or mes à pei ne di ffér ent es.Sous un mi nce ver nide ci vi l i sat i on secachentdest endancesi rr at i onnel l esetdesi déesquipr ennent r aci nedansun l oi nt ai n passéà moi t i éoubl i é,mai sdontl ' humani t énes' est pas encor e éma manci pée. Nous ne pourr ons d’ ai l l eur sl es ext i rper de l a consci encehumai ne qu’ à part i rdu mome mentoù l es homm mmes etl es f emmes aur ontdéfini t i veme mentacqui sl ama maî t ri sedel eur scondi t i onsd' exi st ence.
Genèsedel a rel i gi on
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l ef onte ncor e auj our d’ hui .L’ ani mi sme mecorr espond à uneépoqueoù l ’ espèce humai nenes’ ét ai tpasencor ecomp mpl èt eme mentsépar éedu mondeani maletdel a nat ur e en génér al .La proxi mi t é ent r e ces homm mmes etl e monde ani males t encoreat t est éeparl af r aî cheuretl a beaut édespei nt ur essurl esparoi sde cer t ai nesgr ot t es:deschevaux,desbi sonsetdesbi chesysontr epr ésent és avecunnat ur elquinepourr ai tpl usêt r er epr odui tparunart i st emo moderne.
Lespoi ntsdeconvergences Appar emment ,l epoi ntder encont r epri nci paldel aphi l osophi eetdel a r el i gi on, l eur pri nci pal poi nt de conver gence, c' est que sur l a cart e géogr aphi quedel ' exi st encehumai ne,el l esoccupentenpart i e,etchacuneàsa
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Di eu,el l eestobéi ràDi Di eu. Spi noza,pourdémo mont r erque c’ estl ’ obéi ssance quiestl e pri nci pe même medel af oi ,vamont r er ,dansl echapi t r eXI I Ideson ouvr agei nt i t ul éTrai t é t héol ogi queetpol i t i que,quenomb mbr eusessontl esl eçonsd' obéi ssancedansl a Bi bl e.Parexempl equeMo Moï sen' apasconvai ncu parl aRai son mai sen ayant r ecour sàl acrai nt educhât i mentetàl arecher chedel arécomp mpense. Spi nozadi t: " cr oi r eenDi euetl erévér er ,ou,cequir evi entaumême me,obéi ràDi Di eu" . I lposeai nsil aFoicomm mme:
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d' auj ourd' hui .
V-PHI LOSOPHI E ETART Sel on Pl at on,l es r apport s ent r el ' arte tl a phi l osophi e ou ent r el a poési eetl aphi l osophi epr ennentl af orme med' unecont r adi ct i on donti ln' estpar sûrqu' el l epui sseêt r esurmont ée.Au l i vr eX deLaRépubl i que:Pl at on pense une ext ér i ori t é ou une al t ér i t é comp mpl èt es de l a poési e, de l ’ art et de l a phi l osophi equil ' amè mènentàdi agnost i quercequ' i lappel l e«l evi euxdi ffér end ent r el a phi l osophi e etl a poési e» .La di scor de t i entdans l ef ai tque l es
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VI -LESCOURANTSETSYSTEMESPHI LOSOPHI QUES Parmi mil escour ant sl espl usconnusetl espl usr epr ésent at i f s,nous pouvonsci t erl ema mat éri al i sme me,l ’ i déal i sme mel est ruct ural i sme me,l est oï ci sme meetbi en
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convi ct i on sacr éeetpasseàl amoul i net t edel ar ai son cri t i quet outpri nci pede connai ss ance et d' act i on, en amo mont ,l es présupposés mét aphysi ques et convi ct i onssuprarat i onnel l es,t r anscendant esetr el i gi euses,l amoral esoci al e domi nant ema malf ondéesou f ondéessurl apeurdu changement ,cequir evi ent
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Chapi treVI:
LAQU QUESTI ON DE LAPHI HI LOS OSOP OPHI HI E AFRI RI CAINE
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négri t ude.C’ es tpourquoiFabi en EBOUSSIBOULAGA i ndi quequec’ estun di scoursi nt rovert i ,unephi l osophi ede«aussi» . Eneffet ,pourqu’ i lyestphi l osophi esel on Fr anzGRAHAY,cer t ai ns
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La Philosophie Production Mbaarmi.com – Centre 1 Vélingara " Téléphone : 33.997.12.1 " !"mail # mcoumar9$%ahoo.&r
t ousl esHo Homm mmesetpr ovoquedest r oubl esdeper sonnal i t é. Quantà CarlGust aveYOU OUNG, i lsi t uel ’ ori gi nedest r oubl es psychi quesdans» l ’ i nconsci entcol l ect i f» .Ceti nconsci entquihant el apensée des homm mmes s’ appui e sur l es archét ypes et l es i mages ancest r al es quise mani f est entsouventdans l es r êves( si t uat i onsd’ angoi sse,pour sui t e pardes f ai t echi ens,l esl oups,l esact i onsma mal éfiquesdessorci ers,desdi abl es et c…) …) . G Youngr et r ouveai nsisesmar quesdanst out esl escul t ur es,dansl esmyt hesde l ’ humani t é. Denosj our s,i lexi st emê même medesf ormesdepsychanal ysemo moder ne quir eposentsurdespr oj et sf ai t spardespat i ent sàt raversl esdési rs,dest est s psychot echni ques,etdi ffér ent esf orme mesd’ expr essi onsquiperme met t entdesi t uer l ’ ori gi nedumal .
Concl usi on Nouspouvons,en concl usi ons,di r equema mal gr él esr éservesquel ’ on peutapport erà l at héori ef r eudi ennesurl ’ i nconsci ent ,età l a psychanal yse, cesdécouvert esontgr andeme mentcont ri buéàmi euxper cev oi rl ecôt éobscurde l ’ Homm mme,sa f ace cachée,l e ni veau comp mpl exe etamb mbi guë de l ’ Homm mme.En défini t i ve,l ’ i nconsci ent ,en t antque conceptt héori que part i ci pe à l ’ exi gence phi l osophi que,socrat i quedu:«Connai st oit oi même me»
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La Philosophie Production Mbaarmi.com – Centre 1 Vélingara " Téléphone : 33.997.12.1 " !"mail # mcoumar9$%ahoo.&r
INTRODUCT I NTRODUCTION ION A L’ÉSPISTÉ L’ÉSPISTÉMOLOGIE MOLOGIE
CHAPI TR RE E VI I:
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INTRODUCT CTI ON Lasci enceestunef orme mepart i cul i èred’ appr ochedu r éel ,el l et i r eson ori gi nedesmo modesdesai si edel ar éal i t é.Cependant ,son espri tposi t i fr enonce àl ar echer chedesabsol uespourneseconsacr erqu’ aux f ai t sobser vabl esà l eur sl i ai sonsconst ant esetmesur abl es. Une t el l et ent at i ve ne va pas sans poseun cert ai n nomb mbre de probl ème mes découl ant de l af arouche r ési st ance que l ui oppose l ’ espri t r at i onnel ,l es aut r es f ormes de connai ssance mai s ausside l a di fficul t éà emb mbr asseretàécl ai r ert outl eréel .Cesontcesobst acl esquij ust i fientpl usou moi ns l a nai ssance etl ’ évol ut i on de l ’ épi st émo mol ogi e.En t antdi scour s,cet t e der ni èr e port e surl a sci ence,t outen cher chantà l uidéfini run obj et ,une mét hodedespri nci peset c…M …Mai si lanal ysesurt outl esr ésul t at sauxquel sel l es about i ssentai nsil eur sconséquencest héori quessurl aconcept i on génér al ede l anat ur e. Pour Bi en sai si rl e sens et l e port ée de l ’ act i vi t é sci ent i fique, l ’ épi st émo mol ogi edi vi sel asci enceent roi scat égori espri nci pal essui vantl anat ure del ’ obj etd’ i nvest i gat i on mai saussisui vantl adi ver si t édel adéma mar cheetdes mét hodesquiperme met t entdesai si rou d’ appr éhendercetobj et .L’ épi st émo mol ogi e estdonccet t edi sci pl i necharni èreent rel asci enceetl aphi l osophi equi ,t outen décri vantl ’ hi st oi re,l ’ évol ut i on dessci encesperme metparsa cri t i queàcel l e-l à d’ augme ment er sa posi t i vi t é par une obj ect i vat i on sans cesse accr ue de l a connai ssance.C’ estau nom del ar at i onal i t équel asci ences’ estdéma marquéede di ver sesaut r esappr ochesdu r éel .Cet t e exi genceestauj our d’ huisiaffir ffi rmée qu’ el l eent r aî necert ai nesposi t i onsext r ême mest endanta ni erou à r eme met t r een causel esst at utdessci encesdi t essoci al es. I-
Spéci fici tédel ’ approchesci enti fique
Lasci enceen t antquedi sci pl i neestuneact i vi t écar act éri séeparl a déma marcat i on qu’ el l e opèr e vi sàvi s de t out e aut r ef orme me de connai ssance. Cependant dans l el angage cour ant , un usage r el âché ou abusi f sembl e at t énuerl aspéci fici t édecet t edi sci pl i neent r aî nantai nsiuneconf usi on dans l a dél i mi t at i on du champ mp del a connai ssancesci ent i fique.C’ estdanscesens que l ’ on dési gne parf oi s sous ce vocabl e un ensembl e de connai ssances génér al es sans consi dér at i on de val eur épi st émo mol ogi que. Ai nsi ent endt on
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La Philosophie Production Mbaarmi.com – Centre 1 Vélingara " Téléphone : 33.997.12.1 " !"mail # mcoumar9$%ahoo.&r
decepoi ntquel adi ffér enci at i on d’Andr éLALANDE nousparaî tsat i sf ai sant e. Cederni erconçoi tl a sci encecomm mme «un ensembl edeconnai ssancesetde r echerches ayant un degr é suffisant d’ uni t é de génér al i t é,et suscept i bl es d’ ame menerl esHo Homm mmesquis’ yconsacr entàdesconcl usi onsconcor dant esqui ne r ésul t ent ni des convent i ons arbi t r ai r es, ni des goût s et des i nt ér êt s i ndi vi duel squil eursoncomm mmuns,mai sdesr el at i onsobj ect i vesqu’ ondécouvr e gr aduel l eme mentetquel ’ on confirmepardesm mé ét hodesdevéri ficat i onsdéfini es» Ledéma mar chesci ent i fiquesecar act éri sedoncparson obj ect i vi t é.Obj ect i vi t édu suj et connai ssant dans son r appor t au savoi r et à son envi r onneme ment , caract éri séparunet rèsst ri ct eneut ral i t éaxi ol ogi que:mai saussiàl ’ égardde l ’ obj etposé i cicomm mme phénomè est à-di r e une séri e de mani f est at i ons mène c’ défini est ri éesetcl asséesparl ’ Homm mmedesci encequigar devi sàvi sd’ el l esun r apportt outà f ai tdi st ant ,i mpart i aletdési nt ér essé.C’ esten cel a que l a sci ence se di st i ngue de l ’ opi ni on dans ses deux sens.El l e estdi ffér ent e de l ’ opi ni onconçueau ni veau i ndi vi duelsubj ect i vequin’ amê même mepasvocat i onàse j ust i fier .Son opposi t i on àl ’ opi ni on commu mmuneestencor epl usr adi cal edansl a mesur e où cet t e der ni èr e estt ouj our s mot i vée par un besoi n soci alquil a dét er mi ne :« El l et r adui t des besoi ns en connai ssance » comm mme l e di t Bachel ard dans La f ormat i on de l ’ espri t sci ent i fique, Pari s,VRI N, P. 14. L’ opi ni on en ce sensestt él éol ogi que.El l e vi se une final i t é,à découvri rune causefinal e.En r evanche,l a sci encecher cheà ét abl i runecauseeffic ffici ent e, uner el at i on ent r edesphénomè mènes.C’ estdanscet t eopt i quequel ’ opi ni on a sel on Bachel ard « t ouj our st ort en droi t , mê même me siel l e peut par hasar d rencont rerl evéri t é. » D’ D’ ai l l eurscel l ecin’ estpasl ’ obj etdesaquêt e.Eneffet ,pendantquel a sci ence cher che l e savoi r ,l ’ opi ni on el l e, vi se un savoi r qui l ui ma manque désespéréme ment .Par l à,i lapparaî tde mani èr e évi dent e que l a sci ence n’ a aucunel i ai son avecl ’ opi ni on.Pendantquel a pr emi mi èr es’ appui esurdesl oi s ri gour euses,l a seconde se cont ent e d’ i nt ui t i ons vagues etobscur es souvent d’ ori gi ne mét aphysi que.C’ estce deni erquif onde aussil a sépar at i on net t e ent r el a sci ence etl es f ausses sci ences quesontent r eaut r esl ’ ast r ol ogi e,l a parapsychol ogi e,l ar adi est hési e,l ’ écol ogi sme me etmê même me l e yoga.Ces f orme mes d’ appr ochedu r éeldével oppentl ’ ésot éri sme meetl ’ expéri encei ndi vi duel l eau l i eu devi serl ’ uni ver sal i t é.Leur sopér at i onsetl eur sdéma mar chessontemp mpr ei nt esde myst i ci sme me,mar quéesparl ’ opaci t é,sesi t uantai nsiauxant i podesdel ’ exi gence etdel apr at i quedel at r anspar enceetdel apr éci si on quisontàl ’ œuvr edans
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sci ent i fique.
Qu’ estcequel ’ épi st émo mol ogi e? L’ épi st émo mol ogi eestl abr anchedel aphi l osophi equiconsi st eàj et erun r egar d cr i t i que sur l ’ act i vi t é sci ent i fique, sur l es di ffér ent es f ormes d’ appr opri at i on de l a connai ssance par l ’ espri thumai n.En effetquand l a penséecherc heàconnaî t r el eréel ,el l epassepardesi nt err ogat i onsauxquel l es el l echer cheà donnerdesr éponses.L’ épi st émo mol ogi epeutdoncêt r econsi dér ée comm mme uneréflexi on cr i t i quedel a phi l osophi esurl edi scour ssci ent i fique, préci sé ment sur l es mét hodes, l es f ondeme ment s et l es concl usi ons de l ’ i nvest i sseme mentdessci ences.El l es’ occupeaussidel ’ aspectmoralou ét hi que des pr obl ème mes que posentl es r ésul t at s sci ent i fiques en r apportavec l eur ut i l i sat i ont echni que.
Lesexi gencesdel ’ espri tsci enti fique Lapr ét ent i on del asci enceàsedi st i nguerdet ousl esaut r esmo modesde connai ssancel ’ obl i geàsesoumet t r eàuncert ai nsnomb mbr ed’ exi gences.Cel l esciconcernent d’ abor d ses i nst rument st elque l el angage.Dans l e champ épi st émo mol ogi que ce der ni erut i l i se des concept s uni voques quin’ on ou ne t endentàn’ avoi rqu’ un seulsenspr éci séme mentdéfini .I l sdi ffér enten cel ades conceptl i ngui st i quesetsoci auxmar quésparl euréqui voci t éetl eurpol ysémi mi e. Parexemp mpl el e conceptd’ éner gi e s’ appl i que dans l el angage sci ent i fique aux corps sol i des,à t ous l es corps sol i des,mai s seul eme mentà ceuxci .I lst i pul e qu’ un sol i deabandonnéà l ui même meper si st edansson ét atst at i onnai r eou de mobi l i t éj usqu’ à ce qu’ une f or ce ét r angèr e vi enne modi fier cel ui l à. En r evanche,dansl el angagecour antl ’ éner gi epeutaut an dési gneruneabsence demo mouveme mentqu’ uner ési st anceau mouveme ment( f orced’ i nert i e) .El l es’ appl i que aussibi en aux corps qu’ aux espri t s etest souvent assi mi l éà l ’ apat hi e. Cont r ai r eme mentauconceptl i ngui st i que,l et erme mesci ent i fiquevi sel epr éci si on et l a ri gueur .C’ estseul eme mentai nsiqu’ i la pu sef ai r el ef ondeme mentdet out el a mécani quedessol i des.
A quoireconnaî tonl asci ence?
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l ogi quei nt er nedesénoncés.D’ aut r epartl adéma marchesci ent i fiqueestsoumi se àdescri t èresd’ exact i t udesquivéri fientl ’ adéquat i onent rel ’ énoncéetl aréal i t é. C’ estl erespectdecescri t èr esquiconst i t uel epri xà payerpourpr ét endr eà l ’ obj ect i vi t éetàl ’ uni versal i t é,c’ estàdi reà l ’ accord,au consensusent ret ous l es memb mbr es de «l ’ uni on des t r avai l l eur s de l a pr euve »Cet t e uni ver sal i t é concer ne aussil es l oi s sci ent i fiques quiport entsurdes phénomè mènes ( f ai t s défini s,ordonnés,sél ect i onnéset c…) …)eti gnorel esma mani f est at i onspart i cul i ères. Enunmot ,l ’ épi st émo mol ogi echer cheàme met t r eàj ourl ’ effortdel ’ homm mmeà acquér i rdesconnai ssances,el l er évèl een même met emp mpsetét udi el esobst acl es cogni t i f squel ’ homm mmerencont r edanssaquêt edel avéri t éetqu’ i ldoi tpourt ant dépasser . El l e mont r e en conséquence l ’ évol ut i on de l a progr ess i on des connai ssances humai nes qui s e per f ect i onnent t ouj our s. C’ est ai nsiqu’ A. Comt mt e qual i fie l es ét apes de connai ssance conqui se par l es homm mmes de t héol ogi que,de mét aphysi que,de sci ent i fique ou deposi t i ve.C’ estdansl a espri tsci enti fique . out mêmedémar chequeGa Gast on Bachel ar dpar l ed’ T ef oi s i li mport edesavoi rqu’ i lexi st eenréal i t édessci encescaron set r ouvet ouj ours devantdi ffér ent essci encesquisepart i cul ari sentparl eu obj etd’ ét udeetl eur mét hodes d’ i nvest i gat i on et l eur mode d’ éval uat i on des connai ssances . L’ appr ocheépi st émo mol ogi quecl assegl obal eme mentl essci encesen t r oi scat égori es.
-Les sci ences l ogi co f ormel l es,quisontl es pl us abst r ai t es etl es pl usri gour eusesma mai saussil espl usanci ennes. quiét udi entpri nci pal eme mentl amat i èr e -Lessci encesexpéri mental es oul anat ur eensesoumet t antàl avér i ficat i onexpér i ment al e.
- Les sci ences humai nes qui ont pour obj et l ’ homm mme un obj et
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Co Concl usi on
En concl usi on, nouspouvonsdi r equel ’ épi st émo mol ogi echer cheà éme met t r eunavi sobj ect i f ,etcri t i quesurl aprat i quedel asci ence.Lequelavi sest suscept i bl e de condui r e cet t e der ni èr e à son aut o per f ect i onneme ment . Par l ’ épi st émo mol ogi e,l a phi l osophi ei nci t el a sci ence à une mi se à j our de ses r el at i onsetdesest héori esapodi ct i ques,const ant esetquant i fiabl esent r el es grandeur sme mesur abl esetpr ogr essi ves;sit antestquecel l ecinesontpasdes données i mmédi at es, qu’ el l es f ont l ’ obj et d’ une quêt e, d’ une conquêt e pr ogressi ve quipr ocède par r ect i ficat i ons successi vesdes er r euretpar des r éaj ust eme mentconst ant esdesthéori es.Tout esf oi sl aconnai ssancesci ent i fique n’ estpas absol umentobj ect i ve.C’ estdu cer t ai n envel oppé de pr obabl e,de dout eux.El l en’ estpasunt ri omp mphedéfini t i fdel ’ espri tsci ent i fique.C’ estpl ut ôt un succès gr aduel et mome ment ané de l ’ obj ect i vi t é sur l es obst acl es épi st émo mol ogi ques qui se dressent sur son chemi mi n et que t out et héori e sci ent i fique doi t surmont er en opér ant une rupt ur e avec l es concept i ons ant éri eur eserr onées.
CHAPI TRE REV :
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La Philosophie Production Mbaarmi.com – Centre 1 Vélingara " Téléphone : 33.997.12.1 " !"mail # mcoumar9$%ahoo.&r
probl ème en ce qu’ el l e propose une t âche à accomp mpl i r pour donner une si gni ficat i on àl avi e.Pourt r ansf érerl ’ exi st encedu pl an desf ai t sàcel uidel a val eur .Dansl amor al ecesontl escondui t esquisontconsi dér ésen t ermede val eur . La vi e mor al ei mpl i que et découvr eàl af oi sl a consci ence et l ’ expéri ence.Aut r eme mentdi tvi vremo moral eme mentc’ estsef ai r eaut euretj uge.
I-
CON ONSCI ENCE PSYCHO HOLOGI GI QUE ET CON ONSCI ENCE MO MORALE
Laconsci enceestun mouveme ment ,uneconst ruct i on ou uneact i on qui ser éal i separl avoi edel apensée.Ai nsil aconsci encen, esaur ai taffirme merque l aconsci enced’ unêt r eensi t uat i on. Lest er mesdeconsci encepsychol ogi queetdeconsci encemo mor al e accusentunedual i t édesens:l a pr emi mi èr eécl ai r esurl a convenancedenos act es al or s que l a seconde or donne parce qu’ el l e dét er mi ne l a val eur .En d’ aut r est erme mes,l a consci encepsychol ogi queser ai tunesort eder egi st r esur l equelvi ents’ i mpri merl emo monde,ceserai tl apr ésencedesdi ffér ent esact esde l avi esent i ment al edans( dans)cel uiquil esvi t .Al orsquel aconsci encemo moral e appar aî tcomm mmeunesort edecenseurdenosact es. La ques t i on es t de savoi r si consci ence mor al e et consc i ence
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Fonderl a moral ec’ estl al égi t i mer ,c’ estmo mont r erl a basesurl aquel l e el l er epose.La quest i on estcel l eci:sur quoise f ondent l es obl i gat i ons moral es?D’ D’ où vi ennentl esval eur sou l esobl i gat i onsmo moral es?Lar éponseà ces quest i ons servi r a à anal yserquel ques gr andes concept i ons mor al es de notr ehi st oi re.
A-
LAMO MORALEDE DEL’ I NTERE RET
Epi cur ef ondel aval eurdel amoral esurl aconf ormi mi t édecel l eciavec l anat ur e.Pourl uil esouver ai nset r ouvedansl anat ur eetl avi eheur euseest l avi econf orme meàl anat ur e.On f ai tl ebi en pourê t r eheur eux.Ai nsil amoral e épi curi enneconsi st e à nedépendr equede soi même me.Mai si lcondamn mnel es pl ai si rsart i fici el setl esageestcel uiquicul t i vel espl ai si rsàl af oi snat urel set nécessai r es.D’ où l e paradoxe épi curi en d’ une mor al e aust èr e etascét i que basée surl e cul t e du pl ai si r .La mor al e peutaussiêt r e mot i vée parl ’ ut i l i t é c’ est àdi r e agi rbi en consi st e à agi r ut i l eme ment .Le pl ai si restcel uiquiest conf orme meà l anat ur eetquiexi gel ’ harmo moni edel ’ êt r e( corpsâme me)etquimène cel uiquiagi tàl ’ at araxi e. C’ est pour quoi i lf aut savoi r se l i mi t er aux pl ai si r s nat ur el l es et nécessai r esseul shabi l i t ésàr endr el ’ Homm mmeheur eux. .Cet t emo moral edu pl ai si r
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Danscegr oupeon peutév oquerl esphi l osophescommeJJRousseau quif onde l a mor al i t é humai ne dans un sent i ment d’ at t acheme ment au bi en i ndi quéparl avoi xi nt éri eur edu suj et .L’ affir ffirma mat i on cent r al edeRousseau en mat i èr edemo mor al ec’ estqu’ i lexi st eent ousl eshomm mmesmê même medansl esâme mesl es pl uscorr omp mpuesun pri nci pei nnédej ust i ce:La consci ence.Lespr éj ugésde l ’ enf anceetdel ’ éducat i onner endentpascompt e desval eur smo moral es.Seul el a consci ence,i nst i nctdi vi n,perme metdegui dermoral eme ment ,dej ugerdubi enetdu mal ,du vi ce etde l a ve rt u,en un motde l a mor al i t é de nos act i ons ( cf pr of essi ondef oiduvi cai r eSAOYARD dansl ’ Emi l e) . Eneffet ,i lécri t:«I lestau f onddesâmesunpri nci pei nnéedej ust i ce etdever t u surl equelnousj ugeonsnosact esetcel l esd’ aut ruicomm mmebonne ou mauvai se.C’ estàcepri nci pequej edonnel enon deconsci ence.I nst i nct di vi n,i mmort el l eetcél est evoi x.» Aut r eme ntdi t ,i lf autdoncsavoi récout erl avoi xi nt éri eur een soi afin d’ agi rmo moral eme mentsel on Rousseau.Ai nsi ,l amoral i t éestd’ un or dr ei nnée carl ’ Homm mme,àencr oi r eRousseau estnat ur el l eme mentbon même mesil asoci ét él e cor r omp mpt . Tout ef oi s,on pourr ai tobj ect eràRousseau quif ai tr eposerl amor al i t é surun i nst i nctdi vi n en l uiposantl a quest i on desavoi rpour quoil uif aut i l desrègl esetpourquoiat i ldesremo mords?
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uni ver selque chaque Homm mme déc ouvr e dans son ent endement pur ,dans l ’ aut onomi mi edesaconsci enceetdesavol ont é.Agi rmo moral eme mentc’ est ,sel on l ui , agi rpardevoi r .Qu’ estcequel edevoi r?C’ C’ estl ’ obéi ssanceàl al oi .Etqu’ est ce quel al oi?C’ estl ’ ordredel arai son. En effet ,Kantsefixepourobj ect i fdedégagerl ’ i déemo mor al edanssa pur et éi ndépendamm mmentdesci r const ancesdansl esquel l esel l epeutsurveni r . Pourbi enagi rmo moral eme menti lf autf ai r et abl erasedesmot i vat i onsi ndi vi duel l es, r éal i serl apur et édel ’ i nt ent i on.Or ,l ’ affirma mat i ondel al oimor al eappar aî tal ors comm mme l ’ expressi on de l al i ber t é dans l ’ usage pr at i que de l ar ai son: l ’ aut onomi mi edel avol ont é.Desma maxi mesquisontconsi dér éescomm mmedesr ègl es pr at i quesquema marai son medi ct eperme met t entd’ éval uer l amo moral i t édel ’ act i on. La r ai son me l es f ai t parveni rà t r aver s ce que Kant appel l ei mpér at i f s cat égor i ques ou i mpérat i f s mor aux à ne pas conf ondr e avec l es i mpérat i f s hypot hét i quesquisontcer t esdesor dr esdel arai sonmai squinecomm mmandent pasdesact i onsvér i t abl eme mentmoral es.
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Lapur et édel ’ act i on moral eexi gequel avol ont ésoi tl i bér éedeses hypot hèquessent i ment al es.A l ’ encont r e de Kantbeaucoup on sout enu que l ’ act ebi eni nt ent i onnén’ estpasaut oma mat i queme mentl ’ act emo moralmai saussil ’ act e effic fficace,etsupposentparl àl ’ adapt at i on demo mon i nt ent i on auxci r const ances concrèt es. Poureux,cel l escisontdessi néesparl ’ envi r onneme mentsoci al .Par ai l l eur sd’ aut r espensentqu’ audel àdel ar echerc hedesf ondeme ment sdel ’ act i on moral eonpr océderàsonr epér agedansl ’ organi sat i onsoci al e.
MORALE ETSOCIETE Emi l eDURKHEI M f ai tdel aconsci encemor al eun si mpl er efletdel a consci encecol l ect i ve.Pourl uichaquegr oupesoci al aunema mani èr ecol l ect i ve depenserd’ agi rdevi vr equenouspouvonsr essent i rdansl esgr andsmo mome ment s del asoci ét é.
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Sel on l ui , «l a mor al e cl ose» cel l e des homm mmes or di nai r es, est f ai t e d’ i nt er di ct i onsetder ecomm mmandat i onsvenantde l a soci ét é.Cet t emoral eest vécueparl eshabi t ant sd’ unesoci ét édef açon pr esquemé cani que.Unet el l e moral eestscl ér osée,el l en’ estpasvi vant e.El l eestuni queme mentr est éedece qu’ on appel l ebi en comm mmunaut ai r e.La«moral eouver t e»estcel l e desgr ands homm mmes;el l e es tal i ment ée par des val eur s supér i eur es quir enouvel l ent l ’ exi st ence,quidépassentl escomp mport eme ment sr out i ni er sdel avi esoci al e.Une t el l emo moral evéhi cul edesval eur sdef açon pr ogr essi vepourquel ’ exi st encesoi t pl usréel l e. Ber gsonmont r equel ’ i ndi vi duestf açonnéparl esi nt er di t squidonnent àl ’ i mpér at i fmoralunef orme mesoci al een dessi nantl escont our sd’ unemo moral e c’ est àdi r eun syst ème medeshabi t udes( f ami l l e,pr of essi on…. )quicondui tàun comp mport eme mentaut oma mat i quei nconsci ent .Parsui t e del anécessi t ébi ol ogi quede l avi een soci ét é,t outconcourtdel apersonnal i t édel ’ i ndi vi du àl asat i sf act i on de l ’ i nt ér êtdu gr oupe.Cependantl e caract èr e dynami mi que de l a soci ét éf ai t qu’ el l epr odui t t ouj our sdesi ndi vi dussuscept i bl esdereme met t r een causel a
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c’ est àdi r e sans affir ffi rmat i on d’ une val euretqu’ audel à de l a di ver si t é des concept i onsmo mor al esetdesr ema marquesquel ’ onpeutapport er ,quel amoral eest une exi gence uni ver sel l e eti ncont ournabl e pourl esHo Homm mmesen t antqu’ i l s vi ventt ouj our sen soci ét é.Touthommeaspi r eau bi en etr ej et t el emalgénér al au ni veau desaconsci ence.Mai sl ef ai tquel eshomm mmen’ arr i ventpast ouj our s àvi vr el eurpropr emo moral edef açon adéquat emo mont r equ’ i l srest entmal gr ét out desêt r ei mparf ai t s_bi enqu’ i l sdeme meur entt ouj our sperf ect i bl es_c’ estpour quoi l epr obl ème medel amoral eestt ouj our sd’ act ual i t édansl asoci ét é.
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On On const at equel ’ i déedu t r avai lestspont anéme mentassoci éedansl a pensée deshomm mmesàcel l edepei ne,desouffr anceetdecont r ai nt e.Cef ai t semb mbl e êt r e confirmé par l ’ ét ymo mol ogi e«t ri pal i um » qui si gni fie en l at i n i nst rumentde t ort ur e.En out r e d’ un poi ntde vue r el i gi eux,lt r avai lest consi dér é comm mme une puni t i on de Di eu à l ’ encont r e Adam et de Eve qui aur ai entpéché n mangeantl ef rui tdéf endu.Di u aur ai t ,à l a sui t e de cet t e désobéi ssance,di tàAdam « Tu manger ast on pai n àl asueurdef r ont»età Eve«Tu enf ant er as dans l a doul eur»e ton par l e ausside f emm mme en t r avai l avantl ’ enf ant eme ment . Parai l l eur s,cet t enost al gi edu paradi sper du,on l ar et r ouvedansl a l i t t ér at ur eant i queavecdesaut eur sGr Gr ecsou Lat i ns.Ai nsiHomè mèr eetHési ode avai entdécr i t l ’ «aged’ or»del ’ humani t é,ageau cour sduquell esHo Homm mmes aur ai entvécusdansl ’ abondanceetl asat i sf act i on det ousl esbesoi nsvi t auxet sansavoi rbesoi ndu t r avai l .Mai sau pl anant hr opol ogi que,l et r avai lestper çu d’ abor d comm mme une act i vi t ét r ansf ormat ri cedu mi l i eu nat ur elquiper metà l ’ Homm mmedesat i sf ai r esesbesoi nsvi t aux.On peutpenserquel es Homm mmese sont d’ abor d nourri s d chasse et de cuei l l et t e.Mai s quand l a nat ur e ne sat i sf ai t epl usdef açon suffisant el esHo Homm mmes,l or squel ’ homm mmeetl a nat ur e sont en quel que sort e en confli t ,l a t r ansf or mat i on du mi l i eu nat ur el
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t r avai lt r avai l l eàf ai r eunHomm mmee nmême met emp mpsqu’ unechose» Cependant ,i lne f aut pas per dre de vue es tl e moyen par l equel l ’ Homm mme prend consci ence de l ui même s’ ext éri or i se, mani f es t e son i ndi vi dual i t éetaffir ffi rme mesaper sonnal i t éetr évèl eson ori gi nal i t éAi nsil ’ Homm mme ser econnaî tà t r averscequ’ i lf ai tl ’ obj etou l ’ œuvr equiport eson emp mpr ei nt e donc,songéni e.C’ estàceni veauquel ’ on voi tl avéri t abl eval eurdut ravai lqui estque c’ estparl uique l ’ i ndi vi du domi mi ne l a mat i èr e etl a nat ur e afin de sat i sf ai r esesbesoi nspri mai r es.L’ Homm mmesel i bèr edoncdel a nat ur een se r éal i sant Cet t e val eur est anal ysé e par Hegeldans sa symb mbol i que de l a di al ect i quedu maî t r eetdel ’ escl ave. Cetexemp mpl emo mont r esymb mbol i queme mentque l et r avai lconst i t ueunpr ocessusl i bérat eurdel ’ êt r ehumai n.
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l e pat r on s’ enri chi tde pl us en pl us l ’ ouvri erdevi entde pl us.C’ estt out el a pr obl éma mat i que que Marx etEngel s appel l entl ’ expl oi t at i on de l ’ homm mme.Cet expl oi t at i on at ouj oursexi st édepui sl ’ ant i qui t é.Mai sel l eabout i tàunext r ême me quipoussai tMarxetEngel sàpr oposerunesol ut i onavecl euri déol ogi e,soci al e etéconomi mi st e.Le t r avai lapparaî tai nsicomm mme l e bi en de sat i sf act i on des besoi nsani mauxdeshommesetl ’ occasi on del eurépanoui sseme ntmai li lest aussil el i eu del ’ al i énat i ondel ’ i nj ust i ceetdel ami sère. Act uel l ement l e pr obl ème du t r avai l est capi t al dans l es soci ét és cont emp mporai nes.Mai s on ne peuten par l ersans év oquerl a ques t i on de l a t echni queetdel asci encee tausside sesconséquencessurl et r avai lhumai n.
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avec l ’ ut i l i sat i on de pl us en pl us uni ver sel l e de l ’ i nf orma mat i on.Cependantl a t echni que a amé mél i or él a pr oduct i on en quant i t é dans l essect eur s du t r avai l humai n orel l easoul agél eshomm mmesdest âchesf ast i di eusesetaper mi sdes r ésul t at s ext r ême meme mentperf orma mant( const ruct i on des bât i ment s,agri cul t ur e, t r ansport ,médeci ne…e …et c. ) I lexi st e bi en des conséquences néf ast es de l a t echni que surl ’ Homm mme etson mi l i eu de vi e.Act uel l eme mentl ’ envi r onneme ment subi tunepol l ut i onmul t i f orme meat mosphéri quema mari net err est r e.I lyapl usi eur s f ormes de dégr adat i ons des condi t i ons d’ exi st ence des êt r es Hu Humai ns en r apport avec l a si t uat i on de l ’ envi r onneme ment . Si on aj out e l es effet s cat ast r ophi ques des machi nes,de guer r e etdes armes sophi st i quées,mai s aussides mani pul at i ons génét i ques etdes expér i encessci ent i fiques surl es Homm mmes,on peutcomp mpr endr el esr éact i onsd’ ordr ephi l osophi quequit ent ent
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CHAPITRE VI I I:
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él aborerdesabst r act i ons,c' est à-di r eàpenserent erme mesgénér auxàpart i rde l ’ expéri enceetdel aprati que
I -ESSAIDE DÉFI NI TI ON Quand DESCART RTES affir ffirme que gr âce à l a sci ence l at echni que, l ’ Homm mmepeutdeveni r«maî t r eetpr ocesseurdel anat ur e» ,i lpenseenmême me t emp mpsdeux r éal i t ésdi st i nct es.En effetdanscet t eaffir ffi rmat i on,l a sci enceest consi dér éecommeunpouvoi ral orsqu’ e,r éal i t éi lf autdi st i nguerl asci encequi estunsavoi r ,del at echni quequiestunsavoi rf ai re.I lyal àt out el adi fférence ent r euneact i vi t édési nt ér esséedecomp mpr éhensi on etd’ expl i cat i on dumondeet
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La Philosophie Production Mbaarmi.com – Centre 1 Vélingara " Téléphone : 33.997.12.1 " !"mail # mcoumar9$%ahoo.&r
l e monde etcel a es tune nécessi t é pourl ui .I lne peutdonc at t endr e de comp mpr endr el er éelpourl et r ansf orme mersel onsesdési r s. Lespri mi t i f sn’ avai entpasuneconnai ssanceappr of ondi edel anat ur e
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La Philosophie Production Mbaarmi.com – Centre 1 Vélingara " Téléphone : 33.997.12.1 " !"mail # mcoumar9$%ahoo.&r
LESENJEUX DE LA SCI ENCE CE ET VDE DE LA TECH HN NIQUE
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CHAPI TRE VI:
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seveutvr aietl emo mondeestt ouj our sl àpourl epr ouver .
Lef oncti
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