Conceptos Basicos de La Topografia

 

 

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\NMQLXRMJCJ E\CXLU C\ZGNGFC JL ZCHCRBG JMQMRMGN CBCJLFMBC JL MNOLNMLXMC ] CXS\MZLBZ\XC DMBLNBMCZ\XC LN CXS\MZLBZ\XC ZG[GOXCAMC BGNBL[ZGR HCRMBGR JL ZG[GOXCAMC CNC@M BGXJLXG R\CXLU 3?8J3:;:1

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·Suí ls dc tgpgorcaæc7 Dc  tgpgor tgpgorcaæc caæc ls dc bmlnbm bmlnbmc c qul lstujmc ld bgneunt bgneuntg g jl prmnbmpmgs prmnbmpmgs y prgbljm prgbljmfmlntg fmlntgss qul tmlnln pgr gheltg dc rlprlslntcbmòn orãambc jl dc suplrambml jl dc Zmlrrc, bgn sus ag agrf rfcs cs y jl jltc tcddddls ls,, tc tcnt ntg g nc nctu turc rcdl dlss bgf bgfg g crt crtmamamb mbmc mcdl dlss (v (vlr lr pdcn pdcnmf mflt ltræ ræc c y cdtmfltræc cdtmf ltræc). ). Dc pcdchr pcdchrc c tgpgor tgpgorcaæc caæc tmlnl bgfg rcæbls tgpgs, qul smonma smonmambc mbc "duocr", y orca or cags gs qu qul l sm smon onmamamb mbc c "jl "jlsb sbrm rmpb pbmò mòn". n". Ls Lstc tc rl rlpr prlsl lslnt ntcb cbmò mòn n tmtmln lnl l du duoc ocrr sg sghrl hrl suplrambmls pdcncs, dmfmtãnjgsl plqulócs lxtlnsmgnls jl tlrrlng, utmdmzcnjg dc jlngfmncbmòn jl olgjlsmc pcrcc ãrlcs fcygrls. Jl fcnlrc fuy smfpdl, puljl jlbmrsl qul pcrc un tgpòorcag dc Zmlrrc ls pdcnc, fmlntrcs qul pcrc un olgjlstc ng dg ls.  [crc lsg sl utmdmzc un smstlfc jl bggrjlncjcs trmjmflnsmgncd, smlnjg dc P y dc ] bgfpltlnbmc jl dc pdcnmfltræc, y dc U jl dc cdtmfltræc. Dgs fcpcs tgpgorãambgs utmdmzcn ld smstlfc jl rlprlslntcbmòn jl pdcngs cbgtcjgs, fgstrcnjg dc ldlvcbmòn jld tlrrlng utmdmzcnjg dænlcs qul bgnlbtcn dgs puntgs bgn dc fmsfc bgtc rlsplbtg jl un pdcng jl rlalrlnbmc, jlngfmncjcs burvcs jl nmvld, ln buyg bcsg sl jmbl qul ld fcpc ls `mpsgorãambg. Jmb`g pdcng jl rlalrlnbmc puljl slr g ng ld nmvld jld fcr, plrg ln bcsg jl slrdg sl `chdcrã jl cdtmtujls ln duocr jl bgtcs. BCF[G BCF[ G JL CBBMÒN CBBM ÒN Dc tgpgorcaæc ls jl cyujc ln vcrmgs bcfpgs9 pgr lelfpdg5       

corgngfæc crqumtlbturc olgorcaæc Mno. Bctcstrcd y Olgjlsmc mnolnmlræc coræbgdc mnolnmlræc bmvmd fmnlræc

ZXCHCEGR ZG[GOXÃAMBGR Dc tgpgorcaæc ls unc bmlnbmc olgfítrmbc cpdmbcjc c dc jlsbrmpbmòn jl dc rlcdmjcj aæsmbc mnfòvmd bmrbunjcntl. Ls pdcsfcr ln un pdcng tgpgorãambg dc rlcdmjcj vmstc ln bcfpg, ln ld ãfhmtg rurcd g ncturcd, jl dc suplrambml tlrrlstrl9 ln ld ãfhmtg urhcng, ls dc jlsbrmpbmòn jl dgs `lb`gs lxmstlntls ln un duocr jltlrfmncjg5 furgs, ljmambmgs, bcddls, lntrl gtrgs. Rl puljl jmvmjmr ld trchceg tgpgorãambg bgfg jgs cbtmvmjcjls bgnorulntls5 ddlvcr  "ld tlrrlng cd ochmnltl" (fljmcntl dc fljmbmòn jl puntgs g rldlvcfmlntg, su crb`mvg ln ld mnstruflntcd ldlbtrònmbg y dulog su ljmbmòn ln dc bgfputcjgrc) y ddlvcr "ld ochmnlt ochm nltl l cd tlr tlrrlng rlng"" (fl (fljmc jmcntl ntl ld rlp rlpdcn dcntlg tlg pgr ld bcf bcfmng mng mnv mnvlrsg lrsg,, jls jlsjl jl un prgylbtg ln dc bgfputcjgrc c dc uhmbcbmòn jld fmsfg fljmcntl puntgs sghrl ld 8

 

tlrrlng). Dgs puntgs rldlvcjgs g rlpdcntlcjgs tmlnln un vcdgr trmjmflnsmgncd9 ls jlbmr, sl jltlrfmnc dc uhmbcbmòn jl bcjc puntg ln ld pdcng `grmzgntcd (jl jgs jmflnsmgnls, ngrtl y lstl) y ln cdturc (tlrblrc jmflnsmòn). Dc tgpgorcaæc ng sgdg sl dmfmtc c rlcdmzcr dgs dlvcntcfmlntgs jl bcfpg ln tlrrlng, smng qul pgsll bgfpgnlntls jl ljmbmòn y rljcbbmòn bcrtgorãambc pcrc qul cd bgnalbbmgncr un pdcng sl puljl lntlnjlr ld agnlfc rlprlslntcjg c trcvís jld lfpdlg jl sæfhgdgs y lstãnjcrls prlvmcflntl ngrfcjgs rlprlslntcbmòn jl dgsbgnvlnbmgncdls gheltgs ncturcdls y cntròpmbgs ln dgs fcpcs g bcrtcspcrc dc tgpgorãambcs.

GHXCR BMQMDLR BMQMD LR (LJMAMBMGR (LJMAMBMGR,, [\LNZLR [\LNZLR,, LZBÍZLXC) Dc tcrlc jld tgpòorcag ls prlvmc cd mnmbmg jl un prgylbtg5 un crqumtlbtg g mnolnmlrg prgy prgylb lbtmtmst stc c jl jlhl hl bgnt bgntcr cr bgn bgn un hu huln ln dlvc dlvcnt ntcf cfml mlnt ntg g pdcn pdcnmm-cd cdtmtmfí fítr trmb mbg g g trmjmflnsmg trmjm flnsmgncd ncd prlvmg jld tlrrlng y jl "`lb`gs lxmst lxmstlntls" lntls" (ldlfln (ldlflntgs tgs mnfòvmdls y amegs cd suldg) yc slc qul dc ghrc sl bgnstruyc ln ld ãfhmtg rurcd g urhcng. Xlcdmzcjg ld prgylbtg bgn hcsl ln lstl rldlvcfmlntg, ld tgpòorcag sl lnbcroc jld "rlpdcntlg" jld fmsfg5 uhmbc dgs dæfmtls jl dc ghrc, dgs lels jlsjl dgs bucdls sl fmjln dgs ldlflntgs (bgdufncs, tchmquls...)9 lstchdlbl dgs nmvldls g dc cdturc jl rlalrlnbmc. Dulog dc ghrc cvcnzc y ln bucdqumlr fgflntg, ld mnolnmlrg elal jl ghrc puljl sgdmbmtcr un "lstcjg jl ghrc" (un rldlvcfmlntg mn smtu pcrc vlrmambcr sm sl lstã lstã bgns bgnstr truy uyln lnjg jg jl jlnt ntrg rg jl dc pr prlb lbms msmò mòn n lstc lstchd hdlb lbmj mjc c pg pgrr dgs dgs pdml pdmlog ogss jl bgnjmbmgnls) cd tgpòorcag. Dc prlbmsmòn jl unc ghrc vcræc5 ng ls dg fmsfg unc blntrcd nubdlcr qul dc uhmbcbmòn jld lel jl un bcncd jl rmlog y fãs. FLJMBMGNLR 

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Ln cormflnsurc sl utmdmzcn ldlflntgs bgfg dc bmntc jl fljmr, pgjòfltrg, lsbucjrc jl cormflnsgr, g mnbdusg ld nõflrg jl pcsgs jl un puntg c gtrg. Ln tgpgorcaæc bdãsmbc, pcrc jcr bggrjlncjcs smng c un qul puntg, ng sl utmdmzc jmrlbtcflntl un smstlfc bcrtlsmcng trmjmflnsmgncd, sl utmdmzc un smstlfc jl bggrjlncjcs lsaírmbcs qul pgstlrmgrflntl ngs plrfmtln ghtlnlr bggrjlncjcs bcrtlsmcncs. [crc lddg nlblsmtcfgs bgngblr jgs ãnoudgs y unc jmstcnbmc. Lxmstln jmvlrsgs mnstruflntgs qul puljln fljmr ãnoudgs, bgfg dc lstcbmòn tgtcd. [crc dc fljmjc jl jmstcnbmcs tlnlfgs jgs fítgjgs5 jmstcnbmcs lstcjmfítrmbcs g jmstcnbmgfltræc ldlbtrònmbc, smlnjg fãs prlbmsc dc slounjc. [crc ld prmflr bcsg utmdmzcrlfgs un tcquæfltrg y pcrc ld slounjg dc lstcbmòn tgtcd. Ln dc cbtucdmjcj sl bgfhmnc ld usg jld O[R bgn dc lstcbmòn tgtcd. ZGFC JL JCZGR

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 Cbtucdflntl ld fítgjg fãs utmdmzcjg pcrc dc tgfc jl jctgs sl hcsc ln ld lfpdlg jl unc lstcbmòn tgtcd tgtcd,, bgn dc bucd sl puljln fljmr ãnoudgs `grmzgntcdls, ãnoudgs vlrtmtmbc vlr bcdl dlss y jmst jmstcnb cnbmc mcs. s. Bg Bgng ngbm bmln lnjg jg dc dcss bg bggrj grjln lncj cjcs cs jld jld du duocr ocr jgnjl jgnjl sl `c bgdgbcjg dc Lstcbmòn ls pgsmhdl jltlrfmncr dcs bggrjlncjcs trmjmflnsmgncdls jl tgjgs dgs puntgs qul sl fmjcn. [rgblscnjg pgstlrmgrflntl dcs bggrjlncjcs jl dgs jctgs tgfcjgs ls pgsmhdl jmhuecr y rlprlslntcr orãambcflntl dgspgsmhdl jltcddls jld tlrrlng bgnsmjlrcjgs. Bgng dcs bggrjlncjcs jl jgs puntgs sl `cbl cjlfãs bcdbudcr dcs jmstcnbmcs ld jlsnmvld lntrl dgs fmsfgs puntgs, cunqul ng sl `uhmlsl lstcbmgncjg ln nmnoung. Rl bgnsmjlrc ln tgpgorcaæc bgfg ld prgblsg mnvlrsg cd rlpdcntlg, puls fljmcntl dc tgfc jl jctgs sl jmhuec ln pdcngs dgs jltcddls jld tlrrlng cbtucd. Lstl fítgjg lstã smlnjg sustmtumjg pgr ld usg jl O[R, cunqul smlfprl lstcrã prlslntl puls ng smlfprl sl tmlnl bghlrturc ln ld rlblptgr O[R pgr jmvlrsgs acbtgrls (lelfpdg5 jlntrg jl un tõnld). Ld usg jld O[R rljubl bgnsmjlrchdlflntl ld trchceg, pujmínjgsl bgnsloumr prlbmsmgnls hulncs jl 8 c 2 bf sm sl trchcec jl agrfc bmnlfãtmbc y jl mnbdusg 8 ff jl agrfc lstãtmbc. XL[D XL [DCN CNZLG ZLG Ld rlpdcntlg ls ld prgblsg mnvlrsg c dc tgfc jl jctgs, y bgnsmstl ln pdcsfcr ln ld tlrrlng jltcddls rlprlslntcjgs ln pdcngs, bgfg pgr lelfpdg ld duocr jgnjl bgdgbcr  pmdcrls jl bmflntcbmgnls, cntlrmgrflntl jmhuecjgs ln pdcngs. Ld rlpdcntlg, cd moucd qul dc cdmnlcbmòn, ls pcrtl mfpgrtcntl ln dc tgpgorcaæc. Cfhgs sgn un pcsg mfpgrtcntl pcrc dulog prgbljlr bgn dc rlcdmzcbmòn jl dc ghrc.   LELR JLD XL[DCNZLG Dgs lels qul sl nlblsmtcn pcrc rlcdmzcr ld rlpdcntlg sgn5    

lel `grmzgntcd lel vlrtmbcd lel jl bgtcs lel jl rgtcbmòn

Fljmbmòn jmrlbtc. Cjqumlrl sus jctgs jl fcnlrc jmrlbt Fljmbmòn jmrlbtc, c, ls jlbmr, bgfpcrc bgfpcrcnjg njg dc jmstcnbmc rlcd bgn dc unmjcj jl fljmjc qul dc jlsbrmhl, bgfg puljl slr fljmcntl unc bmntc fítrmbc, pgr pgnlr un lelfpdg. Fljmbmòn mnjmrlbtc. Cqulddc qul sl ghtmlnln dcs fljmbmgnls fljmcntl dc cpdmbcbmòn jl unc aòrfudc fctlfãtmbc y gtrcs agrfcs jl rczgncfmlntg chstrcbtg. Xcfcs jl dc tgpgorcaæc :

 

 C orcnjls rcsogs, dc tgpgorcaæc bgfprlnjl trls rcfcs g suhjmvmsmgnls5

 Cormflnsurc. Bgnsmjlrcjc ln fub`gs slntmjgs unc jmsbmpdmnc cutòngfc, sl jljmbc c dc fljmbmòn jl dcs jmstcnbmcs jl dcs suplrambmls jl dc Zmlrrc, ls jlbmr, fljmbmòn jl ãrlcs y jlamnmbmòn jl dæfmtls dlocdls. Zgpgorcaæc bdãsmbc. Lfpdlc un smstlfc chstrcbtg jl rlalrlnbmcs g bggrjlncjcs lsaír lsa írmb mbcs, cs, qu qul l du dulog log puljl puljln n tr trcj cjub ubmr mrsl sl ln un lel lel bc bcrt rtlsm lsmcn cng g pcrc pcrc ght ghtln lnlr lr,, fljmcntl bãdbudgs, dcs prgpgrbmgnls jl un lspcbmg aæsmbg. Rl jmvmjl ln jgs, c su vlz5 [dcnmfltræc. Dc fljmbmòn jl suplrambmls pdcncs.  Cdtmfltræc. Dc fljmbmòn jl cdturcs. Olgjlsm Olgj lsmc. c. Rl gbu gbupc pc jl rlp rlprls rlslnt lntcr cr or orãa ãamb mbcf cfln lntl tl dc su suplr plramambm bml l jl dc Zm Zmlrr lrrc, c, bgfp bgfprl rlnj njmj mjc c bgfg bgfg un bgne bgneun untg tg fc fcbr brg g jl supl suplra ramb mbml mls, s, g slc, slc, c pc pcrt rtmr mr jl slbtgrmzcbmgnls orcnjls, dg bucd mfpdmbc c flnujg scbrmambcr ld pdcng mfcomncrmg tgpgorãambg. Ruplrambmls jl Nmvld  Rm sl supgnl qul sl puljcn ldmfmncr tgjcs dcs mrrloudcrmjcjls jl dc suplrambml tlrrlstrl sl ghtlnjrã unc suplrambml mfcomncrmc lsalrgmjcd, bcjc ung jl buygs ldlflntgs slræc ngrfcd g plrplnjmbudcr c dc jmrlbbmòn jl dc pdgfcjc ln ld fmsfg.  C dc suplrambml jl lstc bdcsl qul bgrrlspgnjl c dc cdturc fljmc jld fcr sl ddcfc "nmvld fljmg jld fcr" y ls dc suplrambml jl rlalrlnbmc pcrc dcs nmvldcbmgnls y fljm fl jmbm bmgnl gnlss tg tgpgo pgorã rãamambcs bcs.. Ln rl rlcd cdmj mjcj cj,, ls un crb crbg, g, pl plrg rg pcrc pcrc lalb lalbtg tgss jl dc tgpgorcaæc sl csufl bgfg suplrambml jl rlalrlnbmc dc bulrjc suhtlnjmjc pgr íd. [dcngs, dænlcs y Ãnoudgs @grmzgntcdls  \n pdcngtc`grmzgntcd ls un vc pdcng g pcrcdldg c unc jl nmvldln y rlprlslntc rlprlsln dc hcsl prgjubtm prgjubtmvc pcrctcnolntl dc prgylbbmòn jl tgjgs dgssuplrambml puntg puntgss fljmjgs ld tlrrlng. \nc dænlc `grmzgntcd ls unc dænlc bgntlnmjc ln un pdcng `grmzgntcd y pgr  dg tcntg tcnolntl c unc suplrambml jl nmvld. Ln tgpgorcaæc sl sghrllntmlnjl qul tg tgjc jc dædænl nlc c `gr `grmz mzgn gntc tcdd ls un unc c rlb rlbtc tc.. Ln dc dcss cp cpdmdmbc bcbm bmgn gnls ls pdc pdcnm nmfl fltr træc æcss jl dc tgpgorcaæc (bãdbudg y jmhueg) sgdg sl bgnsmjlrcn dcs jmstcnbmcs `grmzgntcdls. Ln bcsg jl qul sl fmjcn jmstcnb jmstcnbmcs mcs mnbdmncj mnbdmncjcs cs jlhl `cblrsl dc rlsplbtmvc rljubbmò rljubbmòn n cd `g `grm rmzg zgnt ntl l g bã bãdb dbud udg g jl dc prg prgyl ylbb bbmò mòn n `g `grm rmzgn zgntc tcdd jl dc fl fljm jmjc. jc. \n ãno ãnoud udg g `grmzgntcd `grmzg ntcd ls ld agrfcjg pgr jgs dænlcs rlbtcs smtucjcs ln un pdcng `grmzgntcd. Ld vcdgr jld ãnoudg `grmzgntcd sl utmdmzc pcrc jlamnmr dc jmrlbbmòn jl un cdmnlcfmlntg c pcrtmr jl unc dænlc qul sl tgfc bgfg rlalrlnbmc. [dcngs, dænlcs y Ãnoudgs Qlrtmbcdls (blnmt, ldlvcbmòn, jlprlsmòn) <

 

\n pdcng vlrtmbcd ls un pdcng plrplnjmbudcr c un pdcng `grmzgntcd. \nc dænlc vlrtmbcd lstã bgntlnmjc ln un pdcng vlrtmbcd plrg qul ls ngrfcd c un pdcng `grmzgntcd, sghrl lstc dænlc sl fmjln dcs jmalrlnbmcs jl nmvld lntrl puntgs. Dgs ãnoudgs vlrtmbcdls tcfhmín lstãn bgntlnmjgs ln un pdcng vlrtmbcd, plrg sl fmjln bgn rlsplbtg c unc dænlc vlrtmbcd g bgn rlsplbtg c unc dænlc pcrcdldc c unc suplrambml jl nmvld. Ld ãnoudg vlrtmbcd smrvl pcrc jlamnmr ld orcjg jl mnbdmncbmòn jl un cdmnlcfmlntg sghrl ld tlrrlng. Rm sl tgfc bgfg rlalrlnbmc dc dænlc `grmzgntcd, ld ãnoudg vlrtmbcd sl ddcfc ãnoudg jl plnjmlntl, ld bucd puljl slr pgsmtmvg g jl ldlvcbmòn g nloctmvg g jl jlprlsmòn, y lstl ls ld ãnoudg qul sl bgngbl bgfg plnjmlntl jl unc dænlc, ld bucd puljl slr lxprlscjg tcntg ln ãnoudg bgfg ln pgrblntcel. pgrblnt cel. Rm sl lsbgol bgfg rlalrlnbm rlalrlnbmc c ld lxtrlfg suplrmgr jl dc dænlc vlrtmbcd, ld ãnoudg sl ddcfc blnmtcd y sm ls ld lxtrlfg mnalrmgr ld ãnoudg sl ddcfc ncjmrcd. Ld blnmtmt ls un pun bln puntg tg plrpln plrplnjmb jmbudc udcrr c dc sup suplra lrambm mbml l jl dc tmlrrc. tmlrrc. Ld puntg puntg gpulst gpulstg g cd Blnmt ls ld Ncjmr.  Cdturc, Bgtc g ldlvcbmòn jl un puntg  Dc cdtmtuj jl un puntg ls dc jmstcnbmc vlrtmbcd fljmjc jlsjl ld nmvld fljmg jld fcr. Rm dc jmstcnbmc vlrtmbcd sl fmjl jlsjl bucdqumlr gtrg pdcng tgfcjg bgfg rlalrlnbmc usucdflntl sl dl jlngfmnc bgtc. Ld jlsnmvld lntrl jgs puntgs lstã jcjg pgr dc jmalrlnbmc jl cdtmtuj g bgtc lntrl jmb`gs puntgs. Burvcs jl Nmvld Rgn dænlcs qul sl trczcn ln dgs pdcngs jl pdcntc bgn ld amn jl rlprlslntcr ld rldmlvl g bgnamourcbmòn tgpgorãambc jl un tlrrlng. \nc burvc jl nmvld unl puntgs jld tlrrlng qul tmlnln moucd bgtc g cdturc, pgr dg tcntg, rlprlslntcn dc mntlrslbbmòn jld tlrrlng bgn un pdcng `grmzgntcd. Dc slpcrcbmòn lntrl dcs burvcs jl nmvld ln ld pdcng jl pdcnt pdcntc, c, bgfg ls ghvmg, rlprlslntc dc jmstc jmstcnbmc nbmc `grmzgntcd `grmzgntcd lntrl lddcs y dc jmstcnbmc g mntlrvcdg vlrtmbcd sl jljubl pgr jmalrlnbmc jl dcs bgtcs cngtcjcs. Dc bgtc g cdturc jl unc burvc jl nmvld ls dc bgtc g cdturc jld pdcng `grmzgntcd qul dc bgntmlnl. [lnjmlntl jl unc Dænlc Dc plnjmlntl jl unc dænlc lstã jlamnmjc bgfg dc tcnolntl jld ãnoudg qul agrfc bgn dc `grmzgntcd, dc bucd sl puljl lxprlscr tcntg ln orcjgs bgfg ln pgrblntcel.

Qírtmbls, Lstcbmgnls y Lstcbcs \n vírtmbl sl agrfc ln dc mntlrslb mntlrslbbmòn bmòn jl jgs dænlc dænlcs, s, bgfg ld qul sl prlslnt prlslntc c ln un ãnoudg g ln unc lsqumnc jl unc pgdmogncd chmlrtc g blrrcjc. Rm ln un trchceg tgpgorãambg, sl mnstcdc un cpcrctg tgpgorãambg, tcd bgfg un tlgjgdmtg g trãnsmtg, jmrlbtcflntl sghrl un vírtmbl, c lstl puntg sl dl ddcfc lstcbmòn. Dgs vírtmbls, 1

 

lstcbmgnls y jlfãs puntgs cuxmdmcrls qul sl rlqumlrln jurcntl dcs gplrcbmgnls jl bcfpg bcf pg jld dlv dlvcnt cntcfm cfmlnt lntg g tgp tgpgorã gorãamb ambg g jl jlhln jlhln fctlrmc fctlrmcdmz dmzcr cr yc slc ln agrfc agrfc plrf pl rfcnl cnlnt ntl l g pr prgv gvms msmg mgnc ncd.d. Ng Ngrf rfcd cdfl flnt ntl l sl jmst jmstmn mnoul oul dg dgss sm smou ouml mlnt ntls ls tmtmpgs pgs jl puntgs5 [untgs Mnstcntãnlgs  gplrcbmgnls Rg Rgn n dg dgss qu qul l sl nlbls nlblsmt mtcn cn jlecr fg fgfl flnt ntãn ãnlc lcfl flnt ntl l ju jurcn rcntl tl jl ld rlalrlnbmc jlsc jlscrrg rrgddddg g pcrc jl dc dcs jl bcfpg, pcrc unc fcrbc prgvmsmgncd dcs bgntmnumjcj jl dcs fljmbmgnls y grmlntcbmòn jl dcs cdmnlcbmgnls. Dgs ldlflntgs qul sl utmdmzcn sgn dgs pmqultls g amb`cs qul sgn vcrmddcs qul tmlnln agrfc jl crogddc y unc puntc jl 8< c 2< bf jl cdturc. Zcfhmín sl utmdmzcn ecdgnls g hcdmzcs qul sgn vcrcs jl 8 c 2 fltrgs, bgnstrumjgs ln fcjlrc g fltãdmbgs, bgn jmvmsmgnls cdtlrncjcs jl rgeg y hdcnbg jl 8; bf, bgn un rlaulrzg jl cblrg ln dc puntc ddcfcjg rloctòn fltãdmbg.  [untgs trcnsmtgrmgs  Rgn dgs puntgs qul jlhln plrfcnlblr jurcntl tgjg ld tmlfpg qul jlfcnjl ld trchceg jl bcfpg y ls jlslchdl qul sl bgnslrvln `cstc dc ltcpc jl bgnstrubbmòn jlndcscrrc Ln fcygræc jlhgrl dgs lstcs lstcbcs lsl dcpsg g. sg sgn crghrcs. rcnb nbcj cjcs csdcln dcs dchg dc rlssbcsgs, jl jl jlsb sbcp cpgt gtl l cd slmnmbm nmpmlrjln bmcr cr dc lnbg bgns nstr trub ubbm bmòn òn. Ngrfcdflntl sgn lstcbcs, qul puljln slr jl dgs smoumlntls tmpgs5 Zcbgs jl trãnsmtg sgn lstcbcs jl bgrtc dgnomtuj, lntrl 0 y 38 bf, bgn orgsgr jl bmnbg (