Controll Tracking of Photovoltic

Table of Contents Part 1 Chapter 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1.1 Motivation of the search ....................................................................................................................... 1.2 PV History .............................................................................................................................................. 1.3 PV operation .......................................................................................................................................... Chapter 2 PV systems and system components ..................................................................................................... 2.1 PV systems types..................................................................................................................................... 2.2 Inverter ................................................................................................................................................... 2.3 Battery..................................................................................................................................................... 2.4 Battery charger ...................................................................................................................................... Chapter 3 Protection and Troubleshooting ........................................................................................................... 3.1 Protection system .................................................................................................................................. 3.2 Troubleshooting and maintenance ......................................................................................................... Chapter 4 Load estimation and sizing .................................................................................................................. 4.1 Load estimation ..................................................................................................................................... 4.2 PV design and Sizing .............................................................................................................................. Chapter 5 Economical and technical studies ......................................................................................................... 5.1 Environmental effects ............................................................................................................................. 5.2 Economic study using PV program .........................................................................................................

Part2 Chapter 6 Tracking system to obtaining the maximum power point from PV… ....................................................…. 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 6.2 Installation for PV module ..................................................................................................................... 6.3 Tracking system using arduino and stepper motor.................................................................................

Photovoltaic (Solar Electric) Photovoltaic (PV) devices generate electricity directly from sunlight via an electronic process that occurs naturally in certain types of material, called semiconductors. Electrons in these materials are freed by solar energy and can be induced to travel through an electrical circuit, powering electrical devices or sending electricity to the grid. PV devices can be used to power anything from small electronics such as calculators and road signs up to homes and large commercial businesses. Photovoltaic (PV), the technology which converts sunlight into electricity, is one of the fastest growing sectors of the renewable energy industry. It is already well established in many countries and looks set to become one of the key technologies of The 21st century. The market is being driven by concerns about carbon emissions, energy security and the rising price of fossil fuels.

History of Photovoltaic Technology The photovoltaic effect was observed as early as 1839 by Alexander Edund Becquerel .it was the subject of scientific inquiry through the early Twentieth century. In 1954 Bell Labs in U.S Introduced the first solar PV device that produced a usable amount of electricity. In 1958 solar cells were being used in a Varity of small scale scientific and commercial applications. the begging of using PV in homes and businesses was in 1970.but the high price made it impractical to be used in large applications. After that industry and research began to make it feasible, low price and increasing production. The end of 2011, total of 67.4GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85 TWH/year and by the end of 2012 the 100 GW installed capacity was achieved. Solar PV is now ,after hydro and wind power the third most important renewable energy source in terms of globally installed capacity .more than 100 countries use solar photovoltaic.

Photovoltaic Operation: Photovoltaic (PV) use some of the properties of semiconductors to directly convert light into electricity. There are many different kinds of PV technology commercially available and under research each with their own strengths and weaknesses. Our discussion focuses on one material: silicon. This is the same material that many integrated circuits (computer chips) are made from. It is currently the workhorse of the commercial market. We begin by looking at the physics that allows this technology to convert sunlight directly into electricity. A discussion of efficiency follows. Efficiency for any energy production technology is a complex issue and PV is no exception.

Physics of Photovoltaic Operation: The fundamental unit of a PV panel is the cell. The main material of the cell is some kind of semi conducting material. There are cells made from gallium arsenide, crystalline silicon, amorphous silicon and others. These all are different types of semi conducting material. The discussion of the basic operation will focus on explaining the behavior of crystalline silicon cell. It is the most common type. Because of its conduction level we can get semiconductors to exhibit some behavior. We have the ability to add conductors to a semiconductor allowing us to choose not only the quantity of conductors but also the type. There are two types of conductors we can add: positive conductors and negative conductors. The negative ones known as electrons. The positive ones are a little more conceptually difficult s they are halls, or lack of electrons. A semiconductor with more positive conductors is called a –p type and one with more negative conductors is called n- type.

Do not however get the impression that we are adding a charge to the semiconductor. We are merely increasing the number of current carriers (so charges that are free to move about) but each one is balanced out by a charge of the opposite type so the overall charge of the semiconductor remains neutral. A PV cell requires both p and n type semiconductors. Figure a show two pieces of semiconductor. The one with the plus signs is the p-type and they are distributed evenly over the material. . Again, the plus and minus signs represent the polarity of the carriers not the overall charge of the material. If the p and n type semiconductors are then brought together and a junction formed so that charges can flow between them an interesting thing happens as shown in Figure .

The loose positive and negative carriers are attracted to each other so some of the electrons in the ntype material migrate into the p-type material and vice-versa. The attraction of unlike charges is counterbalanced by the electric field that is created as the charge of the material is changed when it loses some of its charged particles. This region surrounding the junction is called the depletion region and is what gives the p-n junction the ability to convert light into electricity. It is possible to excite an electron away from the atom it is attached to by having it absorb some energy. When light of sufficient energy hits the p-n junction an electron can be separated from its associated atom. If this electron is not re-absorbed by another atom before reaching the depletion region, it gets swept through the electric field created by the charge separation to a higher potential. This electron can then be collected by an electrode placed on the top of the junction (N-type) and used in a circuit to do some work. This is how the p-n junction creates usable electricity. Clearly the direction the sun comes from must have a transparent coating. The electron can be reabsorbed by the silicon before it gets to the electrode. If this happens that energy is lost and never makes it out of the panel. To reduce the occurrence of electron reabsorbing it is desirable to have the electrodes as close together as possible. Too many electrodes will shade the panel, however, so a balancing act ensues. The smallest unit of PV system is solar cell it produces small power, so cells are connected in series and parallel to form larger unit with higher power called (Module). Modules also connected in series and parallel to form (Array).

Solar radiation The sun as an energy source The sun supplies energy in the form of radiation, without which life on Earth could not exist. The energy is generated in the sun's core through the fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium. Part of the mass of the hydrogen is converted into energy. In other words, the sun is an enormous nuclear fusion reactor. Because the sun is such a long way from the Earth, only a tiny proportion (around two-millionths) of the sun's radiation reaches the Earth's surface. This works out at an amount of energy of 1 x 101 8 kWh/a.

worldwide distribution of annual solar irradiance in kWh/m2

4H+2e→4He+2neutrinous+6photons The amount of energy involved is 26Mev each time the above reaction take place. 90% of the generated by the sun comes from this fusion reaction.

Distribution of solar radiation Global Horizontal Irradiance/Irradiation (GHI) GHI is the most important parameter for calculation of PV electricity yield. In simple language, Global Horizontal Irradiation (GHI) = Direct Horizontal Irradiation (DHI) + Diffused Horizontal Irradiation (DIF) DHI is the irradiation component that reaches a horizontal Earth surface without any atmospheric losses due to scattering or absorption. DIF is the irradiation component that reaches a horizontal Earth surface as a result of being scattered by air molecules, aerosol particles, cloud particles or other particles. In the absence of an atmosphere there would be no diffused horizontal irradiation. The ratio between DHI and DIF can be variable in time and spatial context. It plays an important role when comparing various technology options. The GHI varies throughout months of year and from somewhere to another.

Sunlight as it passes through the atmosphere.

Angle definition Angle definition is important for calculating irradiance and the yields of solar energy system.

value

Solar angles used in power calculations for PV panels The angle at which the sun hits a PV panel is the basis for understanding how to design the most efficient PV array for a specific location. This is one of the first topics presented in solar engineering textbooks. Zenith Angle, Θz: This is the angle between the line that points to the sun and the vertical — basically, this is just where the sun is in the sky. At sunrise and sunset this angle is 90º. Solar Altitude Angle, αs: This is the angle between the line that points to the sun and the horizontal. It is the complement of the zenith angle. At sunrise and sunset this angle is 0º. Solar Azimuth Angle, γs: This is the angle between the line that points to the sun and south. Angles to the east are negative. Angles to the west are positive. This angle is 0º at solar noon. It is probably close to -90º at sunrise and 90º at sunset, depending on the season. This angle is only measured in the horizontal plane; in other words, it neglects the height of the sun. Angle of Incidence, θ: This is the angle between the line that points to the sun and the angle that point straight out of a PV panel (this is also called the line that is normal to the surface of the panel). This is the most important angle. Solar panels are the most efficient when pointing at the sun, so engineers want to minimize this angle at all times. To know this angle, you must know all of the angles listed and described next. Hour Angle, ω: This is based on the sun's angular displacement, east or west, of the local meridian (the line the local time zone is based on). The earth rotates 15º per hour so at 11am, the hour angle is -15º and at 1pm it is 15º. Surface Azimuth Angle, γ: This is the angle between the line that points straight out of a PV panel and south. It is only measured in the horizontal plane. Again, east is negative and west is positive. If a panel pointed directly south, this angle would be 0º. Collector Slope, β: This is the angle between the plane of the solar collector and the horizontal. If a panel is lying flat, then it is 0º. As you tip it up, this angle increases. It does not matter which direction the panel faces. Declination, δ: This is the angle between the line that points to the sun from the equator and the line that points straight out from the equator (at solar noon). North is positive and south is negative. This angle varies from 23.45 to -23.45 throughout the year, which is related to why we have seasons. Latitude, φ: This is the angle between a line that points from the center of the Earth to a location on the Earth's surface and a line that points from the center of the Earth to the equator.

Electrical properties of solar cells A solar cell looks like a large scale diode .the characteristic curve of a silicon diode is shown below. if a positive potential is present at the anode and negative potential is present at the cathode, the diode is connected in forward biased direction. The characteristic curve in the first quadrant applies Starting from a particular voltage (the threshold voltage here is 0.7V), current flows. If the diode is connected in reverse-biased direction, current flow is prevented in this direction. The characteristic curve in the third quadrant applies. Only starting from a high breakdown voltage (here, 150V) does the diode become conductive? This can also lead to the destruction of the diode.

Current voltage curve for silicon diode

An un-illuminated solar cell is described in the equivalent circuit diagram by a diode. Accordingly, the characteristic curve of a diode is also applicable. For a mono crystalline solar cell, one can assume a forward voltage of approximately 0.5V and a breakdown voltage of 12V to 50V (depending upon the quality and cell material).

Dark equivalent circuit diagram and characteristic curve V =VD I =-ID

Illuminated equivalent circuit diagram and characteristic curve V=VD I=IPh -ID

When light hits the solar cell, the energy of the photons generates free charge carriers. An illuminated solar cell constitutes a parallel circuit of a power source and a diode. The power source produces the photoelectric current (photocurrent) I p h. The level of this current depends upon the irradiance. The diode characteristic curve is shifted by the magnitude of the photocurrent in the reverse-biased direction (into the fourth quadrant).

Extended equivalent circuit diagram

This extended equivalent circuit diagram is termed a single-diode model of a solar cell and is used as a standard model in photovoltaic. In the solar cell, a voltage drop occurs as the charge carriers migrate from the semiconductor to the electrical contacts. This is described by the series resistor Rs, which is in the range of a few milliohms. In addition, what are known as leakage currents arise, which are described by the parallel resistor. Both resistors bring about a flattening of the solar cell characteristic curve. With the series resistor, it is possible to calculate current/voltage characteristic curves of solar cells at different irradiances and temperatures.

Equivalent circuit models of solar cell

Solar cell character “I-V” Curves If light falls on an unloaded solar cell, a voltage of approx. 0.6V builds up. This can be measured as the open-circuit voltage Voc at the two contacts. If the two contacts are short circuited via an ammeter, the short-circuit current ISC can be calculated. In order to record a complete solar cell characteristic I-V curve, one requires a variable resistor (shunt), a voltmeter and an ammeter

Current/voltage characteristic curve (l-V curve) for crystalline silicon Solar cell FF=Vmpp*Impp/Voc*Isc

Where:

Mpp: maximum power point. The maximum power point (MPP) value is the point on the I-V curve at

which the solar cell works with maximum power. Impp: current at maximum power point Vmpp: voltage at maximum power point Voc: open circuit voltage with crystalline cells, approximately 0.5V to

0.6V, and for amorphous cells is approximately 0.6V to 0.9V. Isc: short circuit current is approximately 5 per cent to 15 per cent higher

than the MPP current. With crystalline standard cells (10cm x 10cm) under STC , FF: fill factor it measures the quality of PV cell. If FF=1 this means the best quality of PV cell.

Standard test conditions (STC) Uniform conditions are specified for determining the electrical data with which the solar cell characteristic I-V curve is then calculated. 1 vertical irradiance E of 1000 W/m2; 2 cell temperature T of 25°C with a tolerance of ± 2°C; 3 defined light spectrum (spectral distribution of the solar reference irradiance

Irradiance dependence and temperature characteristics: The electrical output and the I-V curves of PV modules depend upon (Temperatures & irradiance). 1) Effect of irradiance: >> During the course of a day the irradiance varies more than the temperature. >> The changes in irradiance affect the module current since the current is directly dependent upon the irradiance. Note: -When irradiance drops by half, the electricity generated also reduces by half.

(I-V) curves for varying irradiance and constant temperature.

- By contrast, the MPP voltage stays approx. constant with changing irradiance. 2) Effect of temperature: >> The voltage is most affected by the temperature. -Where the voltage is inversely proportional to temperature. In summer: Temp is high ………….. so there is (-10 volts). In winter: Temp is low …………… so there is (+10 volts). - By contrast, the current increases slightly with increasing temperature.

(I-V) curves at different module temperatures and with constant irradiance of 1000W/m2. Problem: >> During summer, the 0/p power of a module at high temperatures can be 35 % less than under STC. As shown in Figure (***). Solution: >> In order to minimize this power loss, the PV modules should be able to dissipate heat easily (sufficient ventilation)

Different module temperatures with constant irradiance

Effect of ventilation of the cells:

(Hot spots), (bypass diodes) and (shading): - Hot spot: it is a spot on the solar cell which is hot when there is a shadow. >> This can happen, for instance, when relatively high reverse current flows through the unlit solar cell) shading cell). 1) Hot spot reduces the power of the solar cell. 2) The probability of cell failure. 3) And hence, the probability of module failure. Bypass diodes: First standard module with 36 cells is irradiated by the sun. The current generated in the solar cells is used by a load (resistance R). As fig

If a leaf falls on the solar module so that a solar cell (C36 in Figure) is darkened, this solar cell becomes an (electricity load). - No more current is generated in this cell. - It uses the current from the other cells so the direction of the voltage is reversed in the shaded cell.

- This current flow is then converted into heat. If there is a large enough current, this can lead to the hot spot effect already mentioned. To prevent a hot spot from developing, the current is diverted past the solar cells via bypass diodes. See following fig:

Number of bypass diodes: - One diode for each (18 to 20 cells). - Modules with (36 to 40) cells have two bypass diodes. - Modules with (72) solar cells have four bypass diodes.

Solar cell types Crystalline silicon cells 1. Polycrystalline silicon or multicrystalline silicon. 2. Mono crystalline. 3. Mono-like-multi silicon. 4. Ribbon silicon.

Thin films 1. Cadmium telluride solar cell. 2. Copper indium gallium selenide. 3. Gallium arsenide multijunction. 4. Light-absorbing dyes (DSSCQuantum Dot Solar Cells (QDSCs). 5. Organic/polymer solar cells. 6. Silicon thin films Indium Gallium Nitride.

Hybrid solar cell The most common solar cell and higher sails is poly crystalline.

Maximum efficiencies in photovoltaic Solar cell material

Monocrystalline silicon Polycrystalline silicon Ribbon silicon Crystalline thin- film silicon Amorphous silicon Micromorphous silicon CIS Cadmium telluride lll - V semi conductor Dye-sensitized call Hybrid HIT solar cell

Cell efficiency (laboratory) (%)

Cell efficiency (production) (%)

24.7 20.3 19.7 19.2 13.0 12.0 19.5 16.5 3 9. 0 12.0 21

21.5 16.5 14 9.5 10.5 10.7 14.0 10.0 27.4 7.0 18.5

The cell we use is Polycrystalline silicon.

Module efficiency (series production) (%) 16.9 14.2 13.1 7.9 7.5 9.1 11.0 9.0 27.0 5.0 16.8

What is crystalline silicon?? 

The most important material in crystalline solar cells is silicon. After oxygen, this is the second most abundant element on Earth and, hence, is available in almost unlimited quantities. It is present not in a pure form, but in chemical compounds, with oxygen in the form of quartz or sand. The undesired oxygen has to be first separated out of the silicon dioxide. To do this, quartz sand is heated together with carbon powder, coke and charcoal in an electric arc furnace to a temperature of 1800°C to 1900°C.This produces carbon monoxide and what is known as metallurgical silicon, which is about 98 per cent pure. But 2 per cent impurity in silicon is still much too high for electronics applications. Only billionths of a per cent are acceptable for photovoltaic, which falls to ten times less for the semiconductor industry (electronic grade silicon). Because the purity requirements for silicon used in manufacturing solar cells aren't as high as for electronic grade silicon, the solar industry primarily uses waste products from the semiconductor industry. Since 1998, however, there has not been enough silicon waste to cover the rapid growth in demand. The shortfall has mostly been made up using ultra-pure silicon, but which, in some cases, is of a slightly lower quality. Over the same period, processes have been developed that now make it possible to produce silicon with the quality required for solar cells (solar grade silicon and solar silicon), but involving less cost, time and energy expenditure.

Efficiency of solar cells and PV modules The efficiency of solar cells is the result of the relationship between the power delivered by the solar cell and the power irradiated by the sun. Hence, it is calculated from the MPP the solar irradiance E and the area A of the solar cell as follows

In PV modules, the module surface area is used for A. On the data sheets, the efficiency is always specified under standard test conditions (STC):

This yields the nominal efficiency of solar cells and modules:

The efficiency of solar cells depends upon irradiance and temperature. The efficiency at a particular irradiance or temperature is the result of the nominal efficiency minus the change in efficiency.

With the radiation factor s, the change in efficiency with irradiances deviating from STC can be calculated

For example, s = 0.5 means the radiation factor is at half STC irradiance and, hence, irradiance is at 500W/m2 .The approximate change in efficiency with crystalline silicon cells results with constant temperature as follows:

The efficiency also depends on temperature as follow.

:

PV Systems There are two types of PV systems:

1. 2.

Stand alone system Grid connected system

Stand-alone PV systems are systems that are not connected to the public electricity grid. They are generally much smaller than grid-connected systems, and because they are very often in rural areas, the PV modules are frequently ground mounted as space is usually not a problem. The three main categories are:

 systems providing DC power only;  systems providing AC power through an inverter;  Hybrid systems: diesel, wind or hydro. Stand-alone photovoltaically powered systems with peak PV powers can have from mill watts to several kilowatts. They do not have a connection to an electricity grid. In order to ensure the supply of the stand-alone system with electric power also in the times without radiation (at night) or with very low radiation (at times with a strong cloud cover), stand-alone systems mostly have an integrated storage system (battery system). If the systems are used only during the time when the radiation is sufficient to supply the system with electric power directly, a storage system is not necessary. At present, a very great variety of stand-alone system exists. Example range from solar calculators and watches to systems for traffic control systems those are able to supply one or several buildings in remote areas with electric power. They can be dc systems with or without storage battery they can be ac systems with an inverter.

Grid connected PV system is the most popular solar electric system on the market today. Grid-connected systems are so named because they are connected directly to the electrical grid. A grid-connected system consists of five main components:  PV array  An inverter  The main service panel or breaker box  safety disconnects  Meters. To understand how a battery-less grid-connected system works, let’s begin with the PV array. The PV array produces DC electricity. It flows through wires to the inverter, which converts the DC electricity to AC electricity. The inverter doesn’t just convert the DC electricity to AC; it converts it to grid-compatible AC — that is, 60 cycles per second, 120-volt (or 240-volt) electricity. Because the inverter produces electricity in sync with the grid, inverters in these systems are often referred to as “synchronous” inverters. The 120-volt or 240-volt AC produced by the inverter flows to the main service panel, aka the breaker box. From there, it flows to active loads (electrical devices that are operating). If the PV system is producing more electricity than is needed to meet these demands — which is often the case on sunny days — the excess automatically flows on to the grid. After the electricity is fed to the grid, the utility treats it as if it were its own. End users pay the utility directly for the electricity you generate (that’s only occurs at smart Grid).

Solar Inverter Inverter is one of the most important components in grid connected system. Inverter is semiconductor device which used to convert DC (direct current) electricity into AC (alternating current) electricity. Some modern inverters make process of conversion with small losses. Sometimes we don’t need battery bank in grid connected system as Electricity Company act as battery .But many people preferred to use battery bank to act as back up when grid is failure. When PV feed dc load, it become more efficient as in this case don’t need to use inverter

Inverter Ratings: 1- Continuous Rating : This is the amount of power you could expect to use continuously without the inverter overheating and shutting down. 2-Half Hour Rating: This is handy as the continuous rating may be too low to run a high energy consumption power tool or appliance, however if the appliance was only to be used occasionally then the half hour rating may well suffice. 3- Surge Rating: A high surge is required to start some appliances and once running they may need considerably less power to keep functioning. The inverter must be able to hold its surge rating for at least 5 seconds. 4- IP Rating : Define the ability of inverter to be used to prevent water and dust ingress 5- Peak Efficiency: Represent high efficiency inverter can achieve.

Types of Solar Inverter 1) standalone inverter: Used in isolated system and do not need an anti-islanding system. 2) battery backup inverter: Special type of inverter which required an anti-islanding protection

3) grid tie inverter: Is the most common type used in grid connected solar system. It takes the direct current voltage from battery or pv array and convert it to ac voltage to be used in homes and business. The output of grid tie inverter must be in phase with Grid to have the ability of selling the remaining energy back to Grid and reduce consumer bill. This process called net metering which.

Grid Controlled Inverter: The basic assembly of a grid-controlled inverter is a bridge circuit with thyristors inlarger PV systems, thyristor inverters are also used, as well as the predominantinsulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) inverters.For the single-phase inverters with lower powers (< 5kWp), there are now only afew manufacturers who still build inverters on this principle.

Self commuted inverter can be turned on and off are used in the In self-commutated inverters, Principle of grid controlled inverter semiconductor elements that bridge circuit. Depending upon the system performance and voltage level, the following semiconductor elements are used: • Metal-oxide semiconductor power field effect transistors (MOSFETs); • Bipolar transistors; •8 gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) (up to 1 kHz); • insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). These power-switching devices, using the principle of pulse width modulation, enabla good reproduction of the sinusoidal wave.

Principle of self-commutated inverters

Grid Tied Inverter: Grid connected inverter also known as grid tied inverter or synchronous inverter.These types of inverters can not used in standalone system.In grid-connected PV systems, the inverter is linked to the mains electricity griddirectly or via the building's grid. With a direct connection, the generated electricity isfed only into the mains grid. With a coupling to the building's grid, the generated solar is first consumed in the building, then any surplus is fed to the mains electricity grid.

Principle operation of grid tied inverter

In order to feed the maximum power into the electricity grid, the inverter must workin the MPP of the PV array. The MPP of the PV array changes according to Climatic conditions. In the inverter, an MPP tracker ensures that the inverter is adjusted to the MPP point. Since the modules' voltage and current vary considerably depending upon the weather conditions, the inverter needs to move its working pointing order to function optimally. To do this, an electronic circuit is used that adjusts the Voltage so that the inverter runs at the point at which the PV array achieves its maximum power (MPP).

Modern grid-connected inverters are able to perform the following functions: • Conversion

of the direct current generated by the PV modules into mains-standardalternating current;

Adjustment of the inverter's operating point to the MPP of the PV modules (MPP tracking)Pv system up to5kwp or size of 50 m^2 we use single phase inverter and with large system the feed is three phase inverter.

Principle of connecting PV systems to the grid with a single-phase and three-phase inverter

Grid Connected Inverter Types and Construction Size in Various power Class: Grid connected inverter classified into three groups: 1-centeral

inverter

2-string inverter

3-module inverter

Central inverter with low output power range (single phase) • Type:

Top Class III - TCG 2500/6.

• Manufacturer: ASP. • Concept: self-commutated inverters with LF transformer. • DC nominal power: 2.5kW. • MPP voltage: 82V to 120V. • Size: 456mm x 320mm x 211mm. • Weight: 22kg. Central inverter with high output power range (three phase): •Type: invert solar 100 •Manufacture: Siemens AG •Concept: self commuted inverter with LF transformer •MPP voltage: 460v to 750v •Size: 13.725*950*850 mm^3 •Weight:

750kg

String inverter: • Type: Sunny Boy 2100TL. • Manufacturer: SMA Technology AG. • Concept: transformer less, self-commutated inverter. • DC nominal power: 2kW. • MPP voltage: 125V to 600V.

• Size: 295mm x 434mm x 214mm. • Weight: 25kg. Module inverter: • Type:

DMI 150/35.

• Manufacturer: Dorfmiiller Solar anlagen GmbH.

• Concept: self-commutated inverter with LF transformer. • DC nominal power: 120W. • MPP voltage: 28V to 50V. • Size: 80mm x 200mm x 100m^3 • Weight: 2.8kg.

Characteristics and Properties of Grid Tied Inverter: Conversion efficiency (N, C 0 N) The conversion efficiency describes the losses that arise when converting direct current into alternating current. In inverters, these comprise the losses caused by the transformer (in devices that have transformer), the power switching devices and by own consumption for management, control, recording operating data, etc. N, con=Pac (input real power)/Pdc (input real power) Tracking efficiency :( R | T R). A state-of-the-art grid-connected inverter in a grid-connected PV system has to ensure optimum adaptation to the characteristic curve of the PV array connected to it (I-V curve). During the day, the operating parameters in the PV array are constantly changing. The differing irradiance and temperature conditions change the PV array's maximum power point (MPP). In order to always transform the maximum solar power into alternating current, the inverter must automatically set and track the optimum operating point (MPP tracking). The quality of this inverter adjustment to the optimum operating point is described by the tracking efficiency:

R | T R=Pdc (instantaneous input real power)/Ppv (maximum instantaneous pv array power ).

Instantaneous values (red line) of insulation compared to hourly values (blue line) on a cloudless day (left) and on a cloudy day

Static efficiency: Static efficiency is formed as the product of conversion and tracking efficiency. Generally, only the conversion efficiency that is achieved during operation in the inverter's nominal range (Vnand In) is stated as the nominal efficiency on the data sheets. In addition, the maximum efficiency is also often stated, which usually lies in the partial load range of 80 per cent to 50 per cent of the nominal power. Characteristic curves for various inverter types (according to manufacturers' specifications)

Inverter installation site: When choosing the installation site, it is required that the environmental conditions specified by the manufacturer are maintained (essentially humidity and temperature).The ideal installation site for inverters is cool, dry, dust free and indoors. It makes sense to install inverters next to the meter cupboard or close by. If the environmental conditions permit, the inverter can be installed close to the PV array combiner/junction box. This reduces the length of the DC main cable and lowers the installation costs. The ventilation grilles and heat dissipaters need to be kept uncovered to ensure optimum cooling. For the same reason, the devices should not be installed right on top of each other if this can be avoided. The noise produced by the inverter should also be taken into account when choosing the installation site. The units should be protected from aggressive vapors, water vapor and fine particles.

Criteria for Inverter Selection: Checklist when considering selecting a Solar PV Inverter

AC Voltage: 

AC operating voltages as well as single or three-phase systems; 120/240- single phase is used in residential applications. Inverters would connect to 240VAC in this application.



240- three-phase is used for power loads in commercial and industrial buildings. This is a delta configuration. Across any one (of 3 transformers) there’s 240V. On one side (only) of the delta there is a center-tapped transformer which is connected to neutral. Thus providing 2x 120VAC for outlets.



208Y/120-V three-phase four wire distribution is commonly used in commercial buildings with limited electrical loads. 120V is available between a pole and ground, while 208V is available between any two poles.



480- Three phase delta is commonly used in commercial and industrial buildings with substantial motor loads.



480Y/277- is used to supply commercial and industrial buildings. Between any two poles there’s 480V, and between any pole and neutral there’s 277V. The 277V is used for ballasted lighting. Local step-down transformers are typically inserted to provide 208Y/120-V power for lighting, appliances and outlets.

DC Voltage: 

The Maximum Power Point Transfer (MPPT or MPP) voltage range. a solar PV string should be sized such that the inverter can normally operate within this range.



Maximum DC voltage; a solar PV string with no load (Vo) must under no circumstance ever exceed an inverters maximum DV voltage. When considering this factor, one must assume the lowest possible solar PV panel temperature while exposed to bright sunlight



Minimum DC voltage; for tracking systems: . During cloud cover, a solar PV string’s DC voltage can drop to a very low level, so inverter will stop production and shutdown.

We can select grid tied inverter according to the following table: When select grid tie inverter we should take in our mind some consideration such as: how much power generated, sizing of building, energy use changes over the time and type of solar panel Inverter can be selected according to the following table:

SYSTEM SIZE

NO. PANELS

AVG DAILY INVERTER

ROOF AREA

ANNUAL OUTPUT OUTPUT

1.0kW

6

1700WR

7.8m

4.7kWh

1715kWh

1.5kW

9

1700WR

11.7m

7.0kWh

2555kWh

2.1kW

12

2300WR

14.3m

9.3kWh

3487kWh

2.6kW

15

3300WR

19.5m

11.7kWh

4270kWh

3.1kW

18

3300WR

23.4m

14.3kWh

5219kWh

3.5kW

20

4600WR

27.3m

15.6kWh

5694kWh

4.2kW

24

4600WR

31.2m

18.7kWh

6825kWh

Inverter efficiency: Inverter efficiency can be defined as how much output power from inverter as percentage of power input to the inverter. Inverter efficiency is depending on power as there is direct relation between power and efficiency. As the power increase inverter efficiency will increase. Inverter uses power from battery even we are not drawing AC current from it which reduce efficiency of inverter. Some inverters have the facility called sleep mode which improve overall efficiency of inverter. So sensor is required with inverter to sense if AC power is required or not. If not power used it will shut down the inverter so inverter don’t draw power from battery and increase efficiency. Which means that the appliances can not be put in stand-by mode .Another factor may be affects on inverter efficiency is waveform and inductive load. In case of non pure sine wave will be less efficient when powering an inductive load. The most common disadvantages of inverter are harmonic problems.

How to solve harmonic problem? A large portion of the losses are caused by the return of current between the output inductor and the input capacitor. If we decouple the capacitor and the inductors then it is impossible for a return current to flow and electro-magnetic disturbances cannot occur at the input as a result of voltage spikes.

Inverter failure: Solar inverters may fail due to transients from the grid or the PV panel, component aging and operation beyond the designed limits.

Causes of failure:  capacitor failure:  Voltage stress  Continuous operation under maximum voltage  Current stress  Mechanical stress  Vibration 2-inverter bridge failure:  Over voltages and over currents  Thermal shock  Thermal overload  Extremely cold operating temperature  Other malfunction components

3-electro mechanical wear:  Extreme temperature conditions  Component stress  Contamination at contact

What can market provide for you? Market can provide two types of inverter:  Low Cost: These inverters are available from electrical stores, hardware stores and electronic suppliers are commonly available.. These inverters usually lack devices such as auto-start or any form of adjustability. Performance may or may not be as stated (or even not properly stated at all). However they are not all bad. Consider one if your needs are modest and your budget is limited. Usually they present no problems for TV and video, computers and smaller appliances. High output models can be good "power tool" inverters. We don't sell them.  High Quality: There is no substitute for quality. You will find only a small handful of companies worldwide who make high quality power inverters.

Battery selecting and voltage regulation In Stand-alone PV system In stand-alone photovoltaic systems, the electrical energy produced by the PV array cannot always be used when it is produced. Because the demand for energy does not always coincide with its production, electrical storage batteries are commonly used in PV systems. The primary functions of a storage battery in a PV system are to: 1. Energy Storage Capacity and Autonomy: to store electrical energy when it is produced by the PV array and to supply energy to electrical loads as needed or on demand. 2. Voltage and Current Stabilization: to supply power to electrical loads at stable voltages and currents, by suppressing or 'smoothing out' transients that may occur in PV systems. 3. Supply Surge Currents: to supply surge or high peak operating currents to electrical loads or appliances. The battery's capacity for holding energy is rated in amp-hours: 1 amp delivered for 1 hour = 1-amp hour Battery capacity is listed in amp hours at a given voltage, e.g. 220 amp-hours at 6 volts. Manufacturer's typically rate storage batteries at a 20-hour rate: 220 amp-hour batteries will deliver 11 amps for 20 hrs

This rating is designed only as a means to compare different batteries to the same standard and is not to be taken as a performance guarantee. Batteries are electrochemical devices sensitive to climate, charge/discharge cycle history, temperature, and age. The performance of your battery depends on climate, location and usage patterns. For every 1.0 amp-hour you remove from your battery, you will need to pump about 1.25 amp-hours back in to return the battery to the same charge state of charge. This figure also varies with temperature, battery type and age.

Wattage, Volts, Amps, etc Electrical appliances in the United States are rated with wattage, a measure of energy consumption per unit of time. One watt delivered for one hour equals one watt-hour. Wattage is the product of current (amps) multiplied by voltage. Watt = amps x volt

One amp delivered at 120 volts is the same amount of wattage as 10 amps delivered 12 volts: 1 amp at 120 volts = 10 amps at 12 volts

Wattage is independent of voltage: 1 watt at 120 volts = 1 watt at 12 volts To convert a battery's amp-hour capacity to watt-hours, multiply the amp-hours times the voltage. The product is watt-hours. To figure out how much battery capacity it will require to run an appliance for a given time, multiply the appliance wattage times the number of hours it will run to yield the total watt-hours. Then divide by the battery voltage to get the amp hours.

For example, running a 60-watt light bulb for one hour uses 60 watt-hours. If a 12-volt battery is running the light it will consume 5 amphours (60 watt hours divided by 12 volts equals 5 amp-hours)

How big a battery do I need for a PV System? Ideally, a battery bank should be sized to be able to store power for 5 days of autonomy during cloudy weather. If the battery bank is smaller than 3 day capacity, it is going to cycle deeply on a regular basis and the battery will have a shorter life. System size, individual needs and expectations will determine the best battery size for your system.

Wel * Autonomy Days System Voltage Battery size   Ah  B * Max.DOD Where:Wel: power from PV Autonomy Days: Number of days of non-sunshine often 2 days ηb: is the battery efficiency often (80%) DOD: depth of discharge (80%) SYSTEM Voltage: (12 or 24 volt) 

In our case 50 watt PV module and system voltage is 12 volt after regulation assume Autonomy Days is only one day max DOD is 70% so we need



(50/12)*2/(.8*.7) ≈ 15 AH battery



Wide variations exist in charge controller designs and operational characteristics. Currently no standards, guidelines, or sizing practices exist for battery and charge controller interfacing.

Battery Cycles Batteries are rated according to their "cycles". Batteries can have shallow cycles between 10% to 15% of the battery's total capacity, or deep cycles up to 50% to 80%. Shallow-cycle batteries, as those for starting a car, are designed to deliver several hundred amperes for a few seconds, then the alternator takes over and the battery is quickly recharged. Deep-cycle batteries or the other hand, deliver a few amperes for hundreds of hours between charges. These two types are designed for different applications and should not be interchanged.

Battery classifications Primary Batteries Primary batteries can store and deliver electrical energy, but cannot be recharged. Typical carbon-zinc and lithium batteries commonly used in consumer electronic devices are primary batteries. Primary batteries are not used in PV systems because they cannot be recharged Secondary Batteries A secondary battery can store and deliver electrical energy, and can also be recharged by passing a current through it in an opposite direction to the discharge current. Common lead-acid batteries used in automobiles and PV systems are secondary batteries.

Batteries used in PV systems Lead Acid Batteries Nickel Cadmium Batteries Lead-Acid Batteries - How they work The lead-acid battery cell consists of positive and negative lead plates of different composition suspended in a sulfuric acid solution called electrolyte. When cells discharge, sulfur molecules from the electrolyte bond with the lead plates and releases electrons. When the cell recharges, excess electrons go back to the electrolyte. A battery develops voltage from this chemical reaction. Electricity is the flow of electrons. In a typical lead-acid battery, the voltage is approximately 2 volts per cell regardless of cell size. Electricity flows from the battery as soon as there is a circuit between the positive and negative terminals. This happens when any load (appliance) that needs electricity is connected to the battery.

Good care and caution should be used at all times when handling a battery. Improper battery use can result in explosion. Read all documentation included with your battery in its entirety. At the positive plate or electrode:

Pbo2 +4H++2e-

pb2++2H2o

Pb2++so4-2v

pbso4

At the negative plate or electrode: pb2++2e-

Pb

Pb2++so42pbso4 Overall lead acid cell reaction:

Nickel-Cadmium Battery Chemistry At the positive plate or electrode:

At the negative plate or electrode:

Overall nickel cadmium cell reaction

The nominal voltage for a nickel-cadmium cell is 1.2 volts, compared to about 2.1 volts for a lead-acid cell, requiring 10 nickel-cadmium cells to be configured in series for a nominal 12 volt battery. The voltage of a nickel-cadmium cell remains relatively stable until the cell is almost completely discharged. Nickel-cadmium batteries can accept charge rates as high as C/1, and are tolerant of continuous overcharge up to a C/15 rate. Nickel-cadmium batteries are commonly subdivided into two primary types; sintered plate and pocket plate. Where c is the charge rate Charge rate is often denoted as C or C-rate and signifies a charge or discharge rate equal to the capacity of a battery in one hour.[1] For a 1.6Ah battery, C = 1.6A. A charge rate of C/2 = 0.8A would need two hours, and a charge rate of 2C = 3.2A would need 30 minutes to fully charge the battery from an empty state, if supported by the battery. This also assumes that the battery is 100% efficient at absorbing the charge

.

Comparison between different PV batteries types

BATTERY CHARGE CONTROLLERS IN PV SYSTEMS The primary function of a charge controller in a stand-alone PV system is to maintain the battery at highest possible state of charge while protecting it from overcharge by the array and from overdischarge by the loads. Although some PV systems can be effectively designed without the use of charge control, any system that has unpredictable loads, user intervention, optimized or undersized battery storage (to minimize initial cost) typically requires a battery charge controller. The algorithm or control strategy of a battery charge controller determines the effectiveness of battery charging and PV array utilization, and ultimately the ability of the system to meet the load demands. Additional features such as temperature compensation, alarms, meters, remote voltage sense leads and special algorithms can enhance the ability of a charge controller to maintain the health and extend the lifetime of a battery. Important functions of battery charge controllers and system controls are:

• • •

Prevent Battery Overcharge: to limit the energy supplied to the battery by the PV array when the battery becomes fully charged. Prevent Battery Over-discharge: to disconnect the battery from electrical loads when the battery reaches low state of charge. Provide Load Control Functions: to automatically connect and disconnect an electrical load at a specified time, for example operating a lighting load from sunset to sunrise.

Overcharge Protection A remote stand-alone photovoltaic system with battery storage is designed so that it will meet the system electrical load requirements under reasonably determined worst-case conditions, usually for the month of the year with the lowest insolation to load ratio. When the array is operating under good-to-excellent weather conditions (typically during summer), energy generated by the array often exceeds the electrical load demand. To prevent battery damage resulting from overcharge, a charge controller is used to protect the battery. A charge controller should prevent overcharge of a battery regardless of the system sizing/design and seasonal changes in the load profile, operating temperatures and solar insolation. Charge regulation is the primary function of a battery charge controller, and perhaps the single most important issue related to battery performance and life. The purpose of a charge controller is to supply power to the battery in a manner which fully recharges the battery without overcharging. Without charge control, the current from the array will flow into a battery proportional to the irradiance, whether the battery needs charging or not. If the battery is fully charged, unregulated charging will cause the battery voltage to reach exceedingly high levels, causing severe gassing, electrolyte loss, internal heating and accelerated grid corrosion. In most cases if a battery is not protected from overcharge in PV system, premature failure of the battery and loss of load are likely to occur.

Charge controllers prevent excessive battery overcharge by interrupting or limiting the current flow from the array to the battery when the battery becomes fully charged. Charge regulation is most often accomplished by limiting the battery voltage to a maximum value, often referred to as the voltage regulation (VR) set point. Sometimes, other methods such as integrating the ampere-hours into and out of the battery are used. Depending on the regulation method, the current may be limited while maintaining the regulation voltage, or remain disconnected until the battery voltage drops to the array reconnect voltage (ARV) set point.

Over-discharge Protection During periods of below average insolation and/or during periods of excessive electrical load usage, the energy produced by the PV array may not be sufficient enough to keep the battery fully recharged. When a battery is deeply discharged, the reaction in the battery occurs close to the grids, and weakens the bond between the active materials and the grids. When a battery is excessively discharged repeatedly, loss of capacity and life will eventually occur. To protect batteries from over-discharge, most charge controllers include an optional feature to disconnect the system loads once the battery reaches a low voltage or low state of charge condition. In some cases, the electrical loads in a PV system must have sufficiently high enough voltage to operate. If batteries are too deeply discharged, the voltage falls below the operating range of the loads, and the loads may operate improperly or not at all. This is another important reason to limit battery over- discharge in PV systems. Over-discharge protection in charge controllers is usually accomplished by open-circuiting the connection between the battery and electrical load when the battery reaches a pre-set or adjustable low voltage load disconnect (LVD) set point. Most charge controllers also have an indicator light or audible alarm to alert the system user/operator to the load disconnects condition. Once the battery is recharged to a certain level, the loads are again reconnected to a battery. Non-critical systems loads are generally always protected from over-discharging the battery by connection to the low voltage load disconnect circuitry of the charge controller. If the battery voltage falls to a low but safe level, a relay can open and disconnect the load, preventing further battery discharge. Critical loads can be connected directly to the battery, so that they are not automatically disconnected by the charge controller. However, the danger exists that these critical loads might over-discharge the battery. An alarm or other method of user feedback should be included to give information on the battery status if critical loads are connected directly to the battery.

Charge Controller Set Points The battery voltage levels at which a charge controller performs control or switching functions are called the controller set points. Four basic control set points are defined for most charge controllers that have battery overcharge and over-discharge protection features. The voltage regulation (VR) and the array reconnect voltage (ARV) refer to the voltage set points at which the array is connected and disconnected from the battery. The low voltage loads disconnect (LVD) and load reconnect voltage (LRV) refers to the voltage set points at which the load is disconnected from the battery to prevent over-discharge.

Figure 11 shows the basic controller set points on a simplified diagram plotting battery voltage versus time for a charge and discharge cycle. A detailed discussion of each charge controller set point follows.

Voltage Regulation (VR) Set Point The voltage regulation (VR) set point is one of the key specifications for charge controllers. The voltage regulation set point: Is defined as the maximum voltage that the charge controller allows the battery to reach, limiting the overcharge of the battery. Once the controller senses that the battery reaches the voltage regulation set point, the controller will either discontinue battery charging or begin to regulate (limit) the amount of current delivered to the battery.

Proper selection of the voltage regulation set point may depend on many factors, including: 1. The specific battery chemistry and design. 2. Sizes of the load and array with respect to the battery. 3. Operating temperatures. 4. Electrolyte loss considerations.

An important point to note about the voltage regulation set point is that the values required for optimal battery performance in standalone PV systems are generally much higher than the regulation or 'float voltages' recommended by battery manufacturers. This is because in a PV system, the battery must be recharged within a limited time period (during sunlight hours), while battery manufacturers generally allow for much longer recharge times when determining their optimal regulation voltage limits. By using a higher regulation voltage in PV systems, the battery can be recharged in a shorter time period, however some degree over overcharge and gassing will occur. The designer is faced selecting the optimal voltage regulation set point that maintains the highest possible battery state of charge without causing significant overcharge.

Array Reconnect Voltage (ARV) Set Point In interrupting (on-off) type controllers, once the array current is disconnected at the voltage regulation set point, the battery voltage will begin to decrease. The rate at which the battery voltage decreases depends on many factors, including the charge rate prior to disconnect, and the discharge rate dictated by the electrical load. If the charge and discharge rates are high, the battery voltage will decrease at a greater rate than if these rates are lower. When the battery voltage decreases to a predefined voltage, the array is again reconnected to the battery to resume charging. This voltage at which the array is reconnected is defined as the array reconnects voltage (ARV) set point. If the array were to remain disconnected for the rest of day after the regulation voltage was initially reached, the battery would not be fully recharged. By allowing the array to reconnect after the battery voltage reduces to a set value, the array current will 'cycle' into the battery in an on-off manner, disconnecting at the regulation voltage set point, and reconnecting at the array reconnect voltage set point. In this way, the battery will be brought up to a higher state of charge by 'pulsing' the array current into the battery.

Voltage Regulation Hysteresis (VRH) The voltage span or difference between the voltage regulation set point and the array reconnect voltage is often called the voltage regulation hysteresis (VRH). The VRH is a major factor which determines the effectiveness of battery recharging for interrupting (on-off) type controllers. If the hysteresis is too great, the array current remains disconnected for long periods, effectively lowering the array energy utilization and making it very difficult to fully recharge the battery. If the regulation hysteresis is too small, the array will cycle on and off rapidly, perhaps damaging controllers which use electro-mechanical switching elements. The designer must carefully determine the hysteresis values based on the system charge and discharge rates and the charging requirements of the particular battery. Most interrupting (on-off) type controllers have hysteresis values between 0.4 and 1.4 volts for nominal 12 volt systems. For example, for a controller with a voltage regulation set point of 14.5 volts and a regulation hysteresis of 1.0 volt, the array reconnect voltage would be 13.5 volts. In general, a smaller regulation hysteresis is required for PV systems that do not have a daytime load.

Low Voltage Load Disconnect (LVD) Set Point Over-discharging the battery can make it susceptible to freezing and shorten it's operating life. If battery voltage drops too low, due to prolonged bad weather for example, certain non-essential loads can be disconnected from the battery to prevent further discharge. This can be done using a low voltage load disconnect (LVD) device connected between the battery and non-essential loads. In controllers or controls incorporating a load disconnect feature, the low voltage load disconnect (LVD) set point is the voltage at which the load is disconnected from the battery to prevent over-discharge. The LVD set point defines the actual allowable maximum depth-ofdischarge and available capacity of the battery operating in a PV system. The available capacity must be carefully estimated in the PV system design and sizing process using the actual depth of discharge dictated by the LVD set point. In more sophisticated deigns, a hierarchy of load importance can be established, and the more critical loads can be shed at progressively lower battery voltages. Very critical loads can remain connected directly to the battery so their operation is not interrupted. The proper LVD set point will maintain a healthy battery while providing the maximum battery capacity and load availability. To determine the proper load disconnect voltage, the designer must consider the rate at which the battery is discharged. Because the battery voltage is affected by the rate of discharge, a lower load disconnect voltage set point is needed for high discharge rates to achieve the same depth of discharge limit. In general, the low discharge rates in most small stand-alone PV systems do not have a significant effect on the battery voltage. Typical LVD values used are between 11.0 and 11.5 volts, which correspond to about 75-90% depth of discharge for most nominal 12 volt lead-acid batteries. A word of caution is in order when selecting the low voltage load disconnects set point. Battery manufacturers rate discharge capacity to a specified cut-off voltage which corresponds to 100% depth of discharge for the battery. For lead-acid batteries, this cut-off voltage is typically 10.5 volts for a nominal 12 volt battery (1.75 volts per cell). In PV systems, we never want to allow a battery to be completely discharged as this will shorten it's service life. In general, the low voltage load disconnect set point in PV systems is selected to discharge the battery to no greater than 75-80% depth of discharge.

Load Reconnect Voltage (LRV) Set Point The battery voltage at which a controller allows the load to be reconnected to the battery is called the load reconnect voltage ('LRV). After the controller disconnects the load from the battery at the LVD set point, the battery voltage rises to its open-circuit voltage. When additional charge is provided by the array or a backup source, the battery voltage rises even more. At some point, the controller senses that the battery voltage and state of charge are high enough to reconnect the load, called the load reconnect voltage set point. The selection of the load reconnect set point should be high enough to ensure that the battery has been somewhat recharged, while not to high as to sacrifice load availability by allowing the loads to be disconnected too long.

Low Voltage Load Disconnect Hysteresis (LVDH) The voltage span or difference between the LVD set point and the load reconnect voltage is called the low voltage disconnect hysteresis (LVDH). If the LVDH is too small, the load may cycle on and off rapidly at low battery state-of-charge (SOC), possibly damaging the load or

controller, and extending the time it takes to fully charge the battery. If the LVDH is too large, the load may remain off for extended periods until the array fully recharges the battery. With a large LVDH, battery health may be improved due to reduced battery cycling, but with a reduction in load availability. The proper LVDH selection for a given system will depend on load availability requirements, battery chemistry and size, and the PV and load currents.

Charge Controller Designs Two basic methods exist for controlling or regulating the charging of a battery from a PV module or array - shunt and series regulation. While both of these methods are effectively used, each method may incorporate a number of variations that alter their basic performance and applicability. Simple designs interrupt or disconnect the array from the battery at regulation, while more sophisticated designs limit the current to the battery in a linear manner that maintains a high battery voltage. The algorithm or control strategy of a battery charge controller determines the effectiveness of battery charging and PV array utilization, and ultimately the ability of the system to meet the electrical load demands. Most importantly, the controller algorithm defines the way in which PV array power is applied to the battery in the system. In general, interrupting on-off type controllers require a higher regulation set point to bring batteries up to full state of charge than controllers that limit the array current in a gradual manner. Some of the more common design approaches for charge controllers are described in this section. Typical daily charging profiles for a few of the common types of controllers used in small PV lighting systems are presented in the next section.

1.

Shunt controller design:

Since photovoltaic cells are current-limited by design (unlike batteries), PV modules and arrays can be short-circuited without any harm. The ability to short-circuit modules or an array is the basis of operation for shunt controllers. Most shunt controllers require a heat sink to dissipate power, and are generally limited to use in PV systems with array currents less than 20 amps.

1- Shunt-Interrupting Design The shunt-interrupting controller completely disconnects the array current in an interrupting or on-off fashion when the battery reaches the voltage regulation set point.

2-

Shunt-Linear Design Once a battery becomes nearly fully charged, a shunt-linear controller maintains the battery at near a fixed voltage by gradually shunting the array through a semiconductor regulation element.

2.

Series Controller Designs

As the name implies this type of controller works in series between the array and battery, rather than in parallel as for the shunt controller. There are several variations to the series type controller, all of which use some type of control or regulation element in series between the array and the battery. While this type of controller is commonly used in small PV systems, it is also the practical choice for larger systems due to the current limitations of shunt controllers.

1- Series-Interrupting Design The most simple series controller is the series-interrupting type, involving a one-step control, turning the array charging current either on or off. The charge controller constantly monitors battery voltage, and disconnects or open-circuits the array in series once the battery reaches the regulation voltage set point

2- Series-Interrupting, 2-step, Constant-Current Design This type of controller is similar to the series-interrupting type, however when the voltage regulation set point is reached, instead of totally interrupting the array current, a limited constant current remains applied to the battery.

3- Series-Interrupting, 2-Step, Dual Set Point Design This type of controller operates similar to the series-interrupting type, however there are two distinct voltage regulation set points. During the first charge cycle of the day, the controller uses a higher regulation voltage provides some equalization charge to the battery. Once the array is disconnected from the battery at the higher regulation set point, the voltage drops to the array reconnect voltage and the array is again connected to the battery, This type of regulation strategy can be effective at maintaining high battery state of charge while minimizing battery gassing and water loss for flooded lead-acid types.

4- Series-Linear, Constant-Voltage Design In a series-linear, constant-voltage controller design, the controller maintains the battery voltage at the voltage regulation set point. The series regulation element acts like a variable resistor, controlled by the controller battery voltage sensing circuit of the controller. The series element dissipates the balance of the power that is not used to charge the battery, and generally requires heat sinking. The current is inherently controlled by the series element and the voltage drop across it. Series-linear, constant-voltage controllers can be used on all types of batteries. Because they apply power to the battery in a controlled manner, they are generally more effective at fully charging batteries than on-off type controllers. These designs, along with PWM types are recommended over on-off type controllers for sealed VRLA type batteries.

Charge Controller Selection The selection and sizing of charge controllers and system controls in PV systems involves the consideration of several factors, depending on the complexity and control options required. While the primary function is to prevent battery overcharge, many other functions may also be used, including low voltage load disconnect, load regulation and control, control of backup energy sources, diversion of energy to and

auxiliary load, and system monitoring. The designer must decide which options are needed to satisfy the requirements of a specific application. The following list some of the basic considerations for selecting charge controllers for PV systems.

• • • • • • • • • •

System voltage PV array and load currents Battery type and size Regulation algorithm and switching element design Regulation and load disconnect set points Environmental operating conditions Mechanical design and packaging System indicators, alarms, and meters Over current, disconnects and surge protection devices Costs, warranty and availability

Sizing Charge Controllers Charge controllers should be sized according to the voltages and currents expected during operation of the PV system. The controller must not only be able to handle typical or rated voltages and currents, but must also be sized to handle expected peak or surge conditions from the PV array or required by the electrical loads that may be connected to the controller. It is extremely important that the controller be adequately sized for the intended application. If an undersized controller is used and fails during operation, the costs of service and replacement will be higher than what would have been spent on a controller that was initially oversized for the application. 2

Typically, we would expect that a PV module or array produces no more than its rated maximum power current at 1000 W/m irradiance o and 25 C module temperature. However, due to possible reflections from clouds, water or snow, the sunlight levels on the array may be 2 "enhanced" up to 1.4 times the nominal 1000 W/m value used to rate PV module performance. The result is that peak array current could be 1.4 times the nominal peak rated value if reflection conditions exist. For this reason, the peak array current ratings for charge controllers should be sized for about 140% or the nominal peak maximum power current ratings for the modules or array. The size of a controller is determined by multiplying the peak rated current from an array times this "enhancement" safety factor. The total current from an array is given by the number of modules or strings in parallel, multiplied by the module current. To be conservative, use the short-circuit current (Isc) is generally used instead of the maximum power current (Imp). In this way, shunt type controllers that operate the array at short-circuit current conditions are covered safely.

Operating Without a Charge Controller In most cases a charge controller is an essential requirement in stand-alone PV systems. However there are special circumstances where a charge controller may not be needed in small systems with well defined loads. Beacons and aids to navigation are a popular PV application which operates without charge regulation. By eliminating the need for the sensitive electronic charge controller, the design is simplified, at lower cost and with improved reliability. The system design requirements and conditions for operating without a charge controller must be well understood because the system is operating without any overcharge and over-discharge protection for the batteries. There are two cases where battery charge regulation may not be required:

(1) When a low voltage "self-regulating module" is used in the proper climate; (2) When the battery is very large compared to the array.

1. Using Low-Voltage "Self-Regulating" Modules The use of "low-voltage" or "self-regulating" PV modules is one approach used to operate without battery charge regulation. This does not mean that the modules have an electronic charge controller built-in, but rather it refers to the low voltage design of the PV modules. When a low voltage module, battery and load are properly configured, the design is called a "self-regulating system". Typical silicon power modules used to charge nominal 12 volt batteries usually have 36 solar cells connected in series to produce and opencircuit voltage of greater than 21 volts and a maximum power voltage of about 17 volts.

Why do we generally use modules with a maximum power voltage of 17 volts when we are only charging a 12 volt battery to maybe 14.5 volts? Because voltage drops in wiring, disconnects, over-current devices and controls, as well as higher array operating temperatures tend to reduce the array voltage measured at the battery terminals in most systems. By using a standard 36 cell PV module we are assured of operating to the left of the "knee" on the array I-V curve, allowing the array to deliver it's rated maximum power current. Even when the array is operating at high temperature, the maximum power voltage is still high enough to charge the battery. If the array were operated to the right of the I-V curve "knee", the peak array current would be reduced, possibly resulting in the system not being able to meet the load demands.

Self-Regulation Using Low-Voltage Module

In the case of using "self-regulating" modules without battery charge regulation, the designer wants to take advantage of the fact that the array current falls off sharply as the voltage increases above the maximum power point. In a "self-regulating" low voltage PV module, there are generally only 28-30 silicon cells connected in series, resulting in an open-circuit voltage of about 18 volts and a maximum power o voltage of about 15 volts at 25 C. Under typical operating temperatures, the "knee" of the IV curve falls within the range of typical battery voltages. Figure above shows a comparison of operating points between a 36-cell and 30-cell PV module. As the battery voltage rises, there is a more dramatic reduction in current from the 30-cell module. In the afternoon, in this example, the battery voltage has risen to about 14.4 volts, and the current from the 30-cell module is almost one third that from the 36-cell module.

Using a "self-regulating module" does not automatically assure that a photovoltaic power system will be a self-regulating system. For selfregulation and no battery overcharge to occur, the following three conditions must be met:

•

The load must be used daily. If not, then the module will continue to overcharge a fully charged battery. Every day the battery will receive excessive charge, even if the module is forced to operate beyond the "knee" at current levels lower than its Imp. If the load is used daily, then the amp-hours produced by the module are removed from the battery, and this energy can be safely replaced the next day without overcharging the battery. So for a system to be "self-regulating", the load must be consistent and predictable. This eliminates applications where only occasional load use occurs, such as vacation cabins or RV's that are left unused for weeks or months. In these cases, a charge controller should be included in the system to protect the battery.

• •

The climate cannot be too cold. If the module stays very cool, the "knee" of the IV curve will not move down in voltage enough, and the expected drop off in current will not occur, even if the battery voltage rises as expected. Often "self-regulating modules" are used in arctic climates for lighting for remote cabins for example, because they are the smallest and therefore least expensive of the power modules, but they are combined with a charge controller or voltage dropping diodes to prevent battery overcharge. The climate cannot be too warm. If the module heats up too much, then the drop off in current will be too extreme, and the battery may never be properly recharged. The battery will sulfate, and the loads will not be able to operate.

A "self-regulating system" design can greatly simplify the design by eliminating the need for a charge controller, however these type of designs are only appropriate for certain applications and conditions. In most common stand-alone PV system designs, a battery charge controller is required.

2.

Using a Large Battery or Small Array

A charge controller may not be needed if the charge rates delivered by the array to the battery are small enough to prevent the battery voltage from exceeding the gassing voltage limit when the battery is fully charged and the full array current is applied. In certain applications, a long autonomy period may be used, resulting in a large amount of battery storage capacity. In these cases, the charge rates from the array may be very low, and can be accepted by the battery at any time without overcharging. These situations are common in critical application requiring large battery storage, such as telecommunications repeaters in alpine conditions or remote navigational aids. It might also be the case when a very small load and array are combined with a large battery, as in remote telemetry systems. In general a charging rate of C/100 or less is considered low enough to be tolerated for long periods even when the battery is fully charged. This means that even during the peak of the day, the array is charging the battery bank at the 100 hour rate or slower, equivalent to the typical trickle charge rate that a controller would produce anyway.

Solar tracking OBJECTIVE: The aim of our projects is to utilize the maximum solar energy through solar panel. For this a digital based automatic sun tracking system is proposed. This project helps the solar power generating equipment to get the maximum sunlight automatically thereby increasing the efficiency of the system. The solar panel tracks the sun from east to west automatically for maximum intensity of light.

Basic concept: Sunlight has two components, the "direct beam" that carries about 90% of the solar energy, and the "diffuse sunlight" that carries the remainder - the diffuse portion is the blue sky on a clear day and increases proportionately on cloudy days. As the majority of the energy is in the direct beam, maximizing collection requires the sun to be visible to the panels as long as possible

Solar tracker: (mechanism) Is a device that orients a payload toward the sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices. This mean Tracking mechanism with the PV installation that enables it to follow the sun as it moves across the sky makes the system produce more energy and provide the biggest returns in net metering. The idea behind using trackers is that solar panels are static while the sun isn't at any time of the day - so trackers are used to help optimize the incidence angle at which the sun's rays reach them. Solar tracker increases the system's output by 50 percent in the summer months and by 20 percent in the winter months.

Types of solar trackers:  one axis tracking  two axis tracking

1. Single axis tracking systems: Solar panels with single axis tracking systems. The panels can turn around the center axis. Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation. The axis of rotation of single axis trackers is typically aligned along a true North meridian. It is possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms.

Single axis tracking system: Single axis trackers increase electricity output by 27 to 32%, and are an impressive simple way of improving the potential performance of a commercial solar installation while keeping cost in check. There are several common implementations of single axis trackers. These include horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT), vertical single axis trackers (VSAT), tilted single axis trackers (TSAT) and polar aligned single axis trackers (PSAT). The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance.

2-Dual axis trackers: Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These axes are typically normal to one another. The axis that is fixed with respect to the ground can be considered a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary axis can be considered a secondary axis. They are classified by the orientation of their primary axes with respect to the ground. Two common implementations are tip-tilt dual axis trackers (TTDAT) and azimuth-altitude dual axis trackers (AADAT). The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance. Dual axis trackers typically have modules oriented parallel to the secondary axis of rotation. Dual axis trackers allow for optimum solar energy levels due to their ability to follow the sun vertically and horizontally. No matter where the sun is in the sky, dual axis trackers are able to angle themselves to be in direct contact with the sun.

Dual axis trackers increase a systems energy output by 35 to 40%; that is an additional 6% on average compared with the single axis trackers.

How the Track Rack follow the sun: 1. Sunrise "Wake- Up The Track Rack begins the day facing west. As the morning sun rises in the east, then the tracker move to the sun by sensors and motor drive which control the tracker.

2. Mid-Morning The Track Rack moved by the shifting according to motion of sun.

3. Mid-Afternoon As the sun moves, the Track Rack follows o

(At approximately 15 per hour)

4. Sunset The Track Rack completes its daily cycle facing west. It remains in this position overnight until it is "awakened" by the rising sun the following morning.

How control the tracker to track the sun: 1-Fabricate a stepper motor control interfaced with driver circuit, as will be explained in its own partial. 2-Design an electronic circuit to sense the intensity of light and to control stepper motor driver for the panel movement. 3-use programmable device such as plc. or arduino (used in our prog.) which send pulses to motor drive to control the movement of mechanism (tracker) .

What is stepper motor?? STEPPER MOTOR Introduction: Stepper motor is called also stepping motor as its rotor shaft rotate with fixed angular step in response to each pulse received by its field winding from digitally controller and its three type we will Talking about them. We used the steeper motor in our project as it has more advantage and special applications and we will showed its advantages; applications and also dis advantage to avoid it

Types of stepper motor 1-permenent magnet (PM) .

This type of step motor has a permanent magnet rotor. The stator can be similar to single stack variable reluctance .Usually construct from two phase winding each one has two teeth and rotor is two poles of permanent. Now we speak for its way of operation and its advantage and dis advantage.

Operation of (PM) Each winding ( A ,B) has two terminal we excited stator winding control the polarity of excited current ( A+,B+,A-,B-,….) and the rotor poles are attracted To excited phase and make one step . Direction of rotation depends on the polarity of excited coil.

1-One mode operation (full step): At which excited phase (A) with positive current then change excitation to phase (B) with positive current make the rotor rotate one step at clock-wise direction. sequence of pulse for rotation clock-wise ( A+,B+,A-,B-,A+,………..).sequence of pulse for rotation anti clock-wise (A+,B-,A-,B+,A+ ,B+ ,………). We can obtain that step angle for PM motor B =90 for full step fig1

2-Two phase operation mode:

In this method two stator winding excited at same time that make generate torque from both phases make rotor set at mid-way Between two excited phase by sequence (A+B+,B+A-,A-B-,B-A+,……).Make stepper rotate at clockwise with full step .excited phase by sequence(A+B-,B-A-,A-B+,B+A+,A+B,………).Make stepper rotate anti clockwise with full step .fig2

3- Half step operation: is alternative between one phase and two phase mode we can obtain it by give sequence (A+,A+B+,B+,B+A-,A-,A-B-,B-,B-A+,A+,……………).make rotation with clock-wise steps . We can obtain that step angle for PM motor B =45 for half step fig3

Advantage: 1-don’t required external exciting current. 2-Need low power. 3-has high detent torque compared with variable reluctance. 4-has high moment of inertia and slower acceleration

Disadvantage: 1-to reduce step angle we need increase rotor poles but it is difficult to manufacture small 2-permanent magnet motor with large number of poles the large range of step angle ( 30 : 900 ).

Step angle: 1-pole pitch =360/NROTOR pole

2- Step angle (B) =360/ n× No of (rotor teeth control)

Where n: no of pulse required to make one pole pitch . 3-Resolution of motor =360/B 4- step/rev Speed of motor (n) = f×B/360

2-Variable-reluctance (VR) stepper motor Unlike the PM stepper motor, the VR stepper motor does not have a permanent magnet and creates rotation entirely with electromagnetic forces. It consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a wound stator this motor does not exhibit magnetic resistance to turning when it is not powered. Energizing the

stator windings with DC currents causes the poles to be magnetized. Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth are attracted to the energized stator poles. In a VR stepper motor, the surrounding coils that are physically located opposite of each other are energized to create opposite magnetic fields. And it has some types like Single stack type and Multi –stack type.

3- HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR: The hybrid stepper motor is more expensive than the PM stepper motor but provides better performance with respect to step resolution, torque and speed. Typical step angles for the HB stepper motor range from (100 – 400 steps per revolution). The hybrid stepper motor combines the best features of both the PM and VR type stepper motors. The rotor is multi-toothed like the VR motor and contains an axially magnetized concentric magnet around its shaft. The Teeth on the rotor provide an even better path which helps guide the magnetic flux to preferred locations in the air gap. This further increases the detent, holding and dynamic torque characteristics of the motor when compared with both the VR and PM types. STATOR: has two phases with more number of teeth NSTATOR TEETH (multi-stack permanent). ROTOR: has two toothed section separated by permanent magnet N ROTOR TEETH (multi-stack)

Operation of hybrid: Stator has two phase with more pole and each pole has teeth NSTATOR TEETH and rotor has teeth section separated by permanent magnet we can reduce detent torque and increase accuracy by make NSTATOR>NROTOR. When no current is flowing in the windings, the only source of magnetic flux across the air-gap is the permanent magnet. The magnetic flux crosses the air-gap from the N end-cap into the stator poles, flow sexually along the body of the stator, and returns to the magnet by crossing the airgap to the S end-cap. If there were no offset between the two sets of rotor teeth, there would be a strong periodic alignment torque when the rotor was turned, and every time a set of stator teeth was in line with the rotor teeth we would obtain a stable equilibrium position. However, there is an offset, and this causes the alignment torque due to the magnet to be almost eliminated. In practice a small 'detent’ torque remains, and this can be felt if the shaft is turned when the motor is de-energized: the motor tends to be held in its step positions by the detent torque. This is sometimes very useful: for example, it is usually enough to hold the rotor stationary when the power is switched off, so the motor can be left over night without fear of it being accidentally nudged into to a new position. When energized phases the eight coils are connected to form two phase-windings. The coils on poles 1, 3, 5 and 7 from phase A, while those on 2, 4, 6 and 8 from phase B. When phase A carries positive current stator poles 1 and 5 aremagnetised as S, and poles 3 and 7 become N. The offset teeth on the N end of the rotor are attracted to poles 1 and 5 while the offset teeth at the S end of the rotor are attracted into line with the teeth on poles 3 and 7.

To make the rotor step, phase A is switched-off, and phase B is energized with either positive current or negative current, depending on the sense of rotation required. This will cause the rotor to move by onequarter of a tooth pitch (1.8) to a new equilibrium (step) position. The motor is continuously stepped by energizing the phases in the sequence of pulse for rotation clock-wise ( A+,B+,A-,B ,A+,………..). sequence of pulse for rotation anti clock-wise (A+,B-,A,B+,A+ ,B+ ,………). It will be clear from this that a bipolar supply is needed (i.e. one which can furnish +ve or -ve current). When the motor is operated in this way it is referred to as ‘two-phase, with bipolar supply.

Advantage of hybrid motor: 1-motor achieve small step sizes easily than PM 2-Motor need less excitation than VR to give same torque 3-Provide good detent torque due to permanent-magnet flux

There are two types of PM and HYBRID: Unipolar motor : Both permanent-magnet and hybrid motor has 5 or 6 terminal called (unipolar ).As shown has center tap for each phase winding this center tap is connecting with Positive supply and other terminal of winding connecting to the driver of motor to Control the direction of current flow on it. Unipolar drivers are good for applications that operate at relatively low step rates Bipolar motor: Is permanent magnet or hybrid motor but don’t have center tap terminal has Four terminal are the start and end of winding the direction of field depend on the direction of current flow if current flow .

Two types of winding of steeper motor 1-monofilar winding 2- BIFILAR WINDING:

Now we need study specification of stepper motor as the following: 1-Accuracy (step): The correctness of the distance a step motor moves during each step. Doesn't include errors due to hysteresis. 2- . DRIVER VOLTAGE: The higher the output voltage from the driver, the higher the level of torque vs. speed. Generally, the driver output voltage should be rated higher than the motor voltage rating 3-MOTOR STIFFNESS: By design, stepping motors tend to run stiff. Reducing the current flow to the motor by a small percentage will smooth the rotation. Likewise, increasing the motor current will increase the stiffness but will also provide more torque. Trade-offs between speed, torque and resolution are a main consideration in designing a step motor system. 4-MOTOR HEAT: Step motors are designed to run hot (50º-90º C). However, too much current may cause excessive heating and damage to the motor insulation and windings. AMS step motor products reduce the risk of overheating by providing a programmable Run/Hold current feature. 5-Holding torque: is max external torque can be applied on rotor of energized stepper motor without cause continuous rotation motion still steps motor if applied load larger than it that make stator winding absorb large current and rotor rotate freely . 6-Detent Torque: The maximum torque required to slowly rotate a step motor shaft with no power applied to the windings. This applies only to permanent magnet or hybrid motors. The leads are separated from each other. 7-Max working torque: max torque can be obtained from motor. 8-Hysteresis (positional): The difference between the step positions when moving CW and the step position when moving CCW. A step motor may stop slightly short of the true position thus producing a slight difference in position CW to CCW. 9-Pull-In Curve: The pull-in curve defines an area referred to as the start stop region. This is the maximum frequency at which the motor can start/stop instantaneously, with a load applied, without loss of steps. As fig 10-Pull-in Rate (response rate or speed): The maximum switching rate at which an unloaded motor can start without losing step positions. 11-Maximum Start Rate: The maximum starting step frequency with no load applied to start motor without losses on steps 12- Pull-in Torque (max starting torque): The maximum torque load at which a step motor will start and run in synchronism with a fixed frequency pulse train without losing step positions. 13-Pull-Out Curve: The pull-out curve defines an area referred to as the slew region. It defines the maximum frequency at which the motor can operate without losing synchronism. Since this region is outside the pull-in area the motor must ramped (accelerated or decelerated) into this region. 14-Maximum Slew Rate: The maximum operating frequency of the motor with no load applied 15-Pull-out Torque: The maximum torque load that can be applied to a motor running at a fixed stepping rate while maintaining synchronism. Any additional load torque will cause the motor to stall or miss steps. 16-Stepping rate: number of pulses given to motor per second depend on (torque –speed) characteristic and Type of driver .

The pull-in characteristics vary also depending on the load. The larger the load inertia the smaller the pull-in area. We can see from the shape of the curve that the step rate affects the torque output capability of stepper motor The decreasing torque output as the speed increases is caused by the fact that at high speeds the inductance of the motor is the dominant circuit element. 17-Viscous Damping: A damper which provides a drag or friction torque proportional to speed. At zero speed the drag torque is reduced to zero. 18-Viscous Inertia Damper: A damper with an inertia coupled to the motor shaft, through a film of viscous fluid, usually silicone oil to minimize viscosity variations due to temperature changes. This damper only responds when the velocity between the damper inertia and motor shaft changes. At steady state speed there is no effect from the damper. .19-Wave Drive: Energizing the motor phases one at a time. Driving the motor one phase or winding on at a time. 20- Resonance: A step motor operates on a series of input pulses, each pulse causing the rotor to advance one step. In this time the motor’s rotor must accelerate and then decelerate to a stop. To overcome resonance you must shift the resonance point away from the operating point. Resonance will always be there, it is a matter of manipulating the system so that it goes away. Change the following parameters in order to shift resonance: • Current

• Voltage

• Rotor Inertia

• Inertia load reflect to the Motor

Stepper Motor Advantages: 1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse. 2. The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized) 3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good Stepper motors have an accuracy of3 – 5% of a step and this error is Non-cumulative from one step to the next. 4. Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing. 5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor is simply dependents on the life of the Earrings. 6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop Control which making the motor simpler and less costly to control. 7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a Load that is directly coupled to the shaft. 8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is Proportional to the frequency of the i/p pulse.

Disadvantages 1. Resonances can occur if not properly controlled 2. Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

Application of steeper motor 1-Computer printer for paper. 2-Blood pump. 3-Drilling machine of printed circuit board (PCB). 4-Head positioning in computer disk. 5-Motion application need low speed. 6- Factory automation, aircraft controls, and many other application Ingenuity and further advances in digital technology will continue to extend the list of applications.

Difference between fixed and tracking systems: The tracked array rises up to quickly to full power and stays there on a clear sunny day. The fixed array only maintains the maximum power for a few hours in the middle of the day

.

If a surface is moved to follow the sun, the energy yield increases. On days with high Insolation and a large direct radiation component, a tracking system enables relatively large radiation gains to be achieved. In summer, a tracking system achieves

around 50 percent radiation gains on sunny days, and in winter, 300 per cent or more, compared to a horizontal surface (fixed surface).

From an economic point of view: The “tracking price” is $2.24 per DC Watt. Compared to a fixed mount, the additional cost per watt or premium to track is $1.33 per watt ($2.24- $0.91). That increases the installed cost for a tracked PV System from $8.63 to $9.96 per DC watt. It might appear that tracking is a luxury addition to a PV System. However, it can be less expensive when viewed from a power production standpoint. The installed cost of System is quick to calculate: DC Watts X ($ per Watt (Fixed Rack or tracked)) = Total Cost

We have to make a decision to use or not a tracking system by calculating our benefits and our costs and take in your mind that tracking save more money on land or area to give the same power you need.

Protection of PV system Introduction We know that we must take the protection of any system we installed it our calculation so we must know. How we protect our system from any things may damage it or let our system be out of work? We have two sides (a.c; d.c) and pv module we must protect them as we can .

In this figure. The original GFPD prototype was developed in two versions that were similar except for voltage rating. The basic concept was to insert a 0.5 or 1.0 amp circuit breaker in the dc system-bonding conductor connecting the grounded circuit conductor (usually the negative) to the grounding system (the point where equipment grounding conductors and grounding electrode conductor are connected together). Any ground-fault currents must flow through this bond on their way from the ground-fault point back to the driving source, the PV module or PV array

We can make a protection against 1- ground fault 4-over current

2- lightning

3-reverse current

5- over voltage

And our protection will be in two sides according to the dangerous which faced it Now we will talk about the four elements in details and any side it may occurs

1-ground fault and its protection A-definition of ground fault A ground fault in photovoltaic (PV) arrays is an accidental electrical short circuit involving ground and one or more normally designated current-carrying conductors. Ground-faults in PV arrays often draw people’s safety concerns because it may generate DC arcs at the fault point on the ground fault path. If the fault is not cleared properly, the DC arcs could sustain and cause a fire hazard. And it could potentially result in large fault current which may increase the risk of fire hazards too. And it is the most common fault in PV.

b- Causes of ground fault 1. Insulation failure of cables by a rodent animal chewing through cable insulation and causing a ground fault 2- Incidental short circuit between normal conductor and ground by a cable in a PV junction box contacting a grounded conductor incidentally Ground-faults within PV modules in a solar cell short circuiting to ground module frames due to deteriorating encapsulation or impact damage.

c- How we do reduction to the hazard fire (ground fault): Detect ground faults in PV array. 2. Interrupt the fault current 3. Indicate that a ground fault had occurred 4. Disconnect the faulted part of the PV array 5. Short circuit the PV array

2-lightning We know that the lightning is less happen in Egypt but we must say about it due to its high effect in the system if it occurs. Photovoltaic (PV) arrays are generally constructed in large, open, and unobstructed locations. If lightning occurrences are present in those locations, the system may be highly susceptible to a lightning strike. Direct discharges to the PV array, nearby strikes to earth, and cloud to cloud discharges may have damaging effects On the PV system and its components. The most effect is that the component of PV system will damage and we will need to make a new system from A to Z. The less effect is that may repeated high transient voltage. And we have two type of lightning we will protect system from them.

And we will protect our system from (direct and indirect) lightning. At dc side Lightning may cause magnetic fields to induce transient currents into PV system wire loops. Then transient voltages will appear at equipment terminals and cause insulation and dielectric failures of key Components, such as inverters, combiner boxes. So we can use air terminal to protect the system like fig.

At ac .side The inverter may also be affected by induced lightning transients and utility switching transients that will appear at the service entrance, such as voltage tap changing or capacitor bank switching actions and we can protect ac or dc side by the secondary protection device Surge Protective Devices and its classification to get it 1- Ability of the devices to change states quickly enough for the brief time the transient is present 2- Ability to discharge the magnitude of the transient current that is associated with the transient voltage without failing 3- Minimizing the voltage drop across the SPD circuit to protect the equipment it is connected to 4- No interference with the normal operation of that circuit

3- String protection against reverse currents Recirculated current can reach extremely high values, especially when there are a large number of strings. The modules are unable to withstand this value of current and, in the absence of protection devices; they develop faults within a very short time.

4; 5- over current and voltage protection As in any installation, there should be protection against thermal effect of over current causing any danger. The National Electrical Code defines the maximum circuit current as 125% of the short-circuit current of the PV module (Isc). The conductors and the over current protective device are then sized at 125% of the maximum circuit current or 1.5 x Isc Current (Imp) of the PV module.

This means that unlike typical grid connected AC systems, the available short circuit current is limited and the over current protective devices will need to operate effectively on low levels of fault current

String protection: Where string overcurrent protection is required, each PV string shall be protected with an overcurrent protection device. The nominal overcurrent protection (Fuse or Circuit breaker) rating of the string overcurrent protection device shall be greater than 1,25 times the string short circuit current Isc stc_string. PV systems that have three or more strings connected in parallel need to have each string protected. Systems that have less than three strings will not generate enough fault current to damage the conductors, equipment or modules. Therefore they do not present a safety hazard, provided the conductor is sized correctly, and based on local codes and installations requirements. Where three or more strings are connected in parallel, a fuse link on each string will protect the conductors and modules from over current faults and help minimize any safety hazards. It will also isolate the faulted string so that the rest of the PV system can continue to generate electricity. It should be remembered that PV module output changes with the module temperature as well as the amount of sun it is exposed to. The exposure is dependent on irradiance level, incline as well as shading effect from trees/buildings or clouds. In operation, fuse links, as thermal devices, are influenced by ambient temperature. Whilst a full study of all the parameters is recommended, the following factors should be used: 1.25 for current and 1.2 for voltage when selecting the fuse link which covers most variation due to installation.

Array protection The nominal rated trip current of overcurrent protection devices for PV arrays (fuses or circuit breaker) shall be greater than 1.25 times the array short-circuit current Isc of array The selection of overcurrent protection rating shall be done in order to avoid unexpected trip in normal operation taking into account temperature. A protection rating higher than 1.4 times the protected string or array short-circuits current Isc is usually recommended. Each fuses manufacturer provides rating selection recommendation. For Schneider Electric circuit breakers.

Notes: fuses(common use) 1. Fuses are the string protection most widely used by designers 2. Unlike diodes, they disconnect the circuit if faults occur. 3. A fuse, it must be selected to protect a PV source circuit operating at its short-circuit current rating, and also protect it in case of a fault on that circuit.

TROUBLE SHOOTING AND MAITENANCE Before we defined the cause of trouble we collect information from customer about: 1- last time at which PV operate well. 2- Measure output of array (voltage and current). Defined the cause of trouble there are there causes such as: a- Cell, module and array b- Due to load. c- Due to inverter.

CELL, MODULE AND ARRAY There are two conditions that occur which can warrant the trouble-shooting of a solar array. The first is no power output and the second is low power output – both of these are disconcerting situations, but the first of the two is more than likely the inverter or charge controller having a problem. Solar PV panels are so reliable that they almost never quit completely unless they are severely damaged by fire, impact or some other violent act. The second situation, lower than expected output, is actually very common – but rarely the fault of the panels themselves. Here is a list of the factors that can lead to low output: 1. Shading – always check for shading first. Most installers will make sure that there is no shading issues when they install a solar array, but solar arrays can last for more than 25 years and trees grow very quickly. After modules are cleaned of any debris or surface dirt and output is checked at the inverter, perform a site survey with a Solar Pathfinder most reputable supply houses will have one or both to rent or loan. Using the output of the site survey, trim any trees or bushes that are causing the shading – output should go back to normal. If not then check the operating temperature of the array. 2. Temperature – Solar panels do not like heat – the hotter they get, the lower their voltage drops. Most systems are designed to take this into consideration, but some series strings can be sized right at the lower voltage limit needed to start the inverter and keep it going through intermittent cloud cover. Check the string outputs based on the actual output as well as the designed output. If the voltage gets close to 200 VDC for a grid-connected inverter, then check the ambient temperature. If it’s higher than normal (a heat wave for instance) then you might have to add a module to each string or combine some strings to get a higher voltage so that the system can power through unusual summer heat. Also check to make sure that airflow under the array hasn’t changed. Fact: You can actually measure module temperature very accurately by checking voltage and using the module’s temperature coefficient to calculate – remember that an operating module is cooler than an unconnected one. 3. Faulty Connections – If modules aren’t dirty or overheated, then there’s probably a bad connection somewhere. Some experts will insist that the connections are checked first, since a ground fault caused by a hungry squirrel or poor installation can be dangerous (lethal), but the fact is that a professionally installed array just doesn’t have bad connections. Wires should be secure, watertight, not pinched by any metal surface and junction boxes should be sealed. A

ground fault condition will be most likely registered on the inverter – if it is, then the system is very dangerous and any further trouble-shooting should be conducted by a DC voltage specialist. 4. Series Resistance – This is the most unlikely condition to occur. Solar arrays using central inverters are long strings of generators all the way down to the cell level. At each interconnection point, there is a chance for a bad connection. Cells are encapsulated in glass and silicone, terminals are enclosed in waterproof boxes and wires are connected by waterproof plugs. If moisture or extreme heat attacks any of these points, their resistance will increase and bring the output of the entire system down. By way of example, one manufacturer of solar panels had been soldering the module cells together with a solder that was of insufficient heat. Over time, the electrical resistance in these bad connections generated enough heat to burn through the top glass, eventually leading to the replacement of the cells of thousands of modules. However, this is very rare. Any series resistance is more likely to occur in a junction box, a connector, or a combiner box. Both junction and combiners boxes can be opened to inspect the connections: any metal surfaces should be free of oxidation and the screw terminals should be shiny. These are the four basic conditions to check a poorly performing system.

. Do and Don’ts orders: 1- Do: *clean the module surface regularly with a clean, dry/wet cloth *check all the cable and wiring connections for their firmness *check that there is no corrosion in the modules and there is no seepage of rain water

2-Don’ts: *Do not use any detergent for cleaning the module (just clean water) *Do not use sharp-edged materials to remove bird dropping *Do not touch the surface of the module with oily or greasy hands

TROUBLE DUE TO LOAD PV system is used to operate building electrical loads , so any problem in load will affect the system as well. 1-Using avoltmeter, check to see that the proper voltage Is present to the load. 2-check if there is blown fuse or tripped breaker, Locate the cause and fix or replace the faulty component. 3-If the load is motor an internal thermal circuit breaker Might be trapped or there might be open wiring. 4-Check for any loose connection or broken wires and

Clean any dirt. 5-Check for and repair any ground fault. 6-If the load still doesn't operate, check for system Voltage at load connection. The wire size may be too Small or the wire might be too long.

TROUBLESHODING DUE TO INVERTER The inverter coverts dc from the PV system into ac power For building use. If the inverter is not producing the correct output power: 1-Use voltmeter and a dc meter to check the inverter Operating dc input voltage and current levels. 2-on the ac sides use a clamp meter to check the inverter Output voltage and current levels. 3-Using a true RMS meter, the voltage and current Can be used to measure and record the KW output. 4-f possible use the inverter display to show the current Total in KWH.write down this value and compare it to the one recorded in the last inspection. if the inverter Is not producing the right amount of power there might Be number of problems incuding, ablown fuse, tripped Breaker or a broken wire. 5-If load current demand is too high, the choice then is to reduce the loads or install a large converter. 6-check for and repair any ground faults before starting The inverter again. 7-Any voltage problems from the utility may cause the inverter to shutdown .in this case contact the utility for repairs.

Batteries Failure of batteries is one of the main problems in PV system Following procedures of maintenance for battery system: 1- Inspect battery terminals for corrosion and loose cable 2-check battery surface for electrolyte leakage 3-ensure that batteries are not in direct contact with the ground (floor) 4-check battery enclosure box for proper ventilation 5-check the level of electrolyte and distilled water in the batteries; top up the battery if the level is below the specified mark

Battery must be placed in an enclosed box it should kept away from direct human contact Dos and Don’ts orders for batteries:1- Dos: *charge battery every day *clean the battery top with a cloth/brush with braking soda and water solution 2-Don’ts: *Do not keep any inflammable object near the battery *Do not keep the battery exposed; always keep it in a sealed box that has proper ventilation *Do not put additional load on the battery, as it will reduce its life *Do not drop any metallic objects on the battery terminals …it may lead to sparking Warning At very low voltage a large battery bank can release high current So it is always safe to wear protective gear at the time of battery maintenance, as there is a possibility of explosion.

Maintenance procedure GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR MAINTENANCE OF THE SYSTEMS IS AS FOLLOWS: 1-COMPLETE PHYSICAL INSPECTION OF THE SYSTEM AT LEAST TWICE A YEAR 2-DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING INSPECTION FORMS AND RECORDS

Routine Maintenance Test system meters using a device where you know the voltage and verify it is working and correct Test array/panel voltage with a multi-meter to measure the voltage/amperage (in full sun) in an array/panel and record Measure battery voltage before and after connecting array and record Check status indicators on charge controller and inverter if available Check all wiring to see if any is live by testing voltage and/or current at all points before and after a component Check all terminals and wires for loose, broken, corroded or burnt connections or components Test system under full sun and re-test each point and component for common voltage/amperage

Load Estimation Of The Hotel That Fed By PV Introduction As mentioned before we use a grid connect system, so we will feed the hotel with a part of its full power that needed. The hotel will fed with about 25% of its power : the total power of hotel is about three MW and PV system will shared with 800 KW. The hotel located in Hurghada at the Red Sea Coast consist from five floors , in four floor contain about 222 room , 31 suites, offices , administration offices , reception , cinema , gym , lounge and ball room according to each floor ,three swimming pool with different sizes. The big one is 1438.87 m2, the medium one is 592 m2 and the small one is 346 m2with height of 3 m.

Estimation of the loads First, we divided the layout into blocks and every block is repeated above each other and are numbered as the following figures of the layout , the floors of hotel is named for bottom to top as ( -7.00 , -3.2 , 0.00 , +3.2 , +6.4 ). The distribution boards is named as FX.X DB-Y , where “F”= FLOOR , “X.X” is the floor name , “DB” = distribution board and “Y” is the number of the block, for example: F+3.2 DB-1 . In single line diagram of hotel the lighting is mentioned by “ L” , the socket by “S” and the power socket by “PS” and under each type the area ( mm2 ) of conductor that used and (XN) that inside a circuit mean the number of circuit that have the same power , “N” is the no. of the circuit. The hotel has 29 Elevators and every elevators 10 HP, the swimming pools have pumps of 2000 , 3000 and 5500 W for small , medium and big pool.

THE LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR -7.00

LOADS OF FLOOR -7.00 Classification of rooms

Number

Lightning power(W)

Total power(W)

Store 1 sockets Store2 sockets

3 4 15 4

1518 648 1821.6 648

4554 972 27324 4860

wc (main) socket Dry garbage wet garbage mixed garbage corridor office socket Generator sockets Store socket Lowered sockets Transformer room sockets Laundry socket power socket Boiler socket power socket Shop1 socket Shop2 socket Shop3 socket

2 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 8 1 4 1 5 2 3 1 11 5 1 11 5 2 4 2 4 2 4

455 3600 84 84 84 112 607.2 648 476 1296 506 648 336 810 84 486 4312 1782 9000 4312 1782 9000 759 648 1062 648 1265 648

910 3600 84 84 84 112 607.2 324 476 648 506 324 336 405 168 486 4312 891 4500 4312 891 4500 1518 648 2124 648 2530 648

Lounge cinema

1 1

3752 3592.6

3752 3592.6

Store a socket House Keeping 1

7 4 2

354.2 648 556.6

2479.4 2268 1113.2

socket Elec. Room 1 sockets

4 2 4

648 455.4 648

648 910.8 648

Housekeeping 2 socket Store b socket Elec. Room 2 sockets

2 4 10 4 2 4

303.2 648 253 648 455.4 648

606.4 648 2530 3240 910.8 648

shop sockets wc power sockets Entertainment power sockets sockets

8 4 2 2 1 4 12

404.8 648 303.6 1800 8247.8 7200 1944

3238.4 5184 607.2 1800 8247.8 3600 972

Store c socket

10 4

607.2 648

6072 3240

Staff cafeteria 1 Staff Cafeteria 2 Kitchen sockets power socket

1 1 1 6 3

2428.8 3339.2 2732.4 972 5400

2428.8 3339.2 2732.4 486 2700

wc sockets

2 1

1113 1800

2226 1800

Staff wc 1 sockets Staff wc 2 sockets Lenin store socket Elec. Room Socket House Keeping sockets big corridor Dock

1 2 1 1 3 4 5 4 5 4 1 2

404.8 3600 961.4 1800 1416.8 648 404.8 648 455.4 648 1214 506

404.8 1800 961.4 900 4250.4 972 2024 1620 2277 1620 1214 1012

The total power of floor -7.00 is 339.4162 KW This power calculated with demand factor of load.

LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR -3.2  There are repeated blocks from (1 ….. to … 23) in floors (-3.2 , 0.00 , +3.2 , +6.4).  The similar rooms is in blocks from (1 … 6 , 9... to …. 19) , And its power calculation is:

This block contain 12 similar rooms and repeated in blocks from (1 … 6 ,

9... to …. 19)

calculation for one room per block room 1

LIGHTING

SOCKET(VA)

with demand factor

N0

12

POWER OF ONE big passage

435 607

passage

56

TOLAT

5892

N0

12

Power Sockets

1800

POWER OF ONE

1080

TOLAT

34560

5892

17280

 And there are repeated suites in the floors in blocks numbered by (7 , 8 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23) and have the same power. power of suites Classification of rooms in suite

numbers

power of one (W)

total power (W)

bath room 1 bed room1 corridor 1

31 31 31

101 112 56

3131 3472 1736

bath room2 bed room2 corridor 2

31 31 31

101 112 56

3131 3472 1736

Total lighting of Suites

31

538

16678

Sockets Power Sockets

12 2

972 1800

30132 55800

3310

102610

total power for one

 Also , we have blocks that have different power in each floor “ the same four floors mentioned before” , So the calculated power for this floor is : -3.50 F.F.L

-3.50 F.F.L

-3.50 F.F.L

-3.50 F.F.L

-3.50 F.F.L

+31.70

-3.80 F.F.L

-3.50 F.F.L

+31.70

-3.20 F.F.L

-3.50 F.F.L

-3.50 F.F.L

different blocks in floor -3.2 block 25

Classification of rooms

Number

Lightning power (W)

Total power (W)

office 1

8

258

2064

socket

8

1296

5184

office 2

5

172

860

socket

5

810

2025

Dry garbage

1

84

84

wet garbage

1

84

84

mixed garbage

1

84

84

corridor

1

112

112

block 24

wc (main)

2

455

910

power socket

1

1800

1800

wc 1

1

151

151

power socket

1

1800

900

wc 2

1

151

151

power socket

1

1800

900

Kitchen 1

2

2783

5566

socket

6

972

972

power socket

6

10800

10800

Kitchen 2

1

3440

3440

socket

8

1296

648

power socket

8

14400

7200

Service

2

276

552

socket

4

648

648

Restaurants

6

708

4248

Store 1

1

455

455

sockets

4

648

324

Store2

5

404

2020

sockets

4

648

1620

Health Club

1

5313

5313

power socket

15

27000

13500

sockets

14

2268

1134

wc

2

303.6

607.2

power socket

2

3600

3600

Locker

2

404

808

power socket

1

1800

1800

socket

2

324

324

Gym

1

5920

5920

socket

14

2268

1134

power socket

15

27000

13500

29268

14634

total Ball room

1

7392

7392

Sockets

24

3888

1944

power socket

2

3600

1800

big corridor

1

1214

1214

mini corridor

1

607

607

small corridor

2

404.6666667

809.3333333

LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR 0.00  This floor have the same power of rooms and suites blocks.  The different blocks in this floor have power of : +31.70

±0.00 F.F.L

+31.70

±0.00 F.F.L

25 +31.70

±0.00 F.F.L

+31.70

±0.00 F.F.L

different blocks in floor 0.00 block 25

Classification of rooms

Numbers power of one (W) total power (W)

office 2

5

172

860

socket office 1

4 8

324 258

1620 2064

socket

8

648

5184

total power of lighting

430

2924

total power of socket

972

6804

TOTAL POWER

1402

9728

wc (main)

2

455

910

wc 1 wc 2 Total

1 1

151 151 757

151 151 1212

power socket

4

total power

3600

14400

4357

15612

block 24

Dry garbage

1

84

84

wet garbage mixed garbage Garbage

1 1 3

84 84 252

84 84 252

corridor big corridor

1 1

112 1214

112 1214

mini corridor

1

607

607

administration office reception total wc power socket total socket of reception socket of administration office total power of sockets shop 1 socket lighting of Shops total power total power

12 1

10

368 1196 1564 1113 7200 8313 810

4416 1196 5612 2226 7200 9426 8100

4

648

3888

2 4

6 4 6

1458 506 324 3036 4980 3022

LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR+3.2 

This floor have the same power of rooms and suites blocks.

3036 1944 4980 17600

 The different blocks in this floor have power of :

+31.70

+3.20 F.F.L

+31.70

+3.20 F.F.L

+31.70

+31.70

+31.70

+3.20 F.F.L

+31.70

+31.70

+4.80 F.F.L

+3.20 F.F.L

+3.20 F.F.L

+3.20 F.F.L

different blocks in floor +3.2 block 25 block 24

6 1 1 1 1

power of one (W) 708 84 84 84 112

Total power (W) 4248 84 84 84 112

Service 1 sockets service 2 sockets Service 3 sockets main kitchen socket power socket Buffet Zone Corridor 1 corridor 2

2 4 2 4 1 4 1 20 20 1 2 3

276 648 87 648 217 648 5488 3240 36000 5262 506 253

552 648 174 648 217 324 5488 1620 18000 5262 1012 759

Ball room power socket Sockets

1 2 24

7392 3600 3888

7392 1800 1944

Classification of rooms

Numbers

Restaurants mixed garbage wet garbage Dry garbage corridor

Wc power socket Lounge

2 2 1

1113 3600 3752

2226 3600 3752

LOAD CALCULATION OF FLOOR +6.4  This floor have the same power of rooms and suites blocks and block 25 is zero power because it is empty.  The different blocks in this floor have power of: +31.70

+31.70

+6.40 F.F.L

+6.40 F.F.L

+31.70

+31.70

25

+7.60 F.F.L

+6.40 F.F.L

j

+31.70

+31.70

+6.40 F.F.L

+6.40 F.F.L

block 24

Lounge

1

3752

3752

Distribution boards: In this section, we will show you how loads distributed and the calculation of the current and selecting of the standard of CB and CABLES that used in the project. The block consist from 5 floor, every floor has its panel board that fed from larger panel of the block, and every block fed from the Main Distribution Boards.

k

THE DISTRIBUTION BOARDS OF THE HOTEL

F-7.00 DB-1

185 mm^2(300A)

standard

250 A

285.9

F+6.4 DB-1 F+3.2 DB-1 F0.00 DB-1 F-3.2 DB-1-

238.25

Icable

AMPERE

PANEL: DBP-1

190.6

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697

Icb 2.74621 10

Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2

4.909091 6.13636

7.363636364

standard standard 44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303 standard AMPERE 3.833333 standard

10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 4.79167 10A

3.272727 4.09091 socket

feed in cable

0

POWER

26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 5.75 2mm^2 4.909090909

0 0 0 10A 3 mm^2 3 mm^2 12.18851 15.2356 18.28275852 10A 16A 4mm^2 (30 A)

7220

TOTAL POWER(VA)

112904.44

PANEL: DBP-2

187.68 234.6 281.52

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-2 F+3.2 DB-2 F0.00 DB-2 F-3.2 DB-2 F-7.00 DB-2

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 4.6 5.52 10A 3.272727 4.09091 0 0 10A 9.264615 10.4228 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 6.9 2 mm^2 4.909090909 5488 0 3 mm^2 13.89692227 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-3

187.68 234.6 281.52

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-3 F+3.2 DB-3 F0.00 DB-3 F-3.2 DB-3 F-7.00 DB-3

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 4.6 5.52 10A 3.272727 4.09091 0 0 10A 9.264615 13.7121 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 6.9 2 mm^2 4.909090909 5488 0 3 mm^2 16.45448267 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-4

187.68 234.6 281.52

F-7.00 DB-4

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250A

F+6.4 DB-4 F+3.2 DB-4 F0.00 DB-4 F-3.2 DB-4

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 4.6 5.52 10A 3.272727 4.09091 0 0 10A 9.264615 11.5808 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 6.9 2 mm^2 4.909090909 5488 0 3 mm^2 13.89692227 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-5

187.68 234.6 281.52

F-7.00 DB-5

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-5 F+3.2 DB-5 F0.00 DB-5 F-3.2 DB-5

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 44.60303 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 4.6 5.52 10A 3.272727 4.09091 0 0 10A 10.96966 13.7121 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 6.9 2 mm^2 4.909090909 5488 0 3 mm^2 16.45448267 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-6

205.69 257.11 308.53

F-7.00 DB-6

240 mm^2(345 A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-6 F+3.2 DB-6 F0.00 DB-6 F-3.2 DB-6

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.22559 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.22559 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.22559 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.22559 46.532 50A AMPERE Icb 4.548485 5.68561 10A 4.909091 6.13636 4.545455 5.68182 10A 27.27689 13.7121 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.83838064 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 6.822727273 2 mm^2 7.363636364 6.818181818 16157.78 3 mm^2 16.45448267 4mm^2 (30A)

TOTAL POWER

121842.22

PANEL: DBP-7

179.94 224.92 269.91

185mm^2(300A)

standard

250A

F+6.4 DB-7 F+3.2 DB-7 F0.00 DB-7 F-3.2 DB-7 F-7.00 DB-7

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 3.913131 4.89141 10A 4.909091 6.13636 4.545455 5.68182 10A 30.93007 38.6626 50A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 22066.67 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 22066.67 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 22066.67 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 22066.67 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 5.86969697 2 mm^2 7.363636364 6.818181818 18321.78 3 mm^2 46.39510233 10mm^2 (48 A)

TOTAL POWER

106588.44

PANEL: DBP-8

179.94 224.92 269.91

185 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-8 F+3.2 DB-8 F0.00 DB-8 F-3.2 DB-8 F-7.00 DB-8

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 3.913131 4.89141 10A 4.909091 6.13636 4.545455 5.68182 10A 30.93007 38.6626 50A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 22066.67 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 22066.67 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 22066.67 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 22066.67 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 5.86969697 2 mm^2 7.363636364 6.818181818 18321.78 3 mm^2 46.39510233 10mm^2 (48 A)

TOTAL POWER

106588.44

PANEL: DBP-9

216.22 270.28 324.33

F-7.00 DB-9

240 mm^2(345 A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-9 F+3.2 DB-9 F0.00 DB-9 F-3.2 DB-9

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 4.548485 5.68561 10A 4.909091 6.13636 4.545455 5.68182 10A 37.811 47.2638 50A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 6.822727273 2 mm^2 7.363636364 6.818181818 22397.78 3 mm^2 56.71650451 16mm^2 (60 A)

TOTAL POWER

128082.22

PANEL: DBP-10

226.01 282.52 339.02

240 mm^2(345A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-10 F+3.2 DB-10 F0.00 DB-10 F-3.2 DB-10 F-7.00 DB-10

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10 4.909091 6.13636 10 37.25203 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.19697 2.74621 10A 4.909091 6.13636 4.545455 5.68182 10A 47.60045 59.5006 63A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 5.75 2 mm^2 7.363636364 6.818181818 28196.67 3 mm^2 71.40067145 25mm^2 (80 A)

TOTAL POWER

133881.11

standard

300 A

240 mm^2(345 A)

PANEL: DBP-11

212.29 265.37 318.44

F+6.4 DB-11 F+3.2 DB-11 F0.00 DB-11 F-3.2 DB-11F-7.00 DB-11

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

lighting

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb 2.1969697 2.74621 10 4.9090909 6.13636 10 37.252035 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.1969697 2.74621 10 4.9090909 6.13636 10 37.252035 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.1969697 2.74621 10 4.9090909 6.13636 10 37.252035 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.1969697 2.74621 10 4.9090909 6.13636 10 37.252035 46.565 50A AMPERE Icb 2.1969697 2.74621 10A 4.9090909 6.13636 4.5454545 5.68182 10A 33.881345 42.3517 50A

Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 55.87805237 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 6.818181818 3 mm^2 50.82201712 16mm^2 (60 A)

POWER

TOTAL POWER

26421.11

POWER

26421.11

POWER

26421.11

POWER

26421.11

total power

20070

125754.444

PANEL: DBP-12

212.29 265.37 318.44

240 mm^2(345 A)

standard

300A

F+6.4 DB-12 F+3.2 DB-12 F0.00 DB-12 F-3.2 DB-12 F-7.00 DB-12

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 4.545455

socket standard feed in cable

33.88134 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10A 6.13636 5.68182 10A 13.7121 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable total power 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 20070 6.818181818 3 mm^2 16.45448267 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

125754.44

PANEL: DBP-13

212.29 265.37 318.44

240 mm^2(345 A)

standard

300A

F+6.4 DB-13 F+3.2 DB-13 F0.00 DB-13 F-3.2 DB-13 F-7.00 DB-13

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 4.545455

socket standard feed in cable

33.88134 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10A 6.13636 5.68182 10A 42.3517 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable total power 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 20070 6.818181818 3 mm^2 50.82201712 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

125754.44

PANEL: DBP-14

217.82 272.27 326.73

240mm^2(345 A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-14 F+3.2 DB-14 F0.00 DB-14 F-3.2 DB-14 F-7.00 DB-14

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 4.545455

socket standard feed in cable

39.40763 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10A 6.13636 5.68182 10A 49.2595 50A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable total power 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 6.818181818 23343.56 3 mm^2 59.11143896 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

129028

PANEL: DBP-15

200.97 251.21 301.46

240mm^2(345 A)

standard

300 A

F+6.4 DB-15 F+3.2 DB-15 F0.00 DB-15 F-3.2 DB-15 F-7.00 DB-15

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303 standard AMPERE 1.788889 standard 3.272727 0

socket standard feed in cable

22.5583 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.23611 10A 4.09091 0 10A 28.1979 32A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable total power 2.683333333 2 mm^2 4.909090909 13362.67 0 3 mm^2 33.83745262 6mm^2 (36A)

TOTAL POWER

119047.11

PANEL: DBP-16

200.97 251.21 301.46

240 mm^2(345A)

standard

300A

F+6.4 DB-16 F+3.2 DB-16 F0.00 DB-16 F-3.2 DB-16 F-7.00 DB-16

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303 standard AMPERE 1.788889 standard 3.272727 0

socket standard feed in cable

22.5583 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.23611 10A 4.09091 0 10A 28.1979 32A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable total power 2.683333333 2 mm^2 4.909090909 13362.67 0 3 mm^2 33.83745262 6mm^2 (36 A)

TOTAL POWER

119047.11

180 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

281.52

F+6.4 DB-17 F+3.2 DB-17 F0.00 DB-17 F-3.2 DB-17 F-7.00 DB-17

234.6

Icable

AMPERE

PANEL: DBP-17

187.68

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303 standard AMPERE 4.6 standard 3.272727 0

socket standard feed in cable

9.264615 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 5.75 10A 4.09091 0 10A 11.5808 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable total power 6.9 2 mm^2 4.909090909 5488 0 3 mm^2 13.89692227 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

180 mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

281.52

F+6.4 DB-18 F+3.2 DB-18 F0.00 DB-18 F-3.2 DB-18 F-7.00 DB-18

234.6

Icable

AMPERE

PANEL: DBP-18

187.68

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303 standard AMPERE 4.6 standard 3.272727 0

socket standard feed in cable

9.264615 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 5.75 10A 4.09091 0 10A 11.5808 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable total power 6.9 2 mm^2 4.909090909 5488 0 3 mm^2 13.89692227 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

111172.44

PANEL: DBP-19

192.31 240.39 288.46

180mm^2(300 A)

standard

250 A

F+6.4 DB-19 F+3.2 DB-19 F0.00 DB-19 F-3.2 DB-19 F-7.00 DB-19

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

44.60303 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

44.60303 standard AMPERE 4.6 standard 3.272727 0

socket standard feed in cable

13.89692 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 55.7538 63A Icb 5.75 10A 4.09091 0 10A 17.3712 20A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 26421.11 3 mm^2 66.90454216 25mm^2 (80 A) Icable total power 6.9 2 mm^2 4.909090909 8232 0 3 mm^2 20.8453834 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

113916.44

PANEL: DBP-20

135.95 169.93 203.92

120 mm^2(240A)

standard

200A

F+6.4 DB-20 F+3.2 DB-20 F0.00 DB-20 F-3.2 DB-20 F-7.00 DB-20

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 31.04336 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

31.04336 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

31.04336 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

31.04336 standard AMPERE 3.066667 standard 3.272727 0

socket standard feed in cable

11.77209 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 3.83333 10A 4.09091 0 10A 14.7151 16A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 18388.89 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 18388.89 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 18388.89 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 18388.89 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 4.6 2 mm^2 4.909090909 6973.333 0 3 mm^2 17.65813981 4mm^2 (30 A)

TOTAL POWER

80528.889

PANEL: DBP-21

158.71 198.39 238.07

120 mm^2(240 A)

standard

200 A

F+6.4 DB-21 F+3.2 DB-21 F0.00 DB-21 F-3.2 DB-21 F-7.00 DB-21

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 31.04336 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

31.04336 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

31.04336 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

lighting

31.04336 standard AMPERE 4.770146 standard 4.909091 4.958678

socket standard feed in cable

34.53673 standard

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 5.96268 10A 6.13636 6.19835 10A 43.1709 50A

Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 18388.89 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 18388.89 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 18388.89 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable POWER 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 18388.89 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable total power 7.155218855 2 mm^2 7.363636364 7.438016529 20458.22 3 mm^2 51.80508819 16mm^2 (60 A)

TOTAL POWER

94013.778

PANEL: DBP-22

138.07 172.59 207.11

120 mm^2(240 A)

standard

200 A

F+6.4 DB-22 F+3.2 DB-22 F0.00 DB-22 F-3.2 DB-22 F-7.00 DB-22

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 2.19697 standard 4.909091 standard 31.04336 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

31.04336 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

31.04336 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

31.04336 standard AMPERE 4.6

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 38.8042 50A

Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 46.56504364 16mm^2 (60 A)

POWER

TOTAL POWER

18388.89

POWER

18388.89

POWER

18388.89

POWER

18388.89

Icb Icable total power 5.75 6.9 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 3.272727 4.09091 4.909090909 socket 0 0 0 8232 standard 10A 3 mm^2 13.89692 17.3712 20.8453834 feed in cable standard 20A 4mm^2 (30 A)

81787.556

PANEL: DBP-23

106.97 133.71 160.45

socket feed in cable

standard 4.909091 standard 24.83469 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

24.83469 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

24.83469 standard AMPERE 2.19697

lighting standard socket

4.909091 standard

feed in cable

24.83469 standard AMPERE

F-7.00 DB-23

95 mm^2(210 A)

standard

200 A

F+6.4 DB-23 F+3.2 DB-23 F0.00 DB-23 F-3.2 DB-23

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting

AMPERE 2.19697

lighting

Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 37.25203491 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 37.25203491 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 37.25203491 16mm^2 (60 A) Icable 3.295454545 2 mm^2 7.363636364 3 mm^2 37.25203491 16mm^2 (60 A)

Icb

Icable

3.45

4.3125 standard 10A 4.545455 5.68182

5.175 2 mm^2 6.818181818

0

0

0

10A

3 mm^2

socket standard feed in cable

Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 31.0434 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 31.0434 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 31.0434 50A Icb 2.74621 10 6.13636 10 31.0434 50A

7.627101 9.53388 standard

16A

11.44065139 4mm^2 (30A)

POWER

TOTAL POWER

14711.11

POWER

14711.11

POWER

14711.11

63362.444 POWER

14711.11

total power

4518

PANEL: DBP-24

248.81 311.01 373.21

300 mm^2(440A)

standard

400 A

F+6.4 DB-24 F+3.2 DB-24 F0.00 DB-24 F-3.2 DB-24 F-7.00 DB-24

Icable

AMPERE

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

standard standard standard

lighting standard socket standard feed in cable

standard

AMPERE Icb Icable POWER 4.737374 5.92172 7.106060606 10 2 mm^2 0 0 0 4168.889 10 3 mm^2 7.037746 8.79718 10.55661896 16A 4mm^2 (30A) AMPERE Icb Icable POWER 4.737374 5.92172 7.106060606 10 2 mm^2 0 0 0 16542.22 10 3 mm^2 27.9259 34.9074 41.88884409 40A 10mm^2 (48A) AMPERE Icb Icable POWER

TOTAL POWER

0 calculations detailed below

0 feed in cable

39302.44 66.34876 standard AMPERE

82.936 99.52314421 100A 50mm^2 (115 A) Icb Icable POWER

0 calculations detailed below

0

feed in cable

52933.56 89.36024 standard AMPERE

111.7 134.0403621 150A 95mm^2 (165 A) Icb Icable total power

lighting calculations detailed below socket

feed in cable

34437.78 58.13643 72.6705 standard

80A

87.20465031 35mm^2 (95 A)

147384.89

300mm^2(440 A)

standard

400 A

436.65

F+6.4 DB-25 F+3.2 DB-25 F0.00 DB-25 F-3.2 DB-25F-7.00 DB-25

363.88

Icable

AMPERE

PANEL: DBP-25

291.1

Icb

lighting socket feed in cable

AMPERE 0 standard 0 standard 0 standard AMPERE

Icb 0 10 0 10 0 16A Icb

Icable 0 2 mm^2 0 3 mm^2 0 4mm^2 (30 A) Icable

POWER

TOTAL POWER

0

POWER

lighting calculations detailed below

socket feed in cable

40836.67 standard

68.938773 86.1735 40A AMPERE Icb

103.4081601 10mm^2 (48A) Icable

POWER

lighting calculations detailed below

socket feed in cable

30583.33 51.62952 standard AMPERE

64.5369 80A Icb

77.44427953 35mm^2 (95 A) Icable

POWER

lighting calculations detailed below

socket feed in cable

57792.59 standard

97.563067 121.954 146.3446004 125A 95mm^2 (165A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power

lighting calculations detailed below socket

feed in cable

43224.67

standard

72.970096 91.2126 109.4551445 100A 50mm^2 (115A)

172437.259

lighting

adminstration office Socket feed in cable

lighting

F0.00 DB-24

Reception

AMPERE 1.858585859 standard 0 standard

3.272727273 0 5.101615537

standard AMPERE 3.949494949 standard 2.045454545 2.045454545

socket standard feed in cable

lighting

WC

5.101615537 standard AMPERE 3.681818182 standard 2.045454545 2.045454545

socket standard feed in cable

lighting

Shops

5.375097243 standard AMPERE 2.555555556 standard 1.636363636 standard

feed in cable

8.407030236 standard

Icb 2.323232 10 4.090909 0 10 6.377019 10A Icb 4.936869 10 2.556818 2.556818 10 6.377019 10A Icb 4.602273 10 2.556818 2.556818 10 6.718872 10A Icb 3.194444 10 2.045455 10 10.50879 16A

Icable total power 2.787878788 2 mm^2 4.909090909 8304 0 3 mm^2 7.652423305 1.5mm^2 (18 A) Icable total power 5.924242424 2 mm^2 3.068181818 3.068181818 8910 3 mm^2 7.652423305 1.5mm^2 (18A) 35372 Icable total power 5.522727273 2 mm^2 3.068181818 3.068181818 9426 3 mm^2 8.062645864 1.5mm^2 (18 A) Icable total power shopes 3.833333333 2 mm^2 2.454545455 4980 3 mm^2 12.61054535 1.5mm^2 (18A)

lighting

Health club

sockets Fed in Cable

lighting

F-3.2 DB-24

Wc

sockets Fed in Cable

lighting

Locker

sockets Fed in Cable

Lighting

GYM

sockets Fed in Cable

4.472222222 standard 2.863636364 standard 33.67370123 standard 1.533333333 standard 4.545454545 standard 2.367473735 standard 2.04040404 standard 1.636363636 standard 4.949681255 standard 4.983164983 standard 4.927272727 standard 34.69841355 standard

icb 5.590277778 10A 3.579545455 10A 42.09212653 50A icb 1.916666667 10A 5.681818182 10A 2.959342169 10A icb 2.550505051 10A 2.045454545 10A 6.187101569 10A icb 6.228956229 10A 6.159090909 10A 43.37301693 50A

I cable 6.708333333 2 mm^2 4.295454545 3 mm^2 50.51055184 16mm^2 (60A) I cable 2.3 2 mm^2 6.818181818 3 mm^2 3.551210603 1.5mm^2 (18A) I cable 3.060606061 2 mm^2 2.454545455 3 mm^2 7.424521883 1.5mm^2 (18 A) I cable 7.474747475 2 mm^2 7.390909091 3 mm^2 52.04762032 16mm^2 (60A)

power

19947

power

4207.2

power

2932

power

20554

Launge

AMPERE Icb Icable total power 4.737374 5.921717 7.106061 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 socket 0 0 0 3752 standard 10 3 mm^2 6.333971 7.917464 9.500957 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE lighting

Cinema

standard

socket standard feed in cable

F -7.00 DB -24

lighting

Shop

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

lighting

wc

standard

standard

socket standard feed in cable

Entertainment

lighting

standard

standard

Icb

Icable total power

7344.6

4.536111 5.670139 6.804167 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 0 0 0 3592.6 10 3 mm^2 6.064879 7.581099 9.097318 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 2.044444 2.555556 3.066667 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 0.023232 0.02904 0.034848 8422.4 10 3 mm^2 14.21835 17.77293 21.32752 20A 4mm^2 (30A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 1.533333 1.916667 2.3 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2407.2 23649.4 10 3 mm^2 4.063736 5.079669 6.095603 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 4.628395 5.785494 6.942593 10A

2 mm^2

4.909091 6.136364 7.363636 12819.8 socket 0 0 0 standard 10 3 mm^2 21.64186 27.05232 32.46279 feed in cable standard 32A 6mm^2 (36 A)

lighting

Restaurants

standard

socket standard feed in cable standard

lighting

F+3.2 DB-25

Garbage

standard

socket standard feed in cable standard

lighting

Corridor

standard

socket standard feed in cable standard

lighting

Main Kitchen

socket

standard

AMPERE Icb Icable total power 1.787879 2.234848 2.681818182 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 0 0 0 4248 10A 3 mm^2 7.171298 8.964123 10.75694712 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 1.272727 1.590909 1.909090909 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 0 0 0 252 10A 3 mm^2 0.425416 0.53177 0.638123982 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 0.565657 0.707071 0.848484848 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 0 0 0 112 10A 3 mm^2 0.189074 0.236342 0.283610659 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 4.619529 5.774411 6.929292929 10A 2 mm^2

18.01653 22.52066 standard 10A 42.38629 52.98286 feed in cable standard 40A

27.02479339 3 mm^2 63.57943228 6 mm^2

25108

36753

office2

lighting socket

office 1

lighting

F 0.00 DB -25

socket

WC

lighting socket

grabage

lighting socket

corridor

lighting socket

standard standard

standard standard

standard standard

standard standard

standard standard

AMPERE Icb 0.868687 1.085859 10 1.636364 2.045455 10 AMPERE Icb 1.30303 1.628788 10 1.636364 2.045455 10 AMPERE Icb 2.29798 2.872475 10 4.848485 6.060606 10A AMPERE Icb 0.424242 0.530303 10 0 0 0 0 AMPERE Icb 0.565657 0.707071 10 0 0 0 0

Icable 1.30303 2 mm^2 2.454545 3 mm^2 Icable 1.954545 2 mm^2 2.454545 3 mm^2 Icable 3.44697 2 mm^2 7.272727 3 mm^2 Icable 0.636364 2 mm^2 0 0 Icable 0.848485 2 mm^2 0 0

total power

2480

total power 7248

total power 15612

total power

252

total power

112

27525

lighting

Restaurants

Service

Kitchen 1

Kitchen 2

F -3.20 DB - 25

WC 1

WC 2

Garbage

Corridor

WC (main)

Office 1

Office 2

3.57576

icb

I cable

4.4697

5.36364

standard 10A 2 mm^2 7.171298 8.964123 10.75695 Fed in Cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) icb I cable lightening 1.393939 1.742424 2.090909 standard 10A 2mm^2 sockets 1.393939 1.742424 2.090909 standard 10A 3 mm^2 2.02579 2.532238 3.038686 Fed in Cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18A) icb I cable lightening 4.685185 5.856481 7.027778 standard 10A 2mm^2 11.89091 14.86364 17.83636 sockets standard 10A 3 mm^2 29.2693 36.58662 43.90394 Fed in Cable standard 40A 10mm^2 (48 A) icb I cable Lighting 4.343434 5.429293 6.515152 standard 10A 2mm^2 15.85455 19.81818 23.78182 sockets standard 10A 3mm^2 19.05594 23.81992 28.5839 Fed in Cable standard 25A 4mm^2 (30 A) icb I cable lighting 0.762626 0.953283 1.143939 Standard 10A 2mm^2 4.545455 5.681818 6.818182 sockets Standard 13A 3 mm^2 1.774255 2.217818 2.661382 Fed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) icb I cable lighting 0.762626 0.953283 1.143939 Standard 10A 2mm^2 4.545455 5.681818 6.818182 sockets Standard 13A 3 mm^2 1.774255 2.217818 2.661382 Fed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) icb I cable lighting 1.272727 1.590909 1.909091 Standard 10A 2mm^2 0.425416 0.53177 0.638124 Fed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) icb I cable lighting 0.565657 0.707071 0.848485 Standard 10A 2 mm^2 0.189074 0.236342 0.283611 Fed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) icb I cable lightening 2.29798 2.872475 3.44697 Standard 10A 2mm^2 9.090909 11.36364 13.63636 sockets Standard 13A 3 mm^2 4.57491 5.718638 6.862365 Fed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) icb I cable lightening 1.30303 1.628788 1.954545 Standard 10A 2mm^2 3.272727 4.090909 4.909091 sockets Standard 10A 3 mm^2 12.23577 15.29472 18.35366 Fed in cable standard 16A 4mm^2 (30 A) icb I cable lightening 0.868687 1.085859 1.30303 Standard 10A 2mm^2 4.090909 5.113636 6.136364 sockets Standard 10A 3 mm^2 4.870338 6.087922 7.305507 Fed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 18 A)

power

4248

power

1200

power

17338

power

11288

Power

1051

Power

52013 1051

Power 252

Power 112

Power

2710

Power

7248

Power

2885

AMPERE Icb Icable total power 2.298 2.872 3.447 10A 2 mm^2 9.091 11.36 13.636 socket 4510 0 0 0 standard 10A 3 mm^2 7.614 9.517 11.42 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 1.273 1.591 1.9091 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 socket 252 0 0 0 standard 10 3 mm^2 0.425 0.532 0.6381 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 0.566 0.707 0.8485 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 112 socket 0 0 0 standard 10 3 mm^2 0.189 0.236 0.2836 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 3.067 3.833 4.6 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 1.636 2.045 2.4545 socket 931.2 0 0 0 standard 10 3 mm^2 1.572 1.965 2.358 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 45.45 56.82 68.182 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 0 0 0 socket 1124 0.049 0.061 0.0738 standard 10 3 mm^2 1.897 2.372 2.8462 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 2.404 3.005 3.6061 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 3.273 4.091 4.9091 socket 830 0.011 0.013 0.016 standard 10 3 mm^2 1.401 1.751 2.1018 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 1.697 2.121 2.5455 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 4.091 5.114 6.1364 socket 0.013 0.017 0.0199 741 standard 10 3 mm^2 1.251 1.564 1.8764 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 0.424 0.53 0.6364 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 2.455 3.068 3.6818 654 socket 0 0 0 standard 10 3 mm^2 1.104 1.38 1.6561 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 4.356 5.444 6.5333 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 7.779 9.724 11.669 9703 socket 0 0 0 standard 10 3 mm^2 16.38 20.48 24.57 feed in cable standard 25A4mm^2 (30 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 4.356 5.444 6.5333 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 7.779 9.724 11.669 socket 9703 0 0 0 standard 10 3 mm^2 16.38 20.48 24.57 feed in cable standard 25A4mm^2 (30 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 3.833 4.792 5.75 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 3.273 4.091 4.9091 socket 0 0 0 2166 standard 10 3 mm^2 3.657 4.571 5.4848 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 2.682 3.352 4.0227 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 3.273 4.091 4.9091 socket 0 0 0 2772 standard 10 3 mm^2 4.68 5.849 7.0194 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) AMPERE Icb Icable total power 3.194 3.993 4.7917 lighting standard 10A 2 mm^2 3.273 4.091 4.9091 socket 0 0 0 3178 standard 10 3 mm^2 5.365 6.706 8.0475 feed in cable standard 10A 1.5mm^2 (18 A) lighting

standard

WC (main)

garbage

Corridor

Office

generator

store

F -7.00 DB-25

Lowered

T.R Room

Laundry

Boiler

Shop 1

Shop 2

Shop 3

38902.2

PV sizing A specific module type is selected based on these specifications. The module's technical specifications determine the rest of the system sizing. First, the rough number of modules that can be accommodated in the area is determined. This number enables the rough overall power of the PV system

 The area requirement when using semi-transparent modules will increase roughly in proportion to the area of the modules

Points need to be taken into consideration for the actual planning: -Number of modules corresponding to multiples of module width and height in relation to the available area. -local surroundings with regard to shading.

Selected

Datasheet information:

module:

Voltage selection: The magnitude of the inverter's voltage is the sum of the voltages of the series connected modules in a string.

And the voltage of the entire PV array depends upon the temperature, the extreme cases of winter and summer operation is used when sizing. In order to enable inverters to be optimally matched to the solar array, it is important to take the modules' temperature and irradiance operating parameters into account. The PV array voltage is strongly dependent upon the temperature. The operating range of the inverter must be matched with the I-V curve of the PV array. The MPP range of the inverter should, as can be seen in Figure, incorporate the MPP points of the array I-V curve at different temperatures. In addition, the turn-off voltage and the voltage resistance of the inverter must be taken into account.

In the low voltage range (UDC 120V) can be maintained with standard cable crosssections without any problems. For PV systems with inverters operating with lower V Mpp values (e.g. low voltage concept), it is possible that the voltage drop with the string or module cable exceeds the 1 per cent limit, even when using a 6mm2 cable, particularly when there are greater distances between the inverter and the PV generator. With such system designs, a 1 per cent voltage drop in the string cables and an additional 1 per cent drop with the DC main cable is acceptable.

Sizing the module and string cabling: By knowing the passing current we can select the required cable as showing After sizing the cross section, taking into consideration the current-carrying capacity, the cross section with the 1 per cent recommendation can be selected. The current path though module and string cable is the module current=7.47 A AM is rounded up to the next highest value for standard cable cross sections. From the above table the selected cable cross section (Am) is 1.5 mm2 (15 mΩ/m). Assume average string cable length is 50 m, and losses of dc of string cable is : 0.015*50 *7.47^2= 42w

Fig. 2

This losses is very small "not exceed 2% from total power of string", so we can neglect it

Sizing the DC main cable: The DC main cable and the DC bus cables from PV sub-arrays must be able to carry the maximum occurring current produced by the PV array. In general, the DC main cable is sized to 1.25 times the PV array short-circuit current at STC. Max current pass through dc main cable=I string (sc)* no. of strings =8.16*27 = 220.32 A =1.25*220.32 =275.4 A The cross section of the cable must be selected according to the permitted current carrying capacity of the cable. Here again, the temperature reduction factors and, with cable bunching, the accumulation factors need to be taken into consideration.

The calculated value for the cable cross section for the DC main cable Adc rounded up to the next highest value for standard cable cross sections, as shown in fig .2 the suitable cable cross section (ADC) is 95 mm2 (.23mΩ/m). The actual cable loss from the DC main cable is calculated for the selected cable cross section as follows: =.00023*50*(27*7.47) ^2≈470 w This losses is very small "not exceed 2% from total power of string", so we can neglect it

Sizing the AC connection cable: Similarly by knowing the current path we can select the required cross-section area. The input power to the inverter≈92kw Ac o/p current of one array = . =150 A The cross section area of cable that can carry 150 A is 35 mm2 Assume ac cable length is 100 m. The length of cable is short so we can neglect the losses in this cable.

Distance between two solar modules:

In previous (fig) the cell is faced to true north … But... in our project the cell will be faced to true south…

1) Azimuth angle:

2) Tilt angle in Egypt (spring & autumn) =30 degree There are changes in this angle: Where ...it is equal (30 +15) =45 …… (Winter).

Where ... it is equal (30 -15) = 15 …..(Summer).

So Our calculation will be made according to winter; because this is the worst case for making a shadow.

3) We take Altitude angle of sun = 40 degree Each country has its values according to its latitude.

 Egypt lies in 30.06 deg. North Pole.We have module dimension (.992*1.482) m When we take length (1.482m) and width (.992m) So… X = (sin Y = 1.05 *

) 1.482 =1.05 m = 1.25 m

When we take length (.992m) and width (1.482 m) So… X = (sin Y = .7 *

) .992 =.7 m = .84 m

So the second method will be taken.. Because it has smallest shadow length.

of

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY Over 99% of electrical energy generated worldwide is produced by:

  

Fossil Fuel power plants. Hydroelectric power plants. Nuclear power plants.

Fossil Fuel Power Plant Fossil Fuels are the most polluting resources for energy. The worst among them are the raw coal fired power plant. Coal combustion waste (CCW) is largely made up of ash and other unburned materials that are left when fossil fuels, like coal and oil, are burned.

Selected Pollutants Emitted from Coal-Fired Power Plants Pollutant

1990 Emissions (tons)

1998 Emissions (tons)

Projected 2010 Emissions (tons)

Sulfur Dioxide

15,220,000

12426000

8600000

Nitrogen Oxides

5,642,000

5392000

3900000

Particulate Matter (PM10)

265,000

273000

Arsenic

61

71

Beryllium

7.1

8.2

Cadmium

3.3

3.8

Chromium

73

78

Hydrogen Chloride

143,000

155000

Hydrogen Fluoride

19,500

27500

Lead

75

87

Manganese

164

219

Mercury

46

60

The Most Pollutants Are:      

Sulfur Oxides (dioxides SO2 & trioxide SO3) Acid Rain. Carbon Dioxide (CO2). Nitrogen Oxides (NO2). Ashes. Troposphere Ozone (O3).

Sulfur Oxides SO2 and SO3 are major contributes to air pollution. Coal contains more than 6% sulfur(S). Inhalation of SO2 can damage the respiratory tract and lung tissues.

Acid Rain The rain from clouds with sulfuric or nitric acids is known as the Acid Rain. Acid Rain is very damaging to crops and structures. When it reaches to lakes, it can have severe effect on the fish population. Acid Rain can also damage limestone.

Carbon Dioxide Coal-fired power plants are among our largest sources of CO2 emissions, which have been linked to climate change. Atmospheric CO2 admits incoming sunlight, but traps the heat radiating from Earth’s surface (the way heat is trapped in a greenhouse, hence the “greenhouse effect”). The greenhouse effect is predicted to result in higher temperatures that may affect the global distribution of rainfall and subsequent land use (including agriculture) as well as ecological effects on forests, lowering of lake levels and waterways from increased evaporation rates and rising ocean levels due to melting ice caps. An increased reliance on conventional coal tons – all of these pollutants are released in significant quantities.

The Greenhouse Effect

Nitrogen Oxides The direct health effect of nitrogen oxides on human is minor. However, nitrogen dioxide NO2 plays major roles in:

  

Formation of smog Acid rain Greenhouse effect: NO2 absorbs 270 times more heat per molecule than Carbon dioxide.

Ashes Ashes are small particles (0.01 – 50 µm) are suspend in air. About 7 million tons of ashes are released each year by electric power plants . The ashes effect:

  

Breathing Weaken the immune system Worsen the conditions of cardiovascular disease patients. The smaller ashes (less than 10µm) can reach the lower respiratory tract and cause severe respiratory problems. Due to those bad effects of generating electricity efforts are concentrated on using clean energy sources for producing electricity. Which known as renewable energy sources, like solar energy, wind energy, hydro electric power.

The Benefits of Solar Electricity  

Can solve electricity generation problems: where in some countries consumers can sell electricity back to the grid if it is surplus. Consumer benefits: cut electricity bills as sun light is free, so once you have paid for the initial installation your electricity costs will be reduced. Your tariff will be reduced .  Cut your carbon footprint: solar electricity is green, renewable energy and doesn't release any harmful carbon dioxide] or other pollutants. A typical home solar PV system could save over a tone of carbon dioxide per year – that's more than 30 tones over its lifetime.  Solar PV needs little maintenance.  More jobs are created for each unit of electricity generated.  Stable Energy Prices: Using more renewable energy can lower the prices of and demand for natural gas and coal by increasing competition and diversifying our energy supplies. An increased reliance on renewable energy can help protect consumers when fossil fuel prices spike. In addition, utilities spend millions of dollars on financial instruments to hedge themselves from these fossil fuel price uncertainties. Since hedging costs are not necessary for electricity generated from renewable sources, long-term renewable energy investments can help utilities save money they would otherwise spend to protect their customers from the volatility of fossil fuel prices.

Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2013. Coal news and markets report.

Source: EIA. 2013. U.S. Natural Gas Wellhead Price.

Disadvantages of Solar Power  High initial cost.  Solar cells take large area of land.  Solar cells have low efficiency. Solar cells consist of toxic chemicals like: Si, Zn.

Economic study using PV program  Feasibility study Contents and objective : The aims of this chapter illustration of economic importance of using pv system to feeding of 25% of required load and illustrate simulation of project by using one of famous programming to design project (PVSYST) and making comparison between fixed system and sun tracking according to economic side and containing also the cost of energy required according to Egyptian Electric Utility And Consumer Protection Regulatory Agency Commercial Usage 2013 and also the type of inverter using and pv module using

According to Load Estimation of project total power required is 3.1 MWatt i.e. total energy per year =3.1*24*365=27156 MWattH/Year If we take all power from grid : Total price per month according to Egyptian Electric Utility and Consumer Protection Regulatory Agency Commercial Usage =100*.24+250*.36+600*.46+1000*.58+2261050 *.6= 1357600 LE/month Total price per year=16291200LE/year For 20 year of using : Total power cost =16291200 *20 =325824000 LE

PV SYSTEM FEEDING 25%OF LOAD

AND DESIGN BY PROGRAM We are using in our study

PVSYST Program One of the oldest photovoltaic software, developed by the university of Geneva. PVSYST is designed to be used by architects, engineer and researchers, and it is also a very useful pedagogical tool. It could be considered as the swiss knife of photovoltaic softwares. Main features : - Full design of remote PV systems - Full design of PV systems connected to the grid - Complete database of PV panels, inverters, meteorological data - Useful 3D application to simulate near shadings - Import of irradiation data from PVGIS, NASA databases - Import of PV mules data from PHOTON INTERNATIONAL - Economic evaluation and payback - export of calculations to CSV files - Many tools to simulate the behavior of PV modules and cells according to irradiation, temperature, shadings Pvsyst includes a detailed contextual Help, which explains in detail procedures and models used, and offers an ergonomic approach with guide in development of a project. PVsyst is able to import meteo data from many different sources, as well as personal data. PVsyst provides results in the form of a full report, specific graphs and tables, as well as data export for use in other software. http://www.pvsyst.com/en/

INVERTER TYPE USING IN PROJECT -phase output

-of-the-art technology -directional solar inverters with MPPT charge controller

- 20 years design life

PV MODULE USING

SUN TRACKING USING Solar tracker price of dual axis PV bracket system, large-scale

http://www.alibaba.com/productgs/690553577/solar_tracker_price_of_dual_axis.html Source:

BY Using PV system share the grid to feed 25%of demand energy during7 hours i.e. .25*3.2*7*365=2044 MWattH/Year For sizing and determining the number of modules using for getting required energy we using PV SYST PROGRAM From program results of simulation we find that 1) For sun tracking system : For required power we need 5049 module where 17module in series and 297 string Use and total area 7423 m^2 The price of land 1000LE/M^2 SO total price of land =7423000LE

The price of PV = .5$/watt so the total price of pv using Equal 200*5049*.5=504900*7=3534300LE with life time equal to 20year Total price of sun tracking mechanism = .1*7*5049*200=706860LEWHERE .1$/watt

According to http://www.alibaba.com/productgs/690553577/solar_tracker_price_of_dual_axis.html

For inverter The price of unit is $36,841.88 So total price of inverter using=36841.88*7*11 2836824.76 LE= Total price with assuming 10%from total price as protection and maintence =1.1*(7423000+3534300+706860+2836824.76) = 15951083.24LE If getting this power from grid the total price for 20year equals to =20*12*(100600)=24144000LE

TOTAL SAVING BY USING PV =24144000-15951083.24 =8192916.76LE Figures blow explain data using and results getting from program

CALCULATION OF OHMIC LOSS Assuming distance between inverter and grid =100meter

Figure below explain output current

2) FOR FIXED SYSTEM From program results of simulation we find that 1)for sun tracking system For required power we need 6919 module where 17module in series and 407 string Use and total area 10172 m^2 The price of land 1000LE/M^2 SO total price of land =10172000LE

The price of pv .5$/watt so the total price of pv using Equal: 200*6919*.5=691900*7=4843300LE with life time equal to 20year

For inverter The price of unit is $36,841.88 So total price of inverter using=36841.88*7*14 3610504.24 LE= Total price with assuming 10%from total price as protection and maintence =1.1*(10172000+3610504.24+4843300) = 20488384.66LE If getting this power from grid the total price for 20year equals to =20*12*(100600)=24144000LE

TOTAL SAVING BY USING PV =24144000-20488384.66=3655615.336 LE

Figures blow explain data using and results getting from program

From above simulation we find that Tracking system is better than fixed and save money equal to 8192916.76 -3655615.336=4537301LE during 20years

Why we make a tracking system for our module?? Currently, solar panels are not very efficient with only about 12-20% efficiency in their ability to convert sunlight to electrical power The efficiency can drop further due to other factors such as solar panel temperature and load conditions In order to maximize the power derived from the solar panel it is important to operate the pane; at its optimal power point. It is crucial to operate PV energy conversion systems near maximum power point to increase the output efficiency of PV. However, due to the nonlinear nature of PV systems the current and power of PV array depends on the array terminal operating voltage. The conventional solar-array mathematical model requires detailed knowledge of physical parameters relating to the solar-cell material, weather conditions, solar trajectory, illumination factor and temperature MPPT tracks the output voltage and current from the solar cell and determines the operating point that will deliver the maximum power. Due to nonlinear nature of PV systems the current and power of PV array depends on the array terminal operating voltage The MPPT compensates for the varying voltage Vs. current characteristics of the solar cell according to its terminal voltage. In addition to this, due to the changing weather conditions, solar trajectory, luminance factor and temperature operating maximum power point varies, hence the tracking control of MPT becomes a highly non-linear problem.

PV output characteristic and Modeling The input to PV system is determined by external factors such as location, geometry, orientation, cloud cover, time of day, and the season. The output characteristics of PV cells are very much dependent on the insulation level and cell temperature.

Effect of insulation level at constant cell temperature-I curve As the insulation varies, the source current varies linearly, the open circuit voltage decreases, but slightly, as the insulation decreases.

Effect of cell temperature at constant insulation level, V-I curve: As the temperature varies, the source current varies linearly .the open circuit voltage decreases, but only slightly, as the temperature increases.

Effect of cell temperature at constant insulation level, power-current curve: Under constant insulation, the locus of the maximum power point is an almost vertical line, sloping slightly toward the origin.

So tracking

system is useful to get the max irradiance through the day How we make tracking system?? The technique which used in our project is controlling the tilt and Azimuth angles using two stepper motors and 4 photo resistors to get the max irradiance during the whole day.

Our Tracking Mechanism Is a device that pay loaded with photovoltaic panels it may be fixed or tracked according to calculation and study of selected project (depend on economic study). Although we use fixed system in our project, in this department we combine between fixed and tracking mechanism to overcome all problems in practical work in the two systems.

1-fixed mechanism: It help us to control in tilt angle only as showing in the fig, we can put it by suitable angle to collect max radiation from sun. But surely it still lower than tracking mechanism in collects radiation fixed mechanism increase electricity output by 27 to 32%

2-tracking mechanism: It helps us to track the sun all the day by control tilt and azimuth angles which the tracker move according to motion of sun by using stepper motor and drive ,in addition to sensors putted on PV which sense intensity of radiation and send signals to controller(arduino) which control the motion of motor.



We control in tilt angle as showing in the fig By connect stepper motor to gear but the torque wanted is very high

We overcome this problem by using mechanical as showing in the fig this decrease the torque down N.M and do the same job.



We control azimuth angle by connect stepper motor to gear as showing in fig The torque required to move the mechanism azimuthally is not high

Tracking mechanism increase a systems energy output by 35 to 40%; that is an additional 6% on average compared with the fixed mechanism.

screw to 1

PV installation We have 3 PV modules  

Tracking system will be applied on one of them (50 watt ) And fixed system will be applied on the two others (11 watt for each module)

Connection of PV system:   

Two 11 watt modules each of them has 10.5 v open circuit voltage and about 1 amp short circuit current They will be connected in series so as to get 21v as total voltage and 1 amp as equivalent current And the output of two 11watt PV modules will entered to adjustable voltage regulator to get about 16v as fixed output voltage

Also, the output of PV module will entered to the same circuit to get 16v as fixed output voltage The output of each regulator will be connected in parallel so as to produce 16v, 4amp as shown in fig.

Designing of adjustable voltage regulator to get 16v as output voltage from 50watt PV module using LM2576-adj regulator: A switching mode power supply such as LM2576 dc-dc converter uses switching control to reduce the input dc voltage on average. This is equivalent to a lower input voltage resulting in minimum heat dissipated. The control results in better regulated output, less energy wasted through heat and the use for high current application.

Voltage regulator: Features

• 3.3 V, 5.0 V, 12 V, 15 V, and Adjustable Output Versions

• Adjustable Version Output Voltage Range, 1.23 to 37 V ±4% Maximum Over Line and Load Conditions

• Guaranteed 3.0 A Output Current • Wide Input Voltage Range • Requires Only 4 External Components • 52 kHz Fixed Frequency Internal Oscillator • TTL Shutdown Capability, Low Power Standby Mode • High Efficiency • Uses Readily Available Standard Inductors • Thermal Shutdown and Current Limit Protection • Moisture Sensitivity Level (MSL) Equals 1 Applications

• Simple High-Efficiency Step-Down (Buck) Regulator • Efficient Pre-Regulator for Linear Regulators • On-Card Switching Regulators • Positive to Negative Converter (Buck-Boost) • Negative Step-Up Converters • Power Supply for Battery Chargers

Pin

Symbol

This pin is the positive input supply for the LM2576 step-down switching regulator. In order to minimize voltage transients and to supply the switching currents needed by the regulator, a suitable input bypass capacitor must be present ( in Figure 1).

1

2

Output

3

GND

4

5

Description (Refer to Figure )

This is the emitter of the internal switch. The saturation voltage V^t of this output switch is typically 1.5 V. It should be kept in mind that the PCB area connected to this pin should be kept to a minimum in order to minimize coupling to sensitive circuitry.

Circuit ground pin. See the information about the printed circuit board layout. This pin senses regulated output voltage to complete the feedback loop. The signal is divided by the internal resistor divider network R2. R1 and applied to the non-inverting input of the Feedback internal error amplifier. In the Adjustable version of the LM2576 switching regulator this pin is the direct input of the error amplifier and the resistor network R2. R1 is connected externally to allow programming of the output voltage. It allows the switching regulator circuit to be shut down using logic level signals, thus dropping the total input supply current to approximately 80 uA. The threshold voltage is typically 1.4 V. Applying a voltage above this value (up to ) shuts the regulator off. If the ON/OFF voltage applied to this pin is lower than 1.4 V or if this pin is left open, the regulator will be in the "on" condition.

- Designing of adjustable voltage regulator to get 16v as output voltage from 11watt pv modules connected in series using LM317T regulator :

Two 11watt PV modules connected in series have 1 amp max current and LM317T can withstand untill 1.5 amp as max current

Implementation of voltage regulator circuit using LM317T: to get 16v as output voltage adjust R2=2.8K ohm fig. the simulation of our circuit using proteus programe

-

16v output voltage will be input to battery charger circuit designed to charge lead acid battery about 15AH , 12v

12v Battery Charger Circuit with Auto Cut off This is a simple charge controller schematic he main component of this auto battery charger circuit is a 555 timer which compares the voltage in the battery. It turns ON the charger if the battery voltage is below the variable pre-set voltage (12 volt chosen here) and turns OFF the charger if the voltage reaches 13 volt. The battery charging voltage of the charger can be varied by adjusting the variable resistor and maximum charging is limited by a 13V zener diode on the fifth terminal of 555 IC.

To understand the working of this 12 volt battery charge controller circuit you must have an idea of the internal diagram of 555. You can refer the pin out section at the bottom.

The interior construction of 555 These devices are precision monolithic timing circuits capable of producing accurate time delays or oscillation. In the time-delay or monostable mode of operation, the timed interval is controlled by a single external resistor and capacitor network. In the a stable mode of operation, the frequency and duty cycle may be independently controlled with two external resistors and a single external capacitor Here we use it as a comparator The threshold and trigger levels are normally two-thirds and one-third, respectively, of VCC. These levels can be altered by use of the control voltage terminal. When the trigger input falls below the trigger level, the flip-flop is set and the output goes high. If the trigger input is above the trigger level and the threshold input is above the threshold level, the flip-flop is reset and the output is low. RESET can override all other inputs and can be used to initiate a new timing cycle. When RESET goes low, the flip-flop is reset and the output goes low. Whenever the output is low, a low-impedance path is provided between DISCH and ground The output circuit is capable of sinking or sourcing current up to 200 mA. Operation is specified for supplies of 5 V to 15 V. With a 5-V supply, output levels are compatible with TTL inputs ((Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) is a class of digital

circuits built from bipolar junction transistors (BJT)

and resistors. It is called transistor–transistor logic because both the logic gating function)) Absolute maximum ratings over operating free-air temperature range (unless otherwise noted)

Supply voltage, VCC .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 V

Input voltage (CONT, RESET, THRES, and TRIG) . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VCC Continuous total dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See Dissipation Rating Table Operating freeSA555 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . – SE555, SE555C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . –

Recommended operating conditions

Back to our circuit Components Required 1. IC 555 2. Transistor BC 548 3. Diode (6A4 x4 ,1N4007) 4. Zener diode (13V) 5. LED (red, green) 6. Capacitor 4700uF,25V 7. Resistor (1K x 3,820,5E 10W) 8. Variable resistor 10K 9. Relay 12V,10A

Working 

Positive terminal of the upper comparator of 555 is connected with 13V in order to turn OFF the charger if the battery charges above 13V.



13V is obtained by connecting a 13V zener in series with a resistor.



If the battery voltage is greater than 13V, comparator output goes high and flip flop will be set. This turns OFF the transistor and the relay.



If the battery voltage is below the preset voltage (set by us), lower comparator will reset the flip flop. This turns ON the transistor and the relay will switch to charge the battery.



The recharge voltage (preset voltage) can set by varying the variable resistor



Power ON is indicated by a red LED and charger ON status is indicated by a green LED.

The practical circuit

In charging mode

Full charging

PCP design

Diagram for our system

A power inverter circuit is designed to convert about 70 watt DC power to Ac

This circuit has input voltage 12v coming from battery and its output is connected to 9- 0- 9v /220v transformer so as to can turn on house electrical devices Transistors Q1 and Q2 forms a 50Hz a stable multi vibrator The output from the collector of Q2 is connected to the input of the Darlington pair formed by Q3 and Q4.Similarly the output of Q1 is coupled to the input of the pair Q5 and Q6. The output from the Darlington pairs drive the final output transistors Q7 and Q8 which are wired in the push pull configuration to drive the output transformer.

ht adjustments can be made on the value of R3 and R4 to get exact 50Hz output.

Implementation of inverter circuit using preutos program:

The waveform of output voltage "square wave

Controller used in our project is:

Arduino Arduino is a single-board microcontroller designed to make the process of using electronics in multidisciplinary projects more accessible. The hardware consists of a simple open source hardware board designed around an 8-bit Atmel AVR microcontroller, though a new model has been designed around a 32-bit Atmel ARM. The software consists of a standard programming language compiler and a boot loader that executes on the microcontroller.

Photo resistor used to produce analog input reading to Arduino controller A photo resistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

Analog input reading to Arduino can specified by = 5V-(I*

)

As light irradiance increases resistance decreases and so analog signal increases. 4 photo resistors used to produce 4 analog input to Arduino so as to it can compare between different values and then enable stepper motors to do specific actions according to that signals. Fig indicates: (plane view of the pyramid with 4 LDRs) Photo resistor 1, 2 are responsible for controlling the motor of Azimuth angle Photo resistor 3, 4 are responsible for controlling the motor of tilt angle

If irradiance on LDR 1 greater than irradiance on LDR 2 , then the stepper rotate several steps toward LDR 1 (right ) ,And Vice versa.

Why Arduino? There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller platforms available for physical computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Netmedia's BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's Handyboard, and many others offer similar functionality. All of these tools take the messy details of microcontroller programming and wrap it up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage for teachers, students, and interested amateurs over other systems: Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other microcontroller platforms. The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled by hand, and even the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than $50 Cross-platform - The Arduino software runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows. Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino programming environment is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as well. For teachers, it's conveniently based on the Processing programming environment, so students learning to program in that environment will be familiar with the look and feel of Arduino. Open source and extensible software- The Arduino software and is published as open source tools, available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can be expanded through C++ libraries, and people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from Arduino to the AVR C programming language on which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-C code directly into your Arduino programs if you want to. Open source and extensible hardware - The Arduino is based on Atmel's ATMEGA8 and ATMEGA168 microcontrollers. The plans for the modules are published under a Creative Commons license, so

experienced circuit designers can make their own version of the module, extending it and improving it. Even relatively inexperienced users can build the breadboard version of the module in order to understand how it works and save money.

Different types of Arduinos: There are a number of different types of Arduinos to choose from. This is a brief overview of some of the more common types of Arduino boards you may encounter. For a full listing of currently support Arduino boards:

>> This simple table shows a quick comparison between the characteristics of all the previous Arduino boards:

Note: In our project Arduino Uno is used

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328.It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.

1.

Hardware of Arduino

Arduino Uno Features (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Digital pins (I/O). Analog IN. Power sockets. ATmega 328. ICSP (in circuit serial programmer. External power socket. USB port. Reset button. Virtual serial port chip.

(10) 16 MHz crystal (clock).

(11) An on-board LED attached to digital pin 13 for fast an easy debugging of code.

Power -

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter or battery. The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. so The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.

The power pins are as follows: -

-

VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin. 5V.This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it. 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50mA. GND. Ground pins. IOREF. This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs for working with the 5V or 3.3V.

Memory The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the loader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM.

The most important component arduino board is

boot

on

(Microprocessor) >> Similar to small (PC) ,contains a processor with speed of 16 MHz and total memory of 32 KB .

Input and Output Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA. -

Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip. PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function. LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function. -

AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().

-

Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the board.

Communication The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no external driver is needed. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1).

2.

Software of Arduino

We will be referring to the (Arduino IDE) as the Arduino Programmer. The Arduino Programmer is based on the Processing IDE and uses a variation of the C and C++ programming languages. And the next figures show that program:

Arduino programs can be divided in three main parts: (1) Structure. (2) Values (variables and constants). (3) Functions.

AS mentioned

before The Arduino language is based on C/C++.

The idea of sun tracking of this project is putting (4) photoresistors on the four faces of the pyramid.

The following figure : show the tolerance between two sensor when they are under sun ray normally .

So we must take into consideration this tolerance which = 1 And this following figure will enable us to see this value (tolerance) equal =?

When there is a shadow on one of them??

Result: we take average value of toll. = ( 5 ) So in programming code we will make a trick and take (toll. = 5)

The above figures are result of using the following small code:

The code: This program for Azimuth and Tilt angle .

‫فقط ‪drive of stepper‬فاضل جزأ صغير جدا عن ال‬