Contracts- unsoundness of mind

INDIAN CONTRACT ACTS 1872 CAPACITY OF CONTRACT - PERSONS OF UNSOUND MIND.

DONE BY : MADHURI. B 1ST YEAR, 3 B.L(Hons)

TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTE NTS 1)

INTROD INTRODUCT UCTION ION... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....3 .3

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MEAN MEANIN ING G OF UN UNSO SOUN UND D MI MIND ND.. .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ..3 3

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TEST TEST OF UN UNSO SOUN UNDN DNES ESS S OF MI MIND ND.. .... .... ..... ..... .... .... .... .... ..... ..... .... .... ..4 4

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INDI IN DIAN AN LAW LAW v. v. ENGL ENGLIS ISH H LAW. LAW... .... .... .... .... ..... ..... .... .... .... .... ..... ..... .... .... .... .... ..5 5

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CASE CA SE LAWS LAWS... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....7 .7

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CONCL CONCLUSI USION. ON.... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ....11

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INTRODUCTION The ancient rule of the common law was that a lunatic could not set up his own insanity (though his heir might) so as to avoid an obligation which he had undertaken. But by 1847 Pollock C.B. was able to say, in delivering the judgment of the Court of Exchequer Chamber in Moulton v. Camroux, 2 Ex 487, that "the rule had in modern times been relaxed, and unsoundness of mind would now be a good defense to an action upon a contract, if it could be shown that the defendant was not of the capacity to contract 'and the plaintiff knew it." Imperial Loan Co. v. Stone [1892] [1892] of the 3

Sale of Goods Act 1979 makes the same provision for persons who are incompetent to contract by reason of mental incapacity as for minors. A lunatic so found by inquisition was held to be incapable of making a valid interpretation about disposition of property (although he could make a valid will) since this would be inconsistent with the position of the Crown under the Lunacy Acts: Re Walker [1905]. [1905]. Presumably the position of a lunatic so found f ound with respect to contracts not effecting inter vivos dispositions of his property was the same as that of a lunatic not so found; that is, he would be bound unless he could show that he was not in fact of capacity to contract and that the plaintiff knew it. The Lunacy Acts have been repealed, but an order under the t he Mental Health Act 1983, may have the same effect as a finding of lunacy.

UNSOUNDNESS OF MIND IN CONTRACTS The general theory of the t he law in regard to contracts made by parties affecting their rights and interest is that there must be b e full and free consent in order to bind the parties. Consent is an act of reason r eason combined with deliberation. It is upon the ground that there is a lack of rational and deliberate consent that transaction of persons of unsound mind are held to be void.

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To constitute constitute a valid and binding contract, a party contracting must have the capacity to arrive at a reasoned judgement, as to the consequences of the transactions he is entering into. This does not mean that he must necessarily be suffering fro lunacy to disable him from entering into a contract. To all all appearances, a man may behave in a normal fashion, but he may really be incapable of understanding a bargain or transaction, and of forming a rational judgement as to its it s effect upon his interests.2 Mental incapacity, arising out of any reason deprives a person not only of a full understanding of a transaction, but also the awareness that he does not understand it. This distinguishes it from lack of ability arising out of illiteracy and unfamiliarity with the language. 3 When making a contract it is required that the minds of the parties meet, and an insane person is incapable of understanding the nature of his acts, it would be imposi mpossible for a person who does not know what a contract is to enter into one and to 1 Commentaries on the Indian contract Ac t, t, M.R. Mallick, second edition, kamal law house, Calcutta, 2000. 2 Principles of Law of Contract , Praful Ramanlal Desai, Second edition, N.M. Tripathi Tripathi Pvt. Ltd, Bombay, 1988 1988 3 Smith and thomas; Casebook on contracts ( online online version) : acssessed on 14/11/2012 4

make any contract at all, and all the contracts that he tried to t o enter into would be void. In practice, however, however, while the contracts of a person who has been adjudged insane are thus considered void, the contract of other parties of unsound mind will be merely voidable at his option, or of that of the person qualified to choose for him. Certain contracts of insane persons will be held valid. Such are contracts created by law, and contracts for necessaries, including necessaries for his wife and children. In such cases the same limitations must be observed as in the case of those t hose furnished to infants, and the insane person held liable, not for the contract price, but for the reasonable value of the t he goods. Mere mental weakness, from whatever cause it may result, which does not prevent the party from understanding the nature of t he contract, will not render the contract voidable except under such circumstances as will constitute a case of undue influence. influence.4 TEST OF UNSOUNDNESS OF MIND 1)A person who is not of sound mind is said to be of unsound mind. That is a person who is an Idiot,lunatic,insane person is a person of unsound mind. 2)

Insanity - A disposition by lunatic is completely void under the English law.5 But for a contract to be declared void mere dilution is not sufficient. suffi cient. It is a matter if the dilution affected the contract or disposition. It is also be to noted if the party was suffering from such a mental disability that t hat he was unable to understand the nature of the contract. Therefore, it will wil l be declared void by the English law under such circumstances and voidable if the other party contracting knew the mental disability of the other.

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Ment Me ntal al Idi Idioc ocy y - An idio idiott or a nat natura urall fool fool is is a per perso son n that that has has no und under erst stan andi ding ng from his infancy. Contracts entered into by an idiot i diot than those for necessaries are void.

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Old age - With increasing old age there must be a loss of vigor and even mental energy. So when any any particular transaction is made, there is i s that infirmity of mind which is disables the man of old age from understanding what he is doing. Only then can a contract made by that individual deemed to be void at the option of the man. 6 Lack of capacity is inferred only if, due to age, the mind min d has become vacuous and delusory. A 70-year old man gifted some property to his daughter. He offered the delusion that he possessed thousands of acres of land when he in fact pos4 http://chestofbooks.com/society/law/Popular-Law-3-Contracts/Section-8-Persons-Of-Unsound-Mind.html 5 case law : Re walker (1905) 6 The law of Contracts, M. Krishnan Nair, Fifth Edition, Orient Longman, Hyderabad, 1996. 5

sessed only 15-20 15-20 acres of land in India. It was held that he could not assess the effect of the gift on his own interests and so was found to lack contractual capacity.7 5) Drunken state- Mere drinking is not an hindrance to enter into a contract. But drunken state of mind is a hindrance to enter into a contract. When a person is so drunk that he cannot form a rational judgement about the terms and conditions of the contract then such contract is a void contract.But if he is i s at such a state of mind where he has consumed alcohol but he can still understand the terms and conditions of the contract then that contract is valid as he could understand the terms and conditions of the contract,that is why it is said that mere drinking is not an hindrance to contract. When a person owing to drunkenness and debauchery was quite incapable of understanding the contract made by him and of forming a rational judgement as to its effect upon his interest i nterest is held to be of unsound mind and such a contract under the Indian law in view of Section 11 must be held to be void contract. 8

It has to be understood that a the person has to understand the nature of the contract he is entering into.He has to make rational judgement and understand the terms and conditions of the contract,for this purpose he has to be of sound mind. A person who is an idiot,lunatic and insane cannot understand the terms of the contract. Certain types of unsoundness of minds such as idiot are acquired since birth and others such lunacy and insanity are acquired later. A person who is of unsound mind can be under lucid interval at certain cer tain times. Lucid interval is a state where he is i s not of unsound mind and can form a rational judgment about the terms of the contract. At this state of lucid interval he can enter into a contract but if he has entered into a contract when he is not under lucid interval then that contract is void. Eg: A who is undergoing treatment at a mental asylum escapes from there and goes back to his native where he enters into a contract to sell his ancestral property.Such a contract is totally void as he is a person who was undergoing treatment at an asylum. INDIAN CONTRACT LAW VS. ENGLISH CONTRACT LAW The Indian Contract Act was evolved evolved from its english counterpart. Here it is going to be distinguished as to what extent the English model differs from that of the Indian one.

7 case law : Govindswami Naicker Naicker v. K.N. Srinivasa Rao MANU/WB/0260/1932 Rao  MANU/WB/0260/1932 : AIR 1933 Cal 488. 8 case law : Kamala v. Kaura 15 Kaura  15 IC 404 6

There are of course, under the English law, degrees of mental disability. English contract law recognizes three categories. 1)

First, First, ther there e are are those those whose whose ment mental al state state is s such uch that that their their affai affairs rs are are under under the control of the court, by virtue of Part VII of the Mental Health Act of 1983. Since the court effectively eff ectively takes over the individual’s power to make contracts, any contracts purported to be made by the individual will be unenforceable against him or her. 2) Secondly, there are those mental health state is such that, although they are not able under the control of the court, they are unable to appreciate the nature of the transaction they are entering into. Contracts made by the people in such a condition will be enforceable against them entering into. Contracts made by people in such condition will be enforceable against them even if the contract may in some sense be regarded as "unfair", unless it is proved that the other party was aware of the incapacity.

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3) The third category consists of those people who are capable of understanding the transaction, but who are, as a result of some mental disability, more suspectible to entering into a disadvantageous contract. Contract made by such people are considered to be binding, unless affected by the rules of " undue influence". In English law, a person of unsound mind is incompetent to contract, although he may avoid avoid his contract if he satisfies the court that he was incapable of understanding the contract and the other party knew it. The contract is voidable at his option then. It becomes binding on him only if he affirms af firms it. HALSBURG'S LAW OF ENGLAND STATES : "Consent is an act of reason and of volition or choice, and it is i s on the ground that there is a want of rational and deliberate consent that he contracts of mentally disordered peons may be invalidated. A valid contract cannot be made by a person suffering from such incapacity of mind as not to understand the nature of what he is doing" Under the English law, the contracting capacity of a drunken person is the same as that of one who is mentally afflicted, aff licted, such contract is not altogether void, but is voidable at the instance of the person who entered into the contract in such a state of drunkenness as not to know what he was doing and if this fact is appreciated by the other contracting party. But under Indian Contract Act, such an agreement 9 Cheshire, Cheshire, Fifoot and Furniston’s Furniston’s Law of Contract, Michael Furninston, 15th edition, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2007. 7

would be void and therefore unenforceable. A drunken person is liable for necessaries supplied to him while suffering from incapacity to contract. A similar approach would be taken of agreements made under the influence of other intoxica i ntoxicatting substances. In terms of issues concerning mentally disordered persons, English and Indian laws differ to a certain cer tain extent. Though the Indian law developed what what constitutes a " mentally disordered person" from its English counterpart, Mental Health Act of 1983, the positions are quite different. In Imperial loan Co. v. Stone where this rule was stated, the action was on a promissory note and it was argued in appeal that" if a man becomes so far insane as to have no mind perhaps, he ought to be deemed dead for the purpose of contracting". But some judges felt that the contracts of a person non compos mantis may be avoided inly when this condition can be shown to have known the mental condition is since " No man of full age shall be received in any plea by the Law, to stultify and disable his own person." In Campbell v Hooper, Hooper, where a mortgagee mor tgagee sought a decree directing repayments and foreclosure in default in default of such repayment and where there was evidence that at the time the mortgage mor tgage was executed executed the mortgagor was a lunatic. The Indian Law regarding the contractual capacity of mentally disabled persons is however however different. When a person imbalanced in mind executed executed a sale deed, the transferee cannot acquire acquire any right, title or interest. interest. In Jyotindra Bhattacharjee Bhattacharjee v. Sona Bala Bora, late Bhagirath Bora executed a sale deed in favor of the Plaintiff transferring the house property. It was alleged by the wife and sons of late Bora that at the time of execution of sale deed, the expectant was imbalanced in mind and his mental sickness deteriorated so much that he instated a criminal case against his family members and therefore, the sale trisection was done fraudulently. It was held that the conduct if the expectants indicated that he was a normal person and mentally unsound at the time of the execution execution indicates that he was a normal person and mentally unsound at the time of execution of the sale deed and, therefore, did not confer any right, title and interest on the Plaintiff. As a logical corollary of the Privy Pri vy Council decision in Mohoribibi's case of a minor's incompetency. It naturally follows that a lunatic's contract must also be void void under Indian Law. Law. Where, however, however, a person supplies necessaries for a lunatic, he is entitled to be reimbursed out of the property of the lunatic under the provisions of Section 68 of the Indian Contract Act. Overall, it is quite evident that the Indian and English concerns in contract law with respect to unsoundness of mind are similar apart from a few exceptions. However, However, 8

in English law, unsoundness as a concept does not exist but it comes under the ambit of incapacity to contract which includes other ancillaries like Public Corporations and Minority. But in the Indian context, unsoundness is limited to mental disdis ability, intoxication, senility and idiocy. Where unsoundness of mind is proved by by definite medical evidence, the fact that the person was in a lucid interval when he made the contract must also be prayed as string and as mush demonstrative evidence. The question may arise whether a lunatic adjudged can contract during intervals of sound mind. 10 Illustration (a) to the section suggests that a lunatic in a mental asylum can contract during a lucid interval. In England, a lunatic not so cound or before he is so found, by inquisition is not the reason of the fact absolutely incapable of contracting, though the burden of proof in such a case is on the party part y maintaining that he is not insane, or that the contract was made during a lucid interval11 and the same is the law in India. In England, an individual is classified to be " mentally disordered" if he/she satisfies the definition as espoused under the Mental Health Act of 1983. According According to this Act, under section 2, a person suffering from " mental disorder" means "meant illness, arrested or incomplete development of mind, psychopathic psychopathic disorder and any other disorder or disability of mind.

CASE LAWS : LANDMARK CASE IN ENGLISH LAW : Masterman-Lister v Brutton & Co. (Nos 1 and 2) [2002] Masterman-Lister v Jewell and Another 2003 The Claimant suffered serious head injuries at the age of 17 on on the 9th September 1980 when he was involved involved in a road r oad traffic accident. He commenced an action on the 24th December 1980 with his father as litigation friend, but adopted the action himself after reaching the age of 18 on the 24th July 1981. In September 1987, after receiving advice from his solicitors and counsel, he accepted an offer to compromise his claim for £76,000 plus costs. In December 1993, the Claimant issued proceedings against his former solicitors claiming damages for professional negligence and breach of contract. The writ was 10 Mental Health Act 1983. 11 Mohanlal Malangopaly Marwadi v. Vinayak Vinayak Sadsheo Sonak AIR Sonak AIR 1956 Nag 251 9

not served until May 1996. Liability was denied. In June 1997, 1997, the Claimant was examined by a neuropsychiatric rehabilitation consultant, who expressed the view that since the time of his accident, the Claimant had been a “patient” within the meaning of section 94(2) of the Mental Health Act 1983 ( Exercise of the judge’s functions: “the patient”.) 12 The Claimant also sought to reopen the settlement of his earlier claim on the ground that it had never received the approval approval of the court. The trial judge ruled that the Claimant had been a patient from three years after the accident, but not thereafter and that he had full capacity when the first action was compromised. HELD:Lord Justice Kennedy went over the facts of the case. He considered the old Rules of the Supreme Court Order 80, which defined a patient as someone who was “incapable of managing and administering his property and affairs.” Rule 2(1) provided that a person under a disability could not bring or make a claim except by a next friend and Rule 10 provided for approval to be sought from the t he court to any settlement. There was no criticism of those who had originally advised the Claimant, for failing to recognize that the Claimant was a patient. It was simply contended that from the date of the accident, the Claimant was a patient, who could only settle his claim with the approval of the court. First it had to be recognized that someone who was treated as a patient for the purposes of Order 80 was not necessarily and might never become accepted by the Court of Protection as a patient pursuant to section 94(2) of the Mental Health Act 1983. Section 94(2) required a nominated judge to address that issue, whereas under Order 80, no judicial officer had to consider medical evidence or be satisfied as to incapacity. incapacity. Secondly the issue of capacity was important in relation to the Claimant’s ability to sue his former solicitors during the six years after September 1987, 1987, and the limitation provisions of section 28(1) of the Limitation Act 1980. The Claimant’s counsel submitted that the Claimant was a patient for the purposes of the new Civil Procedure Rules (which replaced the Rules of the Supreme Court Cour t in 1999) and in particular CPR Rule 21.1(2)(b). 21.1(2)(b). The wording was different insofar the 12 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1983/20/contents http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1983/20/contents:: accsessed on 14:11:2012 10

CPR referred to “own affairs” as opposed to the words “property and affairs” af fairs” in the old RSC. Lord Justice Kennedy said that the Official Solicitor acted at any one time for some 1700 170 0 patients in civil and family proceedings. There was no definition in the Mental Health Act 1983, in the Rules of the Supreme Court or in the Civil Procedure Rules of the words “incapable of managing and administering…..his affairs” but in In Re F (Mental Patient: Sterilization) [1990] 2 AC 1 it was held that this did not extend to physical care and/or treatment. It I t included “only business matters, legal transactions and other dealings of a similar kind.” It was common ground that there was a presumption of capacity. However However Lord Justice Kennedy said that he did not accept a presumption that incapacity continued after a finding of incapacity.

Ronald Harry Bailey v. Matthew George Warren 200613 The Claimant suffered severe head injuries in a road traffic accident on the 3rd May 1998. He and a friend, who had been drinking were crossing a four lane urban dual carriageway late at night. (The friend later compromised her own personal claim on a 50/50 basis). Neither the Claimant nor his friend had any memory of stepping out into the road. The Defendant pleaded guilty to driving without due care and attention. He had little recall of the events. He had made a good physical recovery recovery to the extent that he was able to return r eturn to work in October 1998 albeit on light duties, but his injuries resulted in permanent damage to his cognitive functions, although there was disagreement about the extent of that damage according to the experts. In February 1999 he returned to his former duties as a machine operator but in March 1999 he developed developed post traumatic epilepsy and could no longer work. In March 2000 the Defendant’s insurer wrote to the Claimant’s solicitors offering to settle the case on a 50/50 basis. Counsel advised in strong terms that such a settlement should be accepted. In September 2000, the t he Claimant was consulted and he discussed the offer with his family. His step-brother who was nominated on his behalf, contacted the Claimant’s solicitors giving his approval to the compromise. Liability was settled on a 50/50 basis in November 2000. At that point no-one had considered whether the appointment of a litigation friend was appropriate and it appeared that those advising him were heavily influenced by the fact that the Claimant 13 http://www.mjsol.co.uk/library/cases/child-abuse/ronald-harry-bailey-litigation-friend-janet-ashtonmatthew-george-warren-2006/ :: accessed on 14/11/2012 matthew-george-warren-2006/  11

was being monitored by a consultant in rehabilitation medicine, who described his recovery as “excellent.” “excellent.” Proceedings were commenced in April 2001 and in December 2001, judgement was entered on a 50/50 basis on liability. At that point quantum still fell to be determined. In January 2003 a professor of neurology suggested that the Claimant lacked capacity and application was made to appoint a litigation friend. In August 2003, there was a change of solicitors. Those solicitors expressed concerns about the level of investigation carried out by their predecessors and the settlement on liability. They argued that the settlement should have been on a full liability basis. The Claimant’s father was appointed as litigation friend and he applied to set aside the judgment on liability on the basis that, at the time of the settlement, he was a papa tient under CPR Part 21. The Claimant’s father was later replaced by his sister. Mr Justice Holland found that although the Claimant was now a patient, and had been a patient in December 2001, he was not a patient in i n November 2000, for the purposes of agreeing a 50/50 split on liability. Mr Justice Holland heard no oral evidence. There was a police report, photographs and three witness statements, two from the Defendant and one from an independent witness, who had not seen the collision. The layout of the junction had also changed since the time of the accident. Justice Holland said that in his view, whilst he would query an apportionment less favourable to the Claimant than 60/40, it might have been difficult to resist a strong submission in favour of a 50/50 split. Therefore the settlement of 50/50 would be approved. The Claimant sought permission to appeal against the finding to the effect that he was not a patient in November 2000. Lady Justice Hallett reviewed the existing medical evidence. Some of that evidence suggested that the Claimant was a patient and some suggested that he was not. She considered the terms of CPR 21, which states: 21.2(1): 21.2(1): “A patient must have a litigation friend to conduct proceedings on his behalf.” 21.1(2) 21 .1(2) “Patient means a person who by reason of mental disorder within the meaning of the Mental Health Act 1983 is incapable of managing and administering his property and affairs.” 21.3(4) 21.3(4) “Any “Any steps taken before…a patient has a litigation friend shall be of not effect unless the court otherwise orders.”

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21.1 21 .10(1) 0(1) “Where a claim is made by or on behalf of a patient….no settlement, compromise or payment….shall be valid, so far as it relates to the claim, by or no behalf of…the patient without the approval of the court.” Lady Justice Hallett then considered the landmark case of Masterman-Lister v Brutton & Co. [2003] WTLR 259 which deals with the test for incapacity and the assessment of incapacity. incapacity. CASE LAWS IN INDIA : DRUNKENNESS ( UNSOUND MIND) Chacko and Anr. Vs. Mahadevan14 The facts of the case are that Chacko had land of an extent of 20 cents (100 cents being equal to 1 acre). By sale deed dated 4.9.1982, 4.9.1982, Chacko sold one cent out of this land for Rs. 18000. Thereafter Chacko sold another three cents of this land to Mahadevan for Rs. 1000 sale deed dated 11.7.1983. The suit O.S.431 of 1983 was filed by Chacko and Annakutty seeking to set aside that sale deed dated 11.7.1983, on the ground that it was vitiated by fraud and was hence null and void and for a prohibitory injunction restraining Mahadevan from entering into that property. The averment in the plaint was that Chacko was given liquor by Mahadevan and others and under that influence the sale deed was got executed. Hence it was void. The defendant Mahadevan denied the plaint's allegations. The trial court held that Chacko and Annakutty had not proved any vitiating circumstances to invalidate the said sale deed dated 11.7.1983 and consequently title to the said land passed to Mahadevan. Chacko and Annakutty filed an appeal before the First Appellate Court. The First Appellate Court held that the fact f act that one cent land was sold for Rs. 18000 (sale deed dated 4.9.1982) and three cent land was sold (sale deed dated 11.7.1983) for a sum of Rs. 1000, showed that this was an unconscionable transaction and hence the t he sale deed dated11.7.1983 was liable to be set aside. Aggrieved Mahadevan filed a Second Appeal, which was allowed by the impugned judgment. It may be mentioned that in a First Appeal filed under Section 96 CPC, the appellate court can go into questions of fact, whereas in a Second Appeal filed under Section 100 IPC the High Court cannot interfere with the findings of fact of the First Appellate Court, and it is confined only to questions of law. Hence we have have to see the judgment of the First Appellate Court and its findings of fact. 14 http://jajharkhand.in/judg/sc/pdf : accessed on 14:11:2012 13

A perusal of the judgment of the First Appellate Court dated 29.6.1988, 29.6.1988, copy of which is Annexure - P2 to this appeal, shows that it has been recorded therein that Chacko was not having sound mind when he executed, which is established from which is the medical certificate. He was treated from 11.8.1983 to 14.8.1983 in Mental Hospital, Trichur Trichur for Alcoholic Psychosis. This is a finding of fact which could not have been interfered with by the High Court in Second Appeal. Moreover, Moreover, it is established from the facts that one cent of land was sold for for Rs. 18000 on 4.9.1 4.9.1982 982 while 10 months thereafter three cents of land was sold for only Rs. 1000. This corroborates the finding of the First Appellate Court that Chacko was not of sound mind at least at the time when he executed the sale deed dated 11.7.1983. If one cent of land costs Rs. 18000 then three cents of land should ordinarily cost Rs. 54000. No one in his senses would sell property worth Rs. 54000 for Rs. 1000. According to the well known Latin maxim 'res ipsa loquitur' i.e. the matter speaks for itself. Hence it is obvious that Chacko sold the land by sale deed dated 11.7.1983 when he was not of sound mind and some fraud was played on him at that time. In the circumstances, we set aside the impugned judgment of the High Court and restore the judgment of the First Appellate Court dated 29.6.1988 29.6.1988 and we quash the sale deed dated 11.7.1983. The Appeals are allowed. There is no order as to costs CONCLUSION As can be seen from the above explanations, explanations, there were two conclusions that were drawn. The first assumption is that whether the Indian and English positions in contract law with regards to unsoundness was identical or not. To conclude, that the Indian model was heavily borrowed from its English counterpart and the basic structure is based on English common law notions. The second conclusion is that if “mentally ill” and “mentally disordered” persons under the Mental Health Acts of England and India were comprehensive enough to include all types of mental illness. In English law they made an attempt to differentidi fferentiate both and to define the term in a more all inclusive manner unlike in India.

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CONTRACT & SPECIFIC RELIEF, AVATAR SINGH, TENTH EDITION. EDITIO N.

2)

prac practi tica cala laca cade demi mic. c.bl blog ogsp spot ot.i .in n 14

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en.wikipedia.org

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