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C.

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CLAY and SONS,

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE MARIA LANE. (ffilagfloia:

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THE ELEMENTS OP

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY.

THE ELEMENTS OF

COOEDINATE aEOMETRY

BY

S.

L.

LONEY,

M.A.,

LATE FELLOW OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, PROFESSOR AT THE ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE.

^^^l^^mU. MASS. MATH, DEPTi

MACMILLAN AND AND NEW YOEK. 1895 [All Bights reserved.']

CO.

CTambrtlJse:

PRINTED BY

J.

&

C.

F.

CLAY,

AT THE UNIVEBSITY PRESS.

150553

PKEFACE. "TN

the following work I have tried to present the

elements of Coordinate Geometry in a manner suitable

present

Junior Students.

The

book only deals with Cartesian and

Polar

Beginners and

for

Within these

Coordinates.

that the book

is fairly

limits I venture to

complete, and that no proposi-

tions of very great importance have

The Straight Line and more

fully

since

it

is

hope

been omitted.

Circle have been treated

than the other portions of the subject, generally in the

elementary conceptions

that beginners find great difficulties.

There are a large number of Examples, over 1100 in

all,

and they

character.

are,

in

The examples

general, of an are especially

the earlier parts of the book.

elementary

numerous in

PREFACE.

vi

for

reading

portions of the proof sheets, but especially to

Mr W.

I

J.

am much

indebted to several friends

Dobbs, M.A. who has kindly read the whole of the

book and made many valuable suggestions. For any shall

be

criticisms,

suggestions, or

grateful. S.

EoTAIi

corrections, I

HOLLOWAY COLLEGE,

Egham, Surbey. July

4, 1895.

L.

LONEY.

CONTENTS. CHAP. I.

II.

Introduction.

...

Algebraic Kesults

Coordinates. Lengths of Straight Lines and Areas of Triangles Polar Coordinates

Equation to a Locus

Locus.

IV.

The Straight Line. Eect angular Coordinates

.... .

.

.

.

.

.

Length of a perpendicular

.

.

.

Line.

51

.

.

.

.

.

.

Equations representing two or more Straight Lines lines given

by one equation

Greneral equation of the second degree

VII.

66

.

loci

Angle between two

Transformation of Coordinates Invariants

42

Polar Equations and

Equations involving an arbitrary constant

VI.

39

58

Oblique Coordinates Examples of

31

.44

.

.

"

.

Bisectors of angles

The Straight

8

24

Straight line through two points Angle between two given straight lines Conditions that they may be parallel and per-

V

1

19

III.

pendicular

PAGE

.

.

.

.

.

73 80

88 90 94 109 115

.

CONTENTS.

Vlii

PAGE

CHAP.

VIII.

The Circle

118

Equation to a tangent

126 137

Pole and polar

Equation to a circle in polar coordinates Equation referred to oblique axes Equations in terms of one variable .

.150

.

160

Systems of Circles Orthogonal circles

X.

148

.

.

.

IX.

.145

.

.

.

.

,

.

.160

.

Kadical axis

161

Coaxal circles

166

The Parabola

Conic Sections.

174

.

180

Equation to a tangent

Some

properties of the parabola

.

187

.

.

190

Pole and polar

195

Diameters Equations in terms of one variable XI.

The Parabola

{continued')

.

.198

.

....

Loci connected with the parabola Three normals passing through a given point Parabola referred to two tangents as axes .

.

.

211

The Ellipse

225

Auxiliary circle and eccentric angle

Equation to a tangent

Some

Conjugate diameters

237

......

249

.

Pour normals through any point Examples of loci XIII.

.231

.

.

....

.

properties of the ellipse

Pole and polar

206

.217

.

XII.

206

.

.

.

.

.

.

254 265

266

The Hyperbola Asymptotes Equation referred to the asymptotes as axes One variable. Examples

242

271

284 .

296 299

.

CONTENTS. CHAP.

XIV.

Polar Equation to, a Conic

IX

....

Polar equation to a tangent, polar, and normal

XV.

General Equation.

Tracing of Curves

Particular cases of conic sections

PAGE

306 313

,

322

.... .

322

Transformation of equation to centre as origin Equation to asymptotes Tracing a parabola

...... ...... ......

Tracing a central conic

.

.

.

.

.

.

Eccentricity and foci of general conic

XVI.

General Equation Tangent Conjugate diameters

326

.

329 332 338 342

349 349 352

Conies through the intersections of two conies

356

The equation S=Xuv

358

...... .......

General equation to the

j)air

of tangents

drawn

from any point

The director The foci The axes

circle

367 369

Lengths of straight lines drawn in given directions to meet the conic Conies passing through four 23oints .

.

.

Conies touching four lines

The

LM=B?

conic

XVII. Miscellaneous Propositions

On

364 365

....

370 378 380 382 385

the four normals from any point to a central conic

Confocal conies

.......

Circles of curvature

and contact of the third order

385

.

Envelopes

Answers

392 398 407

.

i

—

xiii

ERKATA. Page „ ,,

,,

87,

Ex.

27, line 4.

235, Ex. 18, line 3.

„

,,

282, Ex.

,,

3.

line 5.

For "JR" read " S."

For "odd" read "even." Dele

"and Page

37,

Ex. 15."

For "transverse" read "conjugate."

CHAPTER

I.

INTRODUCTION.

SOME ALGEBRAIC RESULTS. 1.

Quadratic Equations.

The

roots of the quad-

ratic equation a'3^

may

easily

+ 6x + c =

be shewn to be

-

&

+

•JlP'

— 4ac

1

-b- s/b^ — 4:aG

'^"'^

•

2^

2i.

They are

and unequal,

equal, or imaginary, according as the quantity b^—iac is positive, zero, or negative,

therefore real

i.e.

2.

and

according as

b^

=

4:ac.

Relations between the roots of any algebraic equation of the terms of the equation.

the coejicients

If any equation be written so that the coefficient of the highest term is unity, it is shewn in any treatise on Algebra that

the sum of the roots is equal to the coefficient of (1) the second term with its sign changed, (2)

the

at a time,

is

sum of the products of the roots, taken two equal to the coefficient of the third term,

the sum of their products, taken three at a time, (3) equal to the coefficient of the fourth term with its sign changed, is

and so L.

on.

e

1

,

.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY. Ex.

If

1.

a and

/3

ax'^

2.

If a,

b

+ bx + c = 0,

i.e.

x^

c

+ - x + ~ = 0, a

— b

a + p=

we have

Ex.

be the roots of the equation

a

c

^

and a^ = -.

and 7 be the roots of the cubic equation

j8,

ax^ + bx^ + cx + d=0, i.e.

x^+-x^

of

a

we have

+-x + - = 0, a

a

+ p + y:

a

^y + ya + a^=:and

o-Pl-

3.

shewn that the solution

It can easily be

of the

equations

+

a^x

h^y

+

G^z

= 0,

a^ + h^y + c^z = 0,

and

X IS

y

~ ^2^1

^1^2

^1^2 ~ ^2^1

'^1^2

~ ^2^1

Determinant Notation. 4.

The

is called

quantity-

a determinant of the

second order and stands for the quantity

Exs.

(1)

d-yf

d^

^1,

h

a-})^

— aj)^,

so that

= Ob^^ — 6»2&i

\%^\ = 2x5-4x3 = 10-12=-2; ;'

|

!4, 5i

3, (ii)

-7,

-4|

-6 = 3

X

(

-

6)

-{-

7)

X

(

- 4) = 18 - 28 = -

10.

DETERMINANTS. «!,

5.

The quantity

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

8.

The quantity j

(h.1

^2>

%J

^4

61,

&2)

hi

h

^11

^25

^1) ^2

^3> 5

^3) ^4

called a determinant of the fourth order and stands for the quantity

is

K «i X

^2»



h, ^3

^4

J

— Clo

^3> ^4

X

i^lJ

^35

C-,

^3}

\

1

1

&i,

+ 6^3

h 4

33

5

62J

X

^4! C^

1

?

2

5

4

&1, cCj_

X

.

ELIMINATION.

5

Elimination. Suppose

11.

we have

the two equations

+ a^y =

aj^x

(1),

\x +b^y ^0 two unknown quantities x and

between the be some relation holding between the four ^or, from (1), we have bi, and 63

(2),

y.

There must

coefficients

6*i, ctaj

•

and, from

(2),

we have

y~

%'

-=— y

K

Equating these two values

i.e.

a-J)^

=-^

X

of -

we have

— ajb^ =

(3).

The result (3) is the condition that both the equations and (2) should be true for the same values of x and y. The process of finding this condition is called the eliminating of X and y from the equations (1) and (2), and the result (3) is often called the eliminant of (1) and (2). Using the notation of Art. 4, the result (3) may be (1)

written in the form

1

)

'^

0.

is obtained from (1) and (2) by taking the x and y in the order in which they occur in the equations, placing them in this order to form a determinant, and equating it to zero.

This result

coefficients of

12.

we have a-^x + a^y + a^^ = \x+ h^y^ h^z = G^x + G^y + C3S = unknown quantities

Suppose, again, that

and between the three

the three equations (1),

(2),

(3), x, y,

and

z.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

6

By

dividing each equation by z

we have

three equations

X

between the two unknown quantities — and y

z

%,

z

Two

of

ELIMINATION. 14.

and

If again

we have

the four equations

a-^x

+

dil/

+

cf'zZ

+ a^u =

0,

h^x

+

h^y

+

b^z

+

b^u

=

0,

Ci«;

+

c^i/

+

G^z

+

c^u

=

0,

djX + d^y

+

d.^z

+

d^ — 0,

could be shewn that the result of eliminating the four quantities cc, y, z^ and u is the determinant

it

«1J

CHAPTER COORDINATES.

II.

LENGTHS OF STRAIGHT LINES AND AREAS OF TRIANGLES.

OX

07

and 15. Coordinates. Let be two fixed The line is straight lines in the plane of the paper. the axis of y, whilst the called the axis of cc, the line two together are called the axes of coordinates.

OX

OY

The point

is

called the origin of coordinates or,

more

shortly, the origin.

F

From any point in the plane draw a straight line

OF to meet OX M. The distance OM is called the Abscissa, and the distance

parallel to

in

MP the Ordinate of the point P, whilst the abscissa and the ordinate together are called its Coordinates.

OX

Distances measured parallel to or without a suffix, {e.g.Xj, x.-^... x\ measured parallel to OY are called suffix, (e.g.

2/i, 2/2,---

If the distances

the coordinates of

2/'.

y",---)-

OM and MP

P are,

are called a?, with x",...), and distances y, with or without a

be respectively x and ?/, by the symbol

for brevity, denoted

{x, y).

Conversely, when we are given that the coordinates of For from we a point are (x, y) we know its position. {—x) along and have only to measure a distance

P

OM

OX

COORDINATES. then from 21 measure a distance

9

MP

OY

{=y) parallel to arrive at the position of the point P. For example be equal to the unit of length and in the figure, if

and we

MP= WM,

OM

P is the point (1, 2). Produce XO backwards to form then

the line OX' and backwards to become OY'. In Analytical Geometry we have the same rule as to signs that the student has already met with in Trigonometry. Lines measured parallel to OX are positive whilst those measured parallel to OX' are negative ; lines measured parallel to OY are positive and those parallel to OY' are

16.

YO

negative.

quadrant YOX' and P^M^, drawn y, meet OX' in M^^ and if the numerical values of the quantities OM^ and J/aPg be a and h, the coordinates of P are {-a and h) and the position of Pg is given by the symbol (—a, h). If

P2 b® i^

*li®

parallel to the axis of

Similarly, if P3 be in the third quadrant X'OY', both of coordinates are negative, and, if the numerical lengths of Oi/3 and J/3P3 be c and d, then P3 is denoted by the

its

symbol (—

c,

Finally,

positive 17.

and Ex. (i)

—

d).

in the fourth quadrant its abscissa is its ordinate is negative.

if

P4

lie

Lay down on "paper (2,

-1),

(ii)

(-3,

the position of the points 2),

and

(iii)

(-2, -3).

To get the first point we measure a distance 2 along OX and then a distance 1 parallel to OF'; we thus arrive at the required point. To get the second point, we measure a distance 3 along OX', and then 2 parallel to OY. To get the third point, we measure 2 along OX' and then 3 parallel to OT. These three points are respectively the points P4 P., and Pg in ,

,

the figure of Art. 15.

18. When the axes of coordinates are as in the figure of Art. 15, not at right angles, they are said to be Oblique Axes, and the angle between their two positive directions and 07, i.e. the angle XOY, is generally denoted by

OX

the Greek letter

w.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

10 In general,

it is

however found

to

OX

be more convenient to They are then

and OZat right angles. take the axes said to be Rectangular Axes.

It may always be assumed throughout this book that the axes are rectangular unless it is otherwise stated.

The system

spoken of in the last System of CoordiIt is so called because this system was first intronates. duced by the philosopher Des Cartes. There are other systems of coordinates in use, but the Cartesian system is by far the most important. 19.

few

articles is

To find

20.

of coordinates

known

as the Cartesian

the distance between

two points whose co-

ordinates are given.

Let Pi and P^ be the two given points, and let their coordinates be respectively {x^ y^) ,

and

(a^sj 2/2)-

Draw rallel

J/j

to

to

Pji/i and P^M^ paOY, to meet OX in

and M^.

Draw P^R parallel

OX to meet M-^P^ in R.

'

q

M

jvT

Then

P^R = M^Mt^ = OM^ - OMc^ = oi^-X2, RP, = M,P,-M,P, = y,~y,, and

z P^i^Pi

= z6>ifiPa-l 80° -PiJfiX^l 80° -^^ ^^^^^^^^^"^^ '/^^^

let

>/

y

yC ""-., ''-•.,

'p

M"

^

(ii) For the second point, the radius vector revolves from OX through 150° and is then in the position OP^ ; measuring a distance 3 along it we arrive at Pg

2—2

COORDINATE GEOMETKY.

20

(iii) For the third point, let the radius vector revolve from OX through 45° into the position OL. We have now to measure along OL a distance - 2, i.e. we have to measure a distance 2 not along OL but in the opposite direction. Producing iO to Pg, so that OP3 is 2 units of length, we have the required point P3.

To

get the fourth point, we let the radius vector rotate from 330° into the position and measure on it a distance -3, i.e. 3 in the direction produced. thus have the point P^y which is the same as the point given by (ii). (iv)

OX through

OM

MO

We

(v) If the radius vector rotate through - 210°, position OP2, and the point required is Pg.

it

be in the

will

For the sixth

point, the radius vector, after rotating through in the position OM: then measure - 3 along it, i.e. 3 in the direction produced, and once more arrive at the point Pg. (vi)^

- 30°,

We

is

MO

32. It will be observed that in the previous example the same point P^ is denoted by each of the four sets of polar coordinates (3, 150°),

-210°) and (-3, -30°). be found that the same point is given

(-3, 330°),

(3,

In general it v^ill by each of the polar coordinates (r, 0), (- r, 180° + 6), {r, - (360° or,

and {- r, - (180° expressing the angles in radians, by each of the 6)]

6% co-

ordinates (r,

e\ {-r,7r +

6), {r,

- (27r - 0)} and

{- r,

-

(tt

-

$)}.

It is also clear that adding 360° (or any multiple of 360°) to the vectorial angle does not alter the final position of the revolving line, so that {r, 6) is always the same point as (r, ^ + ?i 360°), where n is an integer. .

So, adding 180° or any odd multiple of 180° to the vectorial angle and changing the sign of the radius vector

gives the

same point as

before.

[-r, ^ is

the same point as [—

r,

Thus the point

+ (2n + 1)180°] 6

+

180°],

i.e. is

the point

[r,

6\

33. To find the length of the straight line joining two points whose polar coordinates are given. Let

A and B

coordinates be

(r^,

be the two points and let their polar 6y) and (r^, 6^ respectively, so that

OA^r^, OB = r^, lXOA^O^, and

lX0B = 6^,

POLAR COORDINATES.

21

Then (Trigonometry, Art. 164) AB" - OA'' + OB'' -20 A. OB cos = r-^ + r^ - 2r-^r^ cos {0^ - 6^.

AOB

34. To find the area of a triangle the coordinates of whose angular points are given. Let ABC be the triangle and be the polar coordinates of angular points. We have

let

(r-^,

0^),

(r^,

62),

and

(rg, ^3)

its

AABO=AOBC+aOCA -AOBA

(1).

Now

A0BC = i0B,0C sin BOC [Trigonometry, Art. 198] '

So

and

= ^r^r^ sin (^3 - $^). A OCA = \0G OA sin CO A = ^r^r, sin (6, - 6,), AOAB^^OA. OB sin AOB = ^r^r^ sin {6^ - 6.^ = - Jn^2 sin (^2 - ^1). .

Hence

(1) gives

A ABC = J

\r\

x = J'I\

2/=2r

2/=x/3r

2/=V2

x = -'2,\ 2/^0

x^-.^?>,\ /' 2/^--i

x=

= 0, 2/ = -2j

x=l,

r

53

\ '

y

x^l x=^i

J\

\

V3/'

r

-J2A

3/=-v2r

\

y=i x = -l,

r \

y=-si^)'

x=J2, }L and x=J3) -./2/'-'"% = -l/2/ =

EQUATION TO A LOCUS.

1

27

•

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

28

a large number of values of x and the corresponding values of ?/, the points thus obtained would be found all to lie on the curve in the figure. If

we took

Both

of its branches

would be found

to stretch

away

to

infinity towards the right of the figure.

took any point on this curve and measured accuracy its x and y the values thus obtained would be found to satisfy equation (1). Also we should not be able to find any point, not lying on the curve, whose coordinates would satisfy (1). In the language of Analytical Geometry the equation This curve is called (1) is the equation to the above curve. a Parabola and will be fully discussed in Chapter X. Also,

with

we

if

sufficient

If a point move so as to satisfy any given condition describe some definite curve, or locus, and there can always be found an equation between the x and y of any

42.

it will

point on the path.

This equation

is

called the equation to the locus or

Hence

curve.

Def.

Equation to a curve.

The equation

to

a

curve is the relation which exists between the coordinates of any foint on the curve^ and which holds for no other points except those lying on the curve.

43. will be

Conversely to every equation between x and y it is, in general, a definite geometrical

found that there

locus.

Thus in Art. 39 the equation

is

x + y=\, and the P^P^ (produced

definite path, or locus, is the straight line

indefinitely

both ways).

In Art. 40 the equation path, or locus,

is

the dotted

is

x'^

+

y'^^ 4,

and the

definite

circle.

Again the equation 2/ = 1 states that the moving point is such that its ordinate is always unity, i.e. that it is always at a distance 1 from the axis of x. The definite path, or locus, is therefore a straight line parallel to and at a distance unity from it.

OX

EQUATION TO A LOCUS.

29

In the next chapter it will be found that if the equation be of the first degree {i.e. if it contain no products, squares, or higher powers of x and y) the locus

44.

corresponding is always a straight line. If the equation be of the second or higher degree, the corresponding locus is, in general, a curved line.

We append

45.

a few simple examples of the forma-

tion of the equation to a locus.

Ex. 1. A point moves so that from tioo given perpendicular axes find the equation

the algebraic is

equal

to

sum of

its

distances

a constant quantity a;

to its locus.

Take the two straight lines as the axes of coordinates. Let {x, y) be any point satisfying the given condition. We then ha,wex + y = a. This being the relation connecting the coordinates of any point on the locus is the equation to the locus. It will be found in the next chapter that this equation represents a straight

line.

Ex. 2. The sum of the squares of the distances of a moving point from the tioo fixed points {a, 0) and {-a, 0) is equal to a constant quantity 2c^. Find the equation to its locus. Let (a;, y) be any position of the moving point. Then, by Art. 20, the condition of the question gives {

[x

- af + /} +

{ (a;

+ af + if] = 2c\

x^ + y'^ = c^- a~.

i.Ci

This being the relation between the coordinates of any, and every, point that satisfies the given condition is, by Art. 42, the equation to the required locus. This equation tells us that the square of the distance of the point {x, y) from the origin is constant and equal to c^ - a^, and therefore the locus of the point is a circle whose centre is the origin.

is

Ex. 3. A point moves so that its distance from the point (-1,0) always three times its distance from the point (0, 2).

Let {x, y) be any point which then have

satisfies

the given condition.

We

J{x + iy' + {y-0)^=Bj{x - 0)2+ {y - 2)2, so that,

on squaring, x'^

i.e.

+ 2x + l + y'^=9{x'^ + y'^-4:y + 4), 8(a;2 + y2)_2a;-36?/ + 35 = 0.

This being the relation between the coordinates of each, and that satisfies the given relation is, by Art. 42, the

every, point

required equation. It will be found, in a later chapter, that this equation represents a circle.

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY.

30

EXAMPLES.

IV.

By taking a number of solutions, as in Arts. 39 the loci of the following equations

—41,

sketch

:

1.

2x + dy = l0.

4.

a;2-4aa; + ?/2 + 3a2

2.

^x-y = l.

= 0.

5.

x'^-2ax-Vy'^ = Q.

3. y'^

= x.

6.

^x = y^-^.

^' + ^'=1. '4^9

7

A and B being the fixed points (a, 0) and ( obtain the equations giving the locus of P, when 8.

is

- P52 _ a constant quantity = 2fc2.

PA"^

10.

PA = nPB, n being constant. P^+PjB = c, a constant quantity.

11.

PB^ + PC^=2PA^, C

9.

a, 0) respectively,

being the point

(c, 0).

12. Find the locus of a point whose distance from the point equal to its distance from the axis of y.

which

Find the equation to the locus of a point distant from the points whose coordinates are 13.

(1, 0)

15.

{a

+

b,

and

(0,

-2).

14.

(2, 3)

is

and

(1, 2)

always equi(4, 5).

a-h) and {a-b, a + b).

Find the equation to the locus of a point which moves so that 16. its distance from the axis of x the axis of y.

17. its distance from the point tance from the axis of y. 18. the

sum

is

three times

(a, 0)

is

its

distance from

always four times

of the squares of its distances

from the axes

its dis-

is

equal

to 3.

19. the square of

20.

from 21.

its

its

distance from the point

distance from the point

(3, 0) is

(0, 2) is

equal to

4.

three times its distance

(0, 2).

its

from the

distance from the axis of x

is

always one half

its

distance

origin.

A

fixed point is at a perpendicular distance a from a fixed 22. straight line and a point moves so that its distance from the fixed point is always equal to its distance from the fixed line. Find the equation to its locus, the axes of coordinates being drawn through the fixed point and being parallel and perpendicular to the given line.

23. In the previous question if the first distance be (1), always half, (2), always twice, the second distance, find the equations to the

and

respective loci.

CHAPTER THE STRAIGHT

LINE.

IV.

RECTANGULAR COORDINATES.

46. To find the equation to a straight line which is parallel to one of the coordinate axes. Let CL be any line parallel to the axis of y and passing through a point C on the axis of x such that OG = c. Let F be any point on X and y.

Then the always

c,

this line

abscissa of the point

whose coordinates are

F

is

so that

x=c

(1).

This being true for every point on the line CL (produced indefinitely both ways), and for no other point, is, by Art. 42, the equation to the line.

X

It will be noted that the equation does not contain the

coordinate

y.

Similarly the equation to a straight line parallel to the axis oi X is y — d.

Cor. The equation to the axis of a? is The equation to the axis oi y is x — 0.

2/

= 0.

47. To find the equation to a st7'aight line which cuts off a given intercept on the axis of y and is inclined at a given angle to the axis of x. Let the given intercept be

c

and

let

the given angle be a.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

32

Let C be a point on the axis Through C draw a straight line Z(7Z' inclined at an angle a (= tan~^ m) to the axis of x^ so that tan a

OC

of y such that

is

c.

— m.

^^^^ O

The straight line LCL' is therefore the straight line required, and we have to -'l find the relation between the lying on coordinates of any point

P

Draw PM perpendicular G parallel to OX.

to

MX

it.

OX

to

meet in

^a

line

through

Let the coordinates = y. and Then MP = NP +

of

P

be

cu

and

?/»

so that

OM=x

MP

MN =C]Srt^iia + 00 = m.x +

c,

y = mx+c.

i.e.

This relation being true for any point on the given straight line is, by Art. 42, the equation to the straight line.

[In this, and other similar cases, it could be shewn, is only true for points lying

conversely, that the equation on the given straight line.]

to any straight line passing through which cuts off a zero intercept from the axis found by putting c — O and hence is 3/ = mx.

The equation

Cor.

the origin, of

2/,

is

i.e.

48. The angle a which is used in the previous article is the angle through which a straight line, originally parallel to OZ, would have to turn in order to coincide with the given direction, the rotation being always in the positive direction. Also m is always the tangent In the case of such a straight line as AB, in the figure of this angle. is equal to the tangent of the angle PAX (not of the of Art. 50, angle PAO). In this case therefore wi, being the tangent of an obtuse angle, is a negative quantity.

m

The student should verify the truth of the equation on the straight line LCL', and also

of the last for straight

for such a straight line as

A^B^ in the

article for all points

Hnes in other positions, e.g. figure of Art. 59. In this

latter case

both

m

and

c are negative

quantities.

A

careful consideration of all the possible cases of a few propositions will soon satisfy him that this verification is not always necessary, but that it is sufficient to consider the standard figure.

THE STRAIGHT

33

LINE.

49. Ex. The equation to the straight line cutting off an intercept 3 from the negative direction of the axis of y, and inclined at 120° to the axis of a;, is

= a;tanl20° + (-3), y= -x^S-S, y + x^S + S = 0. ?/

i.e. i.e.

50.

1^0

off given

the equation to the straight line

find

a and

i7itercepts

OX

Let A and B be on such that OA = a and OB =

AB

Join

and produce

definitely both ways.

which cuts

h from the axes.

and

OY

respectively,

and be

h.

it in-

P

Let

be

any point (x, y) on this straight perpendicular line, and draw

PM

to

OX.

We require the

relation that

always holds between x and long as P lies on AB.

By

Euc. YI.

3/,

so

we have

4,

OM_PB

MP _AP ^"""^

OA~AB'

'OB~AB

OM MP PB + AP = + ^.e.

This

AB

OB

OA

X

y

a

D

1,

^

therefore the required equation ; for it is the between the coordinates of any point the given straight line. is

relation that holds

lying on 51.

The equation

in the preceding article

may

he also obtained

by expressing the fact that the sum of the areas of the triangles and OPB is equal to OAB, so that

OP A

\axy + \hy.x = \ax'b, and hence

a

52. Ex. 1. Find the equation to through the -point (3, - 4) and cutting opposite signs,

from

straight

line passing equal but of

the tioo axes.

Let the intercepts cut

— a.

the

off intercepts,

off

from the two axes be of lengths a and

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

34 The equation

to the straight line is then

-a

a

x-y = a

i.e.

(3,

(1).

Since, in addition, the straight line is to go through the point -4), these coordinates must satisfy (1), so that

3-(-4) = a, and therefore The required equation

a = l. is

therefore

x-y = 7. Ex. 2. Find the equation to the straight line lohich passes through the point (-5, 4) and is such that the portion of it between the axes is divided by the point in the ratio ofl 2. :

+ t = 1. b

Let the required straight line be a in the points whose coordinates are {a,

and

0)

The coordinates

This meets the axes (0, &).

the

of the point dividing points in the ratio 1 2, are (Art. 22)

joining these

line

:

2.a+1.0 If this

be the point

,

(

-

2.0 + 1.&

2(1

.

i.e,-^

b

,

and -.

we have

5, 4)

2a „ b -5:=and 4=-, so that

The

,

,

a=--Y- and

b

required straight line

is

therefore

X y -i^^l2 oy

I.e.

53.

To find

= 12.

8a;

'

= 60. a straight

the equation to

line in tenns

of

perpendicular let fall upon it from the origin and the angle that this perpendicular makes with the axis of x. the

Let be jo.

OR

be the perpendicular from

Let a be the angle that with OX.

Let

P

OR

makes

be any point, whose

co-

AB

ordinates are x and y, lying on draw the ordinate PM, and also perpendicular to OR and perpendicular to ML.

PN

',

ML

and

let its

length

85

THE STRAIGHT LINE.

OL = OMco^a

Then

(1),

LR = NP = MF&inNMP.

and

lNMP^W - lNMO= iMOL^a.

But

LR = MP&m.a Hence, adding Oil/ cos a

(2).

and (2), we have a=OL + LR=OR ifPsin + (1)

=79,

X COS a + y sin a = p.

i.e.

This

is

the required equation.

—

54. In Arts. 47 53 we have found that the corresponding equations are only of the first degree in x and y. shall now prove that

Any

We

equation of the first degree

i7i

x and y always repre-

a straight line. For the most general form of such an equation is Ax + By^C = ^ (1), which do where A^ B, and C are constants, i.e. quantities not contain x and y and which remain the same for all points on the locus. Let (cCi, 2/1), (a?2) 2/2)) ^iicl (rt's, 2/3) be any three points on sents

the locus of the equation

(1).

Since the point {x-^, y^) lies on the locus, its coordinates when substituted for x and y in (1) must satisfy it.

Hence

Ax^ +

Ry^+C-=0

(2).

C^O

(3),

Ax^ + Ry^ +

So and

Axs +

£ys+C =

(4).

Since these three equations hold between the three quantities A, B, and C, we can, as in Art. 12, eliminate them.

The

result is

= ^35

2/35

(5).

-•-

But, by Art. 25, the relation (5) states that the area of the triangle whose vertices are (x^, y^), (x^, 3/2)5 ^^^ (^3> 2/3) is zero.

Also these are any three points on the

locus.

3—2

,

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

36

must therefore be a straight line ; for a curved not be such that the triangle obtained by joining any three points on it should be zero.

The

locus

line could

The proposition

55.

of the preceding article ^a;

may be and

may also

be deduced

For the equation

from Art. 47.

% + (7=0

A C y=- — x-^,

written

this is the

+

same

as the straight line

y = mx + c,

A

C

^

?3i=-— and

if

c

=-—

.

is

x>

But in Art. 47 it was shewn that y = mx + c was the equation to a straight line cutting off an intercept c from the axis of y and inclined at an angle tan~^m to the axis of x.

Ax + By + C=0

The equation

therefore represents a straight line cutting off

C

an intercept - — from x>

the axis of y and inclined at an angle tan~^

We

56.

(

-

—

|

to the axis of x.

can reduce the general equation of the

Ax + By + C =

degree

first

(1)

to the form of Art. 53. For, if p be the perpendicular from the origin on (1) and a the angle it makes with the axis, the equation to the straight line must be

X cos a 4- 2/ sin a - /» = This equation must therefore be the same

(2).

as

ABC

cos a

Hence p

cos a

sin a

C

-A

-B

(1).

—p

sin a

\/cos^

a + sin^ a

Ja^ + B'

1

sJa^'

+ B^

Hence cos a -

-A s/A^

-B

.

-

sm a =

+ B^'

,

\fA-'

,

C

and^ p =

+ B''

The equation (1) may by dividing it by JA^ + B^ and arranging constant term

is

negative.

+ B^ form (2)

sfA^

therefore be reduced to the it

so that the

THE STRAIGHT Ex.

57.

Reduce

to tlie

37

LINE.

perpendicular form the equation

^ + 2/\/3 + 7 = + JA'' B^= ^TTs = sJ4:=2.

Here Dividing

by

(1)

we have

2,

i.e.

^(-i)+y(--^)-i=o,

i.e.

X cos 240° + y sin 240° - 1 = 0.

To

58.

(1).

trace the straight line given hy

an equation of

the first degree.

Let the equation be

Ax + By + G =

(1).

This can be written in the form

(a)

A Comparing

this

B

with the result of Art. 50,

we

see that it

—

represents a straight

Hne which cuts

——

Its position

is

equation

reduces to the form

from the axes.

off intercepts

(J -^

and

therefore known.

jO

If

G

be

zero, the

(1)

A and thus (by Art.

47, Cor.)

represents a straight

passing through the origin inchned at an angle tan~^ to the axis of (^)

The

x.

Its position is therefore

may

straight line

If

we put y —

in (1)

therefore lies

on

G

we have x — —-r.

it.

by

firnding

it.

JL

i-'i-')

~ r)

known.

also be traced

the coordinates of any two points on

I

hne

The point

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

38 If

we put G^

(»-.)

oj

on

lies

= 0, we have

G

2/

=— ^

so that the point

,

it.

Hence, as before, we have the position of the straight line.

Ex.

69.

Trace the straight (1)

3a;-4i/

(3)

%y = x',

+

lines

7 = 0; (4)

(2)

x = ^i

7a;

+ 8y + 9 = 0j

(5)

Putting 2/ = 0, we have rc= -|, (1) and putting x = Q, we have y = ^. Measuring 0A-^{= -^) along the axis

2/= -2.

of

x we have one point on

the Hne.

Measuring OB^ (=t) along the axis of y we have another point. A-^B^ produced both ways, is the required line,

Hence

,

Putting in succession y and x equal to zero, we have the (2) intercepts on the axes equal to - f and - f. If then 0-42= -f and 0^2= - |, we have A^B^, the required line. (3)

The point

(0, 0) satisfies

the equation so that the origin

is

on

the line.

Also the point therefore OC3. (4)

(3,

The line ic = 2

1),

is,

by

i.e.

C.^,

lies

on

it.

The required

Art. 46, parallel to the axis of y

line is

and passes

through the point A^ on the axis of x such that 0A^ = 2.

The line y= - 2 is parallel to the axis of x and passes through (5) the point B^ on the axis of y, such that 0B^= - 2.

60.

Straight Line at Infinity. We have seen Ax + By + (7 = represents a straight line

that the equation

STRAIGHT LINE JOINING TWO POINTS. which cuts

oiF intercepts

c

c

Ji.

Jj

— - and — — from

39

the axes of

coordinates. If

X

of

A

vanish, but not

B

or C, the intercept on the axis

The equation of the straight line the form y = constant, and hence, as in

is infinitely great.

then reduces to Art. 46, represents a straight line parallel to Ox.

B

vanish, but not A or C, the straight line meets So if the axis of y at an infinite distance and is therefore parallel to

it.

B

If A and both vanish, but not C, these two intercepts are both infinite and therefore the straight line Q .x + .y + C = is altogether at infinity.

The multiplication of an equation by a constant Thus the equations it. and 10a;- 152/+ 25 2a;-32/+5 = represent the same straight line. Conversely, if two equations of the first degree represent the same straight line, one equation must be equal to the other multiplied by a constant quantity, so that the ratios of the corresponding coefficients must be the same. For example, if the equations and A-^^x + B^y + Cj = a^x + \y + Ci = we must have 61.

does not alter

\

«!

CjL

62. To jind the equation to the straight line which passes through the two given points {x\ y') and (x", y").

By

Art. 47, the equation to y--

By

any

straight line

is

mx -VG

(1).

m

and properly determining the quantities (1) represent any straight line we please.

c

we can

make

If (1) pass through the point 2/'

Substituting for

c

from

(a;',

y')^

we have

= mas' + c

(2),

(2).

the equation (1) becomes

y-y' = m(x-x')

(3).

X

COOKDINATE GEOMETRY.

40

This is the equation to the line going through (x\ y') making an angle tan~^ with OX. If in addition (3) passes through the point {x", y"), then

m

—y=m{x

y *

-y

X'

-

*

Substituting this value in equation

63.

Ex.

Find

the

r

we

(3),

get as the required

V" — v' X" — x^

*^

through the points (-1,

— x),

y

ti

equation 3)

and

to

(4,

'

the straight

line

which passes

-2).

Let the required equation be

y=mx + c Since

(1)

goes through the

3=-m + Hence

first c,

point,

(1).

we have

so that c =

m + S.

becomes

(1)

y = mx + m + S If in addition the line

-2 = 47?i + m + 3, Hence

(2)

(2).

goes through the second point, so that

m=

we have

-1.

becomes

y=-x + 2,

i.e.

x + y = 2.

Or, again, using the result of the last article the equation is

y-B = ^-^^^{x + l)=-x-l, y + x-=2.

i.e.

64.

To

fix definitely

the position of a straight line

we

must have always two quantities given. Thus one point on the straight line and the direction of the straight line will determine it; or again two points lying on the straight line will determine

it.

Analytically, the general equation to a straight line two arbitrary constants, which will have to be determined so that the general equation may represent any particular straight line. will contain

m

Thus, in Art. 47, the quantities and c which remain the same, so long as we are considering the same straigld line, are the two constants for the straight line.

41

EXAMPLES.

Similarly, in Art. 50, the quantities a and h are the constants for the straight line.

65. In any equation to a locus the quantities x and y, which are the coordinates of any point on the locus, are called Current Coordinates

;

traced out by a point which

the curve

may

be conceived as

" runs " along the locus.

EXAMPLES.

V.

Find the equation to the straight line 1. cutting off an intercept unity from the positive direction of the axis of y and inclined at 45° to the axis of x. 2. cutting off an intercept - 5 from the axis of y and being equally inclined to the axes. 3. cutting off an intercept 2 from the negative direction of the axis of y and inclined at 30° to OX.

4.

cutting off an intercept - 3 from the axis of y to the axis of x.

and inclined

at

an angle tan~i f

Find the equation

to the straight line

5.

cutting off intercepts 3 and 2 from the axes.

6.

cutting off intercepts

- 5 and

6

from the axes.

Find the equation to the straight line which passes through the point (5, 6) and has intercepts on the axes equal in magnitude and both positive, (1) equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. (2) 7.

8.

Find the equations to the straight lines which pass through (1, - 2) and cut off equal distances from the two axes.

the point

9. Find the equation to the straight line which passes through the given point {x\ y') and is such that the given point bisects the part intercepted between the axes.

10. Find the equation to the straight line which passes through the point ( - 4, 3) and is such that the portion of it between the axes is divided by the point in the ratio 5 3. :

Trace the straight lines whose equations are

+ 2?/+3 = 0. + 7r/ = 0.

11.

a;

13.

3a;

12.

5a--7//-9

14.

2a;-3?/

Find the equations to the straight lines passing following pairs of points. 15.

(0, 0)

17.

(-1,

and 3)

(2,

and

-2).

(6,

-7).

16.

(3, 4)

18.

(0,

= 0.

+ 4 = 0.

and

through the (5, 6).

-a) and

(&, 0).

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

42 and

{a

+ h, a-h).

19.

(a, &)

20.

{at^, 2at-^)

22.

(« cos 01

23.

(acos0jLJ & sin 0j)

24.

(* sec 01, 6

,

and

a sin

(at^^ 2at;).

^sin^g)*

Find the equations to the sides of the whose angular points are respectively 25.

[Exs. v.]

02).

triangles the coordinates of

and (-1,-2).

and (-1, -2).

27. Find the equations to the diagonals of the rectangle the equations of whose sides are x = a, x = a\ y = b, and y = b\

28. Find the equation to the straight line which bisects the distance between the points {a, b) and {a', b') and also bisects the distance between the points ( - a, b) and (a', - b'). 29. Find the equations to the straight lines which go through the origin and trisect the portion of the straight line 3a; + 2/ = 12 which is intercepted between the axes of coordinates.

Angles between straight

lines.

To find the angle between two given straight lines. Let the two straight lines be AL^ and AL^j meeting the axis of X in L^ and L^, 66.

I.

Let their equations be

y — m^x^-G-^ and y ~ in.j,x ^r c.^ By Art. 47 we therefore have tan^ZjA'^mi, and td^Vi. AL.^X^Wj.^,.

Now

— L AL^X — L AL.2.X. tan L^AL^ — tan \AL^X — AL^X\ L

L-^AL^^

AL^X— tan AL^X 1 + tan AL^X. tan AL^X ta,n

rn^ 1

— n^

+mi«i2

(1).

43

ANGLES BETWEEN STRAIGHT LINES. Hence the required angle — lL^AL

= tan-i

"'^•""'^

l

[In any numerical example, if the quantity tity it is the tangent of the acute angle it is the tangent of the obtuse angle.]

II.

and

(2).

+ mim2 (2)

Let the equations of the straight ^i£c + ^i2/ + Ci = 0,

+ G^^O. By dividing the equations by B^ and

written

and

be a positive quan-

between the lines

lines

;

if

negative,

be

A^^x^- B^^y

B^, they

may be

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

44

To find

67.

the condition that

two straight lines

may

he parallel.

Two

straight lines are parallel when the angle between therefore the tangent of this angle is zero.

them is zero and The equation

(2) of the last article

then gives

Two

straight lines whose equations are given in the "m" form are therefore parallel when their "7?i's" are the same, or, in other words, if their equations differ only in the constant term.

The straight line Ax + By + G' = parallel to the straight line Ax + By two equations are the same.

is

any straight

+ C = 0. For

the

line

which

"m's"

is

of the

Again the equation A {x-x')+B {y-y') = clearly represents the straight line which passes through the point {x', y') and is parallel to

Ax + By + C=0.

The

result (3) of the last article gives, as the condition

for parallel lines,

Ex.

68.

Find

through the point

(4,

the equation to the straight line, which passes - 5), and which is parallel to the straight line 3:c

Any

straight line

which

+ 4r/ + 5--=0

(1).

is parallel to (1)

has

its

equation of the

form 3a;

[For the

"w"

of both (1)

and

+ 4^/ + (7=0 (2) is

(2).

the same.]

This straight line will pass through the point

(4,

- 5)

if

3x4 + 4x(-5) + C = 0, (7=20-12 = 8.

i.e. if

The equation

(2)

then becomes 3a;+42/

69.

To find

the condition that

equations are given,

Let the straight

and

+ 8 = 0.

may lines

two

st^'aight linesj

he 'perpendicular.

be

y — m^x y — m.^x

-i-Ci, -\- G.2_.

whose

CONDITIONS OF PERPENDICULARITY.

45

be the angle between them we have, by Art. 66,

If

tan^^ r^""^^ 1 +mim2

(1).

If the lines be perpendicular, then ^

= 00

tan

be

=

90°,

and therefore

.

The right-hand member of equation (1) must therefore and this can only happen when its denominator

infinite,

is zero.

The condition 1

The to

+

of perpendicularity is therefore that m^TTi^

straight line y

y = »...H-.c.,

— O, —

Tn-^Tn2

i.e.

tu^x

+

c.^

is

=—

I.'

therefore perpendicular

«, = -!.

if

y/c'-t

It follows that the straight lines

A^x +B^y + C^ = which m^ = —

for

^

and

AA a)

m^^ — ^ /

,

are at right angles

if

A,,

_ V A^A^+B^B^ = 0.

a

i.e.

and A^x + B^y + 0^ = 0,

From

70.

A

the preceding article

it

follows that the

two

straight lines

and are at right angles

;

A^x + B,y + Ci = Q

(1),

B,x-A,y+C^ =

(2),

for the product of their m's

derived from (1) by interchanging the coefficients y, changing the sign of one of them, and changing the constant into any other constant.

Also of

a;

(2) is

and

Ex. where

The

straight line through

B^x'

(x', y')

perpendicular to

- A-^y' + 62= 0, so that Cg = A^y'- B^x'.

This straight line

is

therefore

B,{x-x')-A^{y-y') = 0.

(1) is (2)

COORDINATE GEOMETRY.

46

71. Ex. 1. Find the equation to the straight line which passes through the point (4, —5) and is perpendicular to the straight line

Sx + 4ij + 5 =

Any

First Method.

(1).

straight line perpendicular to (1) is by the

last article

4:X-Sij

+ C=0

(2).

[We should expect an arbitrary constant in (2) because an infinite number of straight lines perpendicular to (1).] The straight line (2) passes through the point (4, - 5) if i.e.

there are

4x4-3x(-5) + C = 0, (7= -16-15= -31.

a

The required equation

is

therefore

4:X-Sy = 31.

Any

Second Method. point is

straight line passing through

the given

y -{-5)=m{x~4:). This straight line m's

is

-

perpendicular to

is

1,

mX

i.e. if

(

- 1) = -

(1) if

the product of their

1,

m=|.

i.e. if

The required equation

is

therefore

y + 5=i{x-4), 4:X-'6y

i.e.

Any

Third Method. the point It is

(4,

- 5),

= Sl.

straight line is

y=mx + c.

It

passes through

if

-5 = 4m + c

perpendicular to

(3).

(1) if

mx{-i)=-l

(4).

Hence m = f and then (3) gives c = —V. The required equation is therefore y = '^x-^-^,

4x-By = Sl.

i.e.

[In the first method, we start with any straight line which is perpendicular to the given straight line and pick out that particular straight line which goes through the given point. In the second method, we start with any straight line passing through the given point and pick out that particular one which is perpendicular to the given straight hne. In the third method, we start with any straight line whatever and determine its constants, so that it may satisfy the two given conditions.

The student should

illustrate

by

figures. ]

Ex. 2. Find the equation to the straight line which passes through the point (x', y') and is perpendicular to the given straight line yy' = 2a {x

+ x').

THE STRAIGHT The given

straight line is

yy'

Any

47

LINE.

- 2ax - 2ax' = 0.

straight line perpendicular to it is (Art. 70)

2ay + xy'+G=0 This will pass through the point straight line required

the coordinates x'

if

2ai/ +

i.eAt

xY+C = 0,

G=-2ay' -x'y'. G the required equation

i.e. if

Substituting in

(1).

and therefore will be the and y' satisfy it,

(x', y')

(1) for

2a{y-y')

is

therefore

+ y'{x-x') = 0.

72. To find the equations to the straight lines which pass through a given point (x', t/') and make a given angle a with the given straight line y — nix + c.

Let

P be

the given point and let the given straight line

be LMJSf, making an angle with the axis of x such that

= m.

tan

(i.e. except when a right angle or zero) there

In general a

is

two straight lines PMR and making an angle a with

are

FNS

the given

line.

Let these

lines

the axis of

of x in R and S and let with the positive direction of

meet the axis

them make angles ^ and