Cómo Creamos Internet Por Andreu Veà
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"Un libro de referencia donde encontrará las aportaciones de 800 inventores y le descubrirá situaciones inéditas. E...
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13 Cómo creamos internet Historia global de un desarrollo
Los primeros pasos hacia internet en España visto por las personas clave en su implantación
Un apasionante recorrido en menos de 90 páginas por los principales hitos y mitos de la historia de internet contado por muchas de las personas que lo hicieron posible
99
14%
Los orígenes de internet en España
8%
143 30 entrevistas personales a pioneros norteamericanos y europeos Norm ABRAMSON 145
Ginny STRAZISAR 205
Bob TAYLOR
265
Louis POUZIN
321
Tim BERNERS-LEE 397
Steve CROCKER
151
Stephen WOLFF 209
Robert KAHN
273
Larry LANDWEBER 341
P. MOCKAPETRIS MOCKAPET RIS 405
Frank HEART
157
Paul BARAN
Jon POSTEL
287
Dennis JENNINGS 355
Elisabeth FEINLER 415
Don NIELSON
167
R. SCANTLEBURY 225
Vint CERF
293
Gordon BELL
367
D. ENGELBART
Peter KIRSTEIN
181
Larry ROBERTS
H. ZIMMERMANN 303
Kees NEGGERS
381
Ray TOMLINSON 431
Pål SPILLING
197
Len KLEINROCK 251
Danny COHEN
Brian CARPENTER 391
54
219
237
313
Steve LUKASIK
Conozca las anécdotas, hasta ahora inéditas, del desarrollo de la red escuchando a sus protagonistas en esta selección de entrevistas.
423
439
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índice
de contenidos
451 11 entrevistas a pioneros españoles Josep Maria BLASCO Fernando FOURNON Juan QUEMADA Jordi ADELL Juan RIERA Juan A. ESTEBAN
453 463 469 477 481 485
José BARBERÁ Iñaki MARTÍNEZ Miguel Ángel SANZ Tomás DE MIGUEL Víctor CASTELO
523
491 497 503 509 517
La conectividad (1993-2003) y los servicios (2003-2013) de internet en España. Cronología global (1963-2013) de los hitos más importantes.
4%
12%
conte i este r n , sino . P r t que el le r pu a pas de un mó ao r ( dos r la ion e t sí) si que afect a le tu tura ra..
539
Los grandes lanzamientos de servicios y herramientas de internet Una visión del futuro de internet
3%
557
Mi biblioteca Glosario Índice onomástico Sobre el autor Agradecimientos
5%
En el libro, este símbolo indica la posibilidad
5
E e e
c v
e
a
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Prólogo de
Vint Cerf
(considerado uno de los padres de Internet)
Una odisea personal Durante casi dos décadas, Andreu Veà ha vivido una odisea personal ahondando en la historia y la evolución de Internet tal y como lo ven las personas que la crearon. Echando la vista atrás casi 50 años desde la múltiple gestación paralela de la idea de la conmutación de paquetes hasta la actualidad, Veà ha realizado una inmensa tarea. Aunque los orígenes de Internet pueden asociarse a tan sólo un grupo reducido de personas, el entorno abierto en el que ha evolucionado no sólo ha permitido, sino que casi ha garantizado, que un prodigioso y en estos momentos desconocido número de personas hayan contribuido a cómo es en la actualidad. Desde sus humildes comienzos como un proyecto de investigación patrocinado por la Agencia de Proyectos de Investigación Avanzados del Departamento de Defensa de los Estados Unidos (DARPA), Internet se ha convertido en una infraestructura global cableada e inalámbrica que conecta ya a más de 2.000 millones de personas y un número similar de dispositivos juntos. Lejos de aminorar su crecimiento, Internet está integrando i ntegrando en su universo prácticamente todas las tecnologías de la comunicación que se han inventado. Los medios impresos, la fotografía, las películas, la televisión, la radio, las aplicaciones interactivas, los juegos multij ugador ugador,, el correo electrónico, los datos de redes de sensores, entre muchos otros, se transmiten a través de Internet. La capacidad de Internet y de su aplicación más conocida, la World Wide Web, para facilitar el intercambio de información y las interacciones de grupos a gran escala hace que sea algo único en la historia. Aunque la red telefónica tampoco ha permanecido inmóvil durante las últimas dos décadas. Ha evolucionado desde sus inicios, en los que se utilizaba el cable, hasta incluir la telefonía móvil inalámbrica que se estima incorpora 4.000 millones de dispositivos, muchos de los cuales ya se denominan inteligentes (o smartphones). Esto hace referencia a la capacidad del “teléfono” para enviar y recibir comunicaciones multimedia y, a los efectos de este libro especialmente, para integrarse a la perfección en Internet. A la larga, no existirá una distinción útil entre la red telefónica e Internet. Se habrán fundido en un medio de intercambios digitales diversos que proporcionará un espacio infinito para la creación de nuevas aplicaciones. Lo excepcional de la arquitectura de Internet y de su historia es el grado de apertura con el que se creó y ha evolucionado. Fue una elección deliberada que se realizó cuando Robert Kahn inició el proyecto, a finales de 1972, cuando trabajaba en la agencia DARPA 1. Aprovechando el tremendo éxito técnico y operativo del proyecto ARPAnet, Kahn se decidió a desarrollar el concepto de redes abiertas en las que la existencia de una arquitectura común permitiría que numerosas redes, implementadas y operadas por personas independientes, se interconectaran formando un todo homogéneo. Cuando me invitó a unirme a este trabajo a principios de 1973, compartíamos un enfoque común sobre una especificación abierta para la arquitectura y los protocolos que harían posible que esta visión se materializase. Curiosamente, la iniciativa rápidamente logró que se involucraran colegas de fuera de los Estados Unidos: en el Reino Unido, Francia, Noruega y otros países. A algunos de ellos los visitamos, otros vinieron a trabajar conmigo en Stanford y muchos de ellos colaboraron a distancia. La velocidad con la que se produjo la participación
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Esta propiedad persistente, casi recurrente, de Internet es la principal razón por la que los usuarios, han sido siempre más creativos que sus propios operadores de red en la invención de nuevas aplicaciones. En todas las capas, parece existir la posibilidad de probar nuevas ideas y, en muchos casos, de convertirlas en motores económicos. Si Internet fuera la red de suministro eléctrico, pero proporcionara bits digitales en lugar de electrones, las aplicaciones (y los nuevos protocolos) serían el equivalente a los nuevos aparatos eléctricos. A la red eléctrica no le importa qué dispositivos le conectamos sino que cumplan algunos estándares sencillos (gamas de tensión, niveles de potencia, frecuencia de la corriente alterna). De la misma manera a Internet no le preocupa (ni sabe) qué información digital contienen los paquetes de datos que transporta, y esto es así por diseño. Cuando la World Wide Web (WWW) se hizo visible para el público en general a mediados de la década de los noventa, me sorprendió la avalancha de información que fluyó hacia Internet, generada por sus usuarios. Este extraordinario fenómeno de intercambio de información se ha reproducido en repetidas ocasiones con aplicaciones como aquellas que per miten compartir fotos, las redes sociales, los intercambios de mensajes breves, los blogs, el intercambio de correo electrónico y, como no, las propias páginas web. Parece ser que los humanos poseemos un insaciable deseo de compartir información. Esta ingente cantidad ha hecho surgir la necesidad y ha llevado a la invención de métodos de búsqueda cada vez más sofisticados y eficaces, que indexan y organizan las aplicaciones para ayudar a su localización y a la navegación por un mar de contenidos. A veces, el sistema se nos va de las manos, como ocurre con el correo basura, y en otras se producen intentos malévolos como los vir us, los gusanos, los troyanos, o los ataques de denegación de servicio. Además, el medio a través del que intercambiamos información cada vez es más complejo y rico. Voz, vídeo, presentaciones multimedia, o los juegos con participación masiva de jugadores representan ejemplos del variado entorno mediático que alberga y sostiene la Internet actual. Mientras escribo este prólogo, se está produciendo ya la estandarización activa de una extensión interplanetaria de Internet, gracias a una colaboración internacional que vio sus comienzos, de una forma muy similar a Internet; en un proyecto de investigación patrocinado inicialmente por el Jet Propulsion Laboratory (de Ca lifornia) y la agencia DARPA, y que posteriormente se amplió para incluir instituciones y organizaciones apoyadas por la NASA, la Nati onal Science Foundation (NSF) de los Estados Unidos, la Comisión Europea y el Comité Consultivo para Sistemas de Datos del Espacio (CCSDS), entre otros. Esta obra en la que se relata y resume el detallado estudio personal del Dr. Veà sobre los rostros y las historias hasta ahora ocultas de Internet, tan solo refuerza la prueba de que la Red continuará creciendo y evolucionando mientras surjan nuevas ideas en las prolíferas mentes de usuarios, creadores y operadores de Internet y el espíritu de apertura y la libertad continúen siendo el principio y la característica esencial de la Internet mundial. En este trabajo, Andreu Veà abre el camino a los historiadores del futuro de manera contundente. La historia y la prehistoria de la creación y evolución de Internet expuestas por el Dr. Veà son ya y serán una referencia a nivel global para los historiadores y expertos durante muchos años. Estoy seguro que la contribución del Dr. Veà ha logrado alcanzar una meta trascendental en este campo de estudio. Entender la historia y la lógica de la evolución de la infraestructura resulta fundamental para la planificación de cara al futuro. Uno necesita saber el porqué del funcionamiento, o no, de las cosas
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La
prehistoria de la red 1963-1983
Imagen publicada el 8 de agosto de 1994 en la revista Newsweek, con motivo de la celebración del 25 aniversario de ARPANET (De Izq. a derecha: Jon Postel, Steve Crocker y Vint Cerf). Foto cortesía de Vint Cerf.
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1. Introducción histórica Andreu eà V Internet ha revolucionado el mundo, la industria informática, la de las telecomunicaciones, la de la música y la industria editorial como ningún otro invento lo haya hecho jamás. Su gran eclosión a mediados de los años noventa se debió a la introducción de los contenidos multimedia (se dejan atrás los complejos terminales de texto monocromo, reservados para usuarios avezados) y a la simplificación radical de la búsqueda de información gracias a la introducción del servicio World Wide Web (WWW). Por vez primera las búsquedas de un contenido se independizan de la ubicación geográfica del mismo, y el esfuerzo del usuario para hallar determinada información es idéntico tanto si esta se encuentra en su ciudad, como si reside en un servidor al otro ot ro lado del globo. Podemos afirmar que Internet supone el triunfo de los sistemas abiertos; por primera vez, sistemas informáticos que hasta ahora eran considerados propietarios pueden comunicarse a través de protocolos comunes. El vasto crecimiento de este sistema está basado en el aprovechamiento de los recursos ya existentes en las organizaciones científico-académicas, comerciales o sin ánimo de lucro. Pequeñas redes locales que se conectan entre ellas para formar un denso tejido de interconexiones nada homogéneo, como si de tender puentes entre pequeñas islas incomunicadas se tratase. Todo ello jamás podría haberse edificado tan rápidamente si diversas tecnologías no hubiesen madurado por separado hasta converger en lo que hoy conocemos como telemática1. La invención y despliegue generalizado de las redes de área local (Ethernet y Token Ring), así como la madurez de los enlaces troncales de fibra óptica fueron, a su vez, dos de los grandes factores responsables de que Internet alcanzara tan pronto una dimensión global. Aun con este largo pasado, Internet es para nosotros algo tan reciente que no sabemos mucho sobre ella. Y esta situación de poco conocimiento de un fenómeno de gran relevancia
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La mayoría de los pioneros a quienes podemos llamar “padres de Internet” (y especialmente los más importantes) se esfuerzan por destacar la participación fundamental de muchos otros. A pesar de que haya Gobiernos y empresas que pretendan asegurar lo contrario, Internet se fraguó y evoluciona actualmente con el esfuerzo continuo de muchísimas personas voluntarias o que fueron y son financiadas por fuentes de administraciones públicas y empresariales de muchos países. Por ello, podemos asegurar que Internet no tiene ni dueño ni un único lugar de nacimiento. Ir contra esta aserción es no conocer los orígenes de la red o tener algún interés especial por distorsionar esta historia, hasta ahora bastante oculta, de los orígenes de Internet.
es completo ni aporta una clara y definitiva teoría. Hay distintas versiones y visiones dependiendo de con quien hablemos. Algunos nos dirán que la conmutación de paquetes representa el origen de Internet, otros que es el protocolo TCP/IP el que da origen a la red, otros pondrán énfasis en los operadores de telecomunicaciones y el sector privado, y otros justamente lo contrario, diciendo que fue únicamente el sector público. Cada teoría tiene sus seguidores y detractores, pero lo que es importante dejar claro es que no se excluyen entre ellas, sino que se complementan. Después de entrevistar a decenas de personas afines a una u otra teoría, lo que mejor se ajusta a la realidad histórica ocurrida es considerar que Internet tiene múltiples orígenes, y que las piezas iniciales y necesarias de este puzle se construyeron en lugares distintos, financiadas unas de forma pública y otras de forma privada. pr ivada. Todo Todo ello ocurrió durante décadas, mucho antes de que la red Internet , en su mayor esplendor y usabilidad, viera la luz y fuera adoptada por el gran público. Después de hablar sistemáticamente durante horas con más de trescientos pioneros de Internet a lo largo de todo el mundo, muchas personas me preguntan: ¿tienes claro ahora cuál es el futuro de Internet a medio y largo plazo? La respuesta es clara y contundente: “Pues no”. La evolución de Internet no fue, no es y no será nunca predecible, dado que las innovaciones no son únicamente de mejora progresiva y continua, sino que son innovaciones de ruptura. Podemos fijarnos en que las grandes predicciones, miradas en retrospectiva, nos hacen reír: “Nunca tendremos más de 128 redes conectadas”, “Los dominios ‘.com’ no hace falta introducirlos porque la actividad estará solo en el ‘.edu’ y en el ‘.mil’, “Como el idioma será el inglés, podemos utilizar códigos3 ASCII de 7 bits”, “¿Para que se pueden querer más de 56 kbps de ancho de banda?”. Estamos en un comienzo y es prácticamente imposible atisbar el futuro de algo que ha venido doblando su población casi anualmente. Hace relativamente poco superábamos los 1.000 millones de usuarios y en abril de 2012 se superaron los 2.300 millones de usuarios estimados, lo que representa ya un 33% de penetración de los habitantes del
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2. Creando y siguiendo unMetodología estricto método Esta historia se basa en el resultado de una compilación de entrevistas inéditas, combinadas con un sinfín de pequeñas anécdotas directamente contadas por los personajes durante las entrevistas personales realizadas durante la fase de documentación. Aunque la mayoría de los documentos creados y utilizados tienen un marcado acento técnico, a veces incomprensible para un lector no avezado, se ha querido dar un carácter claramente divulgativo al redactado de esta obra en aras a poder alcanzar una mayor difusión, evitando en lo posible caer en tecnicismos. El principal objetivo de este libro es, precisamente, el de acabar con los mitos e imprecisiones técnicas escritas hasta ahora y dar respuesta a todas y cada una de estas preguntas, cosa que conseguimos a lo largo de las detalladas entrevistas personales, cuya realización y doble revisión ha requerido casi dos décadas de perseverante y sostenido esfuerzo. Este libro se ha elaborado a partir de más de 320 entrevistas con los principales pioneros a nivel global. El proceso de elaboración y verificación del contenido pasa por que todas y cada una de las entrevistas hayan superado estrictamente los criterios y fases de la metodología WiWiW.org (véase gráfico), que requiere la doble revisión del resultado editado por el propio autor y, como mínimo, por otro reconocido pionero coetáneo. Necesariamente, lo que podemos incluir en un formato impreso y finito en páginas no es el estudio completo, viéndonos obligados a dejar de lado algunos nombres de personas que contribuyeron
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de forma importante con sus investigaciones. Así pues, se presenta de forma editada y amena aproximadamente el 10% del material recopilado, destacando especialmente a algunos de los personajes más significativos. A lo largo de esta investigación nos adentraremos en los orígenes reales de Internet, en todos aquellos detalles e hitos de lo que llamaremos la prehistoria (por no encontrarse escrita hasta ahora en un único documento ordenado y permanecer tan solo en la memoria de sus protagonistas), así como en los primeros años de andadura de lo que hoy conocemos como Internet. Aquí se recogen, pues, de forma ordenada, y mediante el uso de técnicas sistemáticas de “historia oral”, los principales hechos que hicieron posible el desarrollo de los conceptos y tecnologías que han llevado a poder disponer de una red tan robusta, heterogénea e i nternacional como la que conocemos a día de hoy.
De la importancia de contrastar doblemente las fuentes primarias Si en algún lugar de la historia reciente se han producido abultadas deformaciones respecto a la realidad acaecida, sin duda este lugar es el origen de Internet. Sin duda quien más claro lo deja es Bob Taylor (quien buscó y reunió los recursos económicos y humanos para poner en marcha ARPAnet) ARPAnet) en tan solo dos expeditivas y preclaras sentencias4:
“… la creación de ARPAnet ARPAnet no estuvo motivada por consideraciones de guerra.” “… la red ARPAnet no fue una internet. Una internet es una conexión entre dos o más redes de ordenadores…” No debemos menospreciar la importancia que tuvo el Departamento de Defensa estadounidense y en concreto DARPA5, que durante décadas subsidió constantemente una investigación básica y una
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3. Lo que jamás ha sido contado Una visión general de los orígenes de la red 3.1. ¿Qué fue ARPAnet? ARPAnet? ARPAnet fue iniciada, como hemos visto, a finales de los sesenta para crear ARPAnet un prototipo de red de ordenadores. Basada en la tecnología de conmutación de paquetes, divide en pequeñas porciones de datos la información que se va a enviar. A cada una de estas pequeñas divisiones se les asigna una dirección de origen y de destino (dentro de lo que llamamos cabecera8 o header ). ). Lo que entendemos por “paquete” es la unión inseparable de estas cabeceras junto a la información que se quiere transmitir. La red de conmutación de paquetes, como su nombre indica, encamina y entrega estos paquetes intercalados con otros paquetes de otros mensajes. Una vez todos los paquetes llegan a su destino, se ordenan y se reconstruye el mensaje. En 1964, Paul Baran (considerado el padre de la conmutación de paquetes), investigador de la americana RAND Corporation, y unos años más tarde –pero sin conocer esos trabajos de Baran– el británico Donald Davies y su equipo9 desarrollaron conceptos similares.
ARPAnet fue iniciada a finales de los sesenta para crear un prototipo de red de ordenadores. En EEUU, los esfuerzos se encaminaron inicialmente a demostrar la viabilidad de una red de conmutación de paquetes que conectara equipos diferentes con distintos sistemas operativos.
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DESMONTANDO MITOS Quizá uno de los pasajes más inéditos que aporta este libro sea la eliminación sistemática de los grandes mitos que dominan la percepción pública de Internet. Estos hacen que sea difícil entender la naturaleza de Internet y su desarrollo futuro.
Por otro lado, además de las investigaciones británicas de Donald Davies (por las que se pudo crear la reducida NPLnet), Louis Pouzin, en Francia, puso en marcha muy a principios de los años setenta la red Cyclades, basada también en paquetes y desarrollada bajo el patrocinio del gobierno francés a través de la agencia IRIA10, para explorar alternativas a ARPAnet. Ejerció una gran influencia en el diseño inicial de Internet. Así pues, en octubre de 1972, nos encontramos con que la demostración de ARPAnet ARP Anet realizada en el marco de la primera International Computer Communications Conference (ICCC’72) en Washington DC se convirtió en el punto de inflexión histórico, que marcó a muchísimos pioneros e investigadores que asistieron a la misma. Muchos de los artículos presentados describían lo más nuevo de ese momento en cuanto a investigación en redes se refiere. Para describir el impacto que le produjo la primera demostración pública, Donald Davies11 escribió: La reunión en Washington en 1972 fue sin duda la conferencia más importante e influyente a la que he asistido. Llegué al Hotel Hilton temprano para ver lo que estaba ocurriendo y me encontré con una escena extraordinaria. En un podio se encontraba un conmutador o TIP 12 unido a la ya existente red de ARPA, rodeado de muchos dispositivos y terminales de todo tipo. Se podía dar la vuelta completa a la exposición aparentemente para verla en un día, aunque en realidad era el resultado del enorme esfuerzo del equipo de ARPA, que logró realizar esta demostración y causó un cambio revolucionario en el pensamiento sobre redes. Lo que pasó en Washington fue que la gente ahora podía ver estas ideas en forma de aplicaciones y servicios concretos. Se podía vislumbrar el impacto intelectual que las redes estaban destinadas a producir (...)
ARPAnet ARP Anet era incompatible
Esta demostración de una red de conmutación de paquetes funcionando, sin
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Desde el principio, este fue un problema que se planteó y se solucionó de una manera internacional. En una reunión en 1974, Davies escribió13: Para lograr la interconexión de sistemas de conmutación de paquetes, tenemos que decidir a qué nivel van a interactuar... Tras un poco de discusión, un grupo formado por gente de ARPA (EEUU), NPL (RU) y Cyclades (Francia), probó un esquema de interconexión basado en una red de transporte de paquetes acordando un protocolo para el transporte de mensajes (…).
Vinton Cerf (quien posteriormente coinventaría el protocolo TCP/IP)
demuestra ya en 1973 su gran interés por este problema, como veremos en su entrevista personal, liderando desde sus orígenes al grupo internacional sobre redes INWG14 que se creó durante la citada conferencia de Washington, y del que nos dice que (…) a pesar de que de este grupo no salió ningún desarrollo específico, sí que hubo debates extremadamente útiles acerca de la arquitectura de redes y de protocolos.
¿Cómo conectar entre las distintas redes de conmutación de paquetes que iban surgiendo en cada país (ARPAnet, (ARPAnet, NPLnet y Cyclades)?
Esto es lo que llevó a la investigación para crear un protocolo internacional que hiciera posible la interconexión de redes heterogéneas, totalmente distintas entre sí. Esta tarea de investigación es la que produjo y dio lugar al protocolo TCP/IP. Fue un esfuerzo internacional con participación de investigadores de diferentes países, junto con investigadores15 de EEUU.
Es importante, pues, entender que el desarrollo del protocolo TCP/IP, y no el desarrollo de la conmutación de paquetes, es el aspecto esencial que hizo
MITO 1 “Internet fue creado por los militares para resistir una guerra nuclear y conseguir que la infraestructura de la red no afectada siguiera funcionando”
Larry Roberts (arquitecto de ARPAnet) en su entrevista personal nos indica claramente que (…) el artículo de Paul Baran (de la RAND Corporation y que constituye el primer artículo sobre transmisión segura de voz por paquetes) fue el que inició el rumor de que Internet fue creado por los militares para resistir un ataque nuclear. Esto es totalmente falso. A pesar de que este trabajo de la RAND Corporation (que nunca llegó a implementarse) sí se basaba en esta premisa, el propósito original de ARPAnet fue explorar el intercambio de recursos informáticos y la validez de las comunicaciones por conmutación de paquetes y no tenía nada que ver con la guerra nuclear o la supervivencia (…).
En la entrevista realizada a Bob Taylor, antiguo director de la oficina IPTO de ARPA (ubicada en el Pentágono), y persona que contrató a Larr y Roberts para especificar técnicamente y liderar la construcción de ARPAnet, aún llegamos más lejos al hacernos partícipes (en una de las respuestas dadas) de la siguiente anécdota:
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MITO 2 (y uno de los más persistentes) “Es el que equipara e identifica la norteamericana red de conmutación de paquetes que conocemos como ARPAnet con el sistema diseñado internacionalmente que permite enlazar redes heterogéneas, al que llamamos Internet.”
En la definición de Internet que hace las Naciones Unidas para su personal: (…) Los orígenes de Internet se remontan a un proyecto de investigación en redes de conmutación de paquetes, dentro del ámbito militar, a finales de los sesenta (1969), en plena Guerra Fría: ARPAnet.
Hasta un investigador bien documentado
reemplaza el concepto de internetworking (comunicación entre redes posible gracias a Internet y su protocolo TCP/IP) por la comunicación dentro de una sola red (ARPAnet y su inicial protocolo: NCP).
Son cosas totalmente distintas, pero que la gente confunde reiteradamente. Esta confusión generada, en gran medida, por documentales de divulgación que se basan a su vez en artículos (y hasta en libros sobre el tema) que consideran ARPAnet como “la madre de Internet”, cuando desde el punto de vista conceptual bien poco o nada tuvo que ver Internet con ARPAnet. Tampoco son equiparables desde un punto de vista cronológico, como también veremos en las entrevistas a Dennis Jennings, Steve Wolff y Gordon Bell. Importante también es apuntar que, a pesar de su casi total anonimato, existió una red entre ambas: la NSFnet18, que sin duda alguna ostentaría mucho mejor el título de “madre de Internet”. Ronda Hauben, muy sabiamente indica: (…) Este reconocimiento plantea preguntas del tipo: ¿cómo fue desarrollado
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¿Sabías que la primera red internet (sin World Wide Web, ni navegador ni motores de búsqueda), fue diseñada y construida por el Laboratorio de Ciencias Informáticas en Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) entre 1975 y 1976? El protocolo fue PUP (PARC Universal Packet Protocol) y estaba en marcha siete años antes de que
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En 1970, Bob Metcalfe construyó una interfaz de red entre el IMP (precursor del router ) del MIT y el ordenador PDP-6 para conectar este a la red ARPAnet.
Tal como nos dice en la entrevista Metcalfe: (…) cuando llegué a Xerox PARC, en julio de 1972, me asignaron tres trabajos. El primero fue conectar PARC a la red ARPAnet implementando de nuevo la especificación 1822 de BBN (que indicaba los detalles) y construyendo una interfaz para adaptar el hardware de ese ordenador al IMP (router) . El segundo fue acabar mi tesis doctora l (que me habían suspendido en Harva rd por ser poco teórica) y el tercero, me encargaron diseñar una red para un nuevo ordenador personal: el Alto (precursor ya en 1973 de casi todo lo que tenemos en la informática actual).
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de retransmisión22 y de que, si se controlaban dichos parámetros en función del tráfico, la inestabilidad de la red ALOHAnet que Abramson había modelado podía ser eliminada y desaparecía por completo (...). (…) Bingo. Pedí permiso y estuve seis meses en Hawái, con Norm Abramson, estudiando ALOHAnet. En junio de 1973 presenté y conseguí aprobar mi tesis doctoral en Harvard, que fue publicada en diciembre del mismo año por el MIT y no por Harvard, todo ello mientras trabajaba en PARC (…).
Dado el encargo que le hicieron de crear una red para conectar impresoras a los ordenadores, y después de consultarlo mucho con colegas como Butler Lampson y Chuck Thacker, Metcalfe escribió una nota interna que describía la red local de alta velocidad que se debía construir,
Metcalfe escribió una nota interna que describía la red local de alta velocidad que se debía construir, renombrando el nombre interno inicial: “Alto ALOHA Network” (red ALOHA para el ordenador personal desarrollado en PARC: el Alto) y denominándola Ethernet (dado que inicialmente funcionaba todo vía radio por el aire y a través del “éter”).
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4. La prehistoria de Internet (1963-1973) Llamamos así a todo el periodo desde los inicios de los años sesenta hasta 1974, año en que se crea el protocolo de comunicaciones TCP, llamado a revolucionar el modo en que el planeta se comunicaría de forma barata y simple.
4.1. Un relato sobre lo desconocido Este libro se basa en el más amplio y sistemático estudio realizado hasta la fecha, basado en la entrevista pautada de los principales personajes que fueron
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Un año antes, concretamente el 31 de mayo de 1961, Leonard Kleinrock, también del MIT, había publicado los resultados de su tesis doctoral: “Information Flow in Large Communication Nets”, creando conceptos básicos y el marco teórico sobre los flujos de información en redes de comunicación muy grandes.
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conocieron personalmente y, y, a su vez, el NPL puso en conocimiento de ARPA la existencia de los trabajos de Paul Baran (RAND Corporation).
Durante 1967, el equipo
Durante 1967, el equipo de Donald W. Davies (del NPL, situado en Middlesex, Inglaterra) desarrolló la NPL-Data-Network. Esta red experimental
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En octubre de 1968, se otorgó a la University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), el contrato para la creación de un Centro de Medición de Red. En enero de 1969, y a pesar de que una docena de grandes empresas se presentaron al concurso público, una pequeña consultora de Boston: Bolt
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Entre 1973 y 1975, la red se expandió de 30 a 57 nodos,
El 7 de abril de 1969, se publicó el primer protocolo de ARPAnet, en el formato informal de “solicitud de comentarios” (o Request for Comments). El RFC 1 se llamó Host Software y fue escrito por Steve Crocker.
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