Conceptos Básicos de La Logística

 

 

U.D.Z. I.N.D.U.Y.

U.K.D.U.Y U.D.V.

HKUYHYTYA YDEKAOÕNHEA UTZD]HA] ID OBU EGABZBU KACM]D IDO YDCB0 Eakedptas mâsheas d hktraiueehõk hktraiu eehõk b ob oanãstheb

EB]]D]B0 HKNDKHD]HB HKNDK HD]HB HKITUY]HBO HKITUY]HBO Z]DUDKYB0 CHUUB CHUU B DO VHOOBUDE VHOOB UDEB B BVDKIBÒA KTCD]A ID EAKY]AO0 272B:29= CBYD]HB0 OANHUYHEB X EBIDKB ID UTCHKHUY]AU FBEHOHYBIA]0 HKN. F]BKEHUEA GD]VD]Y

OBU EGA EGABZBU, BZBU, VD]. VD].

:= sdpt sdpthdcm hdcmrd rd =:=2

 

 

EAKEDZYAU MBUHEAU ID OB OANÃUYHEB

Ob oanãstheb eacprdkid vbrhas praedsas eaca ob praiueehõk, ihstrhmuehõk, cdrebida, fhkbkzbs y ebohibi. 

 

 

Ybmob id eaktdkhia TKHIBI 2. HKY]AITEEHÕK B OB OANÃUYHEB

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Ybmob id eaktdkhia Hktraiueehõk Am`dthvas

 

 

 

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2 =  5  5 

Am`dthva ndkdrbo  .......................................................................................................................... 5  Am`dthvas dspdeãfheas  .................................................................................................................. 9 

2.2 Idfhkhehakds id oanãstheb

 

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2.2.2 Hkhehas id ob oanãstheb   ......................................................................................................... 6 

2.= Ebidkb id suchkhstra

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2.=.2 Betards id ob ebidkb id suchkhstra   ............................................................................... 2:  2.=.= Cberapraedsas  ................................................................................................................. 22  2.=.5 Vbrhbmods id ob oanãstheb  .................................................................................................. 29  2.=.9 Zobkdbehõk id ob oanãstheb   ................................................................................................ 24 

]dsucdk

 

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Mhmohanrbfãb

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27 

28

 

  Hktraiueehõk Ob Oanãstheb ds uk ebcpa id dstuiha, qud hktdnrb oas ebcpas trbihehakbods id ob Hkndkhdrãb Hkiustrhbo tbods eaca ob praiueehõk, ob ihstrhmuehõk, do cdrebida, obs fhkbkzbs, ob ebohibi, dktrd atras. Ob kavdibi rdsuotb, id ob ndrdkehb eaarihkbib id bethvhibids qud sd dkeudktrbk hktdrrdobehakbib hktdrrdobehakbibs, s, oa eubo sd rdbohzbmb eacðkcdktd id cbkdrb bhsobib, erdbkia eakfohetas dktrd obs ârdbs id obs dcprdsbs. Ob eaarihkbehõk ido fou`a id praiuetas, sdrvhehas, cbtdrhbs prhcbs, rdeursas d hkfarcbehõk b oa obrna id ukb ebidkb, dk ob qud hktdrbetðbk ukb bcpohb ihvdrshibi id kaias eaca do cdrebia y oas sdetards praiuethvas, ib arhndk b ob ihkâcheb qud tacb ounbr dk obs idkachkbibs ebidkbs id bmbstdehchdkta, euyb bichkhstrbehõk eacpdtd b ob oanãstheb. Bo gbmobr id oanãstheb, sd gbed rdfdrdkehb b ob ebidkb id vboar qud sd erdb dktrd do bmbstdehchdkta id ob cbtdrhb prhcb, ob praiueehõk id oas mhdkds y ob eacdrehbohzbehõk y vdktb id oas chscas gbstb do eaksuchiar fhkbo. Dk taia dstd rdearrhia hktdrvhdkdk cðothpods bndktds y pashmhohibids id drrards, idcarbs, pèrihib id cdrebkeãbs, busdkehb id hkfarcb hkfarcbehõk, ehõk, samrdeastas, fbotb id eaktrao, idseaarihkbehõk, thdcpas cudrtas, dktrd atras< oa eubo rdstb eacpdththvhibi b obs dcprdsbs y b obs kbehakds. Do eakedpta id ebidkb id bmbstdehchdkta, hkvaouerb oas oobcbias caidoas id eaobmarbehõk dcprdsbrhbo pbrb musebr dfdetas shkèrnheas dktrd oas pbrthehpbktds id ob ebidkb id bmbstdehchdkta, eak do fhk id rdiuehr shnkhfhebthvbcdktd do easta id ob oanãstheb frdktd bo prdeha id vdktb, bedodrbr ob ratbehõk id oas hkvdktbrhas, dvhtbr oas bnatbias dk do pukta id vdktb, tdkdr uk bota paredktb`d id idspbegas pdrfdetas y shkerakhzbr ob afdrtb y ob idcbkib, eak oa qud sd bnrdnbrâ vboar pbrb do eaksuchiar y cd`arbrâ ob eacpdththvhibi e acpdththvhibi y ob rdktbmhohibi id oas praiuetas.

Am`dthvas

Am`dthva ndkdrbo Hidkthfhebr oas arãndkds id ob oanãstheb dcprdsbrhbo y oas prhkehpbods eakedptas pbrb bvbkzbr gbstb su bpohebehõk y id dstb cbkdrb, eacprdkidr su hcpartbkehb y bucdktbr oas hkihebiards id eacpdththvhi eacpdththvhibi bi y praiuethvhibi dcprdsbrh dcprdsbrhbo. bo.

 

 

Am`dthva Am`d thvass dspdeãfheas   Idfhkhr y eakaedr eakaedr ob fukehõk y boebked iidd ob oanãstheb iidktra dktra id ob dcpr dcprdsb. dsb.

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  Hidkthfhebr obs bethvhibids bethvhibids hkvaouerbibs dk oas praedsas id ob oanãstheb b sbmdr0 eacprbs, bocbedkbchdkta, trbkspartd, pobkdbehõk y eaktrao id ob praiueehõk, cdrebida, btdkehõk y trbtbchdkta id pdihias, idspbegas, ihstrhmuehõk y sdrvheha bo bo eohdktd.

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  Dobmarbr pobkds y pranrbcbs qud pdrchtbk ddoo suchkhstr suchkhstraa bideubia y apartuka id oas rdeursas b ob pobktb.

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  Erdbr obs gdrrbchd gdrrbchdktbs ktbs id eaktrao hktdrka y dxtdr dxtdrka ka qud pdrchtbk dvboubr obs fukehakds id ob oanãstheb.

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2.2  Idfhkhehakds id oanãstheb

fhnurb 2.2 Ob hcpartbkehb id ob oanãstheb rbiheb rb iheb dk ndsthakbr oas cdihas y rdeu rsas kdedsbrhas pbrb sbthsfbedr ob idcbkib. 

  Do Eaukeho af Oanhsthes Cbkbndcdkt dstbmodehõ qud ‟… Ds ob pbrtd ido praedsa id ob  

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ebidkb id suchkhstra qud pobkhfheb, hcpodcdktb y eaktraob do dfhehdktd y dfhebz fou`a y bocbedkbchdkta id mhdkds, sdrvhehas d hkfarcbehõk rdobehakbib, idsid do arhndk gbstb do eaksuchiar fhkbo pbrb paidr eucpohr eak oas rdqudrhchdktas id oas eohdktds.–   (@hcèkdz Uâkegdz & Gdrkâkidz Nbreãb, =::=) . 

  ‟Zraedsa  id ndsthakbr dstrbtènhebcdktd do cavhchdkta y bocbedkbchdkta id cbtdrhbs prhcbs, pbrtds y praiuetas tdrchkbias idsid oas pravddiards pravddiards b trbvès id ob dcprdsb, gbstb do usubrha a eaksuchiar fhkbo –  (Obcm, Gbhr, & CeIbkhdo, =:22).   Ds do eak`ukta id beehakds qud sd rd rdbohzbk bohzbk idsid qud hkhehb ob eacprb eacprb id hksucas y cbtdrhb prhcb, gbstb ob dktrdnb ido praiueta tdrchkbia bo eohdktd, hkeouhia do trbkspartd, praiueehõk, dcmbob`d, bocbedkbchdkta y ihstrhmuehõk id oas praiuetas.

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  Ds ob ndrdkehb id ob ebidkb id bmbstdehch bmbstdehchdkta. dkta.

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  ‟Ob oanãstheb ds ob ðothcb fraktdrb id ob eacpdththvhibi–. Zdtdr Irueldr, ehtbia   par ]hvdras Uhovb.

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  Ob oanãstheb museb idtdrchk idtdrchkbr br y eaarihkbr dk farcb farcb õpthcb do praiueta earrdeta,do eohdktd earrdeta, do ounbr earrdeta y do thdcpa earrdeta.

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  2.2.2 

Hkhehas id ob oanãsthe oanãstheb b

Fhnurb 2.= Arnbkhzbehõk, pobkdbehõk, hkstrucdktbehõk y eaktrao sak shkõkhcas id oanãstheb. 

‟Uhdcprd qud sd prdsdktbk ebcmhas dk bonukb ârdb id eakaehchdkta, oas tèrchkas y

sus idfhkhehakds bmukibk y dk ob oanãstheb ka ds ob dxedpehõk. Dk su cacdkta, ob oanãstheb id kdnaehas, ihstrhmuehõk fãsheb, bichkhstrbehõk id cbtdrhbods, bichkhstrbehõk oanãstheb, dktrd atras, fudrak uthohzbias pbrb rdfdrhrsd bo eaktrao y bichkhstrbehõk id oas fou`as id cbtdrhb prhcb, cdrebkeãbs d hkfarcbehõk. Uhk dcmbrna, dk uk eaksdksa ndkdrbo dk ebib dtbpb id obs apdrbehakds dcprdsbrhbods sd biaptbrak trds eakedptas eobvd0 •

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  Oanãstheb0 dktdkihib eaca do praedsa id cbtdrhbods cavhèkiasd b trbvès id taib ob dcprdsb.   Bichkhstrbehõk iid d cbtdrhbods0 eaktdcpobmb do cavhchdkta id cbtdrhbods y eacpakdktds idktra id ob dcprdsb.   Ihstrhmuehõk ffãsheb0 ãsheb0 idserhmãb do cavhchdkta id oas mhdkds tdrchkbias idsid ob pobktb gbstb do eaksuchiar fhkbo.

Eak obs bktdrhards idfhkhehakds, bonukas bebiècheas eaca do prafdsar Obknody sdòbobmbk, qud cuegas butards b pdsbr id atarnbr idfhkhehakds eakehsbs id dstas tèrchkas, dk ob prâetheb id oas kdnaehas id dsb èpaeb (>:js), ihegas tèrchkas drbk hktdrebcmhbias. Dk tdarãb, sd pudid pdksbr qud obs arnbkhzbehakds dcprdsbrhbods oanrbk cd`ards rdsuotbias eak bcpoha dktdkihchdkta id ob tdekaoanãb dcpodbib, fbehohtbkia ob apdrbehõk y dvhtbkia eastas hkkdedsbrhas. Zar dstb rbzõk, dk 2882 do Eaukeho af Oanhsthes Cbkbndcdkt beariõ biaptbr do tdrchka ‟oanãstheb– par ‟bichkhstrbehõk id ob ihstrhmuehõk fãsheb– dstbmodehia dk   28>6.– (@hcèkdz Uâkegdz & Gdrkâkidz Nbreãb, =::=) .

 

 

Id dstb cbkdrb, ‟oanãstheb– sd idfhkd eaca0 ‟…   Do praedsa id pobkdbehõk, hkstrucdktbehõk y eaktrao dfhehdktd, dfdethva pbrb do

bocbedkbchdkta id mhdkds, sdrvhehas d hkfarcbehõk rdobehakbib idsid do pukta id arhndk gbstb do pukta ido eaksuca fhkbo id beudria eak oas rdqudrhchdktas ido eaksuchiar–. 

Eubkia sd gbmob id praedsa, dstb idfhkhehõk pdrchtd ihfdrdkehbr qud oas fou`as fãsheas sd idmdk oodvbr b ebma mb`a uk aridk dspdeãfhea b trbvès id ob dcprdsb, eak ukb arhdktbehõk id hktdnrbehõk id obs bethvhibids ka saoa hktdrkbs shka tbcmhèk eak obs bethvhibids dxtdrkbs, qud sd idsbrraoobk idsid do pukta id arhndk gbstb do pukta id eaksuca fhkbo. Uhk dcmbrna, dk ob prâetheb, ob kavdibi id ob oanãstheb saoa sd dkfaeõ b ob cd`arb ido fukehakbchdkta dcprdsbrhbo hktdrka, mbsbia dk eakedmhr bo praedsa praiuethva id farcb hktdnrbo, ebrbetdrhzbia par uk fou`a qud sd hkhehb fudrb id ob dcprdsb, dk oas pravddiards y qud trbkseurrd b trbvès id ob dcprdsb, par oas edktras y ebkbods id ihstrhmuehõk gbstb oas eohdktds, dkfaebkia sus dsfudrzas prhkehpbocdktd b obs bethvhibids oanãsthebs id bpravhshakbchdkta, praiueehõk y ihstrhmuehõk dspdeãfheas d hkgdrdktds b ob eacpbòãb. Idrhvbia id oas do ebcmhas id obidarnbkhzbehõk id ob praiueehõk y ob noambohzbehõk oas cdrebias, praedsa bpravhshakbchdkta-praiueehõk-ihstrhmuehõk sd id gb dstbia hktdnrbkia b oas praedsas id atrbs ukhibids id kdnaeha farcbkia ukb rdi id dcprdsbs, eakvhrthèkiasd do eohdktd dk saeha id obs dcprdsbs pravddiarbs y èstbs, b su vdz, eohdk eohdktds tds saehas id atrbs eacpbòãbs qud oas bmbstdedk. Zbrbodobcdktd, ob dcprdsb fbmrhebktd ido praiueta id eaksuca fhkbo betðb eaca pravddiarb id obs eacpbòãbs cbyarhstbs y èstbs b su vdz id eacdrehas bo idtbood. Bsã, oas ihfdrdktds pbrthehpbktds sd gbk vhsubohzbia eaca dsobmakds id ukb ebidkb b ob qud sd od idkachkb ?ebidkb suchkhstra;.– (@hcèkdz Uâkegdz & Gdrkâkidz Nbreãb, =::=).

Hcpartbkehb id ob oanãstheb

Fhnurb 2.5 Yrbmb`a dfdethva id dcpodbias dk ukb arnbkhzbehõk pbrb oodvbr b ebma ukb dxedodktd oanãstheb. 

 

 

Ob hcpartbkehb id ob oanãstheb eakshstd dk cd`arbr ob fbsd ido cdrebia, do sdrvheha bo eohdktd y cbktdkdr do trbkspartd bo cdkar easta. Bonukbs id sus bethvhibids sak0   Bucdkta dk obs oãkdbs id praiueehõk.

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  Ob dfhehdkehb dk praiueehõk praiueehõk,, boebkzbr khvdods botas.

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  Ob ebid ebidkb kb id ihstrhmuehõk idmd cbktdkdr ebib vdz cdkas hkvdktbrhas.

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  Idsbrraooa id shstdcbs id hkfarcbehõ hkfarcbehõk. k.

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Eubkia ukb arnbkhzbehõk eaksdrvb obs bethvhibids bktdrhards, sd amthdkdk oas shnuhdktds mdkdfheha mdkdfhehas0 s0   ‟Hkerdcdktbr ob eacpdththvhibi y cd`arbr ob rdktbmhohibi id obs dcprdsbs pbrb obkzbrsd bo rdta id ob noambohzbehõk.

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  Apthchzbr ob ndrdkehb y ob ndsthõk oanãstheb eacdrehbo kbehakbo d hktdrkbehakbo.

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  Eaarihkbehõk õpthcb id taias oas fbetards qud hkfouydk dk ob idehshõk id eacprb0 ebohibi, eakfhbmhohibi, prdeha, dcpbqud, ihstrhmuehõk, pratdeehõk, sdrvheha.

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  Bcpohbehõk id ob vhshõk ndrdkehbo pbrb eakvdrthr b ob oanãstheb dk uk caidoa,

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uk cbrea, uk cdebkhsca id pobkhfhebehõk id obs bethvhibids hktdrkbs y dxtdrkbs id ob dcprdsb–.  (Arthz Cârqudz, =::8).  

  Ob idfhkhe idfhkhehõk hõk trbi trbihehakbo hehakbo id oanãstheb bfhrcb, qud ddoo praiueta biquhdrd su vboar eubkia do eohdktd oa rdehmd dk do thdcpa y dk ob farcb bideubib, bo cdkar easta pashmod.

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Zbrtheuobrhibids id ob oanãstheb

  Do vboar id ob oanãstheb sd dxprds dxprdsbb fukib fukibcdktboc cdktbocdktd dktd dk tèrchkas id thdcpa y ounbr.

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  Oas pra praiuetas iuetas y sdrvhehas ka thd thdkdk kdk vb vboar oar b cdkas qud dst dstèk èk dk cbkas id oas eohdktds euâkia (thdcpa) y iõkid (ounbr) dooas idsddk eaksuchroas.

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  Tkb mu mudkb dkb iihrdeehõk hrdeehõk oanãstheb vhsubohzb ebib bethvhibi dk ob ebidkb id suchkhstra eaca eaktrhmuehõk bo praedsa id bòbihr vboar.

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2.=  Ebidkb id suchkhstra

Fhnurb 2.9 Zbsas pbrb ob ndsthõk id ob ebidkb e bidkb id suchkhstra2. 

‟Ob ebidkb id suchkhstra ds ob eaarihkbehõk d hktdnrbehõk id taibs obs bethvhibids

bsaehbibs bo cavhchdkta id mhdkds, idsid ob cbtdrhb prhcb gbstb do usubrha fhkbo, pbrb erdbr ukb vdktb`b eacpdththvb sustdktbmod. Dsta hkeouyd ob bichkhstrbehõk id shstdcbs id hkfarcbehõk, fudktds, pranrbcbehõk id ob praiueehõk, praedsbchdkta id pdihias, ihrdeehõk ido hkvdktbrha, trbkspartd, bocbedkbchdkta y sdrvheha bo eohdktd–  (@hcèkdz Uâkegdz & Gdrkâkidz Nbreãb, =::=) .

Zar su pbrtd Oboakid (288=) bfhrcb, ‟qud ob ebidkb id suchkhstra ds ob dktrdnb bo   eohdktd id vboar deakõchea, par cdiha id ob bichkhstrbehõk shkerakhzbib ido fou`a fãshea id mhdkds, eak ob hkfarcbehõk bsaehbib id obs fudktds id eaksuca–.  ‟Ob ebidkb id suchkhstra ds do eak`uk ta id dcprdsbs dfhehdktdcdktd hktdnrbibs par

oas pravddiards, fbmrhebktds, ihstrhmuhiards y vdkidiards cbyarhstbs a idtboohstbs eaarihkbias, qud museb umhebr uka a câs praiuetas dk obs ebkthibids earrdetbs, dk oas ounbrds earrdetas y dk do thdcpa prdehsa musebkia do cdkar easta id obs bethvhibids id vboar id oas hktdnrbktds id ob ebidkb y sbthsfbedr oas rdqudrhchdktas id oas eaksuchiards.– (@hcèkdz Uâkegdz & Gdrkâkidz Nbreãb, =::=).

 Zrhscbry. C (Yrbmb`a prapha) \EE MX-UB 9.: (gttp0//erdbthvdeaccaks.arn/ohedksds/my-sb/9.:)S, ukidfhkdi. Do =2 id dkdra id =:24.

2

 

 

Fhnurb 2.4 Zraedsa id ukb ebidkb id bmbstdehchdkta.  

2.=.2 

 Bee tards  B ta rds id ob o b ebi ebidkb dkb id i d suc su c h kh khss tr tra a

Fhnurb 2.6 Zrhkehpbods betards be tards qud hktdrvhdkdk dk ob ebidkb id suchkhstra. 

 

 

Ds hcpartbktd eakaedr oas prhkehpbods betards qud pbrthehpbk dk ob ebidkb id suchkhstra0   Zravddiar 0 pdrsakb a dcprdsb qud bmbstded id bonukas brtãeuoas kdedsbrhas, eaca hksucas y cbtdrhbs prhcbs rdqudrhibs pbrb ob praiueehõk id uk mhdk, id farcb pdrhõiheb y qud idmd eucpohr eak ob ebohibi ido praiueta y dktrdnb apartukb.

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  Fbmrhebktd0 pdrsakb a dcprdsb qud fbmrheb praiuetas, par cdiha id ukb trbksfarcbe trbksfarcbehõk hõk id hksucas y cbtdrhb prhcb.

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  Yrbksparthstbs0 sak oas dkebrnbias id obs apdrbehakds id trbkspartd y qud ob o b cbtdrhb prhcb a praiueta tdrchkbia oodnud b oas eohdktds.

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  Ihstrhmuhiar0 sd dkebrnb id ihstrhmuhr do praiueta tdrchkbia dk oas puktas id vdktb ido eaksuchiar fhkbo.

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  Idtboohstb0 ds ob pdrsakb qud vdkid bo par cdkar b trbvès id uk pukta id vdktb, b oas eaksuchiards fhkbods.

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2.=.= 

Cberapraedsas

Fhnurb 2.> Cberapraedsas. 

 

 

Dk ob ebidkb id suchkhstra sd oodvbk b ebma trds cberapraedsas0 bichkhstrbehõ bichkhstrbehõkk id ob rdobehõk eak do eohdktd< bichkhstrbehõk id ob ebidkb id suchkhstra hktdrkb y bichkhstrbehõkk id ob rdobehõk eak do pravddiar0 bichkhstrbehõ chkh khss tr trbe behõ hõk k id ob r dob dobeh ehõk õk e ak do e o hdk hdktd td (B (B]E)0 ]E)0 taias oas    Bi ch praedsas qud sd edktrbk dk ob hktdrbeehõk id ob eacpbòãb eak sus eohdktds. Ud dkebrnb id amtdkdr y bichkhstrbr obs fudktds id suchkhstra id mhdkds y sdrvhehas, hkeouyd ob dvboubehõk y sdodeehõk id pravddiards y kdnaehbehõk id oas tèrchkas id suchkhstra.

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chkh khss tr trbe behõ hõk k id ob ebidk eb idk b id s uc hk hs tr tra a hktdr hk tdr kb (B (BEUH)0 EUH)0 taias    Bi ch oas praedsas hktdrkas id ob dcprdsb. Ud dkebrnb id sbthsfbedr ob idcbkib ndkdrbib id cbkdrb apartukb y bo cdkar easta b trbvès id ob pobkdbehõk id ob ebpbehibi hktdrkb id praiueehõk, bocbedkbchdkta y surthia id oas pdihias rdbods.

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   Bi ch chkh khss tr trbe behõ hõk k id ob r dobe hõk hõ k ea k do pr prav av ddi ddiar ar (B (B]Z)0 ]Z)0 taias oas praedsas qud sd edktrbk dk ob hktdrbeehõk id ob eacpbòãb eak sus pravddiards. Ds do dkebrnbia id ndkdrbr ob idcbkib par pbrtd ido eohdktd, hkeouyd praedsas id cbrldthkn, fh`behõk id prdehas, vdktbs y edktra id btdkehõk tdodfõkheb id sdrvheha bo eohdktd.

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Idehshakds Id ehshakds dk ob ebidkb id suchkhstra

Obs idehshakds samrd do ihsdòa (bòas), pobkdbehõk (trhcdstrd) y apdrbehõk (sdcbkbo a ihbrha) id ob ebidkb id suchkhstra, idsdcpbòbk uk pbpdo hcpartbktd pbrb do èxhta a do frbebsa id ukb eacpbòãb. Dkfaqud id oas pr aedsas id ukb ebidkb id suchkhs tra

Dxhstdk ias farcbs ihfdrdktds id vdr oas praedsas rdbohzbias dk ob ebidkb id suchkhstra0 b) 

Dkfaqud id eheoa0 oas praedsas sd ihvhidk dk sdrhds id eheoas (eheoa ido pdihia bo eohdktd, id rdbmbstdehchdkta, id fbmrhebehõk y id bmbsta)< ebib uka, rdbohzbia dk ob hktdrfbed dktrd ias dtbpbs suedshvbs id ukb ebidkb id suchkhstra eakstbk id oas sumpraedsas0 dtbpb dk qud do pravddiar vdkid su praiueta, do eacprbiar eaoaeb ob aridk, do pravddiar rdehmd ob aridk, do pravddiar bmbstded ob aridk, do eacprbiar rdehmd do suchkhstra, fou`as dk rdvdrsb ido eacprbiar bo pravddiar pravddiar..

 

 

Dstd dkfaqud ds cuy ðtho eubkia sd eakshidrbk obs idehshakds apdrbehakbods, yb qud dspdehfheb obs fukehakds y rdspaksbmhohibids id ebib chdcmra id ob ebidkb id suchkhstra, bsã eaca do rdsuotbia idsdbia id ebib praedsa. m) 

Dkfaqud id dcpu`d/ dcpu`d/thrõk thrõk id oas prae dsas0 oas praedsas sd ihvhidk dk ias ebtdnarãbs (thrõk a dcpu`d) sh sak d`deutbibs dk rdspudstb b uk pdihia ido eohdktd (praedsas rdbethva) a dk bkthehpbehõk b èstd (praedsa dspdeuobthva).

Dstd dkfaqud ds cuy ðtho eubkia sd eakshidrbk obs idehshakds dstrbtènhebs rdobehakbibss eak do ihsdòa id ob ebidkb id suchkhstra. rdobehakbib

±Eõca ±E õca s bmd bmdrr e uâkia gby pramodcbs dk ob ebidkb id suchkhstra1

  ]dobehakds id ‟dkfrdktbchdkta– pravddiards vs eohdktds (vdkidiards vs eacprbiards).

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  Idcarbs/hkeucp Idcarbs/hkeucpohchdktas ohchdktas dk obs dktrdnbs.

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  Mb`b ebohibi dk oas mhdkds y sdrvhehas.

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  Hksbthsfbeehõk dk ob ebidkb tatbo.

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  Botas hkvdkt hkvdktbrhas brhas (rdfod`b pèrihibs dk idfdetas, amsaodtas, mb`a khv khvdo do iidd sdrvheha bo eohdktd, rdpraedsas, mb`b praiuethvhibi, pobkdbehõk idfhehdktd),botas eastas.

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  Ebib dsobmõk betðb hkidpdkihd hkidpdkihdktdcdktd. ktdcdktd.

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  Edra dkfaqud dk do eaksuchiar a usubrha fhkbo.

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±Ebusbs1

  Zramodcbs id eacukhebehõk.

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  Fbotb id bohkdbehõk ‟eohdktd-pravddiar–. 

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  Cbyar thdcpa y dsf dsfudrza udrza idihebia b saouehakbr pramodcbs.

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  Ka sd ebphtbohzbk oas rdeursas id ebib dsobmõk.

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  Vdktb`b eacpdththvb rdobthvb a hkdxhstdktd.

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  Cbo prakõsthea id ob idcbkib.

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  Uaouehakds

Fhnurb 2.7 Uaouehakds pbrb cd`arbr ob ebidkb id suchkhstra. 

2.=.5 

Vbrh Vb rhbmods bmods id ob oanãstheb oanãsth eb

Fhnurb 2.8 Vbrhbmods id ob oanãstheb.  

Dk ob fhnurb bktdrhar dxhstdk ias fbetards qud idtdrchkb ob apdrbehõk id ob oanãstheb0 thdcpa y easta0   Yhdcpa0 dktrd cdkas thdcpa sd cbktdknb uk praiueta dk ebib dtbpb, cdkas nbstas apdrbthvas sd pbnbrâk< id tbo farcb, ds hcpartbktd ihschkuhr do thdcpa ido praedsa oanãsthea. Zrhcdra, sd idmd hidkthfhebr

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euâo ds, bkbohzbroa y tacbr beehakds pbrb rdiuehroa. Zbrb vdrhfhebr oa bktdrhar, sd uthohzbk oas shnuhdktds trds dodcdktas0 -  Yhdcpa id rdspudstb0 sak oas iãb iãbss qud trbkseurr trbkseurrdk dk idsid do do

cacdkta dk qud sd pobkdb ob eacprb id oas cbtdrhbods pbrb praiueehõk, gbstb qud do praiueta tdrchkbia sd dkeudktrb ihspakhmod dk do bocbeèk pbrb idspbega. -  Ebpbehibi0 do odbi thcd (thdcpa id dspdrb) dstbrâ idtdrchkbia par do eucpohchdkta id ukb sdrhd id dtbpbs qud idmdk sdr prdvhshmods y cdihmods dk thdcpa, pdra qud idpdkidrâ irâsthebcdktd irâsthebcdktd id ob ebpbehibi (fou`a id praiuetas 3 qud sd thdkd pbrb rdspakidr b obs kdedshibids id oas eohdktds). eo hdktds). Dstd sd pudid cdihr dk tèrchkas id tdekaoanãb tdekaoanãb,, cbka id amrb, rdeursas fhkbkehdras, dte. -  Zrakõsthea id ob id idcbkib0 cbkib0 ppbrb brb rdbohzbr do prakõsthea id ob idcbkib, dxhstd do fardebst a prdvhshõk id vdktbs (fou`a id hkfarcbehõk). Dstb Dstb gdrrbchdktb sd uthohzb pbrb ggbedr bedr uk prakõsthea id ob pashmod idcbkib qud sd tdkirâ id uk praiueta dk idtdrchkbia dspbeha id thdcpa, oa qud eakoodvb b gbedr ukb pobkhfhebehõk id eacprbs y eaktrbtbehõk pbrb eucpohr eak uk idtdrchkbia khvdo id praiueehõk id ukhibids, bearid eak ob ebpbehibi qud sd thdkd.   Easta0 sd idmd eakshidrbr do fbetar easta eaca idtdrchkbktd dk ob apdrbehõk oanãstheb y ob rbzõk, ds do gdega id sdr eacpdththva a ka. Zbrb cdihr dstb eacpdththvhibi sd thdkdk dk eudktb0 ebohibi + prdeha + sdrvheha. Do cdrebia museb praiuetas eak ukb ebohibi eakvdkhdktd, par uk

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prdeha eakvdkhdktd, pdraeak shk bfdetbr do sdrvheha. qudshk sd trbiued dk cbktdkdr uk praiueta uk vboar bnrdnbiaOabota bihehakbrod eastas dxtrbs. 2.=.9 

Zobkdbehõk Zobkd behõk id i d ob oanãsthe oan ãstheb b

Tka id oas am`dthvas id ob oanãstheb ds cdihr id cbkdrb eubkthfhebmod ebib ukb id obs dtbpbs id ob ebidkb eak hkihebiards id ndsthõk. Id dstb cbkdrb, ebib pbsa ds eaktraobia id farcb hkidpdkihdktd hkidpdkihdktd eak uk saoa fhk0 mb`br eastas shk idsbmbstdedr do cdrebia

 

 

Fhnurb 2.2: Ob pobkdbehõk idktra id ob oanãstheb ds hcpartbktd hc partbktd parqud bpayb do fou`a id cbtdrhbods y do fou`a id hkfarcbehõk. 

Ob oanãstheb mhdk bpohebib, dstb sustdktbib dk ukb mudkb y fodxhmod pobkhfhebehõk id oas praedsas rdobehakbias eak fou`a id cbtdrhbods y fou`a id hkfarcbehõk. Uhk dcmbrna y par dstrbtdnhb, taias oas praedsas rdquhdrdk id idehshakds b ihfdrdktds cbreas id thdcpa. Zobkdb Zob kdbehõk ehõk id uk futura b earta pobz pobza a

Ndkdrbocdktd sd rdfhdrd b ob pbrtd apdrbthvb ido praedsa oanãsthea, iakid oas rdeursas idsthkbias fouetðbk id beudria bo vaoucdk id ob apdrbehõk. Dstd thpa id praydeehakds usubocdktd ebcmhb cds b cds. Zobkdbehõk Zobkd behõk id uk fut ura b cdihbka pobza

Bsdnurb qud sd cbktdkirâk oas rdeursas kdedsbrhas pbrb bmbstdedr do cdrebia dk pdrãaias ka supdrhards b 2 bòa. Dk dstb praydeehõk, sd idmdk hkeouhr oas dodcdktas qud gbedk pashmod ob apdrbehõk, pdra qud dstâk su`dtas b ob ody id ob afdrtb y idcbkib, tbsb id ebcmha a pdrhaia pdrhaiass odnhsobthvas. Zobkdb Zob kdbehõk ehõk id uk fut ura b obrna pobza

Idmd sdr ob mbsd id ob o b apdrbehõk ido kdnaeha kdnaeha.. Eubkia sd praydetb b obrna pobza, sd museb tdkdr hkfrbdstrueturb kdedsbrhb pbrb erdedr dk pdrhaias id thdcpa ka hkfdrhards b 2 ob bòa.

 

  Dstrueturb arnbkhzb arnbkhzbehakbo ehakbo Ob oanãstheb sd hktdnrb b taib ob arnbkhzbehõk, parqud idpdkid id idehshakds qud eacpracdtdk b obs idcâs ârdbs. Zar do ebrâetdr id ob apdrbehõk oanãstheb, sd rdquhdrd tdkdr ukb arnbkhzbehõk praphb iakid sd pudib rdehmhr y praedsbr do nrbk vaoucdk id hkfarcbehõk qud pravhdkd id taibs obs atrbs ârdbs, tbkta hktdrkbs eaca dxtdrkbs.

 

 

]dsucdk

Fhnurb 2.22 Zbrb qud ob oanãstheb fouyb y oas praedsas sd oodvdk b ebma, e bma, sd idmdk tacbr mudkbs idehshakds. 

Oa bktdrharcdktd dxpudsta, prdsdktb oas fukibcdktas mâsheas id ob oanãstheb b pbrthr id su idfhkhehõk tdõrheb y eakedptubo y su botb y dstrdegb earrdobehõk eak do eakedpta id ebidkb id suchkhstra. Bshchsca, sd rdobehakb ob dvaouehõk ghstõrheb, oas dkfaquds caidrkas y eakedptas mâsheas. Idktra id ob hcpartbkehb id ob oanãstheb, sd rdsbotb ob apthchzbehõk dk ob fbsd ido cdrebia y do sdrvheha bo eohdktd< dooa gbed qud ob arnbkhzbehõk eudktb eak ukb dxedodktd oanãstheb. Bidcâs, sd ebrbetdrhzbk obs bethvhibids oanãsthebs idktra id ob ebidkb id suchkhstra y ob hcpartbkehb id obs idehshakds bedrtbibs dk oas eacpakdktds id ob ebidkb. Zar ðothca, sd prdsdktbk obs vbrhbmods id ob oanãstheb, ob hcpartbkehb y idtdrchkbeh idtdrchkbehõk õk id ob pobkdbehõk oanãstheb y eõca èstb sd dkobed eak ob dstrueturb arnbkhzbehakbo pbrb oanrbr uk praedsa dfdethva y eucpohr eak oas rdqudrhchdktas id oas eohdktds.

 

 

Mhmohanrbfãb Brbðz, K. H., Mbrhoobs Dseambr, R. D., & Egâvdz Cardka, E. O. (=:25). Dstrueturbehõk id ebidkbs praiuethvbs pbrb do idsbrraooa id ob cherardnhõk kartd id Ebmbòbs. ]deupdrbiado =6 id   dkdra id =:24, id0 Tkhvdrshibi id Do Ubovbiar gttp0//rh.uds.diu.sv/9596/2/Dstrueturbeh%E5%M5k%=:id%=:ebidkbs%=:praiuethv bs%=:pbrb%=:do%=:idsbrraooa%=:id%=:ob%=:cherarrdnh%E5%M5k%=:kartd%= :id%=:Ebmb%E5%M2bs.pif Âvhob Ubkthbna. (=:2:). Nuãb prâetheb0 oanãstheb y ihstrhmuehõk fãsheb hktdrkbehakbo .Manatâ0 Odnhs U.B. Mbooau, ]. G. (=::9). Oanãstheb y bichkhstrbehõk id ob ebidkb id su suchkhstra. chkhstra. Cèxhea0 Zdbrsak Zrdkthed Gboo, quhktb dihehõk. Mawdrsax I., Eoass I., Eaapdr E aapdr C. Mhxiy. (=::>). B Bichkhstrbehõk ichkhstrbehõk y oanãstheb dk ob ebidkb id suchkhstra. Cèxhea0 Ce Nrbw Ghoo, sdnukib dihehõk. Egaprb Uukho, Cdhkio C. (=::7). Bichkhstrbehõk id ob ebidkb id suchkhstra, dstrbtdnhb, pobkdbehõk y apdrbehõk. Cèxhea0 Zdbrsak Zrdkthed Gboo, tdredrb dihehõk. Cbrea eakedptubo id ob ebidkb id @hcèkdz Uâkegdz, @. D., & Gdrkâkidz Nbreãb, U. (=::=). ]deupdrbia do =7 id dkdra id =:24, id Tkhvdrshibi suchkhstra0 uk kudva dkfaqud oanãsthea. Butõkacb Cdtrapaohtbkb0 g Cdtrapaohtbkb0 gttp0//www.bze.ubc.cx/bouckas/tr ttp0//www.bze.ubc.cx/bouckas/trbidaff/iaeu/cbrea.pif bidaff/iaeu/cbrea.pif

Oboakid @, M. (288=). Ndsthõk Oanãstheb. Obcm, E. ^., Gbhr, @. F., & CeIbkhdo, E. (=:22). Cbrldthkn (22drb dihehõk di.). EdknbndOdbrkhkn. Oareb Uâkegdz, @. Z., & Bovhòb Uâkegdz, ]. (2= id bnasta id =::6). Eursa id ihrdeehõk oanãstheb y bpravhshakbchdkta. ]deupdrbia do =6 id dkdra id =:24, id0 Uohidsgbr d gttp0//ds.sohidsgbrd.kdt/FdkbO/oanhstheb-caiuoa-2 Carb Nbreãb, O. B. (=::7). Hkihebiards id ob ndsthõk oanãstheb. Eaoacmhb Dead Dihehakds. Arthz Cârqudz, F. (=::8). Ob oanãstheb. ]deupdrbia do =5 id Dkdra id =:24, id Cakanrbfãbs0 gttp0//www.cakanrbfhbs.eac/trbmb`as>>/oanhstheb/oanhstheb=.sgtco Zhrds, U., Ebrrdtdra Iãbz, O. (=::>). Ndsthõk id ob ebidkb id suchkhstras. Cèxhea0 Ce Nrbw Ghoo prhcdrb dihehõk ]hvdras Uhovb, Z. (=::>). Uhstdcb id ndsthõk id ob ebohibi ido sdrvheha. Udb do oãidr dk cdrebias botbcdktd eacpdthias. Dead dihehakds. Trzdobh hkzb, B. (=::>). Cbkubo mâshea id ob oanãstheb hktdnrbo. Cbirhi, Dspbòb0 Dihtarhbo Iãbz id Ubktas, prhcdrb dihehõ