Communication and Control Processes in the Delivery of Service Quality

{\rtf1{\fonttbl {\f2 Times New Roman;} {\f3 Times New Roman;} {\f4 Times New Roman;} {\f5 Times New Roman;} {\f6 Times New Roman;} {\f7 Times New Roman;} {\f8 Times New Roman;} {\f9 Times New Roman;} {\f10 Times New Roman;} {\f11 Times New Roman;} {\f1000000 Times New Roman;} }{\colortbl; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; }\viewkind1\viewscale100\margl0\margr0\margt0\margb0\deftab80\dntblnsbdb\expshrt n\paperw12260\paperh16780{\bkmkstart Pg1}{\bkmkend Pg1}\par\pard\ql \li1862\sb0\ sl-345\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1862\sb0\sl-345\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1862\sb0\sl -345\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1862\sb0\sl-345\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1862\sb0\sl-3 45\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1862\sb0\sl-345\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1862\sb0\sl-345 \slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1862\sb179\sl-345\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \ ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs30 Valarie A. Zeithaml, Leonard L Berry, & A. Parasurama n \par\pard\ql \li1579\ri1326\sb492\sl-640\slmult0\tx3201 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex124 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs60 Communication and Control \line \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex125 Processes in the Delivery \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex12 3 of Service Quality \par\pard\qj \li580\ri653\sb151\sl-240\slmult0\fi19 \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex116 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 Delivering consistently good s ervice quality is difficult but profitable for service organizations Under-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex129 fn?rndtm9tWh\}; \\V° d,fficult 3nd how jt \u8482?^ ^ facilitated is the purpose of o??\u8482?"\u8482?lauSS£-\line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex120 Tn I V° ,dent,fY 3 rSOnabJV exhaustive set of f^tors potentially affectin g the magnitude and di°ec-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex130 m nir nlT S 5" market er s side of their *e\u8482?ce quality model. Most factors involve (1) com¬ \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex117 munication and control processes implemented in service o rganizations to manage employees and (2) \par\pard\qj \li575\ri662\sb114\sl-200\ slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 frnmToenCe\\0/theSe/r0CeSSeS'.SUCh " "* cla ritv and role conflict of contact personnel. Literature \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x128 nStltitJ h> i"9 and or9a1nizatlonal \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 ^havior fi elds on these topics is reviewed and integrated with \par\pard\ql \li571\sb0\sl198\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 qualitative data from an exploratory st udy. Discussion centers on insights that can be obtained from\par\pard\sect\sect d\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5998\colsr160\colno2\colw5962\colsr160\ql \li571\sb0\ sl-187\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 empirical testing of the extended mo del.\par\pard\qj \li470\sb0\sl-258\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li470\sb0\sl-258\slmult 0 \par\pard\qj \li470\sb0\sl-258\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li480\ri239\sb189\sl-258\ slmult0\fi62\tx931\tx537\tx532\tx537\tx532\tx532\tx527 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 114 THE delivery of quality in goods and services has \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex108 become a marketing piority of the 1980s (Leon¬ \line \tab \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex106 ard and Sasser 1982; Rabin 1983). Though marketers \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 of tangible goods have deined and measured quality \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 with increasing levels of precision (Cro sby 1979; Gar-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 vin \up0 \expndtw0\charsc

alex109 1983), marketers of services expeience dificulty \line \tab \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex103 in understanding and controlling quality. Because ser¬ \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 vices are performances rather than objects, precis e \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 manufactuing specifications for uniform qua lity rarely \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 can be established and enforced b y the firm. Quality \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 in services is not engine ered at the manufactuing plant, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 then delivere d intact to the consumer. Most services \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 canno t be counted, measured, inventoied, tested, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 10 veiied in advance of sale to ensure quality delivery. \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex105 Furthermore, the performance of services\u8212?especially \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 those with a high labor content\u8212?often differs amo ng \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 employees, among customers, and from day t o day.\par\pard\qj \li470\sb0\sl-215\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li470\sb0\sl-215\slmu lt0 \par\pard\qj \li451\ri341\sb121\sl-215\slmult0\fi19 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal ex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs18 Valarie A. Zeithaml is Visiting Associate Prof essor of Marketing, Fuqua \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 School of Business , Duke University. Leonard L. Berry is Foley's/Fed-\line \up0 \expndtw-1\charsca lex100 erated Professor of Retailing and Marketing Studies and Director of the \ line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Center for Retailing Studies, Texas A&M Unive rsity. A. Parasuraman is \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Foley's/Federated P rofessor of Retailing and Marketing Studies, Texas \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca lex100 A&M University. The authors thank the Marketing Science Institute and \li ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 its corporate sponsors for the financial support and cooperation pro¬ \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 vided for the study.\par \pard\ql \li432\sb0\sl-192\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li432\sb0\sl-192\slmult0 \par\p ard\ql \li432\sb0\sl-192\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li427\ri3269\sb87\sl-192\slmult0\ fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Journal of Marketing \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex103 Vol. 52 (April \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1988), 35-48.\par\pard\colu mn \ql \li4950\sb0\sl-198\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\c f3\f4\fs22 om\par\pard\qj \li6163\sb0\sl-256\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6163\sb0\sl -256\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6163\sb0\sl-256\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6163\sb0\sl -256\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li82\ri683\sb6\sl-256\slmult0\fi28 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex107 In most services, quality occurs duing service deliv¬ \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex111 ery, usually in an interaction between the customer \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex104 and contact personnel of the service irm. For this rea¬ \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex109 son, service quality is highly dependent on the per¬ \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex102 formance of employees, an organizational resource that \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex106 cannot be controlled to the degree that components of \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex106 tangible goods can be engineered.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri728 \sb23\sl-256\slmult0\fi383\tx78 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Research (Thompson, DeSouza, and Gale \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1985) \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex107 and company experience (Rudie and Wansley \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca lex100 1985) \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 reveal that deliveing high servi ce quality produces \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 measurable beneits in pro it, cost savings, and mar¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 ket share. Therefore , an understanding of the nature \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 of service q uality and how it is achieved in organi¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 zation s has become a pioity for research. To that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 e nd, we previously developed a service quality model \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex107 (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 1985) indi cating \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 that consumers' quality perceptions ar e influenced by \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 a seies of four distinct gaps occuring in organiza¬ \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 tions \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex104 (see Figure \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1 \up0 \expndtw-10\charsca lex78 ). \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 These gaps on the service pro¬ \line \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex111 vider's side, which can impede delivery of services \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 that consumers perceive to be of high quality, are: \par\pard\qj \li6523\sb0\sl-268\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li385\ri1177\sb29\sl-268\s lmult0\tx1153 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Gap 1: Difference between consumer ex

pec¬ \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 tations and management perceptions\par \pard\ql \li1134\sb1\sl-246\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 of consumer exp ectations.\par\pard\ql \li370\sb16\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 G ap 2: Difference between management per-\par\pard\qj\pvpg\phpg\posx8404\posy1639 8\absw2965 \expndtw0\charscalex101\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Delivery of Servic e Quality /\par\pard\qj\pvpg\phpg\posx11025\posy16398\absw344 \expndtw0\charscal ex11935\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12260\paperh16780{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmken d Pg2}\par\pard\ql \li5798\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5798\sb0\sl-253\slm ult0 \par\pard\ql\li5798\sb164\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0 \nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 FIGURE 1 \par\pard\ql \li4324\sb1\sl-213\slmult0 \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex116 Conceptual Model of Service Quality \par\pard\ql \li1012\s b214\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs22\ul CONSUMER\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols3\colno1\colw4198\colsr160\colno2\colw 4088\colsr160\colno3\colw3524\colsr160\qj \li2260\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \par\pard\q j \li2260\sb0\sl-263\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li2155\ri208\sb201\sl-263\slmult0\fi1 05 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 Word of Mouth \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Communications\par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmul t0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmul t0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmul t0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmul t0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmul t0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmul t0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmul t0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1070\sb97\sl-253\slmu lt0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 MARKETER\par\pard\column \ql \li4358\sb0\sl-25 3\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4358\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4358\sb0\sl-25 3\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1119\sb77\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 Personal Needs\par\pard\ql \li4358\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4358\sb0\s l-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4358\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4358\sb0\s l-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4358\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1033\sb85\ sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Expected Service\par\pard\ql \li4358 \sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb238\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex104 GAP5\par\pard\ql \li5419\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1081\sb195\ sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Perceived Service\par\pard\ql \li542 8\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5428\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li542 8\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5428\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li109 0\sb161\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Service Delivery\par\pard\co lumn \ql \li8596\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li8596\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par \pard\ql \li8596\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb72\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 Past Experience\par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \ par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \ par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \ par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \ par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \ par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \ par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \ par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \ par\pard\ql \li5284\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1460\sb182\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 External\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\ colw8009\colsr160\colno2\colw3951\colsr160\ql \li5284\ri698\sb0\sl-266\slmult0\f i220 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 (including pre-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 119 and post-contacts)\par\pard\ql \li4329\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li43 29\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4329\sb7\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex102 GAP3\par\pard\ql \li5534\sb0\sl-253\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5534\sb20 9\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Translation of\par\pard\ql \li2251 \sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx5385 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 GAP1\tab \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex117 Perceptions into\par\pard\qj \li5447\ri904\sb94\sl-259\slmult0\tx 5899 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Service Quality \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex117 Specs.\par\pard\ql \li5020\sb59\sl-391\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x120 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs34 T\par\pard\ql \li4315\sb0\sl-198\slmult0 \up0 \

expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 GAP2 i\par\pard\qj \li5520 \sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5520\ri897\sb237\sl-264\slmult0\fi100 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex112 Management \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 Perceptions of\par\pard\ql \li5016\sb15\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 Consume r Expectations\par\pard\column \ql \li20\sb0\sl-198\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex103 GAP4\par\pard\qj \li1422\ri714\sb0\sl-198\slmult0\tx1576 \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex114 Communications \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 to Consumer s\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6363\colsr160\colno2\colw5597\col sr160\qj \li734\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li734\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\p ard\qj \li734\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1929\ri713\sb55\sl-264\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ceptions of consumer expectations and \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex107 service quality specifications.\par\pard\qj \li1142\ri718\sb69\s l-268\slmult0\tx1920 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Gap 3: Difference between serv ice quality \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 speciications and the service actually\par\pard\ql \li1915\sb1\sl-251\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 de livered.\par\pard\qj \li1132\ri718\sb80\sl-264\slmult0\tx1910 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex113 Gap 4: Difference between service delivery \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex111 and what is communicated about the\par\pard\ql \li1910\sb10\sl-253\ slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 service to consumers.\par\pard\qj \li734\ri 328\sb081\sl-259\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Perceived service qual ity is defined in the model as \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 the difference between consumer expectations and \par\pard\qj\pvpg\phpg\posx739\posy16360\absw 3328 \expndtw0\charscalex104\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 36 / Journal of Marketin g, April 1988\par\pard\column \qj \li6523\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li652 3\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6523\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li29\ ri359\sb92\sl-262\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f 4\fs22 perceptions (gap 5 in Figure 1), which in turn depends \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex110 on the size and direction of the four gaps associated \line \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 with the delivery of service quality on the marketer's \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 side.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri349\sb0\sl-253\sl mult0\fi360 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Delivering consistently good service qu ality is dif¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 icult, as organizations have disc overed. Understand¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 ing why it is so difficult and how it might be facili¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 tated is the purpos e of our article. Our intent is to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 identify a reasonably exhaustive set of factors poten¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ti ally affecting the magnitude and direction of the four \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex108 gaps on the marketer's side. Most of these factors in-\par\pard\sect\s ectd\fs24\paperw12260\paperh16780{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\sect\se ctd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6007\colsr160\colno2\colw5953\colsr160\qj \li470\sb 0\sl-261\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li470\sb0\sl-261\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li470\ri30 1\sb135\sl-261\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 volve communication and control processes imple¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 ment ed in organizations to manage employees. Other \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 fact ors involve consequences of these processes (e.g., \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 role ambiguity and role conflict) that affect the deliv¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 109 ery of service quality. Literature from the marketing \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex112 and organizational behavior ields on these topics is \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex106 reviewed and integrated with qualitative data from an \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex110 exploratory study to help understand the way orga¬ \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex107 nizational processes affect service quality.\par\pard\qj \li480\ri309\ sb4\sl-260\slmult0\fi335 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 After descibing the explor atory study, we ex¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 amine gaps \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex109 1 through 4 in Figure \up0 \expndtw-10\charscalex85 1. \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex106 The theoretical \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 constructs p roposed to be responsible for each gap are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 de lineated. In addition, speciic organizational vai¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 112 ables that can be used to operationalize these con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex108 structs in service organizations are itemized and ex¬ \line \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex104 plained. The result is a detailed conceptual explication \line \

up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of the service quality model that can be used as a b lue¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 pint for developing measures of the gaps. The steps \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 necessary to develop these measures , and to test the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 model empiically, are discu ssed in the inal section.\par\pard\ql \li484\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li 1396\sb63\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex126 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs2 8 The Exploratory Study\par\pard\qj \li484\ri314\sb81\sl-259\slmult0 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 The qualitative technique used to learn about service \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 quality in organizations is what Mintzberg (1979) calls \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 "direct resear ch." Our study was not designed to test \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 hypot heses because the literature on organizational \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11 0 processes involved in service quality delivery is not \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex114 ich enough to suggest formal relationships among \line \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex113 vaiables. Instead, we sought insights by collecting \line \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex105 observations about service quality from managers and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 employees in actual service organizations. Observa¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 tions were collected in three research stages . The ap¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 proach used is consistent with proced ures recom¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 mended for marketing theory develop ment by several \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 scholars \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex102 (Deshpande \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 1983; Peter and Olson \up0 \exp ndtw-3\charscalex100 1983; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Zaltman, LeMasters , and Heffing 1982).\par\pard\qj \li484\ri303\sb0\sl-260\slmult0\fi355 \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex118 In the irst stage, in-depth personal interviews \line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex110 consisting of open-ended questions were conducted \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 with three or four executives in each of four nation ally \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 recognized service organizations (a bank , a brokerage \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 house, a repair and maintenance firm, and a credit \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 card company). The execut ives were selected from \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 marketing operations, senior management, and cus¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 tomer relations an d held titles such as president, sen¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 ior vice president, director of customer relations, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 6 manager of consumer market research. These execu¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x106 tives were interviewed about a broad range of service \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex105 quality issues (e.g., consumer expectations about ser¬ \line \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex111 vice quality, what steps they took to control or im¬ \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 prove quality, and what problems they faced in deliv¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 eing high quality services).\par\pard\qj \li4 89\ri315\sb0\sl-250\slmult0\fi331 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 The second stage involved a comprehensive case \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 study of a nati onally known bank. Three of the bank's \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 region s (each of which had at least 12 branches) were \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 12 selected. Managers and employees at vaious levels \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex104 of the bank were interviewed individually and in focus\par\pard\column \ qj \li6167\sb0\sl-259\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6167\sb0\sl-259\slmult0 \par\pard\ qj \li40\ri735\sb165\sl-259\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 groups. Top and middle managers responded to open-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 ended questions about their perceptions of consumer \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 expectations of service quality (gap 1), service quality \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex103 standards set in the organization to deliver quality (gap\par\pard\ qj \li45\ri737\sb0\sl-259\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 2), and diffe rences between standards set by manage¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 ment an d the level of service actually delivered (gap\par\pard\qj \li35\ri750\sb0\sl-25 9\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 3). A total of seven focus group inte rviews with tell¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ers, customer service represe ntatives, lending person¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 nel, and branch manag ers from within the three re¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 gions were held t o identify factors contibuting to gaps\par\pard\qj \li49\ri750\sb9\sl-259\slmult

0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 3 and 4. Finally, managers associated with bank c om¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 munication with customers \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex106 (bank marketing, adver¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 tising, and consumer af fairs executives, as well as the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 president and crea tive director of the bank's advertis¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 ing agency) wer e interviewed to identify the factors \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 responsible f or gap 4.\par\pard\qj \li40\ri741\sb0\sl-257\slmult0\fi336 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex108 The third stage of the exploratory study involved \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex104 a systematic group interview with 11 senior managers \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex105 of six nationally known service irms (two full service \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex103 banks, two national insurance companies, and two na¬ \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex104 tional telephone companies) and was intended to ver¬ \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex113 ify and generalize the indings from the two earlier \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex107 stages. We presented the conceptual framework, ex¬ \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex105 plained the four gaps, and questioned managers about \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex105 the factors responsible for the gaps in their irms. Lists \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex106 of factors deived from the first two phases were pre¬ \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex109 sented and discussed. Managers augmented the lists \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex111 and evaluated the factors on the basis of expeience \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex108 in their industies and organizations.\par\pard\qj \li40\r i738\sb0\sl-259\slmult0\fi340 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 In the following disc ussion, we combine insights \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 from the three ex ploratory phases with those from rel¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 evant lit erature in marketing and organizational be¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 hav ior to propose the main theoretical constructs and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex118 speciic vaiables associated with the four service \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex113 quality gaps that can be used to operationalize the \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex101 constructs.\par\pard\ql \li155\sb229\sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex125 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs28 The Four Gaps in Service Quality\ par\pard\ql \li35\ri1141\sb126\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 \ul0\ nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 Gap 1: Difference Between Consumer \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex121 Expectations and Management Perceptions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 of C onsumer Expectations\par\pard\qj \li20\ri751\sb84\sl-258\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex110 Service firm executives may not always understand \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex103 what features connote high quality to consumers, what \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 attibutes a service must have in order to meet con¬ \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 sumer needs, and what levels of performance on those \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 features are necessary to deliver high quality service \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 (Langeard et al. \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex111 1981; Parasuraman and Zeithaml \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 04 1983). Because there are few clearly defined and tan¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex111 gible cues for services, the gap between what con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex109 sumers expect and what managers think they expect \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex105 may be considerably larger than it is in irms that pro¬ \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 duce tangible goods (Gronroos 1982; Zeithaml 1981). \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 As shown in Table 1, the size of gap 1 in any service \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 irm is proposed to be a function of marketing re¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 search oientation, upward communi cation, and levels \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of management.\par\pard\ql \li8462\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2315\sb227\sl-230\slmult0\tx4941 \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Delivery of Service Qualit y /\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 37 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12260\pa perh16780{\bkmkstart Pg4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\li791\sb0\sl-253\slmult0\par\pa rd\li791\sb0\sl-253\slmult0\par\pard\li791\sb48\sl-253\slmult0\fi2246\tx6633 \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 TABLE 1\tab \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 "on the line," interacting with consu mers and expe¬\par\pard\li791\sb1\sl-208\slmult0\fi801\tx6624 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex127 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Service Quality Management Gap 1\tab \dn2 \ expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 riencing service delivery. Ra dio Shack, for example,\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols3\colno1\colw3315\colsr1

60\colno2\colw2989\colsr160\colno3\colw5506\colsr160\qj \li907\ri254\sb44\sl-297 \slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Theoretical Co nstructs \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Marketing research\par\pard\ql \li1104\sb1 \sl-203\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 orientation\par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\ sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl -230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-2 30\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230 \slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li931\sb24\sl-230\ slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Upward\par\pard\ql \li1113\sb1\sl-211\slmul t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 communication\par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmu lt0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmult 0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li791\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li945\sb36\sl-230\slmult0 \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Levels of management\par\pard\column \qj \li20\ri797 \sb31\sl-307\slmult0\fi465 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Specific Variables \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Amount of marketing\par\pard\ql \li221\sb1\sl-201\ slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 research\par\pard\qj \li29\ri1084\sb0\sl-22 0\slmult0\tx231 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Usage of marketing \line\tab \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex113 research\par\pard\qj \li25\ri368\sb0\sl-218\slmult0\tx231 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Degree to which marketing \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex117 research focuses on\par\pard\ql \li25\ri420\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\fi 192 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 service quality issues \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex114 Extent of direct interaction\par\pard\qj \li217\ri527\sb0\sl-225\slmu lt0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 between managers and \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex115 customers\par\pard\ql \li29\ri398\sb106\sl-218\slmult0\tx236 \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex112 Extent of employee-to-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 m anager communication \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Extent to which inputs\p ar\pard\qj \li221\ri547\sb0\sl-219\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 from con tact personnel \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 are sought\par\pard\qj \li34\ri388\s b0\sl-216\slmult0\tx236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Quality of contact between \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 top managers and\par\pard\ql \li226\sb1\s l-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 contact personnel\par\pard\qj \li44\r i407\sb102\sl-220\slmult0\tx236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Number of layers be tween \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 customer contact\par\pard\qj \li236 \ri1001\sb1\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 personnel and top \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex114 managers\par\pard\column \qj \li30\ri219\sb25\sl-262\slmu lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 has a program calle d "Adopt a Store" through which \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 senior manage rs spend time in stores collecting in¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 formatio n and interacting with the staff (Goyne 1985). \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11 5 A major bank in the exploratory study required its \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex105 managers to interact regularly with customers by tele¬ \line \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex113 phone. As the degree of contact between top man¬ \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex109 agers and consumers increases, top managers should \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 understand the consumer better and the size of gap 1 \li ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 should decrease.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri231\sb261\s l-263\slmult0\fi350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Upward communication. Though to p managers may \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 not have a irm grasp of consum er quality expecta¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 tions, research suggests th at customer-contact person¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 nel can accurately predict consumer expectations and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 perceptions of the service (Schneider and Bowen 1985). \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 T herefore, top managers' understanding of the con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 09 sumer may depend largely on the extent and types of \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex107 communication received from customer-contact per¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex109 sonnel and from noncompany personnel (e.g.. inde¬ \line \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex106 pendent insurance agents, retailers) who represent the \line \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 company and its services. Upward communication \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 typically provides information to upper level man¬\par \pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6435\colsr160\colno2\colw5525\colsr160

\qj \li892\ri300\sb00\sl-260\slmult0\fi340\tx2854\tx5547 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex113 Marketing research orientation. Evidence indi¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex107 cates that service firms lag behind goods irms in their \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex108 use of marketing research and in other facets of cus¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 tomer orientation \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 (Geo rge and Barksdale \tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1974; \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex101 Lovelock \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 1981; Parasuraman, Berry, an d Zeithaml \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 1983). Service organizations also place less emphasis \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 than goods firms on marke ting in general (Lovelock \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 1981), believing th at the operations function is more \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 citical. A n operations orientation diverts focus from \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 c onsumers and reduces effots to understand their needs \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex109 and expectations. Banks that close their branch lob¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex109 bies in midafternoon to facilitate balancing the day's \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 transactions and that issue monthly customer state¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 ments designed without input from customers exem¬ \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 plify an operations oientation.\par\pard\qj \li 835\ri307\sb7\sl-263\slmult0\fi393\tx883 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Because ma rketing research is a key vehicle for \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 und erstanding consumer expectations and perceptions \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 112 of services, the size of gap \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1 \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex109 should depend greatly \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 on the am ount of marketing research conducted. Other \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 r esearch-related vaiables include the extent to which \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex107 research data are used (i.e., read, understood, and ap¬ \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex107 plied) by managers in the organization and the degree \line \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 to which the research focuses on service quality is¬ \li ne \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 sues.\par\pard\qj \li791\ri336\sb0\sl-265\slmul t0\fi369 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Another factor influencing degree of marke ting re¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 search oientation is the extent to whi ch top managers \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 interact directly with consum ers. In some service irms, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 especially ones th at are small and localized, owners \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 or manager s may be in continual contact with con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 sumers, thereby gaining firsthand knowledge of con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 su mer expectations and perceptions. Even in large \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 13 service organizations, top managers can spend time \par\pard\qj\pvpg\phpg\pos x806\posy16191\absw3338 \expndtw0\charscalex104\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 38 / Journal of Marketing, April 1988\par\pard\column \qj \li39\ri264\sb3\sl-261\slmu lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 agers about activit ies and performances throughout the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 organizat ion (Read \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 1962). Speciic types of commu¬ \line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex109 nication that may be relevant are formal (e.g., repots \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 of problems and exceptions in service delivery, per¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 formance repots on contact personnel, and inancial \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 and accounting information that wou ld signal infeior \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 or supeior performance) and informal (e.g., discus¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 sions between contact personnel and upper level man¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 agers).\par\pard \qj \li20\ri277\sb13\sl-261\slmult0\fi360 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 An impota nt facet of upward communication is \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 its quali ty or effectiveness, which in tun depends on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 the medium through which it occurs. Face-to-face \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 110 communication, for example, is more effective than \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex109 witten communication because it uses several com¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex109 munication cues (verbal and visual) simultaneously. \line \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex113 Face-to-face communication is preferred when the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 message is dificult or ambiguous, or when sender and \li ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 receiver differ in background or opinions (Daft

and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Lengel 1984). In these situations, media such as wit¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 ten repots do not provide suficien t ichness. In ser¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 vice organizations, the type s of messages that need to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 be conveyed are of ten complex and ambiguous (e.g., \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 problems enc ountered in service delivery, how em¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 ployees f eel, morale and attitudes within the organi¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 za tion) and top managers often differ considerably in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex106 background from contact personnel (Berry, Zeithaml, \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex106 and Parasuraman 1985). Many successful service or¬ \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex102 ganizations \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex127 (e.g., Mariott, Delta Airlines) pide \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 themselves on using such ich communication chan¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 nels as management by walki ng around (Clist \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 1985; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex108 Peters and Waterman 1982) and employee gipe ses¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex103 sions (Rout \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1981). \par\pard\sect\sectd\ fs24\paperw12260\paperh16780{\bkmkstart Pg5}{\bkmkend Pg5}\par\pard\sect\sectd\s bknone\cols2\colno1\colw5940\colsr160\colno2\colw6020\colsr160\qj \li422\sb0\sl257\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li422\sb0\sl-257\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li422\sb0\sl-25 7\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li422\ri299\sb4\sl-257\slmult0\fi345 \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex114 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 In the focus group interviews conducted in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 second stage of the exploratory study, several bank \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 employees clearly illustrated the lack of eff ective \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 communication.\par\pard\qj \li801\ri699\sb18 9\sl-195\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Branch manager: "I've been in this bank for 27 years \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 and this is the first time I have had a regional VP \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 th at has never been in the branch." Another: "He never \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 1 will." Another: "I haven't seen the man in a year and \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x105 a half. That has a lot to do with our attitude. We're \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex103 getting orders from someone we never see."\par\pard\qj \li811\ri704\sb98 \sl-195\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Customer service representative: "W e have three \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 floors. Our manager, when he fir st got here, sat on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the second floor. Now he is on the third floor in his \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 enclosed office . He told us he doesn't want to be with \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the p ublic. He needs time for himself. What are his \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 5 priorities? He doesn't know what's going on on the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex100 irst floor. I've had lots of customers ask for the man¬ \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex105 ager. I say, 'I'm sorry, he's on a month's vacation '"\par\pard \qj \li446\ri299\sb146\sl-259\slmult0\fi335 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\no supersub\cf3\f4\fs22 We therefore propose that three specific vaiables \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex105 influence the effectiveness of upward communication \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex108 and hence the size of gap 1: extent of employees-to-\line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 managers communication, extent to which inputs from \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 contact personnel are sought, and quality of contac t \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 between top managers and contact personnel.\par\p ard\qj \li441\ri287\sb92\sl-259\slmult0\fi331 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Level s of management. The number of layers of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 mana gement between customer-contact personnel and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 top managers is expected to affect the size of gap \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10 0 1 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Layers of management inhibit communicatio n and un¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 derstanding because they place barier s between send¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 ers and receivers of messages. Therefore, the greater \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 the number of layers b etween customer-contact per¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 sonnel and top man agers, the larger gap 1 is expected \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 to be.\pa r\pard\qj \li436\ri302\sb0\sl-259\slmult0\fi340 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 As shown in Table \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 , t he gap between consumer \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 expectations and management

perceptions of con¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 sumer expectations depends on th e extent to which a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 company recognizes the impotanc e of the consumer \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 (marketing research oientation), receives accurate \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 communication about consumers' ne eds \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 (marketing \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 researc h oientation, upward communication), and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 places bar iers between contact personnel and top \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 managers (le vels of management).\par\pard\ql \li815\sb126\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex112 P,: The size of gap \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 1 is related to (a) extent\par\pard\ql \li1185\sb2\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 of ma rketing research oientation (-), (b)\par\pard\qj \li1180\ri702\sb7\sl-259\slmult 0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 extent and quality of upward communi¬ \line \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex110 cation (-), and (c) levels of management\par\pard\ql \li11 85\sb91\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex96 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs18 ( + )\u9632?\par\pard\qj \li446\ri980\sb124\sl-278\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex123 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 Gap 2: Management Perception-Service \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 Quality Specification Gap\par\pard\qj \li432\ri313\s b67\sl-257\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Managers of service irms oft en expeience dificulty \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 in attempting to match or exceed customer expecta¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tions. A vaiety of factors\u8212?resource constraints, short-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 te rm profit oientation, market conditions, manage¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 7 ment indifference\u8212?may account for the discrepancy \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex109 between managers' perceptions of consumer expec¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex114 tations and the actual speciications established by\par\pard\colu mn \qj \li6120\sb0\sl-256\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6120\sb0\sl-256\slmult0 \par\p ard\qj \li6120\sb0\sl-256\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li44\ri801\sb32\sl-256\slmult0\f i4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 management for a service. As shown in Table 2, t he \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 size of gap 2 in any service irm is propos ed to be a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 function of management commitment to service qual¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 ity, goal setting, task standa rdization, and perception \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 of feasibility.\par \pard\qj \li40\ri798\sb135\sl-259\slmult0\fi326 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Man agement commitment to service quality. One \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 explanat ion for gap 2 is the absence of total manage¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 ment co mmitment to service quality. Emphasis on other \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 obje ctives such as cost reduction and shot-term proit \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 h as outcomes that are more easily measured and tracked \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 06 and may supercede emphasis on service quality. This \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 108 tendency to emphasize other objectives is illustrated \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex105 in the following statement.\par\pard\qj \li6499\sb0\sl-193\slmult0 \par\p ard\qj \li414\ri1192\sb59\sl-193\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\n osupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Most U.S. irms suffer signiicantly from the use of \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 shot-term, accounting-diven measures of perfor¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 mance to establish the reward mechanisms for high-\ line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 level managers, who are mainly responsible for im¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 plementing strategic actions (Hax and Majl uf 1984,\par\pard\ql \li414\sb3\sl-201\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex94 p. \ up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 90).\par\pard\qj \li35\ri814\sb208\sl-259\slmult0\f i9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 Louis Gerstner, pres ident of Ameican Express, sug¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 gests the following re ason for lack of management \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 commitment to service q uality.\par\pard\qj \li6100\sb0\sl-192\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li414\ri1209\sb66\s l-192\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Becau se of the structure of most companies, the guy \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 who puts in the service operation and bears the ex¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 pense doesn't get the beneit. It'll show up in mar¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 keting , even in new product development. But the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 benefit never shows up in his own P&L statement \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (Business Week 1984).\par\pard\qj \li20\ri810\sb214\sl-259\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\char

scalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 Often, service irms take a product-based a pproach to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 quality rather than a user-based approac h, which re¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 sults in a de-emphasis on serving the cu stomer (Garvin \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 1983). In contrast, Ameican Express illustrates a user-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 based approach to quality. \par\pard\ql \li8212\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li8212\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2132\sb35\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosup ersub\cf5\f6\fs20 TABLE 2\par\pard\ql \li707\sb1\sl-213\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex126 Service Quality Management Gap 2\par\pard\ql \li260\sb119\sl-230\sl mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Theoretical\par\pard\ql \li280\sb1\sl-213\slm ult0\tx2752 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Constructs\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x109 Specific Variables\par\pard\ql \li44\sb75\sl-230\slmult0\tx2012 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex109 Management\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Resource commitmen t to quality\par\pard\ql \li222\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\tx2012 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex109 commitment\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Existence of internal quality \par\pard\ql \li217\sb11\sl-211\slmult0\tx2205 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 to s ervice\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 programs\par\pard\ql \li222\sb1\sl-210\s lmult0\tx2012 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 quality\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 114 Management perceptions of\par\pard\qj \li2190\ri1713\sb0\sl-212\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 recognition for quality \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11 2 commitment\par\pard\ql \li35\sb94\sl-230\slmult0\tx2008 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex105 Goal-setting\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Existence of a formal proce ss for\par\pard\ql \li2195\sb2\sl-211\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 setti ng quality of service goals\par\pard\ql \li30\sb96\sl-230\slmult0\tx2012 \up0 \e xpndtw-1\charscalex100 Task\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Use of hard technol ogy to\par\pard\ql \li217\sb1\sl-206\slmult0\tx2195 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 standardization\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 standardize operations\par\par d\qj \li2003\ri1593\sb8\sl-215\slmult0\tx2205 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Use o f soft technology to \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 standardize operatio ns\par\pard\ql \li40\sb30\sl-230\slmult0\tx2003 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Per ception of\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Capabilities/systems for meeting\par \pard\ql \li217\sb6\sl-206\slmult0\tx2200 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 feasibili ty\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 specifications\par\pard\ql \li2003\ri904\sb3 \sl-220\slmult0\tx2210 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Extent to which managers \li ne\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 believe consumer expectations\par\pard\ql \l i2190\sb0\sl-211\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 can be met \par\pard\qj\pv pg\phpg\posx8361\posy16211\absw2965 \expndtw0\charscalex101Delivery of Service Q uality /\par\pard\qj\pvpg\phpg\posx10982\posy16211\absw344 \expndtw0\charscalex1 1939\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12260\paperh16780{\bkmkstart Pg6}{\bkmkend P g6}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6372\colsr160\colno2\colw5588\c olsr160\qj \li772\sb0\sl-199\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li772\sb0\sl-199\slmult0 \par \pard\qj \li772\sb0\sl-199\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1228\ri690\sb145\sl-199\slmul t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Overriding all other values is our dedication to qual¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 ity. We are a market-diven institution, committed to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 our customers in everything we do. We constantly \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 seek improvement and we encourage the unusual, even \line \up0 \expndtw-1\chars calex100 the iconoclastic (Business Week \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 1981).\pa r\pard\qj \li873\ri275\sb234\sl-263\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul 0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 Specific vaiables related to management commitment \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 to service quality include the propotion of resources \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 committed to service quality (rather than to other g oals), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 the existence of an internal quality program , and the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 extent to which managers believe their at tempts to im¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 prove service quality will be recognize d and rewarded \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 in the organization.\par\pard\qj \li 868\ri272\sb163\sl-260\slmult0\fi336 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Goal-setting. Research reveals that goal-setting not \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 only i mproves both organizational performance and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 i ndividual achievement, but also increases overall \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale

x104 control of the organization (Ivancevich and McMahon \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex108 1982; Latham and Locke \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 1979; Locke et a l. \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1981; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Sherwi n 1976). Companies that have been successful \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 in deliveing high service quality \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 (e.g., Ameican \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Express, McDonald's, Delta Airlines) are noted for \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 establishing formal goals relating to ser vice quality. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Because services are performanc es, the goals for ser¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 vice delivery usually ar e set and measured in terms of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 human or machi ne performance. Ameican Express, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 after analyz ing customer complaints, found that time¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 lines s, accuracy, and responsiveness were the impor¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 tant outputs to be achieved. Management then iden¬ \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscal ex100 tified \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 180 goals for different aspects of ser vice quality \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 provided to customers. After the formal goal-setting, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 they developed monitoin g devices to evaluate the speed \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 with which te lephones were answered, complaints were \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 handl ed, bills were mailed, and new applications were \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 106 approved. The goals established by Ameican Express \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex106 illustrate many of the characteistics of effective goals \line \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex104 (Locke et al. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 1981): speciic, accepted, cover impor¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 tant job dimensions, re viewed with appropriate feed¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 back, measurable, challenging but realistic, and match \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 individ ual characteistics.\par\pard\qj \li830\ri303\sb9\sl-261\slmult0\fi360 \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex108 The development of service goals involves dein¬ \line \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex112 ing service quality in ways that enable providers to \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 understand what management wants to deliver. Ex¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 istence of a formal quality program that includes iden¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 tification and measurement of service qua lity stan¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 dards is expected to be one vaiable that reduces the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 size of gap 2.\par\pard\qj \ li772\ri291\sb098\sl-265\slmult0\fi384 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Task standar dization. The effective translation of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 manage rial perceptions into specific service quality \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 8 standards depends on the degree to which tasks to be \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex111 performed can be standardized or routinized. Effots \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex111 to conceptualize and measure the standardization of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 tasks in organizational research have focused on the \li ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 construct of technology \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x103 (Perrow \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 1979; Reeves and \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex102 Woodward \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 1970; Woodward \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex114 1965). This research \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 suggests that the organization's technology can serve \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 to standardize and regularize employee behavior. If \par\pard\qj\pvpg\phpg\posx 787\posy16350\absw3318 \expndtw0\charscalex104\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 40 / J ournal of Marketing, April 1988\par\pard\column \qj \li6532\sb0\sl-261\slmult0 \ par\pard\qj \li6532\sb0\sl-261\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li49\ri250\sb173\sl-261\slm ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 jobs or tasks are routine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 (such as those needed for \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex102 opening checking accounts or spraying lawns for pests), \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 speciic rules and standards can be established and ef¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 fectively executed. If services are custom ized for in¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 dividual consumers (e.g., investme nt potfolio man¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 agement or estate planning), s peciic standards (such \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 as those relating to t ime spent with the customer) are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 difficult to establish. Even in highly customized ser¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 vice

s, however, some aspects of service provision can \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x111 be routinized. Physicians and dentists, for example, \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex110 can standardize recuring and nontechnical aspects of \line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex114 the service such as checking patients in, collecting \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 payment, weighing patients, and taking temperature. \par\pard\qj \li63\ri283\sb3\sl-262\slmult0\fi340 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 A ccording to Levitt (1976), standardization or (in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x113 his terms) industialization of service can take three \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex105 forms: (1) substitution of hard technology for personal \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 contact and human effot, (2) improvement in work \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 methods (soft technology), or (3) combinations of t hese \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 two methods. Hard technology includes au tomatic teller \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 machines, automatic car washes , and airpot X-ray \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 machines, all of which all ow standardization of ser¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 vice provision by su bstituting machines for human ef¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 fot. Soft tec hnology is illustrated by restaurant salad \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 ba rs, prepackaged travel tours, and the standardized \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex117 training given to employees of organizations like \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex118 McDonald's. Effective combination of these two \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex107 methods is illustrated by Marshall Field's elimination \line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex109 of "task-interfeing duties" for salespeople. The retail \ line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 store automated check approval, implemented in -store \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 telephone directoies, reorganized wrap ping stations, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 and simpliied order forms, all of which resulted in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 faster checkout and mor e attention to the customer.\par\pard\qj \li63\ri320\sb5\sl-259\slmult0\fi340 \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 We propose that the more managers can standard¬ \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 ize tasks for service delivery, the smaller gap 2 wi ll \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 be.\par\pard\qj \li6532\sb0\sl-260\slmult 0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri329\sb9\sl-260\slmult0\fi350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Perception offeasibility. The exploratory research \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex107 revealed the size of gap 2 to be affected by the extent \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex103 to which managers perceive that meeting customer ex¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 pectations is feasible. Executives in the repair service \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 irm paticipating in the exploratory study we re fully \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 aware that consumers view quick resp onse to appli¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ance breakdowns as a vital aspec t of high quality ser¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 vice. However, they beli eved that establishing spec¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 iications to deliv er a quick response consistently was \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 not feas ible for two reasons: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 (1) the time required to \lin e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 provide a speciic repair service was dificult to fore¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 cast and (2) skilled service technicians were less avail¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 able in peak season (the summe r months) than at any \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 other time. Therefore, the greater the management \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 perception that co nsumer expectations cannot be ful¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 illed, the l arger gap 2 will be. Variables related to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 thi s construct include the organizational capabilities \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex106 and systems for meeting specifications and the degree \line \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex111 to which managers believe expectations can be met \line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex102 economically. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12260\paperh1 6780{\bkmkstart Pg7}{\bkmkend Pg7}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw 6007\colsr160\colno2\colw5953\colsr160\qj \li499\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li499\sb0\sl-264\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li868\ri684\sb237\sl-264\slmult0\tx1257 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 P2: The size of gap 2 is related to (a) man¬ \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 agement commitment t o service quality\par\pard\qj \li1257\ri673\sb0\sl-259\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex144 (-), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 (b) setting of goals relating to

ser¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 vice quality (-), \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x107 (c) task standardization\par\pard\qj \li1267\ri671\sb0\sl-259\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 (-), and (d) perception of feasibility for \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex110 meeting customer expectations (-).\par\pard\qj \li508\ri490\sb18 7\sl-249\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 Gap 3: Service Quality Specifi cation-Service \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Delivery Gap\par\pard\qj \li499\ri29 0\sb103\sl-259\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Gap 3 is the discrepancy bet ween the speciications \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 for the service and th e actual delivery of the service. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 It can be r eferred to as the "service performance gap," \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 that is, the extent to which service providers do not \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex112 perform at the level expected by management. The \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex108 service performance gap occurs when employees are \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex108 unable and/or unwilling to perform the service at the \line \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 desired level.\par\pard\qj \li513\ri296\sb5\sl-259\sl mult0\fi335 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 As shown in Table 3, the main theoretic al con¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 structs proposed to account for the size of g ap 3 are \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 teamwork, employee-job it, technology-job it, per¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ceived control, supervisory control systems, role con¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 flict, and role ambiguity.\par\pard\qj \li 518\ri294\sb87\sl-259\slmult0\fi336 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Teamwork. As re vealed in the following state¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ments from the explora tory study, bank employees did \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 not feel they were w orking together well.\par\pard\column \qj \li6167\sb0\sl-194\slmult0 \par\pard\q j \li6167\sb0\sl-194\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6167\sb0\sl-194\slmult0 \par\pard\q j \li6167\sb0\sl-194\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li395\ri1161\sb66\sl-194\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Lending oicer: "I worked in the bank 13 years. There \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 is a big difference in wh en I stated and now in terms \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of how the employees feel about the bank. There used \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 to be so much camar adeie. Now, it's like pulling \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 teeth to get associat es to help you."\par\pard\qj \li409\ri1169\sb99\sl-194\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex103 Customer service representative: "We're not work¬ \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex108 ing as a family and as a group. We may all come \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex103 together again but it hasn't happened yet."\par\pard\qj \li405\ri1164\sb99 \sl-195\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Customer service representative: "O ur cashier sits \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 there and smokes cigarettes and dri nks coffee. She \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 doesn't help with any of our work. She says it isn't \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 in her job desciption. She's a de adbeat."\par\pard\qj \li30\ri752\sb118\sl-258\slmult0\fi335 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 The value of teamwork\u8212?employees and m an¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 agers pulling together for a common goal\u8 212?was em¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 phasized throughout the exploratory interviews. The \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 impotance of this construct to achieving organiza¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 tional goals also has be en documented in studies on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 group cohesivenes s (Davis 1969; Shaw 1976) and group \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 commitmen t \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (Salancik \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 1977). In high performing \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 groups, people function as a team and accomplish their \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 goals by allowing g roup members to paticipate in de¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 cisions and t o share in the group's success \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 (Lawler \line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex104 and Cammann 1972).\par\pard\qj \li20\ri770\sb0\sl-252\slm ult0\fi331 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Teamwork is the focus of service quality programs \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 in several irms known for their out standing customer \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 service. Merill Lynch, for example, has involved more \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 than 2500 operatio ns personnel in quality teams of 8 \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone \li480\sb0\sl-23 0\slmult0\par\pard\li480\sb65\sl-230\slmult0\fi4958 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 TABLE 3\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone \li480\sb1\sl-2

19\slmult0\fi3527 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 Service Quality Management Gap 3\ par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw3281\colsr160\colno2\colw8679\colsr 160\qj \li480\ri666\sb68\sl-302\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Theoretical Constructs \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Teamwork\par\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\ slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\sl mult0 \par\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\slmu lt0 \par\pard\ql \li489\sb20\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Employe e-job fit\par\pard\qj \li480\ri1091\sb224\sl-331\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex107 Technology-job fit \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Perceived control\pa r\pard\ql \li484\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li484\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\ pard\ql \li484\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li484\sb33\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex109 Supervisory control \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 systems \par\pard\ql \li484\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li484\sb92\sl-230\slmult0 \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Role conflict\par\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \p ar\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li480\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par \pard\ql \li480\sb22\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Role ambiguity\ par\pard\column \ql \li3111\sb113\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Sp ecific Variables\par\pard\ql \li30\ri1069\sb84\sl-216\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex116 Extent to which employees view other employees as customers \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 Extent to which contact personnel feel upper level managers genuinely care for\par\pard\ql \li217\sb2\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex113 them\par\pard\qj \li30\ri1786\sb0\sl-214\slmult0\tx227 \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex117 Extent to which contact personnel feel they are cooperating (rather than \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 competing) with others in th e organization\par\pard\ql \li30\sb0\sl-215\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Extent to which employees feel personally involved and committed\par\pard\ql \l i20\sb99\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Ability of employees to per form job\par\pard\ql \li25\ri2967\sb0\sl-272\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex115 Importance and effectiveness of selection processes \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex115 Appropriateness of tools and technology for performing job\par\pard \ql \li30\ri1133\sb94\sl-216\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Extent to whic h employees perceive they are in control of their jobs \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex115 Extent to which customer-contact personnel feel they have flexibility in dealing\par\pard\ql \li222\sb1\sl-215\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 wi th customers\par\pard\ql \li35\sb1\sl-215\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 P redictability of demand\par\pard\qj \li35\ri850\sb110\sl-211\slmult0\tx236 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 Extent to which employees are evaluated on what they do (behaviors) rather than \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 solely on output quantity\par\pard\qj \li35\ri1630\sb103\sl-220\slmult0\tx232 \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex116 Perceived conflict between expectations of customers and expectations of \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 organization\par\pard\ql \li217\ri1377 \sb0\sl-213\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \u8226? Amount of paperwork nee ded to complete service transactions \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 \u8226? Number of internal contacts that customer-contact people must make to\par\pard\q j \li35\ri2482\sb0\sl-213\slmult0\fi398 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 complete a service transaction or answer customer queries \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11 3 Existence of management policy that conflicts with specifications\par\pard\ql \li35\ri3312\sb107\sl-215\slmult0\tx222 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Perceived c larity of goals and expectations \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 \u8226? Frequency and quality of downward communication\par\pard\qj \li39\ri2699\sb0\sl216\slmult0\fi182 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 \u8226? Extent of constructive fe edback given to contact personnel \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Perceived level o f competence and confidence\par\pard\ql \li222\sb0\sl-211\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex116 \u8226? Product knowledge of contact personnel\par\pard\ql \li222 \ri2267\sb2\sl-215\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \u8226? Product-specific training provided to contact personnel \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \u822 6? Training in communication skills provided to contact personnel \par\pard\sect \sectd\sbknone \ql \li8419\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8419\sb0\sl-230\slm ult0 \par\pard\ql\li8419\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8419\sb110\sl-230\slm

ult0\tx11025 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Delivery of Service Quality / \tab \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 41 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12260\paperh16780{ \bkmkstart Pg8}{\bkmkend Pg8}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6324\ colsr160\colno2\colw5636\colsr160\qj \li758\sb0\sl-259\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li7 58\sb0\sl-259\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li782\ri292\sb151\sl-259\slmult0 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 to 15 employees each that work to improve customer \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 service (McMurray 1983). At Americ an Express, em¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 ployees are involved in setting stand ards and improv¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 ing work procedures so that a sense of teamwork is \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 fostered. Employees in various depar tments work to¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 gether to analyze the work of each de patment, iden¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 tify oppotunities, and seek improvemen ts.\par\pard\qj \li772\ri284\sb0\sl-259\slmult0\fi355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 06 We propose the following aspects as being critical \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex103 to teamwork: the extent to which employees view other \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex106 employees as customers, the extent to which employ¬ \line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex110 ees feel management cares about them, the extent to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 which employees feel they are cooperating rather t han \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 competing with each other, and the extent to which \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 employees feel personally involved and committed.\par\pard\qj \li758\ri255\sb82\sl-260\slmult0\fi350 \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex109 Employee-job it. The exploratory study indicated \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex104 that service quality problems often occur because con¬ \line \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 tact personnel are not well suited to their positions . \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Because customer-contact jobs tend to be si tuated at \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 the lower levels of company organiz ation chats (e.g., \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 car rental agents, telepho ne operators, and repair tech¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 nicians), person nel holding these jobs are frequently \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 among t he least educated and lowest paid employees \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 i n their companies. As a result, they may lack lan¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 118 guage, interpersonal, or other skills to serve cus¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex106 tomers effectively. Many service companies have high \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex107 turnover among contact employees and are inclined to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 ill openings quickly, even if they must hire persons \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 having background or skill deiciencies. Manager s \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 commonly do not give enough attention or de vote suf¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 icient resources to hiing and selecti on processes. We \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 propose that emphasis on mat ching the employee to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 the job through selecti on processes and the conse¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 quent ability or sk ill of employees to perform the job \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 well affe ct the size of gap 3.\par\pard\qj \li777\ri273\sb81\sl-260\slmult0\fi340 \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex106 Technology-job it. Provision of high service qual¬ \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex109 ity also depends on the appropiateness of the tools or \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 technology the employee uses to perform the job. \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex110 Technology and equipment, such as bank computers \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex113 and diagnostic equipment, can enhance the service \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex117 employee's performance. Appropiate and reliable \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex108 technology must be provided for high quality service \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex109 delivery. Equipment failures can interfere with ade¬ \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex106 quate employee performance.\par\pard\qj \li768\ri311\sb0\sl-26 0\slmult0\fi335 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Our exploratory study revealed seve ral instances \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 in which service quality shotfa lls resulted from a lack \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 of technology-job it and/or employee-job fit. For ex¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 ample, a prod uct repair executive, in bemoaning the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 prolif eration of new high technology appliances, in¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 dicated problems stemming from a lack of both types \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex105 of fit.\par\pard\qj \li1156\ri721\sb182\sl-195\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha

rscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 We may not have all the [technical] speci fications \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 needed to train technicians before a new product is \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 marketed [technology-job it]. Some techn icians may \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 never be capable of being trained to se rvice these new \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 "high-tech" products [employee-job fit]. These prod¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ucts are coming too fast.\par\pard\ ql \li782\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li782\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li782\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li782\sb28\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex103 42 / Journal of Marketing, April 1988\par\pard\column \qj \li648 4\sb0\sl-261\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6484\sb0\sl-261\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li35\ ri313\sb92\sl-261\slmult0\fi326 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3 \f4\fs22 Perceived control. The notion of perceived control \line \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex109 suggests that individuals' reactions to stressful situa¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 tions depend on whether they can control those situ¬ \lin e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 ations (Geer, Davidson, and Gatchel \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex108 1970; Geer and \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Maisel \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex108 1972; Glass and Singer 1972; Straub, Tursky, \line \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex106 and Schwatz 1971). Aveill (1973) has delineated three \li ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 forms of control: behavioral, cognitive, and dec i-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 sional. Behavioral control is the ability t o make re¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 sponses that influence threatening s ituations (Aveill \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1973). Cognitive control is the ability to reduce stress \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 by the way info rmation is processed by an individual \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (Averil l \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 1973; Cromwell et al. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 3 1971). Decisional con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 trol involves a choice in the selection of outcomes or \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 goals \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 (Aveill \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 1973). We propose t hat when service \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 employees perceive themselve s to be in control of sit¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 uations they encount er in their jobs, they expeience \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 less stress. Lower levels of stress, in turn, lead to higher \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 108 peformance. When employees perceive that they can \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex110 act flexibly rather than by rote in problem situations \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex110 encountered in providing services, control increases \line \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 and peformance improves.\par\pard\qj \li59\ri330\sb0\ sl-262\slmult0\fi360 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Perceived control can be a fun ction of the degree \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 to which organizational r ules, procedures, and culture \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 limit contact e mployee flexibility in serving cus¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 tomers. It can also be a consequence of the degree to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 wh ich an employee's authoity to achieve speciic \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 outcomes with customers lies elsewhere in the orga¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex106 nization. Service companies commonly are organized \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex109 internally in a way that makes providing fast service \line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex101 to the customer difficult for the service employee. When \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 a contact person must get the approval of other de¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 patments in the organization before delive ing a cer¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 tain service, service quality is jeo pardized. Though \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 the contact person may be to tally committed to serv¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 ing the consumer, he o r she cannot peform well be¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 cause control over the service has been dispersed among \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 multipl e organizational units. Finally, perceived con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 trol can be a function of the predictability of demand, \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex122 which is a major problem in service businesses \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex109 (Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry 1985).\par\pard\qj \li20\ri352\s b252\sl-259\slmult0\fi350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Supervisory control syste ms. In some organiza¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 tions, the peformance of contact employees is mea¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 sured by their output

(e.g., the number of units pro¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 duced per hour , the number or amount of sales per \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 week). In these situations, the peformance of indi¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 vidu als is monitored and controlled through what are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 108 termed "output control systems" (Ouchi \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1979; Ou chi \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 and McGuire 1975). Peformance is based on witten \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 records that measure employee outputs . In many ser¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 vice organizations, however, out put control systems \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 may be inappropiate or in sufficient for measuing \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 employee peformance r elating to provision of quality \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 service. For example, most bank customers want bank \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 teller s to be accurate, fast, and fiendly. Banks that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 17 measure teller peformance stictly on output mea-\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\pap erw12260\paperh16780{\bkmkstart Pg9}{\bkmkend Pg9}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\c ols2\colno1\colw6022\colsr160\colno2\colw5938\colsr160\qj \li499\sb0\sl-261\slmu lt0 \par\pard\qj \li499\sb0\sl-261\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li499\ri295\sb207\sl-26 1\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 sures, such a s end-of-the-day balancing of transac¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 tions, o verlook key aspects of job peformance that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 co nsumers factor into quality-of-service perceptions.\par\pard\qj \li508\ri279\sb4 \sl-260\slmult0\fi336 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 In these and other service si tuations, peformance \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 also can be monitored th rough behavioral control sys¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 tems (Ouchi 1979; Ouchi and McGuire 1975), which \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 consist large ly of observations or other repots on the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 way the employee works or behaves rather than output \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x106 measurements. The use of behavioral control systems \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex109 is illustrated by an ongoing "tone-of-service" survey \line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex106 with customers who have recently opened accounts at \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 The Fiendly National Bank of Oklahoma City (Berry \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1986). Customers answer questions about the way they \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 were treated by the customer service re presentative \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 opening the account. Fiendly als o monitors customer \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 service representatives' peformance through ongoing \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 "shopper" research (researchers pretending to be cus¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 tomers) and a cross-sales index. Each month, cus¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 tomer se rvice representatives receive tone-of-service \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 and shopper scores (behavioral measures) and a cross-\line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex110 sales score (output measure). The use of these types \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex108 of behavioral measures encourages employee pefor¬ \line \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex110 mance that is consistent with customer expectations \line \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 of quality service.\par\pard\qj \li513\ri285\sb256\sl -258\slmult0\fi335 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Role conlict. The role attached to any position in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 an organization represents the set of behaviors and ac¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 tivities to be pe formed by the person occupying that \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 position \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 (Katz and Kahn \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 1978). The role is defined \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 through the expectations, demands, and pressures \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 communicated to emplo yees by individuals (e.g.. top \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 managers, imme diate supervisors, customers) who have \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 a vest ed interest in how employees peform their jobs \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 4 (Katz and Kahn 1978). When the expectations of these \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex105 people are incompatible or too demanding, employees \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex107 expeience role conflict, the perception that they can¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 not satisfy all the demands of all these individuals \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (Belasco \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 1966; Riz zo, House, and Lirtzman \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 1970; \line \up0 \expndtw0

\charscalex114 Walker, Churchill, and Ford \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 1977). R esearch has \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 shown that perceived role conflic t is related positively \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 to feelings of job-re lated tension and anxiety and neg¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 atively to j ob satisfaction \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 (Greene and Organ \up0 \expndtw-4\c harscalex100 1973; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Gross, Mason, and McEachem 1957; Kahn et al. 1964).\par\pard\qj \li508\ri283\sb0\sl-258\slmult0\fi350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Because contact employees are the links between \line \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 the company and the consumer, they must satisfy the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 needs of both. Sometimes the expectations of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 company and the expectations of the consu mer con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 flict. For example, conflict occurs wh en an income \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 tax irm expects staff members to process as many \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 consumers as possible in a s hot time (i.e., limits the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 time with consumer s) and consumers want personal \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 attention from the staff (e.g., to discuss tax avoidance \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 st rategies for the future). Role conflict also may occur \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex106 when employees are expected to cross-sell services to \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex106 the consumer; the employees may feel they are push¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ing the services on the consumer and may be torn be¬\par\p ard\column \qj \li6182\sb0\sl-249\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6182\sb0\sl-249\slmult 0 \par\pard\qj \li6182\sb0\sl-249\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li63\ri713\sb21\sl-249\s lmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 tween the company's expectations and the des ire to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 serve the consumer.\par\pard\qj \li44\ri738\ sb12\sl-259\slmult0\fi331 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 The managers of service o rganizations can inad¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 vetently create role con flict for employees through \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 excessive paperwo rk or unnecessary internal road¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 blocks. For ex ample, new accounts personnel in banks \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 who mu st complete separate forms for each service \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 t hey sell to a customer may expeience role conflict \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex107 if other customers are waiting to be served. Does the \line \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex101 new accounts employee take the time to cross-sell bank \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 services to the customer at the desk or simply open \li ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the requested account and move on to the waiting cus¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 tomer? Complicating the issue is the real ity that the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 new accounts employee may be mea sured\u8212?and re¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 warded\u8212?on the basis o f cross-selling achievements.\par\pard\qj \li44\ri743\sb2\sl-258\slmult0\fi340 \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Perceptions of role conflict are psychologically \li ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 uncomfotable for the employee (Kahn et al. \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1964; \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Walker, Church ill, and Ford \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 1977), can have a neg¬ \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex110 ative effect on the employee's satisfaction and per¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 formance in the organization, and increase absentee¬ \lin e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 ism and tunover. A service organization that reco gnizes \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 inherent conflicts in the contact pers on's job will go \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 far in eliminating the distr ess of role conflict. The re¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 sult will be bett er employee peformance and hence a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 reduction of gap 3. Use of peformance measurement \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 syste ms that focus on the consumer in addition to in¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11 5 tenal efficiency goals is one example of how role \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex106 conflict can be reduced. Compensation tied to deliv¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex106 ery of service quality (by measures of consumer sat¬ \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex108 isfaction, loyalty, etc.) as well as sales is another.\par\pa rd\qj \li49\ri728\sb196\sl-258\slmult0\fi321 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Role a mbiguity. When employees do not have the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 info rmation necessary to peform their jobs ade¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 qua

tely, they expeience role ambiguity (Katz and Kahn \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex107 1978; Walker. Churchill, and Ford \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1977). Role am¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 biguity may occur because employees are un cetain \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 about what managers or supervisors exp ect from them \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 and how to satisfy those expec tations or because they \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 do not know how their peformance will be evaluated \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 and rewarded (K atz and Kahn 1978; Walker, Churchill, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and For d 1977).\par\pard\qj \li20\ri739\sb0\sl-258\slmult0\fi355 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex105 Several organizational variables moderate the role \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex102 ambiguity experienced by service employees. The fre¬ \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex113 quency, quality, and accuracy of downward com¬ \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex106 munication are likely to affect the service employee's \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 role ambiguity. Downward communication involves \li ne \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 messages used primaily by managers to direct and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 influence personnel at lower levels in the o rganiza¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 tion. It typically petains to the goal s, strategies, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 objectives for the organiz ation and its depatments, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 job instruction and rationale, policy and procedures, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 and assess ment and correction of peformance (Katz \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and K ahn 1978). The more frequently managers pro¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 vi de clear and unambiguous communication about these \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex108 topics, the lower employees' role ambiguity will be.\par\pard\ql \li365\sb 2\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 The training provided by the organ ization can help \par\pard\qj\pvpg\phpg\posx8462\posy16182\absw2951 \expndtw0\ch arscalex101\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Delivery of Service Quality /\par\pard\qj \pvpg\phpg\posx11068\posy16182\absw345 \expndtw0\charscalex12043\par\pard\sect\s ectd\fs24\paperw12260\paperh16780{\bkmkstart Pg10}{\bkmkend Pg10}\par\pard\sect\ sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6430\colsr160\colno2\colw5530\colsr160\qj \li820\ sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li820\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li931\ri 248\sb142\sl-262\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs2 2 employees gain an accurate understanding of what is \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex104 expected and how they will be evaluated. Training that \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex108 relates to specific services offered by the firm should \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 help the contact person in dealing with the custom er. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Training in communication skills, especia lly in listen¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 ing to customers and understandi ng what customers \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 expect, also should give co ntact personnel greater role \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 claity. All such organizational training programs should \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 affe ct the employee's perceived level of conidence or \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x107 competence, which should result in greater role clar¬ \line \up0 \expndtw-3\c harscalex100 ity.\par\pard\qj \li1329\ri659\sb145\sl-259\slmult0\tx1703 \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex111 P3: The size of gap 3 is related to (a) extent \line\tab \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 of teamwork perceived by employees (-),\par\pard\qj \ li1684\ri647\sb5\sl-260\slmult0\fi28 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 (b) employee-j ob fit (-), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 (c) technology-\line \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex111 job it (-), (d) extent of perceived control \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex106 experienced by customer-contact person¬ \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale x100 nel \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ( \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex140 -), \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex113 (e) extent to which behavioral \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex113 control systems are used to supplement \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 12 output control systems (-), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 (f) extent of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 role conflict expeienced by customer-\line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex105 contact personnel \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ( \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex114 + ), and (g) extent of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 ro le ambiguity experienced by customer-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 contact personnel ( + ).\par\pard\qj \li945\ri588\sb182\sl-254\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex132 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Gap 4: Difference Between Service De

livery \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex132 and External Communications\par\pard\q j \li931\ri273\sb93\sl-259\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosuper sub\cf3\f4\fs22 Media advetising and other communications by a irm \line \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex107 can affect consumer expectations. Discrepancies be¬ \line \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 tween service delivery and external communica¬ \line \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 tions\u8212?in the form of exaggerated promises and/o r \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 the absence of information about service de livery as¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 pects intended to serve consumers we ll\u8212?can affect \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 consumer perceptions of s ervice quality. As shown in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Table 4, we propo se that horizontal communication \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 and propensi ty to overpromise within an organization \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 affe ct the size of gap 4.\par\pard\qj \li864\ri312\sb134\sl-261\slmult0\fi374 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex108 Horizontal communication. Hoizontal communi¬ \line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex102 cations are the lateral information flows that occur both \ line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 within and between depatments of an organizati on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 (Daft and Steers \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 110 1985). The basic purpose of hori¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 zontal co mmunication is to coordinate people and de¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 pat ments so that the overall goals of the organization \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex106 are achieved. If high service quality is to be perceived \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex113 by the consumer, hoizontal communication among \line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex105 departments is necessary.\par\pard\qj \li820\ri324\sb20\sl264\slmult0\fi379\tx868 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 One essential form of horiz ontal communication \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 in service organizati ons involves the advetising de¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 patment (and it s agency) and contact personnel. When \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 communi cation occurs between contact personnel and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 a dvetising personnel (e.g., the contact personnel pro¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex108 vide input to the advetising depatment about the fea¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex104 sibility of what is being promised in advertising), con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 sumers are led to expect what contact personnel can \lin e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 deliver. If communication is not present and adve r¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 tising is developed independently, contact p ersonnel\par\pard\column \ql \li6590\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6590\sb0 \sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6590\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2218\sb2 6\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 TABLE 4\par\pard\ql \li783\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex128 Service Qua lity Management Gap 4\par\pard\ql \li418\sb105\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex109 Theoretical\par\pard\ql \li437\sb0\sl-220\slmult0\tx2958 \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex113 Constructs\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Specific Variables\ par\pard\ql \li97\sb79\sl-230\slmult0\tx2300 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Horizo ntal\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Extent of input by operations\par\pard\ql \li279\sb1\sl-200\slmult0\tx2497 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 communication\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 people in advertising\par\pard\qj \li2290\ri783\sb5 \sl-220\slmult0\fi196 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 planning and execution \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Extent to which contact\par\pard\ql \li2281\ri296\s b4\sl-217\slmult0\fi211\tx2487\tx2487 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 personnel are aware of \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 external communications to \lin e \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 customers before they occur \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex116 Communication between sales\par\pard\ql \li2477\sb2\sl-225\sl mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 and operations people\par\pard\qj \li2285\ri2 62\sb4\sl-216\slmult0\tx2483 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Similarity of procedur es across \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 departments and branches\par\pa rd\ql \li87\sb109\sl-230\slmult0\tx2286 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 Propensity to\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Extent to which firm feels\par\pard\ql \li27 0\sb1\sl-219\slmult0\tx2478 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 overpromise\tab \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex120 pressure to generate new\par\pard\ql \li2473\sb1\sl-209\sl mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 business\par\pard\qj \li2281\ri323\sb0\sl-219 \slmult0\tx2473 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Extent to which firm perceives \lin

e\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 that competitors\par\pard\ql \li2468\sb2\sl-2 20\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 overpromise\par\pard\qj \li6590\sb0\sl-2 62\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6590\sb0\sl-262\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li49\ri235\sb23 \sl-262\slmult0\fi19 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 ma y not be able to deliver service that matches the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscale x114 image presented in advetising. Such lack of com¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex107 munication is illustrated by Holiday Inn's unsuccess¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex108 ful "No Surprises" advetising campaign (George and \line \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex105 Berry 1981). Holiday Inn's agency used consumer re¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 search as the basis for a television campaign prom¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 ising "no surpises" to customers. Top managers ac¬ \ line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 cepted the campaign in spite of opposition by operations \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 executives who knew that surpises frequently occur \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 in a complex service organiz ation. When the cam¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 paign was aired, it raised consumer expectations, gave \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 dissatisfied cus tomers additional grounds on which to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 vent fr ustrations, and had to be discontinued.\par\pard\qj \li44\ri244\sb2\sl-263\slmul t0\fi350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 In the focus group interviews in our explo ratory \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 study, contact personnel expressed the need to be aware \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 of all company communications before th ey run as a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 basis for monitoing and responding to t he consumer's \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 advertising-induced expectations. The y also believed \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 their inputs to the campaign would result in more rea¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 sonable consumer expectations.\pa r\pard\qj \li30\ri257\sb1\sl-263\slmult0\fi355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Serv ice organizations that do not advetise also need \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 ho izontal communication, often between the sales-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 7 force and the service providers. Frequently salespeo¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 10 ple promise more than can be delivered to obtain an \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 111 order. Consumer expectations are raised and cannot \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 107 be met by customer-contact personnel, resulting in an \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex110 increase in the size of gap 4.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri267\sb1\sl-257\slmult0 \fi355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 An impotant aspect of hoizontal communicatio n \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 is the coordination or integration of depar tments in an \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 organization to achieve strategi c objectives (Anderson \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 1984). One obvious for m of coordination necessary \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 in providing serv ice quality is consistency in policies \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 and pr ocedures across depatments and branches. If a \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 service organization operates many outlets under the \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex116 same name, consumers will expect similar pefor-\par\pard\qj\pvpg\phpg\p osx801\posy16326\absw3319 \expndtw0\charscalex104\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 44 / Journal of Marketing, April 1988\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12260\paperh16 780{\bkmkstart Pg11}{\bkmkend Pg11}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\col w6055\colsr160\colno2\colw5905\colsr160\qj \li494\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\q j \li494\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li494\ri313\sb191\sl-260\slmult0\fi4 \ up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 mance across those outle ts. If the company allows \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 managers of individual br anches signiicant autonomy \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 in procedures and polici es, consumers may not re¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 ceive the same level of ser vice quality across the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 branches. In this case, wha t they expect in a specific \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 branch may be different from what is delivered and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 the size of gap 4 will increase.\par\pard\qj \li508\ri307\sb82\sl-259\slmult0\fi331 \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex115 Propensity to overpromise. Because of the in¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex107 creasing deregulation and intensifying competition in \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex108 the services sector, an intuitive explanation for gap 4 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 is that many service firms feel pressured to acquir e \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 new business and to meet or beat competitio

n, and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 therefore tend to overpromise. Speciic ally, the greater \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 the extent to which a servi ce irm feels pressured to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 generate new custom ers, and perceives that the in¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 dustry norm is to overpromise ("everyone else in our \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 industr y overpromises"), the greater is the firm's pro¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 8 pensity to overpromise. We futher propose that pro¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex110 pensity to overpromise is related directly to the size \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex107 of gap 4.\par\pard\qj \li897\ri707\sb144\sl-259\slmult0\tx1281 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 P4: The size of gap 4 is related to (a) extent \lin e\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 of hoizontal communication (-) and (b)\par\pa rd\ql \li1286\sb6\sl-253\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 propensity to over promise ( + ).\par\pard\ql \li1012\sb0\sl-322\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1012\sb102 \sl-322\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex128 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs28 Testing the Extended Model\par\pard\qj \li518\ri313\sb70\sl-261\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 The theoretical constructs we have deived from the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 organizational behavior and marketing literature are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 germane to an unders tanding of service quality shot¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 falls (i.e., g aps \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 1 through 4 in Figure \up0 \expndtw-3\charscale x100 1 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ) and in taking \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex105 corrective action to ensure the delivery of high quality \line \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex108 service. Figure \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 2 is an extended model of service \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 quality, showing the vaious organizational constructs \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and their relation ships to the service quality gaps. Ta¬ \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 bles \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 1 through 4 detail vaiables that can be used to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 operationalize and measure the theoretical constru cts \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 affecting the four gaps.\par\pard\qj \li5 13\ri301\sb0\sl-258\slmult0\fi335 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 We previously dev eloped a multiple-item scale \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 called SERVQUAL (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 1986) to me asure service quality as perceived by con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 sume rs (gap 5 in Figures 1 and 2). The SERVQUAL \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 s cale operationalizes and measures service quality along \line \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex106 ive distinct dimensions: tangibles, reliability, respon¬ \line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex104 siveness, assurance, and empathy. SERVQUAL scores \line \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 along these dimensions can be viewed as indicators of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 the construct of perceived service quality. L ikewise, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 measures of the theoretical construc ts affecting each \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 gap can be viewed as indica tors of that gap. There¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 fore, it is possible t o recast the conceptual service \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 quality model \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (Figure \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1 \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex113 ) in the form of a structural \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 102 equations model wherein perceived service quality (gap\par\pard\qj \li518\ri 311\sb0\sl-255\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 5) is the unobservable depen dent vaiable and the four \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 gaps on the markete r's side (gaps \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 1-4) are the unob¬ \line \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex115 servable independent vaiables. This model can be \line \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex110 tested by collecting data on the indicators of the ive\par\p ard\column \qj \li6215\sb0\sl-261\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li6215\sb0\sl-261\slmult 0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri723\sb217\sl-261\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 gap s through a cross-sectional study of service orga¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 ni zations and analyzing the data with a technique such \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 3 as LISREL.\par\pard\qj \li25\ri722\sb0\sl-258\slmult0\fi335 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex107 In addition to testing the overall soundness of the \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex110 service quality model, future research must address \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex104 several specific questions about the model. Let us ex¬ \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex108 amine these questions and the research steps neces¬ \up0 \expndtw0\

charscalex105 sary to answer them.\par\pard\qj \li6220\sb0\sl-258\slmult0 \par\p ard\qj \li25\ri695\sb31\sl-258\slmult0\fi350\tx3375 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Which of the four service quality gaps is (are) most \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex106 critical in explaining service quality variation? Is one \line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex105 or more of the four manageial gaps more critical than \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 the others in affecting perceived service quality? Can \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 creating one favorable gap (e.g., making gap 4 fa¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 vorable by employing effective exter nal communica¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 tions to create realistic consum er expectations and to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 enhance consumer perce ptions) offset service quality \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 problems stemm ing from other gaps'? To answer this \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 question , measures of each of the four service quality \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex11 0 gaps must be developed. Gap \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1 \tab \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex105 the difference be¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 tween consum er expectations and management per¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 ceptions of consumer expectations, could be mea¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 sured by administeing the expectations section of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 SERVQUAL scale to a set of top managers, then \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 compaing the scores with those obtained from con¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 105 sumers on the same instrument. Gap 2, the difference \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex102 between management perceptions of consumer expec¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex103 tations and service quality specifications, could be op-\line \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 erationalized through questionnaires to top managers \ line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 that measure the extent to which the organizat ion sets \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 standards to deliver to expectations . Gap \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 3, the dif¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ference between service quality specifications and ser¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex114 vice delivery, could be gauged through employee \line \up0 \expndtw0\ch arscalex109 questionnaires that address their perceived ability to \line \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex105 deliver to established standards. Gap 4. the difference \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 between service delivery and what is communicat ed \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 about delivery extenally to consumers, als o would in¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 volve employee perceptions of what they deliver in \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 compaison with what external communication prom¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ises they will deliver.\par \pard\qj \li25\ri700\sb2\sl-257\slmult0\fi345 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 As sh own in Figure 1, service quality as perceived \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 by consumers depends on the size and direction of an \line \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex106 additional gap (gap 5 in Figure \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 1 \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex105 ), which in turn de¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 pend s on the nature of the gaps associated with the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1 05 delivery of service quality on the marketer's side. The \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex110 SERVQUAL scale (or an adaptation of it) could be \line \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex110 used to measure gap 5. Then the relative impotance \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 of the four manageial gaps could be examined em¬ \line \up 0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 piically by means of a multiple regression model.\par\ pard\qj \li35\ri688\sb221\sl-260\slmult0\fi345 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 What are the main organizational factors respon¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 si ble for the size of the four service quality gaps? A \line \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex106 key managerial question involves the relative impor¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex103 tance of the specific indicators in deliveing high qual¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 ity service to consumers. If a marketer could imple¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ment only a few of the many organizational strateg ies\par\pard\ql \li8476\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li8476\sb0\sl-230\slmul t0 \par\pard\ql \li8476\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2281\sb40\sl-230\slmu lt0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Delivery of Service Quality / \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 45 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw1226 0\paperh16780{\bkmkstart Pg12}{\bkmkend Pg12}\par\pard\ql \li5692\sb0\sl-230\slm ult0 \par\pard\ql\li5692\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li5692\sb169\sl-230\slm

ult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 FIGURE 2 \par\pard \ql \li4324\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex128 Extended Model of Se rvice Quality \par\pard\ql \li2299\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2299\sb203\ sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Marketing Research \par\pard\ql \li2 697\sb1\sl-217\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Orientation\par\pard\sect\se ctd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw4980\colsr160\colno2\colw6980\colsr160\ql \li2856\s b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2856\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2856\s b80\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Upward\par\pard\ql \li2476\sb1\s l-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Communication\par\pard\ql \li2208\sb0 \sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2208\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2208\sb4 9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Levels of Management\par\pard\qj \ li2606\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li2606\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \ li2481\ri1048\sb54\sl-230\slmult0\fi124 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Management \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Commitment to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 107 Service Quality\par\pard\ql \li2289\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2289\ sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2644\sb30\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex108 Goal Setting\par\pard\ql \li2289\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li228 9\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2289\sb83\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex108 Task Standardization\par\pard\qj \li2582\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard \qj \li2582\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li2582\ri1144\sb54\sl-230\slmult0\t x2721 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Perception of \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex106 Feasibility\par\pard\ql \li2443\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2443\ sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2769\sb40\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\chars calex101 Teamwork\par\pard\ql \li2443\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2443\sb 0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2443\sb83\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsca lex107 Employee-Job Fit\par\pard\ql \li2342\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2 342\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2342\sb82\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex107 Technology-Job Fit\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard \ql \li2395\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2395\sb78\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex107 Perceived Control\par\pard\qj \li2284\sb0\sl-235\slmult0 \p ar\pard\qj \li2284\sb0\sl-235\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li2284\ri820\sb31\sl-235\slm ult0\tx2812 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Supervisory Control \line\tab \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex113 Systems\par\pard\ql \li2481\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2481\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2534\sb78\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex105 Role Conflict\par\pard\ql \li2481\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ ql \li2481\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2481\sb83\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex105 Role Ambiguity\par\pard\ql \li2716\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\p ard\ql \li2716\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2716\sb78\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Horizontal\par\pard\ql \li2448\sb5\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex109 Communication\par\pard\qj \li2553\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par \pard\qj \li2553\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li2553\ri1159\sb7\sl-240\slmul t0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Propensity to \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Overpromise\par\pard\column \ql \li5160\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5160 \sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li40\sb80\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charsc alex101 Gap 1\par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl-191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl -191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl-191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl -191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl-191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl -191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl-191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl -191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl-191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl -191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl-191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl -191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl-191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl -191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li5140\sb0\sl-191\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri2137\s b20\sl-191\slmult0\fi3926 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Tangibles \up0 \expndtw0\ charscalex107 Gap 2\par\pard\ql \li9062\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li3942\ sb123\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Reliability\par\pard\ql \li681 1\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1796\sb78\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex107 Gap 5\par\pard\qj \li1691\ri1795\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\tx3645 \up0 \expn dtw0\charscalex109 (Service\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Responsiveness \lin e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Quality)\par\pard\ql \li9019\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \ par\pard\ql \li3899\sb97\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Assurance\p

ar\pard\ql \li9100\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li9100\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \p ar\pard\ql \li3980\sb64\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Empathy\par\ pard\ql \li5150\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5150\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\ pard\ql \li5150\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5150\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\ pard\ql \li5150\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5150\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\ pard\ql \li5150\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li30\sb75\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \ expndtw0\charscalex106 Gap \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3\par\pard\ql \li5145\s b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\s b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\s b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\s b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\s b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\s b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\s b0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5145\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li25\sb5 9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Gap 4 \par\pard\qj\pvpg\phpg\posx7 00\posy16278\absw3318 \expndtw0\charscalex10446 / Journal of Marketing, April 19 88\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12260\paperh16780{\bkmkstart Pg13}{\bkmkend Pg 13}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw6118\colsr160\colno2\colw5842\c olsr160\qj \li571\sb0\sl-259\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li571\sb0\sl-259\slmult0 \par \pard\qj \li571\sb0\sl-259\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li571\ri294\sb36\sl-259\slmult0 \fi14 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 implied by the pr opositions, which ones should be un¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 detaken? T o answer this question, several measures \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 are necessary: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 (1) overall measures of the four gaps \l ine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 and (2) measures of the organizational strategy vai¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ables detailed in Tables 1 through 4. Way s to measure \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 the four gaps are discussed abov e. Measures of the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 other factors (e.g., amoun t of marketing research, ex¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 tent of face-to-fa ce contact between top managers and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 customers ) must be developed and then can be related \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 s tatistically \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 (e.g., through regression analysis) to the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 measures of the four gaps.\par\pard\ql \ li571\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li571\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li 571\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li571\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li59 0\sb250\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs2 4 REFERENCES\par\pard\ql \li590\sb112\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex10 1 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 Anderson, Carl \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ( \u p0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 1984), Management Skills, Functions, and\par\pard\ql \li840\sb1\sl-213\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Organizational Performanc e. Dubuque. IA: Wm. C. Brown\par\pard\ql \li844\sb2\sl-215\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw -3\charscalex100 Publishers.\par\pard\ql \li600\sb2\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex109 Aveill, J. R. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (1973), "Personal Co ntrol Over Aversive Stim¬\par\pard\ql \li849\sb1\sl-215\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex102 uli and Its Relationship to Stress," Psychological Bulletin,\par\pard \ql \li849\sb0\sl-211\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 80 (4), \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex105 286-303.\par\pard\qj \li604\ri328\sb7\sl-215\slmult0\tx835 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Belasco, James A. (1966), "The Salesman's Role Revisite d," \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Journal of Marketing, 30 (Apil), 6-8. \par\pard\ql \li590\sb0\sl-206\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Berry, Leona rd L. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 (1986), "Reconciling and Coordinating\par\pa rd\ql \li835\sb2\sl-215\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Selling and Service ," American Banker (February \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex97 12), \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex126 4-\par\pard\ql \li844\sb2\sl-216\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex 95 5.\par\pard\qj \li830\ri336\sb5\sl-215\slmult0\fi585 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscal ex100 , \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Valaie A. Zeithaml, and A. Parasuraman (19 85), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 "Quality Counts in Services, Too," Business Ho rizons, 28 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 (May-June), 44-52.\par\pard\qj \li571\ri 330\sb1\sl-215\slmult0\tx830 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Business Week (1981), "Boosting Productivity at Ameican \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Express

" (October 5), 62, 66.\par\pard\qj \li835\ri342\sb1\sl-215\slmult0\fi619 \up0 \e xpndtw-2\charscalex100 ( \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 1984), "Making Service a P otent Marketing Tool" \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (June \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex54 1 1 \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex82 ), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 164 -70.\par\pard\qj \li580\ri335\sb1\sl-216\slmult0\tx830 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 102 Clist, Todd (1985), "Mariott Philosophies," in Services Mar¬ \line\tab \up0 \e xpndtw0\charscalex105 keting in a Changing Environment, Thomas Bloch, Gre¬\par\par d\qj \li835\ri326\sb0\sl-216\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 gory Upah, and Valaie Zeithaml, eds. Chicago: American \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Mark eting Association, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 13-14.\par\pard\qj \li580\ri309\ sb5\sl-211\slmult0\tx830 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Cromwell, R. L., E. C. But tefield. F. M. Brayfield, and J. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 J. Curry (1971), Acute Myocardial Infarction: Reaction and\par\pard\ql \li575\ri328\sb1\ sl-215\slmult0\fi249 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Recovery. St. Louis, MO: The C . V. Mosby Company. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Crosby, Phillip B. \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex106 (1979), Quality is Free. New York: New\par\pard\ql \li835\sb4\s l-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Ameican Library.\par\pard\qj \li580\r i330\sb0\sl-205\slmult0\tx830 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Daft, Richard L. and Robet H. Lengel (1984), "Information \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Rich ness: A New Approach to Manageial Behavior and\par\pard\qj \li830\ri339\sb0\sl-2 20\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Organization Design," in Research in Org anizational Be¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 havior, Vol. 6, Barry Staw and Larry L. Cummings, eds. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Greenwich, CT: JAI Pr ess, Inc., \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 191-233.\par\pard\qj \li830\ri331\sb0\sl -220\slmult0\fi628 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and Richard Steers (1985), Organ izations: A Mi¬ \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 cro/Macro Approach. Glenview, IL: Sco t, Foresman and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Company.\par\pard\ql \li585\sb1\sl -181\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Davis, J. H. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex 103 (1969), Group Performance. Reading, MA: Ad-\par\pard\ql \li830\sb9\sl-225\sl mult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 dison-Wesley Publishing Company, 78.\par\pard \qj \li585\ri331\sb0\sl-208\slmult0\tx840 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Deshpande , Rohit (1983), "Paradigms Lost: On Theory and \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscal ex103 Method in Research in Marketing," Journal of Marketing,\par\pard\ql \li835 \sb13\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 47 (Fall), \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex102 101-10.\par\pard\qj \li575\ri339\sb0\sl-197\slmult0\tx830 \up0 \expnd tw0\charscalex103 Ford, Neil M., Orville C. Walker, Jr., and Gilbet A. Church¬ \li ne\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ill, Jr. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 (1975) , "Expectation-Speciic Measures of the In-\par\pard\qj \li825\ri344\sb4\sl-215\s lmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 tersender Conflict and Role Ambiguity Ex peienced by In¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 dustial Salesmen," Journal of B usiness Research, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 3 (2),\par\pard\ql \li571\ri319\s b81\sl-172\slmult0\fi254 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 95-111. \line \up0 \expndt w0\charscalex106 Garvin, David A. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 (1983), "Quality on the Line," Harvard\par\pard\column \ql \li6302\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\q l \li6302\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1887\sb154\sl-299\slmult0 \up0 \exp ndtw0\charscalex134 \ul0\nosupersub\cf9\f10\fs26 Summary\par\pard\qj \li44\ri651 \sb0\sl-259\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs22 The intent of our study is to identify a reasonably ex¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex104 haustive set of factors thought to affect the magnitude \line \up0 \ex pndtw0\charscalex107 and direction of four gaps on the marketer's side of a \lin e \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 service quality model (Figure 1). These factors, which \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 mainly involve communication and contro l processes \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 implemented in organizations to m anage employees, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 are reviewed and integrated with qualitative data from \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 an exploratory stu dy. Procedures for testing this ex¬ \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 tended mode l of service quality in a cross-sectional \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 stu dy are detailed.\par\pard\ql \li6278\sb0\sl-216\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6278\sb0 \sl-216\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6278\sb0\sl-216\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6278\sb0 \sl-216\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6278\sb0\sl-216\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li6278\sb0

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