Commom Wealth

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION • Background of Study Since 1960 when Nigeria gained independence from Britain, she has been an active member of the Commonwealth and has hosted two Commonwealth Heads of State General Meetings (CHOGM). Nigeria’s commitment and activeness in the Commonwealth bore fruit with the appointment of Chief Emeka Anyaokwu, as the SecretaryGeneral of the Commonwealth for two consecutive terms of 5 years (1990-2000) during the Kuala Lumpur CHOGM in Malaysia in 1990. The Commonwealth has also cooperated with Nigeria in diverse projects and activities such as sports, education, exchange programmes, capacity building, political activities such as elections monitoring, as well as other areas of common interest. It is therefore on this note that a research on the Commonwealth-Nigeria relations is necessitated.

1.2 Statement of Problem Nigeria had been very active in the Commonwealth until her suspension in November 1995, for gross and flagrant abuse of human rights by the General Sani Abacha-led military junta. However, there is still a dearth of knowledge on the activities of the Commonwealth in Nigeria, despite the numerous programmes being undertaken or funded by the Commonwealth. This study therefore aims to make a conscious attempt at knowing whether Nigeria’s membership of the British Commonwealth has had any direct or indirect impact upon her current level of development or not. As such, a ten-year period from 1999-2009, which incidentally marks ten successive years of uninterrupted democratic governance, shall be studied.

1.3 Research Questions The following shall serve as the research questions a) How has the Commonwealth been able to impact upon sustainable development in her relationship with Nigeria? b) Which specific sectors of the Nigerian economy has the Commonwealth impacted sustainable development?

c) What role does Nigeria’s relationship with the Commonwealth play in her foreign policy?

1.4 Objectives of Study The major purpose of the study is to examine the benefits, if any, that Nigeria enjoyed or is enjoying, by virtue of her membership of the British Commonwealth. The study equally seeks to achieve the following: • To examine how the Commonwealth has aided sustainable development in Nigeria or not. • To find out whether Nigeria is able to play a role in the Commonwealth committee of nations. • To examine the role of the Commonwealth among her member nations.

1.5 Research Hypotheses The following shall serve as the hypothesis for the conduct of this research:

a) That the Commonwealth has impacted upon sustainable development in Nigeria b) That Commonwealth relations with Nigeria has impacted on specific sectors in the economy c) That Nigeria’s relations with the Commonwealth plays an important role in her foreign policy. 1.6 Significance of the Study In this study, attempts would be made to examine the Commonwealth and sustainable development in Nigeria. This study is significant in that its findings would enable Nigerian policymakers, as well as the general public, know how the Commonwealth, under the leadership of Britain has been able to impact Nigeria’s development over the years, from one phase to another. 1.7 The Scope/Limitations of the Study This study will focus on the Commonwealth and its impact on sustainable development in Nigeria. Sectoral study would focus on the academia, social services, and manpower development. The period under consideration would be 1999-2009. The main limitation of this

study is the inadequacy of core and relevant literature on the casestudy

1.8 Research Methodology This study would employ a descriptive analysis method. It entails a logical analysis of relevant literature using descriptive means. This method was chosen due to the fact that the data collection method will be mainly via secondary sources. The secondary method involves data collection from newspapers, magazines, journals, textbooks, and also the internet. It is pertinent to note that the Commonwealth headquarters is at Malborough House, the United Kingdom, and for logistical purposes, a visit would not be feasible. Sources for research materials would include recent newspapers, magazines, journals, textbooks, and also the internet. 1.9 Literature Review Akinrinade (1993) traced the origins of the Commonwealth to the desire of the then British Empire to maintain cordial diplomatic

relations with her ex-colonies, which were swiftly gaining political independence. He further argued that the Commonwealth was never created in the traditional manner, by which statesmen would gather to found an international organization, as was the case with the United Nations, the organization of African Unity, etc. The Commonwealth merely evolved from Britain’s historical ties with her former colonies. He further shed light on the organizational framework of the Commonwealth as he noted that the Commonwealth does not have a charter like most international organizations do. Instead, members subscribe to a series of principles, declarations and statements which include; the Declaration of the Commonwealth Principles (Singapore, 1971), the Gleneagles Agreement (the Commonwealth declaration on Apartheid in Sports, 1977), the Lusaka Declaration on Racism and Racial Prejudice (1979), the Goa Declaration on International Security (1983), the Vancouver Declaration on World Trade (1987), amongst others. These helped define the Commonwealth as a loose association of states sharing similar values, and united by the pursuit of common goals. Before 1965, there was no formal Commonwealth system in place, and the British government, through the Commonwealth Relations Office (CRO), a department of State of the British

Government, acted as a correspondence center for all member states. June 1965 witnessed the formal establishment of the Commonwealth Secretariat, with the appointment of Arnold Smith, a Canadian diplomat, as its first Secretary-General. Adeleke (2004) examined the origins and evolution of the Commonwealth,

as

well

as

Nigeria’s

relations

with

the

Commonwealth vis-à-vis the mutual benefits they enjoy from each other. He also questioned the rationale behind Nigeria’s membership of the organization at independence and the role the organization has played in the actualization of Nigeria’s foreign policy objectives since then. Adeleke, viewed the Commonwealth as the product of the rebellion of French Canadians against the colonial government of the Lower Canadian province. Her Majesty’s government responded to the crisis by appointing Lord Durham, a well known reformist, and Governor-in-Chief of the British North American colonies to investigate the revolt and make policy recommendations. The now famous Durham report recommended granting the province autonomy via self-government. The implementation of the report set the tone for its replication in other colonies, as well as the organization of meetings between the imperial government and the governments of

the dominions- Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Newfoundland. The first of these meetings (also known as colonial conferences) was held in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victoria’s Golden Jubilee. The next meeting was hosted by the Canadian government, thereby setting the tone for the rotational principle in the hosting of the Commonwealth Head of Government Meetings. The 1926 meeting was highly significant for the evolution and future direction of the Commonwealth as it witnessed the demand for independence by South Africa, led by her newly elected Prime Minister, J.B.M Hertzog. Former British Prime Minister Lord Arthur Balfour finally came up with a definition of the relationship between the Britain and her colonies when he described the dominions as “autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, and in no way subordinate to one another, freely associating as members

of

the

British

Commonwealth

of

Nations”.

This

revolutionary definition resulted in greater consensus building and unity amongst the Commonwealth states, thereby furthering peace and cooperation. Oshuntokun (2004) traced the origins of the Commonwealth to 1867, when Canada attained a dominion status. The Statute of Westminster

was passed in 1931, and between then and 1946, the loose union of Britain and her colonies (dominions) was known as the British Commonwealth of Nations. The “British” adjective was removed in 1946 and the association became known officially as the Commonwealth of Nations. It was known as a free association of sovereign ex-colonies comprising Great Britain and some of her dependencies, who had chosen to maintain ties of friendship and cooperation and also recognized the British monarch as their symbolic head. The bonds of friendship within the Commonwealth are very diverse. Whilst some states feel bound by common judicial and educational systems, for others, it is the use of English language as official means of communication. Ties in the commonwealth are further strengthened by trade and investment, sports, currency systems, migration, political association, etc. These links and relations were then further consolidated by the creation of the Commonwealth Secretariat in 1965 in London. Therefore, relations that were initiated between Britain and her white dominions swiftly metamorphosed into a multiracial organization of fifty-four nations and territories, breaking barriers of race, culture, religion, ideology, beliefs, and language. It should also

be noted that the recent addition of Cameroun and Mozambique to the Commonwealth fold has broadened membership beyond historical and imperial links with Great Britain. Nigeria’s

membership

of

the

Commonwealth

after

gaining

independence in 1960 was political/diplomatic and also economically motivated. As at 1959, diverse political leaders such as Chief Obafemi Awolowo, Alhaji Tafawa Balewa had consistently made calls for, and argued for Nigeria’s membership of the Commonwealth. It was believed that this would help give Nigeria a voice in global politics, as well as enable the usage of the Commonwealth as a platform for the advancement and achievement of Nigeria’s foreign policy objectives, which were broadly targeted at the total liberation of Africa from the clutches of colonialism and apartheid. This work exhaustively discussed Nigeria’s relations with the Commonwealth, discussing its origins, as well as foreign policy-related benefits derived due to Nigeria’s membership. Adeleke (2004) attempted and attributed it to national interest, economic motives - trade and financial flow patterns, historic tradition, and elite acculturation and orientation. The Balewa

administration inherited a system that was essentially pro-British in design and orientation; politically, administratively, militarily, judicially, socially, and culturally. Also, the civilian and military elite who assumed power through one means or another were mostly British trained and pro-Western ideologically. The underdeveloped state of Nigeria also necessitated the need to forge closer ties with Britain. The conservative nature of Nigeria’s Prime Minister, Alhaji Tafawa Balewa, meant that less risks would be taken politically and diplomatically, with Britain and the Commonwealth viewed as Nigeria’s most trusted friends in the international system. Nigeria’s comfort in the company of Britain and the Commonwealth was further aided by the latter’s commitment to some vital principles of Nigeria’s foreign policy such as the legal equality of states, the policy of noninterference in the domestic/internal affairs of other states and multilateralism. The only grey area was the continued support of apartheid South Africa by the Commonwealth, an open contradiction of Nigeria’s stand on the issue. The Commonwealth eventually acceded to Nigeria’s repeated calls for South Africa’s expulsion from the organization, although the latter was only suspended.

Awolowo (1960) gave vocal support to Nigeria’s membership of the Commonwealth when he stated that Nigeria ought to take her place in the Commonwealth committee of nations and publicly declare her stand on the ideals of democracy and freedom. He believed that in so far as the Commonwealth did not contradict any of Nigeria’s foreign policy aims and goals, as well as other national interests, Nigeria should join and remain a member of the Commonwealth. It is pertinent to note that Awolowo’s stance on Nigeria’s membership of the Commonwealth helped build popular support for Nigeria’s membership.

Alhaji Tafawa Balewa (1964) shared Awolowo’s view when he added that Nigeria’s relations with Britain will be overshadowed by a partnership, which was the Commonwealth. He believed in the Commonwealth and viewed it as a platform from which Nigeria will be able to effectively reach the world and make a positive contribution to the welfare of the human race. He also saw it as a veritable avenue through which Anglo-Nigerian relations will be further strengthened

with greater political and socio-economic benefits accruable to Nigeria on the long run. Asobie (1993) believed that Nigeria enjoys an overwhelming advantage by virtue of her membership of the Commonwealth. This, he claims, is due to the fact that the Commonwealth recognizes the economic needs and objectives of developing countries and does its best to support them. He further argued that Nigeria should make more attempts at exploiting the vast opportunities (political, economic and otherwise) the Commonwealth presents, and asserts that Nigeria has benefitted a great deal from the Commonwealth, using it to pursue and attain foreign policy objectives such as the dismantling of the abusive apartheid regime in South Africa, the expulsion of colonialism from Southern Africa, as well as other benefits such as obtaining scholarship for Nigerian citizens, diplomatic support on international issues, fellowships and technical assistance from other Commonwealth

member

countries,

access

to

assistance

for

development and rehabilitation of Nigerian industries, access to financial assistance, etc.

Oshuntokun (2004) commended the profitability of Nigeria’s membership of the Commonwealth, arguing in the process that Nigeria has received as much as she has given in her relations with the organization. He further contended that the importance of the Commonwealth

to

Nigeria

cannot

be

overemphasized.

The

Commonwealth is made up by almost two billion people, that is, one in every three people in the world today is a citizen of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth also has a global reach as it has member states in every continent of the world. Its importance lies in its informality. This is a body united by a common language, common legal and political system, and a common educational system. The main focus of the modern day Commonwealth is the advancement of democracy, human rights, and the promotion of sustainable economic growth and social development. In terms of global reach, the Commonwealth is rivaled only by the United Nations. It also serves as a building block in the global search for peace in the world. Nigeria’s domestic interest is also not to be ignored as there are presently over one million Nigerians in England, and many more spread among the other Commonwealth countries. Nigeria is the second biggest market for British goods in Africa and

Britain is the largest foreign investor in Nigeria. Nigeria’s relations with the Commonwealth has been tried and tested, with various challenges being routinely conquered over the years. However, the benefits of being in the Commonwealth with its attendant strategic, economic and political interests far outweighs the disadvantage of breaking this highly mutually beneficial union. Akinyemi (1983), in a speech argued for Nigeria’s withdrawal from the Commonwealth. He contended the wrongness of Nigeria’s continued membership of the Commonwealth as it was contradictory for Nigeria to encourage Francophone African states to sever ties with their colonial masters whilst refusing to do same.

He further

contended that continued relations with the Commonwealth was only overly damaging to the desired objective of breaking all imperial links across the continent. Despite the successes and benefits accrued as a result of Nigeria’s membership of the Commonwealth, there are still some pessimists who argue that there is nothing special about the Commonwealth and there is nothing the Commonwealth is providing that Nigeria cannot otherwise do without.

In line with the focus of this work on the Commonwealth and its impact on sustainable development in Nigeria, Anyaokwu (2000) identified and emphasized the link between democracy and development. He believes that democracy and development go handin-hand, as it is only when there is a fair system of governance, where people can freely express themselves, that development can truly take place. Since May 1999, when Nigeria began a fresh democratic transition, various efforts have been made towards achieving her sustained growth and development, in order for the citizens to begin to enjoy the “dividends of democracy” as promised at the dawn of a new democratic era, tagged the fourth (4th) republic. The newly elected government of President Obasanjo had stressed its determination to create the right political and macroeconomic environment for sustainable economic growth and development and within that framework, economic reform has begun and specific measures in a number of areas have been announced. This work helped outline the importance of democracy in the pursuit of development in any society. It also goes further to emphasize the vitality of the core principles of democracy, especially freedom, as states in the global

system aim towards building societies capable of sustainable development. Obasanjo (2004) shared the same sentiment as Anyaokwu above when he argued that development and democracy (freedom) are intimately linked. According to him, development is as important to freedom, as freedom is to leading a fulfilled meaningful life. He went further, by arguing that democracy and development are mutually enforcing. That is, democracy and development go hand-in-hand. So, where there is democracy, there will be development and vice-versa. Democracy goes a long way in helping to bring development to societies where the core principles of democracy are being upheld, as leaders in power would have a sense of responsibility and accountability to the people that have given them the opportunity to serve by voting them into office. Although this is not exactly the case in many 3rd world countries where “democracy” is being practiced, the developed nations of the world have demonstrated that the belief that democracy and development are not just theories but are practicable and realistic if properly applied in the right environment. This particular literature contributed greatly to this work as helped shed

more light on the development-democracy link as it argues quite convincingly on the nexus between democracy and development in modern societies. Obasanjo (2005) discussed the importance of the Commonwealth to Nigeria and reiterated that the Commonwealth is of strategic importance to Nigeria, and vice versa. Nigeria attaches great importance to its membership of the Commonwealth. On the occasion of Nigeria's admittance as the 99th member of the United Nations, the first Prime Minister, Late Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, publicly declared that “Nigeria is proud of its membership of the Commonwealth”. This means that in spite of our membership of the United Nations, the commitment of Nigeria to the Commonwealth would always be of prime importance. A review of Nigeria’s post-independence history reveals the important roles that the Commonwealth has played in our national life. For example, during the Nigerian crisis of the 1960’s, which eventually led to the Civil war in 1967, the Commonwealth was the first international organization to attempt a solution to the crisis. The then Secretary-General, Arnold Smith, organized the first ever peace

meeting between the government and the leaders of the Biafran secessionist movement in Kampala, Uganda, in 1966. Thereafter, the Commonwealth Organization took a stand to support the maintenance of Nigeria’s territorial integrity. This helped to further strengthen Commonwealth-Nigeria relations in the aftermath of the war. The Commonwealth’s decision influenced the actions and attitude of other international organizations and leading world powers, which contributed immensely to Nigeria’s survival. This literature is relevant to this work in that it helps reveal some past activities of the Commonwealth in Nigeria, showing how it has influenced and helped stabilize the Nigerian political environment, consequently preserving Nigeria’s future as a nation. Another crucial role which the Commonwealth Organization played in Nigeria was its dedication to the Nigerian democratic cause. The return of Nigeria to a democratic system of governance, after numerous years of military rule can be alluded to her Commonwealth membership, as Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth in November 1995 due to her lack of respect for the rule of law, the censorship of the press, and the abuse of human rights, especially with the execution of Ken SaroWiwa and the Ogoni 8. This, alongside

other international sanctions and bans slowly ensured that Nigeria returned to a democratic system, especially with the eventual death of Gen. Sani Abacha in 1998. Anyaokwu (1999) emphasized how the Commonwealth has been able to bring development to Nigeria by consistently pushing for a return to democracy and the rule of law. Consequently, Nigeria was suspended

from

the

Commonwealth

Organization

by

the

Commonwealth Heads of Government Ministerial Action Group (CMAG) and subsequently readmitted, after considerable efforts had been made by the government of the day to adopt and enforce the internationally accepted norm of fundamental human rights. However, this unfortunate episode in Nigeria-Commonwealth relations came to a smooth end with the return of Nigeria to a democratic state on May 29th 1999 and Nigeria consequently resumed her rightful place in the Commonwealth thereafter. He also stressed the Commonwealth’s pride in Nigeria’s return to democracy. According to him, democracy in Nigeria is a fresh start and a victory for democracy, which is a very important and fundamental principle of the Commonwealth. Anyaokwu went further

to state that Nigeria is not alone in addressing the challenges of economic growth and development and Nigeria can expect support from the international community, including the Commonwealth, which had provided assistance in the last transition programme, and still stands ready to work with Nigeria in promoting its fundamental political values of democracy, human rights, the rule of law and a just and honest government. This work exhibited the Commonwealth’s drive for development in her member states, showing areas of priority and interest. Also, the core values of democracy, development and rule of law, and the emphasis upon them as the core ideals of the Commonwealth

organization

are

extensively

discussed

and

reinforced, as they form the backbone of all the Commonwealth stands for. Anyaokwu went further to state that Nigeria may be able to benefit from Commonwealth technical assistance in the area of public service reform and also in reviewing her legislative framework for foreign investment. Support can also be provided to help improve systems that ensure transparency and accountability. He also stated that the Commonwealth is always ready to show her commitment to Nigeria though this commitment would only be shown to states with

democratic systems of government that guarantees the rights of all citizens and the rule of law can deliver long-term political stability, which in turn would provide the basis for sustainable development in a country as pluralistic and diverse as Nigeria. The Commonwealth organization has tried in so many ways, to influence democracy and development not only in Nigeria, but also in other member countries. This goal has necessitated the formation of many

internal

sub-organization

and

committees

within

the

Commonwealth. Some include; the Overseas development Assistance (ODA), the Commonwealth Expert Group, the Commonwealth Reconstruction and Development Programme, the Commonwealth Eminent

Persons

Group

(EPG),

the

Commonwealth

Youth

Programme (CYO), the Commonwealth Observer Group, the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC), the Commonwealth Scholarship Programme, amongst others. These organizations, with different mandates, have been trying, at their various individual levels to effect positive change in their target societies.

Eze (2004) argued that the Commonwealth is engaged in diverse aspects of development such as education, peace and security, democracy, and human rights. According to him, bold initiatives have been taken in the aspect of debt relief and/or cancellation since the 1980’s. Furthermore, the pace-setting Harare Declaration also emphasized the vitality of sustainable development and poverty alleviation. According to him, the Commonwealth places prime importance on issues relating to gender equality, poverty reduction, as well as conflict prevention and resolution. The influence of the CFTC on development is also extensively discussed with particular reference to the aim of promoting economic and social development, as well as the achievement of poverty alleviation in member states. He also discussed the conditions for sustainable development which includes; the peace, security, democracy and political governance initiative, the economic and corporate governance initiative, the human resource development initiative, etc. All these are believed to be capable of bringing about sustainable development if strictly adopted. Eze (2004) also recognized the financial limitation of the Commonwealth as it does not have the wherewithal and resources to cater for all the needs of her member states. He further argued that the

Commonwealth has a limited capacity to have a major impact on sustainable development especially as its major agencies or organization such as the educational facilities, capacity building facilitators and the CFTC, have financial obligations which cannot all be met. Furthermore, he lamented Africa’s marginalization in the process of globalization, as market liberalization and deregulation have tended to promote de-industrialization and undermined our capacity to compete in the global market. He then recommended some solutions which include enhancing the capacity of the Commonwealth to act by reinventing it as a premium organization with greater commitment and practical pursuits of its aims and objectives, reforming the World Trade Organization (WTO) through the G8 members to promote the new partnership envisaged under NEPAD and also promoting peace, conflict prevention, management and resolution. Eze then concluded that the Commonwealth must show that she is truly committed to the cause of her member states and is ready to fight for the common good of all her member states by ensuring equity in the distribution of the benefits of globalization and also, a corresponding burden-sharing of its negative consequences. This literature focused extensively on the activities of the

Commonwealth Organization, highlighting its challenges in its quest to develop and unite Commonwealth member states. It also recommended solutions to some of the challenges of the Commonwealth, as identified in the book. Obasanjo (2005) contended that it is pertinent for the Commonwealth to continue to show solidarity and support to her member states. He believed that for the Commonwealth to remain relevant to her member countries, it must be seen to be contributing effectively to their economic viability by addressing issues of debt, poverty, unfair trading systems, the denial of market access, and the ravages of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. He further went to argue that if all the above are properly implemented, especially in the developing countries of the Commonwealth, the Commonwealth will be viewed as an organization that is committed to her member states and this would inturn

elicit

their

support

and

solidarity.

For

example,

the

Commonwealth organized a Commonwealth-Nigeria Investment conference in Abuja, which signaled the intent of the Commonwealth to help foster economic expansion and development in Nigeria. This would help to further strengthen the relations between Nigeria and the Commonwealth, as well as make Nigeria even more supportive

towards Commonwealth-related activities. This work helped identify certain areas in which it is believed the Commonwealth Organization can give better attention and priority, especially on the African continent. Anyaokwu (2000) also noted that the importance of globalization cannot be overemphasized in today's world, as no country is untouched by the forces of globalization. He then went ahead to state that there can be no denying that globalization is an unstoppable process, but it is essential that the process is managed so that the benefits are distributed more equitably both between and within countries, with special attention given to the developing countries. The Commonwealth Business Forum in Johannesburg and the Durban Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) further articulated the needs of the developing nations of the Commonwealth. He finally stated that the challenge is to seize the opportunities opened up by globalization while minimizing its risks. Anyaokwu further argues that the government must show great transparency in the management of the country's oil and natural gas resources, and reforming its public services. According to him, urgent

action will be needed on the part of the government in dealing with the acute energy shortage in Nigeria, especially of petrol and electricity, and improving its transportation and telecommunications infrastructure. In this regard, private-public partnerships may have a role to play in accelerating infrastructure development in the country. He further went ahead to say that Nigeria is not alone in addressing the challenges of economic growth and development. The country can expect support from the international community, including the Commonwealth, which provided assistance during the last transition programme, and which stands ready to work with Nigeria in promoting its fundamental political values of democracy, human rights, the rule of law and a just and honest government. Anyaokwu also highlighted the fact that the role the Commonwealth has played or is playing in the development of Nigeria cannot be understated. For example, as regards Nigeria’s huge debt profile, the Commonwealth has taken a prominent role in drawing attention to the crippling effect of debt on many countries and has given its support to agreements to provide deeper, wider and faster debt relief, particularly for the Heavily-Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC’s). He finally reasoned that a realistic approach to Nigeria's requirements will help

to advance the country's emergence from an unsustainable position. This work extensively discussed the importance of globalization and its impact on Commonwealth and member state relations, the vitality of transparent leadership by those in political offices. It also touched on issues relating to domestic development, and the need to practice democracy in the real sense of it. Another pertinent issue discussed was debt relief and sustainable development. Adelusi (2006) defined sustainable development as development that not only generates economic growth but distributes its benefits equitably, that regenerates the environment rather than destroys it; that empowers people rather than marginalizing them. It is development that gives priority to the poor, enlarging their choices and opportunities and providing for their participation in decisions that affects their lives. According to him, it is development that is propeople, pro-nature, pro-jobs, and pro-woman. (UNDP; HDR, 1994: P. iii). He views development as an essential component of the ethic of the universalism of life. Douthwaite (1999) defined sustainability as the ability of the world to engage in processes by which all things are produced, and once

established, would be capable of being continued for an indefinite period of time without causing a progressive deterioration in any factor, human or environmental, that they affected or on which they relied. Ogunyemi (2005) argued that the term "Sustainable development" has meant different things to different writers. Whilst some have tended to focus on production and thus narrowly viewed it as a process of achieving a buoyant economy (e.g. Stepanov, 2004; Adesanya, 2004), others who focus on the natural environment (e.g. Taranets & Alyona, 2004; Raheem, Hanninem & Ogunyemi, 2004), believe sustainable development is all about achieving an ecological balance. And yet for others (e.g. Scoullos, 2004; Newman, 2004), the process goes beyond what is expressed in these two constricted standpoints, to include all what mankind and nature require for their survival both at the present moment as well as in the future. It is particularly important to note that there are at least three major groups who employ the term “sustainable development” for very different and often contradictory goals i.e economic, social, and environmental (Goodland and Daly, 2006).

This last definition/view is particularly evident in the popular report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) which asserts that sustainable development is "a process in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations" (WCED 1987, p.43). This particular definition of sustainable development has been amplified to integrate issues of economic growth, social development and environmental security following the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 and the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) of 2002. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 of the Rio Summit underscores the importance of education in achieving sustainability principles or sustainable living. The Rio conference specifically called on all countries to develop and implement an Education for Sustainable Development Strategy by 2002. The World Conservation Union explains that, since Rio and Johannesburg, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has been understood beyond the traditional view of education about sustainability which focuses merely on dissemination of knowledge. Rather, ESD is seen as a process of

adaptive management and systems thinking, requiring creativity, flexibility and critical reflection. And central to this process is learning to access and influence systems for public participation for decision-making (IUCH, 2003). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), (2003) identified four principles or conditions of sustainable

development

(SD)

accompanied

with

associated

educational skills for attaining them. The first condition is "recognition of the challenge"; this requires skills in "learning to know". Secondly, SD demands "collective responsibility and constructive partnership": the skill needed here is "learning to live together". The third condition for attaining SD is "acting with determination"; this calls for skills in "learning to do". The last principle of SD is "the indivisibility of human dignity"; with the educational task of "Learning to be". To implement these principles within the ESD framework, UNESCO (2003) highlights four domains which are basic education, reorienting existing education programs, developing public awareness and understanding of sustainability, and training. It is thus hoped that the implementation of the SD principles

in concurrence with the associated educational tasks, within these four domains, would translate into sustainable living. Sustainable development as an aspiration is global; as an ongoing process, it is local. Gaining inspiration from the Brundtland (WCED, 1987) definition of 1987, sustainable development at the global level is now generally understood as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This has broad appeal and little specificity, but some combination of development and environment is found in most attempts to describe it. The Brundtland commission therefore considered population control, food security, and energy supply as the critical components of sustainability (Charles Hall, 2000). Many in the scientific community have adopted the notion of a sustainability transition, one in which basic human needs are met, hunger and poverty are reduced, all while sustaining the life support systems of the planet. (NRC-BSD, 1999). Douthwaite (1999) in Richard Munck and Denis O’Hearn’s Critical Development Theory questioned the possibility of building a sustainable world. According to him, the wide gulf and deepening

conflict between the developed and developing world has led to the absence of a consensus on the creation of a harmonized global policy that would help engender a sustainable world. He further argued that another reason the global system is unsustainable is because resources are being depleted faster than they can be replaced. As a result, we witness desertification, deforestation, animal endangerment and extinction, as well as a general Tragedy of the Commons. The unsustainability of the world was illustrated with the problems created by the growing use of chemicals alone. According to the United Nations (1997), “The increasing, pervasive use and spread of chemicals to fuel economic development is causing major health risks, environmental

contamination,

and

disposal

problems…..Environmental emergencies involving chemicals appear to be steadily increasing.” In conclusion, it is very evident from the above that Nigeria is still a long way off, if she really aims to achieve the millennium goals and indeed, the seven point agenda of President Yar’Adua, which aims towards rapid growth and development of Nigeria. It is truly unfortunate that after the much celebrated Independence Day on the 1st of October 1960, 49 years on, Nigeria still does not have much to

celebrate about. The sorry state of our infrastructure and economy has prompted the intervention of various international and nongovernmental organizations in various aspects of the Nigerian economy in order to help stem an otherwise negative trend. Thus, this project will be taking a look at the British Commonwealth, and how it has been able to impact upon sustainable development in Nigeria. 1.10 Theoretical framework In this study, the theoretical framework to be employed shall be the development theory. The development theory was adopted because it best captures the essence of this project work, and would provide valuable insights into development in nations. It will also help explain the development phenomena in the pursuit of sustainable development which entails capacity building, and the utilization of resources in such a way as to ensure the sustainability of the environment. In recent years, development programming has been focused on the overriding issues of equity and equality in the distribution of the gains from developmental efforts. A lot of concern has been expressed about the predication of the rural poor and the imperatives of several baseline requirements for human development. These include access

to land and water resources, agricultural inputs and services; including extension and research facilities, and participatory development strategies to tackle rural poverty, with social equity and social participation viewed as essential to well rounded socio-economic development. Development theory emerged as a stable, academic field of inquiry after WW2 when European countries were trying to keep their former colonies at arm’s length. Throughout these years, development theory and practice was strongly characterized by the transmission of moral values from industrialized countries to less developed ones. Development has been primarily measured by increase in the gross national product (GNP). Early development theorists such as Bert Hoselitz, Simon Kuznets, W. Arthur Lewis, etc were among the first economists to begin analyzing development as a distinct subject (Berbantti, 2004:1) This relatively new system has produced concepts such as peoplecentred development, participatory development and sustainable development. The concept of people-centred development emphasizes the need for meaningful development to be human centred, since

development entails the full utilization of a nations’ human and material resources for the satisfaction of diverse human needs. According to Chinsman (1995), a development programme that is people-oriented should achieve the following; •

Enable people realize their potential, build self-confidence and

lead lives of dignity and fulfillment. •

Free people from poverty, ignorance, filth, squalor, deprivation

and exploitation, recognizing that underdevelopment has wider social consequences; and •

Correct existing social, economic or political injustices

The notion of participatory development bridges the interrelated goals of development and empowerment of people. Development has to be designed to capture what the people themselves perceive to be their interests and needs. Development should be understood as a process, not a product. Societies are always changing. Some improve, others degenerate or worsen. Development theory aims at explaining both processes. Development practice intends to provide tools that can be applied to

entire societies or specific communities. Such interventions are intended to move communities or societies from a situation in which they are believed to be worse off, to a situation in which they are assumed to be better off. Critics of development theory such as Jonathan Crush and Arturo Escobar, see development as a set of rational, managerial prescriptions through which industrialized nations have largely imposed their views and models onto the beneficiaries of aid, forcing to some extent, a change in the identities of those who have benefitted (Berbantti, 2004:1). Globalization and development intervention are intended to move societies from a situation in which they are believed to be worse off, to situations in which they are assumed to be better off. However, there is a great deal of contention or argument on what determines who is “worse” and who is “better” (Adelman, 1998:2). In conclusion, if society is to become more sustainable, major alterations will be needed to the nature of government, personnel behavior, ethics and ability to cope with uncertainty. Therefore, societies most sympathetic to the wind of positive change will most likely experience development. Therefore, this framework is

applicable to this work in that it helps bridge the gap between development efforts and actual development and whether such development can be termed as sustainable on the long run 1.11 Outline of Chapters This study would comprise of four chapters, they include: Chapter one comprises of the background of study, problem of research, research questions, research objectives, rationale for study, scope/ limitations of study, literature review, theoretical framework and then research methodology. Chapter two comprises of the history of the Commonwealth in Nigeria and Commonwealth-Nigeria relations. Chapter three focuses on the case study. It comprises of an analysis on the Commonwealth and sustainable development in Nigeria. Chapter

four

comprises

Recommendations

of

the

Summary,

Conclusion

and

References Adeleke, A. (2004), “Nigeria and the Commonwealth” in Ogwu.U (ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos: Printserve Limited. Adelusi, O. (2006), Development Policies and Analysis: A Reader. Akure: Standard Mass Concept Company Adelman, I. (1998), Theories of economic growth and development. PaloAlto: Stanford Press. Akinrinade, S (1993), “Nigeria and the Commonwealth: Quo Vadis?” in Owoeye, J (ed.) (1993) Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan: College Press Limited. Anyaokwu, E (1999), “Nigeria Resumes Full Commonwealth Membership” Retrieved from th http://www.thecommonwealth.org. Accessed on the 28 of Aug. 2009.

Anyaokwu, E (2000), Eye of Fire. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Asobie, H (1993), “Nigeria in International Institutions: Review of Literature and Methodological Issues” in Owoeye, J (ed.) (1993) Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan: College Press Limited Awolowo, O. (1960), Awo: The Autobiography of Chief Obafemi Awolowo. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pg 309. Bolaji, A. (1983), A farewell to policy: Valedictory lecture by Director-General of the Nigerian Institute of International Affairs. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs. pg 14. Chinsman, B. (1995), “Putting people first”. Summit for Social Development 20 February. Douthwaite, R (1999), “Is it Possible to Build a Sustainable World?” in Munck, R and O’Hearn, D (eds.) Critical Development Theory. United Kingdom: Bidles Limited. Eze, O (2004), “The Challenge for Sustainable Development in Africa: What Role for the Commonwealth?” in Ogwu. U (ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos: Printserve Limited. IUCH (2003), Supporting the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005-2015. The World Conservation Union. Switzerland Oshuntokun, A. (2004), “Britain, Nigeria and the Commonwealth”.inOgwu. U (ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos: Printserve Limited.

Obasanjo, O (2004), “Message from the Commonwealth Chairpersonin-Office” in Ogwu, U (2007) Years of Reconstruction: Selected Foreign Policy Speeches of Olusegun Obasanjo. Lagos: National Institute of International Affairs. Obasanjo, O (2005), “The Commonwealth in the 21st Century: Prospects and Challenges” in Ogwu, U (2007) Years of Reconstruction: Selected Foreign Policy Speeches of Olusegun Obasanjo. Lagos: National Institute of International Affairs. Owoeye, J. (1983), Nigeria in international institutions ed. Ibadan: College Press Limited. Sam, E. (1964), Nigeria Speaks: Speeches of Alhaji TafawaBalewa. Lagos: Longman Publishers pg 4-6. Scoullos, M. (2004), “Science, Culture and Education for Sustainable Development”. Paper presented at the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development conference, Braga, Portugal, May 19-22, 2004. UNDP (1990), “Human Development Report,1990”.Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.10 UNESCO (2003), “United Nations Decade for Sustainable Development (January 2005-December 2014): Framework for a Draft International Implementation Scheme”. UNESCO, July 2003. WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development). 1987. “Our Common Future (Brundtland Report)”. New York: Oxford University Press. World Bank (1984), “Towards Sustained Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Joint Programme of Action”. Washington D.C

CHAPTER TWO HISTORY OF THE COMMONWEALTH IN NIGERIA AND RELATIONS BETWEEN NIGERIA AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 2.1 The History of Commonwealth-Nigeria Relations On January 1st 1901, Nigeria became a protectorate of the British Empire, which was the world’s foremost power at the time. By 1914, the area which was formally made up of the Protectorates of Eastern Nigeria, Northern Nigeria and Western Nigeria and the Crown colony of Lagos, was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Nigeria was granted full independence on the 1st of October 1960, under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary system of government, and a substantial measure of self-autonomy for the country’s three regions. The Commonwealth of Nations, usually known as the Commonwealth and previously as the British Commonwealth, is an inter-governmental organization of fifty-three independent member states. Most of them were formerly parts of the British Empire. They co-operate within a framework of common values and goals, as outlined in the Singapore Declaration. These common core values include the promotion of democracy, human

rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace. The Commonwealth was established on 11 December 1931. It is not a political union, but an intergovernmental organization through which countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds are regarded as equal in status. Its activities are carried out through the permanent Commonwealth Secretariat, headed by the SecretaryGeneral; biennial Meetings between Commonwealth Heads of Government; and the Commonwealth Foundation, which facilitates activities of non-governmental organizations in the so-called 'Commonwealth Family'. The symbol of this free association is the Head of the Commonwealth, which is a ceremonial position currently held by Queen Elizabeth II. The formal organization of the Commonwealth has its origins in the Imperial Conferences of the late 1920s (conferences of British and colonial prime ministers had occurred periodically since 1887), where the independence of the self-governing colonies and especially of dominions was recognized, particularly in the Balfour Declaration at the Imperial Conference in 1926, when UK and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in

any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". This relationship was eventually formalized by the Statute of Westminster in 1931. According

to

Asobie

(1993),

Nigeria

formally

joined

the

Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations as soon as it became independent in 1960. As a former colony of the British Empire, close ties were maintained in the aftermath of independence and this encouraged Nigeria’s membership of the Commonwealth, which was to become one of the veritable tools of Nigerian foreign policy, and acted as a means through which some national interests were pursued and achieved. Over the years, the degree of importance Nigeria places on international organizations has varied. From 1960 to 1966, the Commonwealth and the United Nations ranked highest in Nigeria’s official diplomatic thinking and practice. In contrast, from 1970 onwards, the Commonwealth was slightly relegated, with the Organization of African Unity (OAU) gaining Nigeria’s prime attention and focus. Ofuegbu (1978) argued that Nigeria joined the Commonwealth for five main reasons. Adopting David Easton’s systems theoretical

framework, he perceived the Commonwealth as a “structural device within the international environment that exerts considerable pulls on nations and their leaders. One prime reason was the belief that all members of the Commonwealth were politically autonomous and legally equal and thus, Nigeria had nothing to lose, but much to gain by joining the organization. Another reason he held was that Nigerian leaders felt we could benefit from the collective wisdom of the association with its wealth of experience and intelligence, on military and economic matters, as well as the knowledge that technical assistance and financial aid schemes from which Nigeria could benefit, existed under the auspices of

the

Commonwealth.

In

analyzing

Commonwealth-Nigeria

relations, he stated that before 1967, Nigeria’s foreign policy priorities were “the Commonwealth, the world, and Africa in that order”. However, the events of the Civil war “removed the Commonwealth from its dominating position, which it had occupied between 1954 and 1967, and replaced it with a new emphasis on Africa, a more realistic position towards Europe, and a genuine cultivation of the friendship of Russia and Eastern Europe.”

The importance Nigeria places on the Commonwealth cannot be overemphasized, as evidenced by statements from various Nigerian leaders after independence. Awolowo declared that: Nigeria should take her place in the Commonwealth of Nations, and should not hesitate to make clear beyond any shadow of doubt her attitude towards the ideals for which Western democracies stand. In so far as it is compatible with her honest convictions, national interests and her legitimate obligations as a loyal member of the Commonwealth of Nations, she should maintain cordial relations with all other nations of the world… (Awolowo, 1960) According to Odion-Akhaine (2003), Nigeria’s participation and influence in the Commonwealth started immediately after her membership and this was evidenced by the role Alhaji Tafawa Balewa played in the evolution of the Commonwealth’s regulatory mechanism, by suggesting the creation of a charter of guiding principles during the Prime Minister’s Meeting (PPM) in 1964. The Commonwealth hitherto did not have a charter of guiding principles that existed to guide the actions of member states, as well as serve as a sign-post that displays all that the Commonwealth stands for.

Odion-Akhaine further argued that another notable influence of Nigeria on the Commonwealth was in the area of peace-making and reconciliation, as well as the fight against racism and apartheid in Africa, especially Zimbabwe and South Africa. Lagos, Nigeria served as the venue where the Ian Smith led racist government in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) was engaged in talks in January 1966, over the segregation and oppression of the majority blacks in Zimbabwe. The Rhodesian crisis was called a “crisis of confidence about British intentions”, as it revealed Britain’s support for the continued control of Zimbabwe by the minority white imperialists. By 1979, Nigeria increased the pressure on Britain by severing diplomatic relations with Britain, and nationalized the British Petroleum Company Nigeria Limited through decree No. 56 of August 31, 1979. Nigeria also led the fight for the liberation of South Africa from colonialism and apartheid by contributing to the exit of South Africa from the Commonwealth in 1961 and also mobilizing for the boycott of the Commonwealth games of 1986, which was hosted by Britain. This pressure, in conjunction with other frontline states bore fruit as a seven-nation Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group (EPG) was set up in Nassau, in 1985. The group was co-chaired by

Malcolm Fraser of Australia and Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, both of whom made attempts to bring an end to the apartheid system and the restoration of Black majority rule in South Africa. Nigeria’s role during those years was one of democratic engagement, and the South African Question (Rhodesia, apartheid South Africa and Namibia) led to the articulation of some concrete guiding principles that were integrated into the final communiqué of the Singapore summit of 1971; these principles are known as “The declaration of Commonwealth Principles”. They were in essence, democratic principles that could be regarded as the forerunner of the Harare Principles. That declaration stressed in part that: We believe in the liberty of the individual, in equal rights for all citizens regardless of race, colour, creed or political belief, and in their inalienable right to participate by means of free and democratic political process in framing the society in which they live. We therefore strive to promote in each of our countries those representative institutions and guarantees for personal freedom under the law that are our common heritage….. (Singapore, 1971)

Also, Nigeria’s efforts resulted in the general elections of 1979 in Zimbabwe, which established black majority rule under the leadership of Robert Mugabe. 2.2 Nigeria-Commonwealth Relations Commonwealth-Nigeria relations have been relatively straightforward since independence, with the exception of the many eras of military rule in Nigeria which brought about a long period of uncertainty and instability that threatened Nigeria’s political future. Also, the many military interventions in Nigeria’s governance system, as well as the high level of disregard for human rights and the rule of law left many States and international organizations no choice but to label Nigeria a pariah state. Nigeria-Commonwealth relations were most distressed under military rule as Nigeria violated many provisions of the popular Harare Convention and was thus suspended for a period of time under the Abacha administration. Adeoti (2003) examined Nigeria’s frosty relations with the Commonwealth under military rule. He noted that Nigeria’s current civil rule can be partly credited to the Commonwealth, as they helped pile pressure on successive military governments to relinquish their

draconian hold on political power. Nigeria endured military rule for nearly 15 years following the demise of her Second Republic, until May 1999 when the democratically elected government of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo assumed power. The Nigerian political history has weathered various storms, characterized by seven military regimes and two democratically elected governments since it gained independence from Britain in 1960. From 1967-1970, Nigeria fought a 30-month civil war due to a failure of governance at the national level. Also, between 1986-1993, a costly transition programme was initiated by the military regime of General Ibrahim Babangida. It consequently resulted in the election of Chief M.K.O Abiola, the Social Democratic Party (SDP) flag bearer. The June 12, 1993 elections was consensually adjudged to be the most free and fair in the country’s electoral annals, although it was annulled by the Babangida led military regime. The various peaceful protests embarked upon by Nigerians, as well as pressures from external states and organizations through sanctions forced the Babangida government out of power on 27th August 1993. A hurriedly arranged interim government (ING), headed by Chief Ernest Shonekan was put in place to fill the ensuing power vacuum. However, the highly delegitimized

government was declared illegal by a court ruling on October 10 1993 and by 17 November the same year; the military staged a comeback that witnessed the emergence of General Sani Abacha as the head of state. Under the leadership of Gen. Sani Abacha, Nigeria gained widespread international notoriety for her abysmally poor human rights record, which was evidenced by the lack of press freedom, the jailing of Chief M.K.O Abiola, the winner of the annulled 1993 presidential elections, and the hanging of Ken Saro-Wiwa and the Ogoni 9. According

to

Odion-Akhaine

(2003),

Nigeria-Commonwealth

relations were most strained during the regime of Gen. Sani Abacha. Following the annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential elections by General Ibrahim Babangida, Nigeria began the perilous march towards international isolation. Also, the failure of the ING to stabilize the nation, following the persistent challenges of legitimacy and credibility, led to the emergence of Gen. Sani Abacha through a palace coup. The popular demands by pro-democracy activists such as Femi Falana, Prof. Wole Soyinka, Late Chief Gani Fawehinmi, etc and other human rights activists for the revalidization of the June 12 electoral mandate only strengthened Abacha’s resolve to remain in

power. He re-introduced the unpopular decree no.2 of 1984, invented by the erstwhile regime of his past predecessor, General Muhammadu Buhari. This, among other became the fighting tools of his regime. Many journalists, pro-democracy campaigners and human rights agitators were arrested and detained indefinitely without trial. Abacha’s resolve to hold onto power indefinitely became strengthened with the discovery of two coup plots between 1995 and 1997. The duo of General Olusegun Obasanjo and Major General Shehu Musa Yar’Adua, innocent civilians, and some top military personnel in the Abacha regime were accused of complicity in the attempted coup and sentenced to death. The disregard for the pleas by the international community to Gen. Abacha to respect the rule of law and fundamental human rights of Nigerians drew the ire of the International Community, especially the Commonwealth Secretariat in London. The Secretary-General of the body, Chief Emeka Anyaokwu, a Nigerian, rose to condemn the gross violation of human rights abuses and pleaded for fair trial and the release of Chief Abiola and others, who had been unjustly jailed and punished for their role in the phantom coups. He consequently warned the regime to desist from acts of state terrorism or face sanctions,

which may include the suspension of the country from the Commonwealth. However, all these seemed to only motivate Abacha the more and more pro-democracy activists were arrested without trial and human rights fighters such as Pa Alfred Rewane, and Mrs. Kudirat Abiola, wife of Chief M.K.O Abiola were assassinated by state agents. All these led to the labeling of Nigeria as a pariah state by the International Community. The Nigeria-Commonwealth relations suffered a major setback over the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight others of his Ogoni kinsmen. The highly profitable crude oil export Nigeria engaged in was causing extensive and far- reaching damage to humans and the environment in the Niger-Delta, as oil wealth had become a nightmare for the people of the oil producing areas to which Ogoni people belong. However, the fact that they are a minority ethnic group, coupled with the intricacies of the Nigerian political system, helped relegate the Ogonis and their interests to the background. They argued that the wealth being exploited from their environment is being used to develop other areas with no special attention to them, the oil producers.

Ken Saro-Wiwa, who found the Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People (MOSOP) later led a campaign for self determination, as the Nigerian federation was viewed to have failed the Ogonis in their quest for a cleaner, more sustainable environment. Saro-Wiwa’s struggle was hinged on the need for social justice for minorities, equity in Nigerian power sharing, amongst others. The MOSOP campaign was not domestic in nature as the case was taken to the American government, the United Nations, the London Rainforest Group, the Unrepresented Nations, and the special conference for indigenous peoples at The Hague, Netherland. Films and lecture tours on the vast environmental degradation in Ogoniland were also produced. The MOSOP action gained widespread attention when it was able to forcibly stop SHELL operations in Ogoniland, and this action became a recurring event across the Niger-Delta. According to Ake (1994), factional conflict within the Ogoni leadership led to the murder of four Ogoni chiefs, who were suspected of being counter-revolutionaries, by a mob of Ogoni youths and this act led to the arrest, detention, trial and conviction of ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other MOSOP leaders. Also, the persistent pleas for clemency by the International Community, which included the British

Prime Minister, the United States Congress, Nelson Mandela, Robert Mugabe, human rights groups and the international media, yielded no results. It is pertinent to note that international reaction to the brutal killing of Ken Saro-Wiwa and the Ogoni 8 was widespread, witnessing consensual condemnation and the imposition of diverse bans and suspensions from various international organization. This era effectively characterized the dark years Nigeria experienced under military rule and led to the labeling of Nigeria as a “pariah state” in the international system. Nigeria and her leaders were called names. Most notably, Nelson Mandela called Nigerian leaders “irresponsible and reckless”, vowing to call for Nigeria’s expulsion from the Commonwealth. Mr. Robin Cook of the British Foreign Office also supported the widespread sanctions and calls for Nigeria’s expulsion from the Commonwealth, arguing that “Nigeria should not be allowed to return to the Commonwealth because it has not made progress on human rights and democracy since its suspension from the Commonwealth”.

References Adeoti, D (2003), “Nigeria’s Frosty Relations with The Commonwealth: The Abacha Period” in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers. Ake, C (1994) “A people Endangered by Oil” in The Guardian (Lagos), 18 August 1994, P.18. Akhaine,S.O (2003), “The Commonwealth and Democratization in Nigeria” in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers. Anyaokwu, E (2000), Eye of Fire. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Anyaokwu, E (1999), The Missing Headlines: Selected Speeches. Lagos: Heinemann Plc Asobie, H (1993), “Nigeria in International Institutions: Review of Literature and Methodological Issues” in Owoeye, J (ed.)

(1993) Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan: College Press Limited. Awolowo, O (1960), Awo: The Autobiography of Obafemi Awolowo. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, P.308. Britto, R (2003), “Emeka Anyaokwu’s years in the Commonwealth”in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers. Committee for the Defence of Human Rights (CDHR), 1998, “Annual Report on the Human Rights Situation in Nigeria”, P.113-115. “Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group on the Harare Declaration” (1995) Retrieved from: th http://thecommonwealth.org/. Accessed on the 10 of Sep. 2009. “Dates Agreed for Commonwealth Talks with Nigeria” (2009) Retrieved from: http://thecommonwealth.org/ . Accessed on the 28th of Aug. 2009. Mcmintyre W.D (2000), “Britain and the Creation of the Commonwealth Secretariat”, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol 28, no.1, (January 2000), p.143. “Nigeria Resumes Full Commonwealth Membership” (2009) Retrieved from: http://thecommonwealth.org . Accessed on the 26th of Aug. 2009. Ofuegbu, R (1978), The Nigerian foreign policy. Enugu: Star and Printing Company. p.7. Sueni, A.A (2003), “Nigeria-Commonwealth Relations: Problem and Controversy” in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers.

The commonwealth at the summit, communiqués of Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings 1944-1986 (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, Malborough House, 1987), p.156. The Nation Newspapers, Dateline Nigeria pdf in The Nation disk databank commemorating Chief M.K.O Abiola 2009.

CHAPTER THREE THE COMMONWEALTHAND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA (1999-2009) 3.1 Establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations Keone (1988) defined international institutions as related complexes of rules and norms identifiable in space and time. Mearshermer (1994) however defined an institution as “a set of rules that stipulate the ways in which states should cooperate and compete with one another. International institutions prescribe acceptable forms of state behavior and proscribe unacceptable kinds of behavior”. According to Faseke (2003), the modern Commonwealth which is dated to 1949 had its roots in the British Commonwealth of Nations with its origins in the British Empire. With the first colony in the Irish Pale in 1169, the English steadily acquired more territory until the British Empire covered a quarter of the globe, comprising the United Kingdom, Bermuda (1512), the thirteen American colonies (1514), St. Christopher (1623), Barbados (1626), Nevis (1628), Bahamas (1629), and Antigua and Montserrat (1632). Others were Jamaica (1655), the

Virgin Islands (1713), Dominica (1763), St. Vincent and Grenada (1763), Ceylon (1798), Guyana (1814), the Seychelles (1814), Burma (1824), India (1828), Aden (1839), Australia (1840), New Zealand (1840), the Falkland Islands (1842), Hong Kong (1842), South Africa (1845) and Singapore (1854). Also there were Lagos (1861), the Fiji Islands (1874), Cyprus (1878), Northern Nigeria (1885), Trinidad and Tobago (1889), Uganda (1890), Mauritius (1890), Malaya (1895), Egypt (1898), Tangayika (1919) and Kenya (1921). At its height in the early 1900s, the British Empire included over 20 percent of the world’s land area and more than 400 million people (Encarta Encyclopedia 2009). It is pertinent to note that a crucial step in the evolution of the Commonwealth was taken in the 1840’s, with the adoption of the now famous Lord Durham report that resulted in the acceptance of the popular demand for self-government in Canada and thus laid the foundation for the emergence of the first Dominion in 1867. By 1914, all the other colonies of settlement including Australia (1902), New Zealand (1907) and South Africa (1910) had also achieved Dominion status. A dominion status implies a self government status and a considerable degree of freedom in their foreign relations.

The 1917 Imperial War Conference recognized the Dominions as autonomous nations within an imperial Commonwealth. The Imperial Conference of 1921 recognized the dominions as autonomous nations. However, until 1926, the term British Commonwealth of Nations was synonymous with the British Empire. The report of the Inter-Imperial relations Committee of the 1926 Imperial Conference generally known as the Balfour report referred to the dominions as “autonomous communities within the British Empire, which were freely associating as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations” Faseke (2003). The relationship between the United Kingdom and the Dominions was clearly defined in the aftermath of the Imperial Conference of 1926, with the adoption of a statement that read as follows: They (dominions) are autonomous communities within the British Empire equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs though united by a common allegiance to the Crown and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations…. Faseke (2003)

According to Babawale (2004), the modern origins of the Commonwealth could be traced to the London Declaration of 1950, which allowed the acceptance of the British Monarch as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth regardless of the constitutional provisions of member states. Also, the adoption of a set of principles, which serve as operative guidelines for the Commonwealth, helped create a sense of purpose and unity within the association. Article 1 of the Commonwealth clearly states that the Commonwealth shall operate solely on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its members. Article 2 of the Commonwealth provides for the following objectives: •

Cooperation in political, economic, ecological, humanitarian,

cultural and other fields; •

Comprehensive and well-balanced economic and social

development of the Member States within the framework of a common economic space, inter-state cooperation and integration; •

Ensuring

human

rights

and

fundamental

freedoms

in

accordance with the universally recognized principles and norms of international law;

•

Cooperation among the Member States in safeguarding

international peace and security; •

Implementing effective

measures for the reduction of

armaments and military expenditures, for the elimination of nuclear and other kinds of weapons of mass destruction, and for the achievement of universal and complete disarmament; •

Promoting free communication, contacts and free movements

within the Commonwealth for the citizens of the Member States; •

Mutual judicial assistance and cooperation in other spheres of

legal relationships; •

Peaceful settlement of disputes and conflicts among the States

of the Commonwealth. According to Faseke (2003), another significant step in the evolution of the Commonwealth began with the independence of India in 1947. India decided to adopt a republican constitution although they still maintained their link with the Commonwealth. In 1949, the phrase “common allegiance with the crown” was dropped. This singular action opened the door for newly independent and sovereign states to

join the associations. Some States that consequently joined included Ghana (former Gold Coast, 1957), Malaysia (1957), Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Cyprus (1960), Tanganyika (1961), etc. Also both Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia gained their independence in 1964 and came to be known as Malawi and Zambia respectively. Others such as Bangladesh joined in 1972, Papua New Guinea (1975), Seychelles (1976), Solomon Islands, Tivulu, and Dominica joined in 1978. States such as Tonga, Western Samoa and Fiji joined in 1970. Cameroun and Mozambique joined in 1989 and 2000 respectively. Today, the Commonwealth is made up of fifty-four sovereign countries, their dependencies, and two special members- the island nations of Nauru and Tuvalu (Microsoft Encarta premium 2009). In conclusion, it is instructive to note that despite the numerous threats to the existence of the organization, it has continued to survive and thrive in a largely instable and competitive international system. 3.2 The Commonwealth and Sustainable Development in Nigeria The task of attaining sustainable development in Nigeria is one that demands the concerted efforts of the Nigerian government, Nigerian citizens, and the support of various supranational organizations. The

Commonwealth has emerged as an invaluable partner in Nigeria’s quest for development, often providing the much needed external support in the drive for growth and development various sectors of the nation’s economy. The Commonwealth, which encompasses one-third of humanity, and a diversity of cultures, has over the years attempted to respond in a profound and decisive manner to the concerns of its members as much as it has done to the changes in the international system. Through consensus, dialogue, faith and commitment to shared goals, the Commonwealth is truly global and consistent in its values of promoting social equity, equality, development, respect for human rights and good governance. The work of the Commonwealth in the areas of good governance and the promotion of human rights, economic development, civil society, networking,

democratic

consolidation, human resource development and capacity building, only makes it an invaluable ally in the quest for Africa’s renewal (Ugwu, 2003). Abubakar (2003) echoed Ugwu’s (2003) sentiments arguing that the Commonwealth has always demonstrated its commitment to ensuring

economic cooperation and social liberation for its member countries, also helping to tackle the challenges of military dictatorship, totalitarianism and all forms of autocratic rule. The pervasive hunger, poverty, disease and growing threats of terrorism only makes the necessity of a multilateral framework as the Commonwealth even more imperative. McKinnon (2003) commended Nigeria’s steady strides towards attaining development, noting that aspirations and challenges on the African continent have moved on from political liberation to issues of democracy and good governance, economic and social development, trade, aid, the impact of globalization and stemming the threat posed by HIV-AIDS. He argued that the Commonwealth is one of Nigeria and Africa’s best friends and advocates in the mobilization of international support for its economic and social development, including the critical issues of trade access, the scourge of HIV-AIDS and also, bridging the digital divide. The establishment of the CFTC (Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation) has also aided the production of core personnel in many member countries, providing training and expertise in core areas such

as jurisprudence, economy, and science and technology. He further added that whilst development is not necessarily a prerequisite for democracy and vice-versa, democracy is more likely to succeed in conditions of economic growth and prosperity than in situations of widespread poverty and economic decline. Similarly, development is more likely to occur and to be sustainable in conditions of democratic accountability, the rule of law and good governance. 3.2.1The Commonwealth and the Educational Sector in Nigeria The

educational

development

of

member

countries

of

the

Commonwealth has always been of paramount interest to the organization, as it has proven to be invaluable forum through which human capacity is built and developed. The Commonwealth of Learning is reputed to be the world’s only intergovernmental organization solely concerned with the promotion and development of distance education and open learning. The creation of the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) in 1987 was to mediate the major challenges related to learning and skills development, which are vital for living, and the improvement of livelihood. Developing conceptual frameworks,

influencing

policy,

enabling

technology-mediated

learning, and strengthening networks and partnerships are some of the strategies that COL uses for promoting learning and skills for agricultural development, poverty alleviation, and environmental protection. In this context, COL aims at building individual and institutional capacity in the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) combined with open and distance learning (ODL) in the way of technology-mediated open and distance education (TechMODE). According to the Commonwealth Education Steering Committee, Nigeria and Pakistan represents one-third of the Commonwealth outof-school population numbering about 75 million children. This therefore necessitates a special state status, and a comprehensive plan of action in order to curtail the abnormal trend especially in Nigeria’s Northern states, where education is not really a priority. Also, 85 per cent of children out of school in the Commonwealth live in just six countries: Ghana, India, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria and Pakistan. Sixty per cent of these were girls, and these countries account for 30 per cent of the global total of children who do not attend school. In all, there are 27 million primary aged children out of school in Commonwealth countries (Malinga, 2007)

In Nigeria, teacher training institutions and other schools are building up and introducing new eLearning programmes. Organisations such as National Teachers’ Institute and the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) are launching ambitious eLearning initiatives to upgrade the qualifications of in-service teachers. COL is supporting these initiatives by providing training in instructional design, audio and video script writing, video production and designing eLearning materials, as well as advocacy, facilitating partnerships and quality assurance (Daniel, 2009). The goal of achieving sustainable development in the education sector in Nigeria cannot be achieved using only conventional and traditional methods. Open and distance learning offers the promise of fashioning new techniques, new technologies and new approaches to this end. Also, Nigeria must produce 40,000 teachers annually for the next ten years in order to cope with the huge growth in student population nationwide. The National Teachers' Institute, Open University of Nigeria and the Commonwealth of Learning are partners in meeting this formidable and ambitious objective (Perinbam, 2003).

The absence of a national policy on ICT in education is an impediment to the achievement of sustainable development in the educational sector in Nigeria. The Ministry of Education created its ICT

department

in

February

2007,

notwithstanding,

several

government agencies and other stakeholders in the private sector have initiated ICT-driven projects and programmes to impact all levels of the educational sector. The challenge is the lack of electric power and telecommunications infrastructure in a substantial part of the country. Mobile telecommunication currently covers 60% of the national territory, but mobile telephone companies generally power their base stations using electric power generators since the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) is unable to supply them with regular power. This phenomenon is prevalent nationwide and constitutes the bottleneck to effective countrywide deployment of ICT in education (Agyeman, 2007). The Commonwealth also aims to develop education not only in Nigeria but also, in other Commonwealth countries by organizing events and competitions such as the annual Commonwealth Writers’ Prize which have been won by six Nigerians at different times, the Commonwealth Arts and Craft awards, the Commonwealth Short

Story Competition, the Commonwealth Education Good Practice Awards, the Commonwealth Youth Programme Art Competition, etc. These competitions serve as a veritable avenue through which the abilities of youths can be positively built-up and enhanced. Some of these competitions have been won by Nigerians such as Sonde Emmanuel (CYP Art Competition), Habiba Magaji (Commonwealth Essay Competition, 2005), Bolatito Eweoya and Uchechukwu Oniyishi also won the Commonwealth Arts and Craft awards in 2003. Also, Nigeria's Kachi Ozumba emerged as the winner of the Africa regional prize of the 2009 Commonwealth Short Story competition. His story, The one-armed thief, was adjudged as the best from the region in the yearly competition. Three other Nigerians were named in the ‘Highly Commended' category. They include, Ayobami Adebayo for his story ‘Dreams', Akinwumi Akinwale for LIFO and Mbofung Carlang for ‘The Father's blessings'. Uwem Akpan’s Say You're One of Them also won the 2009 Commonwealth Writers' Prize, whilst Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus won the same award in 2005

The Good Practice awards were also introduced in 2005, to identify and reward a number of worthy projects during the year-long period of adjudication. Good practices are regarded as projects, policies, strategies or significant interventions which have made a positive difference to primary school children and their teachers or to the school system of a country. A number of Nigerian schools and institutions have been recipients, including the Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, for their Innovation Enterprise Empowerment training Programme (IEEP), Youth Cultural Association of Nigeria for empowering youths through information and education, the Federal Polytechnic Kaura Namoda, for improving quality in education, Federal Polytechnic, Nekede, for improving quality in education through Information & Communication Technology, Federal Ministry of Education, Federal Secretariat, for achieving Universal Primary Education in Nigeria, University of Ilorin for mitigating the impact of HIV/AIDS, University of Ilorin for their Centre for Supportive Services for the Deaf, amongst many others. In evidence of the Commonwealth’s interest in educational development in Nigeria and other African states, the Commonwealth Teacher Recruitment Protocol was adopted in 2004 to advocate for the

rights of teachers to migrate internationally, on a temporary or permanent basis, while also ensuring the protection of the integrity of national education systems and to prevent the exploitation of the scarce human resources of poorer countries (Degazon-Johnson, 2008). It also made provisions for the creation of a well-managed programme of teacher exchanges and of trade in skills to boost professional development of teachers as well as strengthen and enrich education systems. They also called for the development of a code of professional ethics for teachers as a means of strengthening their status, as well as the implementation of a leadership development programme for school managers and administrators. In furtherance of the Commonwealth’s commitment to Nigeria, an expert was provided on behalf of the Commonwealth Secretariat to the Psychiatric Hospital in Yaba, Lagos, to establish a School of Occupational Therapy and to train local experts. The Psychiatric Hospital in Yaba is known for its specialist care but the number of qualified occupational therapists in public hospitals has declined despite an increase in demand for care, particularly care related to drug abuse and poverty-related stress. The project helped address the

national

shortage

of

occupational

therapists

(www.thecommonwealth.org). Although school enrolments and teacher supply have expanded significantly since the Dakar Forum on Education for All in 2000, many challenges remain. Net enrolment ratios in primary school are still in the range 60–90% in developing Commonwealth countries, including Nigeria. The situation is particularly critical in Sub-Saharan Africa which projects a requirement of 4 million teachers in 2015, up from 2.4 million in 2004. The increased need for teachers is dramatic, especially in Nigeria, witnessing an increase from 580,000 to 706,000. Also, a significant portion of Nigerian teachers are untrained with a reported 44% of the teacher population (www.col.org/openschooling). Schemes such as the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (CSFP) have also helped individuals and countries into prestigious educational heights and it is envisaged that a revision of the CSFP can help a greater number of beneficiaries through awards, grants, scholarships, and other forms of motivation and support tools (Agwu, 2004). Also, a total of 37 Nigerian Universities (federal and state-

owned) are under various forms of Commonwealth-sponsored Masters/PHD scholarships. In conclusion, the work of the Commonwealth Secretariat, the Commonwealth

of

Learning

(COL),

the

Association

of

Commonwealth Universities (ACU), the Commonwealth Foundation, the Commonwealth Institute, the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (CSFP), and many other non-governmental community based organizations within the Commonwealth constitute invaluable assets through which sustainable development in the educational sector in Nigeria and other member countries can be achieved. 3.2.2 The Commonwealth and the Sports Sector in Nigeria. Sports, is a key part of the Commonwealth’s identity. Commonwealth Heads of Government have recognized the benefits of physical activity and the importance of sport as an effective instrument for social

and

economic

development.

Regular

meetings

of

Commonwealth Ministers of Sport are usually held to increase Commonwealth collaboration in this important area. The last meeting was held in Melbourne on 14 March 2006 where Ministers agreed to

promote: the health benefits of sport and physical activity, promote education through sport, use sport to develop leadership and participation in the community, and also build inclusive communities through sport. The Commonwealth Secretariat, through its Sports Adviser, is taking forward this work in collaboration with Ministers of Sport and the Commonwealth Advisory Body on Sport (CABOS). The Commonwealth Games have been described by SecretaryGeneral Don McKinnon as the “biggest manifestation of the Commonwealth in action”. Usually referred to as the “Friendly Games” it is an important event on the global sporting calendar and it serves as a means through which unity and cooperation is fostered within and among the Commonwealth states. In Nigeria, much has been achieved through the use of sport as a means through which manpower development is achieved. Over the years, Nigeria has been successful at the Commonwealth games, which are held every four years. Nigeria has been competing in the Commonwealth Games since 1950, and has won a total 143 medals. It is also pertinent to note that Yusuf Alli, a Nigerian, holds the Commonwealth Games Men's Long Jump record with a jump of 8.39

metres at the Auckland Games in 1990. Another Nigerian, Emmanuel Ifeajuna established a games high jump record of 6ft 8in in 1954 (Falode, 2003). This shows that if given the opportunity, youths can use sports as a springboard for successful careers in their chosen fields. The Commonwealth Games helps in the discovery and nurturing of fresh talents into world beaters in their areas of expertise. The games also serve as an avenue for networking and exchange of ideas between sport managers and their counterparts from other Commonwealth countries. In conclusion, the use of sports as a means of achieving sustainable development is a step in the right direction, as it helps nations and their citizens to focus their energies in a positive direction, helping to foster peace and cooperation amongst states and societies.

3.2.3 Development through Technical Cooperation and Assistance in Nigeria

Technical cooperation and assistance has been a very core aspect of inducing sustainable development in any society, as it entails bringing in experienced and well-trained individual who will share knowledge and other forms of technical know-how to a target population in order to facilitate effective transfer of knowledge, which can then be further shared with others, thereby eventually creating a pool of well trained and skilled manpower over a period of time. The Commonwealth has a number of schemes and programmes that specialize in providing technical cooperation and technical assistance. However, this was only due to the successful cooperation of Commonwealth scientists during World War II (1939-1945), and thus gave tremendous impetus to the Commonwealth scientific cooperation in the aftermath of the war. By 1964, the Commonwealth Scientific Committee (CSC) was created, providing assistance in science and technology to developing countries. They also carried out explorative studies and projects in response to specific request in areas such as energy storage, impact of tropical dams, scientific and technical information processing, etc (Nyityo, 2003)

The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation (CFTC) is the principal means by which the Commonwealth Secretariat delivers development assistance to member countries. One of the ways the Secretariat uses the CFTC is to place experts - from environmental economists to high court judges and law revision experts - in developing countries to help governments enhance public services in a variety of sectors. In 1971, the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) was established as a multilateral fund. While it was not set-up to provide specific assistance to developing states, it steadily evolved by responding to identified needs, mounting programmes, organizing workshops and providing consultants and other personnel to developing countries in areas such as resource management (maritime boundaries and fisheries, terrestrial and marine resources, tourism resources, etc); science and technology (waste management, water resources, mineral resources, coastal zone management, biodiversity, forestry, information technology, technology management, climate change and agriculture, etc); human resource development and capacity building (education, regional capacity building and specialized training); management and administration (institutional

development and management skills, administrative and management reform); legal and constitutional matters; youth and sustainable development (Sutton 2001). In Nigeria, technical cooperation and assistance under the auspices of the Commonwealth have had invaluable impacts. For example, Mr Abhay, is a former Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation expert

based

at

Nigeria’s

Economic

and

Financial

Crimes

Commission (EFCC) Training and Research Institute. He was posted to Nigeria for a two-year assignment from September 2007 following a request by the Nigerian Government for CFTC assistance to help tackle corruption. At that time, Nigeria scored just 2.7 out of 10 in Transparency International’s survey of perceptions of corruption worldwide. Mr Abhay, an Indian national, was formerly the InspectorGeneral of Police in the Indian state of Orissa, where he was also responsible for anti-corruption activities, including contributing to the drafting of Orissa’s Anti-Corruption Action Plan. From 1996 to 2003, he worked in India’s Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), including a role supervising and reviewing prosecutions of high-value bank frauds. From 2001 to 2003, Mr Abhay headed the CBI. He has trained more than 200 investigators, law enforcers and prosecutors at the

EFCC Training and Research Institute, as well as officials from other enforcement agencies, helping develop substantial capacity for investigation

and

prosecution

by

our

law

enforcement

agencies(www.thecommonwealth.org) Also, in response to the huge shortage of occupational therapists in Nigeria, an expert was provided by Commonwealth Secretariat through the CFTC to the Psychiatric Hospital in Yaba, Lagos, to establish a School of Occupational Therapy and to train local experts. This singular act has aided the emergence of more newly trained manpower who will serve the need of the citizens as relates to medical care (www.thecommonwealth.org). The Commonwealth Telecommunications Organization (CTO) is an international development partnership between Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth

governments,

business

and

civil

society

organisations. It provides the international community with effective means to help bridge the digital divide and achieve social and economic development, by delivering to developing countries unique knowledge-sharing programmes in the use of information and

communication technologies (ICT) in the specific areas of telecommunications, IT, broadcasting and the internet. The Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation (CTO) has also

provided

technical

assistance

to

Nigeria,

through

the

Entrepreneurial Strategies for Stimulating Telecommunications Market Development, which aims at curbing the prevalent unemployment rates by training youths and providing opportunities to interested entrepreneurs in the telecommunications sector. They also aim to enhance ICT access in developing countries, by focusing on entrepreneurship

at

the

retail,

consumer-oriented

end

of

telecommunications. The proliferation and success of privately owned and operated “telecentres”, or telephone shops, in Senegal and the Gambia

has

necessitated

their

export

to

other

countries

(Commonwealth African Rural Connectivity Initiative-COMARCIExecutive Summary and Conclusions.pdf, 2009). The CTO also has the goal of ensuring faster access to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) connectivity for most Africans due to the current nature of the dynamic global knowledge society. The affordable use of ICTs in Africa is critical, as it will to improve

the delivery of governmental and business services to isolated communities, and also help achieve the core objective of empowering people through literacy, education, knowledge, employable skills, poverty reduction and wealth creation. It is these developmental objectives that have driven the creation of the COMARCI. It is interesting to note that a total of $12 billion dollars has been earmarked for ICT development in Nigeria and the rest of Africa (thecommonwealth.org). Also, the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) is currently working on a radio facility donated by the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) and will start airing some of their courses using that medium within the next six months. COL is also providing engineers and other technical staff who will train and supervise Nigerians for a period of time, thereby impacting technical know-how. The Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP) for Africa has also aided human resource development efforts in Nigeria by offering professional training courses in Development through the Youth Work Education and Training Programme. The CYP Diploma course and other short courses relevant to the development of youth in

development skills are fully focused on youths. The Commonwealth Diploma in Youth in Development Work is an 18- month distant education course covering various development needs of working with young people and development in general. In Nigeria, the University of Abuja has been teaching the CYP Diploma Programme, with the CYP providing support in the training and development of youths in capacity development. Prof. Mabel Evwierhoma (Director, Development Centre) added that young people continue to face many challenges e.g. HIV and AIDS, unemployment and teenage pregnancies which education could help curb (thecommonwealth.org). In conclusion, the pursuit of the achievement of the aim of sustainable development and the millennium development goal (MDG’s) is not the sole preserve of the government of Nigeria alone, and as such, the Commonwealth through its various specialized agencies have become reliable partners with which the goals of achieving literacy, ICT access, capacity building and manpower development, economic development, etc can be achieved.

3.2.4 The Commonwealth and the Economy of Nigeria In pursuit of achieving sustainable development in member countries, the Commonwealth recognizes that the growth and development of the economies of countries must be achieved. It is also imperative to note that more than 70% of the Commonwealth’s member countries have been labeled as “developing” or “third world” countries by global institutions such as IMF and the World Bank. Also, more than half of the Commonwealth’s member countries are recognized as third world countries globally, and the growing gulf between the developed and developing countries, as well as the rich and poor within the Commonwealth,

had

necessitated

the

formation

of

diverse

organizations with the common goal of achieving development in the economies of member states (thecommonwealth.org). The Commonwealth, through its various agencies has also provided technical assistance and specialized training, with the aim of improving the economy in Nigeria. The Secretariat aims to strengthen policies and systems that support economic growth in member countries. They also help Commonwealth countries take advantage of

opportunities for economic growth and improve their ability to manage their economic development in the long-term. The Secretariat’s ability to provide cost-effective assistance and its role as a reputable broker in delivering policy analysis and advice are highly valued across the Commonwealth, particularly by small states and developing countries. They have a track record of brokering policy and negotiating positions among Commonwealth countries on international economic and financial issues. For example, in promoting successive stages of debt relief in the international system, UK's Department for International Development (DFID) , with whom the Commonwealth Secretariat collaborates in the area of debt management and capacity-building programme in debt management, helped Nigeria establish a debt management office and reconcile its external debt database. Nigeria negotiated an unprecedented deal with the Paris Club in October 2005, under which US$18 billion of debt owed to the group of creditors was cancelled. The Secretariat's inputs and the Commonwealth Secretariat Debt Recording and Management System (CS-DRMS) were essential to the project's success (www.thecommonwealth.org).

Since 2005, the Secretariat has been actively involved with the Debt Management Office (DMO) in Nigeria. A number of training workshops to sensitise policy-makers on best practices in public debt management and on the use of the Secretariat’s prime innovation, the debt recording and management system (CS-DRMS). Available in English and French, CS-DRMS is in use in some 54 countries within and beyond the Commonwealth; where governments are successfully using the tool to more effectively manage debt, on-lending by governments and external grants, and to evaluate new borrowings in a scientific manner. The system enables countries to record and analyse their external and domestic debt flows to the private and public sectors (www.thecommonwealth.org). It is also pertinent to note that the Commonwealth has pursued and promoted economic development in Nigeria by helping in the fight against corruption. Corruption has been identified as one of the leading obstacles to political, economic and social development. It undercuts the rule of law and weakens the institutional bases of good governance, upon which continued growth and development of the nation depends. Corruption continues to pose a significant problem for a number of Commonwealth countries. Nineteen Commonwealth

member states are ranked in the bottom half of Transparency International’s 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index and Nigeria, Bangladesh, Kenya, and Tonga occupy positions in the bottom 30 ranks of the Index. It is estimated that corruption has cost Nigeria over US$400 billion, which is equivalent to approximately two thirds of the total amount of aid given to Africa since the 1960’s. However, with various schemes for such as the CFTC, and the Commonwealth foundation, exchange programmes have been organized, enabling Nigeria to groom her own detectives who now engage in the detection and prevention of economic crimes and other forms of financial sabotage of the economy, through the Economic and financial Crimes Commission (http://opac.col.org/ZonesL/). In conclusion, the Commonwealth has aided economic development in Nigeria by helping to organize various roundtables and conferences that have resulted in the signing of agreements, protocols, and frameworks between various countries (including Nigeria), in order to foster trade, as well as economic growth and development. Finally, and most importantly, the Commonwealth aided debt relief for Nigeria by working with the Nigerian Debt Management Office (DMO) for the cancellation of Nigeria’s debt with the Paris Club.

References Abubakar, A (2003) “The Commonwealth: An Appraisal In The commonwealth and Africa: A Precious Partnership” in Nigerian Institute for International Affairs Lecture Series No. 84. Lagos: NIIA. “African Development” Retrieved www.commonwealthfoundation.org /cwealth th march/africa.htm. Accessed on the 29 of March 2010.

from 29th

“African Education Protocol” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealth 29th march/130608africaeducationprotocol.htm. Accessed on the 29th of March 2010. Agyeman, O (2007) Survey of ICT and Education in Africa. Nigeria Country Report Agwu, F (2004) “The Role of Education in the Future of the Commonwealth” in Bourne, R (ed.) (2004) Nigerian Journal in International Affairs Special Issue on the Future of the Commonwealth. Vol 30 No 2 2004. Anyaokwu, E (1999) The Missing Headlines: Selected speeches. Lagos: Heinemann Educational Books pp. 35-36.

“CAN

Nominators” Retrieved www.thecommonwealthfoundation.org/canominators 2010oct09.pdf. Accessed on the 29th of March 2010.

from

“Commonwealth Earmarks $30 Billion to Develop ICT” Retrieved from www.allafrica.com/cwealth 29th march/200808280190.html. Accessed on 29th March 2009. "Commonwealth of Nations."Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008. “Commonwealth Telecommunication Organization” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth/cwealth29thmarch/Commonwealth Secretariat - Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation (CTO).htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009. “Corruption in Developing Countries” Retrieved nd http://opac.col.org/ZonesL/. Accessed on 2 May 2010.

from

Daniel, J (2009) Commonwealth Ministers Reference Book. London: Henry Media Group. “Debt management project in Nigeria wins international recognition” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealth 29th march/csdrms_story.htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009. “Education in Nigeria”. Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealth 29th th march/211107education.htm. Accessed on the 29 of March 2010. “Education Steering Committee meeting” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealth29thmarch/010409educati onsteeringcommittee.htm. Accessed on the 29th of March 2010.

Falode, A (2003) “Nigeria and the Commonwealth Games” In Faseke, M (ed.) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth: Reflections and Projections. Lagos: JSEP. “Fighting Financial Crime in Nigeria” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth/cwealth 29th march/150210cftcprosecutortraining.htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009. Ingram, D (1962) The Commonwealth Challenge. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd p. 148 Keohane, R. (1988) “International Institutions: Two Approaches”, International Studies Quaterly, 32, pp 372-396. Mearsheimer, J. (1994), The False Promise of International Institutions. New York: Boulding Publishers. McKinnon, D (2003) “The commonwealth and Africa: A Precious Partnership”. Nigerian Institute for International Affairs Lecture Series No. 84. Lagos: NIIA. “Nigeria thanks Commonwealth for support in debt management”. Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.or g/cwealth29thmarch/190308nigeriadebtmanagement.htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009. “Nigerian Wins Commonwealth Regional Literary Award” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealth29thmarch/38146nigerian-wins-commonwealth-regional-literary-award.html. Accessed on the 29th of March 2010. Nyityo, S (2003) “Technical Cooperation and Social Transformation in the Commonwealth” in Faseke, M (ed.) (2003) Nigeria and

the Commonwealth: Reflections and Projections. Lagos: JSEP Publishers. “Open Schooling in Africa”. Retrieved from www.col.org/openschooling. Accessed on 29th March 2009. Perinbam, L (2003) Chairman of the Board of Governors Commonwealth of Learning. Commonwealth Head of Government Meeting. “Statement on Education”. Retrieved from www.col.org/ccemoo/statement.htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009. Sutton, P (2001) “Small States and the Commonwealth” in Randall, V (ed.) (2001) Commonwealth and Comparative Politics. Vol 39 No. 3 .

CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 4.1 Summary This study was carried out to examine the Commonwealth and its role in aiding sustainable development in Nigeria. The hypotheses for this research were that the Commonwealth has impacted on sustainable development in Nigeria, with specific sectors of the Nigerian economy being affected; and that Nigerian foreign policy is influenced by her relations with the Commonwealth. During the course of the study, it was discovered that the Commonwealth has actually aided sustainable development in Nigeria, helping in various areas such as manpower capacity building, as well as engaging in technical

cooperation

and

assistance

through

the

CFTC

(Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation). However, with respect to the hypothesis that Nigerian foreign policy is influenced by her relations with the Commonwealth, it was discovered that during

the 1999-2009 period, the Commonwealth had little or no impact on Nigerian foreign policy, thus constituting a null hypothesis. The research design employed for this work was the secondary data method, which involved extensive data resourcing from the internet, books, journals, newspapers, etc. this research design helped me acquire large amounts of data and information which proved to be very useful in conducting this research. This data covered a wide spectrum of issues which included the Nigerian economy, education, sports, technical cooperation and assistance, as well as corruption in the Nigerian state, providing relevant statistics and various development efforts by the Commonwealth. Also, the research design helped me in my quest to find answers to the various research questions, which have been discussed. 4.2 Recommendations Having discussed the impact of the Commonwealth on sustainable development in Nigeria, the following recommendations are options which may be adopted by not just the Commonwealth, but also the Nigerian government and the general public, in order to foster development and create a lasting legacy for Nigerians. These

recommendations are a product of the findings and observations in the course of this research. Firstly, grassroot-oriented programmes should be of utmost priority to the government, as this will help ensure that development efforts are of benefit to all members of the society, irrespective of wealth, culture, race, class, or creed. These programmes should especially focus on healthcare, education, and the provision of other basic and essential social services. Secondly, the Nigerian government should be more proactive in response to the needs of the people and the economy in order to discontinue the often unnecessary dependence on the Commonwealth and other international institutions or organizations for grants and other forms of assistance or aid. This can be done by coordinating the various organs and tiers of government in order to help create a system with an effective feedback mechanism. Thirdly, the close ties between the Commonwealth and Nigeria should be exploited diplomatically in order to pursue the achievement of various national interests and also help other African member states gain the same benefits that Nigeria has been privileged to have access to as a result of her membership of the Commonwealth organization.

Fourthly, the Nigerian government should strengthen her ties with the Commonwealth in order to attract more benefits and cooperation in other areas as identified by the relevant government agencies. Also, the Nigerian government should express her commitment to the Commonwealth by increasing her annual contributions to the organization’s purse. The Nigerian government should also put the necessary structures in place in order to ensure that areas that are now developed remain so, and do not degenerate due to a lack of maintenance or forms of violent conduct. These structures include a system of efficient and prompt passage of national budgets on a yearly basis, so as to allow for easy and quick allocation of funds to areas where they are most needed. Also, well-trained and motivated staff should be employed in order to ensure the sustenance of these completed projects. Another major recommendation is that corruption at all levels of government should be discouraged with stiff penalties for offenders. This would promote greater investments by the Commonwealth and other organizations, as well as help build Nigeria’s international reputation as a fertile ground for business opportunities. Also, it will

help build popular confidence in the government thereby acting as a catalyst for growth and development in the country. The Nigerian government should also institute a merit and award programme that would annually recognize outstanding Nigerian youths in their various fields of endeavor. This would encourage our youths to engage in more profitable activities, instead of resorting to crime and other vices, and also help in the production of capable manpower. These awards will also have financial rewards for winners, with various categories such as arts, literature, science and technology, etc. It would also be helpful for Nigeria to liaise with other international organizations and developed countries such as the United Nations, United States of

America, European Union, etc in order to gain

various benefits which can include and is not limited to, technical cooperation and manpower development, technical aid and support, various forms of exchange programmes, etc. This would ensure speedy development of Nigeria and her citizens in various sectors of the economy, in which there may be limited availability of skilled labour or manpower.

On a final note, the government should focus especially on capacity building for Nigerians, thereby creating a solid foundation for Nigeria’s future. Special focus should be given to the educational sector, which has been a victim of gross neglect for decades. A revamp of the educational sector by building the necessary infrastructure, revising and upgrading the educational curricula across all levels to meet global standards, and training teachers with excellent remuneration will ensure that Nigeria begins to produce world class intellectuals over a short period of time. 4.3 Conclusion The

study

considered

the

Commonwealth

and

sustainable

development in Nigeria with a particular focus on the 1999-2009 period. From this study, it is observed that the Commonwealth has had considerable impact on sustainable development in Nigeria by making invaluable contributions to the Nigerian economy, political landscape, sports, capacity building and manpower development, etc. The most important contribution so far, can be said to be their pivotal role ensuring that Nigeria’s debt to the Paris club was written off. This singular act was hugely beneficial as a sizeable portion of Nigeria’s

GDP is usually spent servicing various debt to different institutions and countries. Besides, it has enabled the government to have access to more funds, which can be used for development purposes, thereby fostering national growth and development at a much faster pace.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS Adeleke, A. (2004), “Nigeria and the Commonwealth” in Ogwu.U (ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos: Printserve Limited. Adelusi, O. (2006), Development Policies and Analysis: A Reader. Akure: Standard Mass Concept Company Adelman, I. (1998), Theories of economic growth and development. PaloAlto: Stanford Press. Adeoti, D (2003), “Nigeria’s Frosty Relations with The Commonwealth: The Abacha Period” in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers. Akhaine,S.O (2003), “The Commonwealth and Democratization in Nigeria” in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers. Anyaokwu, E (1999), The Missing Headlines: Selected Speeches. Lagos: Heinemann Plc Anyaokwu, E (2000), Eye of Fire. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Asobie, H (1993), “Nigeria in International Institutions: Review of Literature and Methodological Issues” in Owoeye, J (ed.) (1993) Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan: College Press Limited Awolowo, O. (1960), Awo: The Autobiography of Chief Obafemi Awolowo. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pg 308309.

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Britto, R (2003), “Emeka Anyaokwu’s years in the Commonwealth” in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth. Lagos: JSEP Publishers. Daniel, J (2009),Commonwealth Ministers Reference Book. London: Henry Media Group Douthwaite, R (1999), “Is it Possible to Build a Sustainable World?” in Munck, R and O’Hearn, D (eds.) Critical Development Theory. United Kingdom: Bidles Limited. Eze, O (2004), “The Challenge for Sustainable Development in Afrrica: What Role for the Commonwealth?” in Ogwu. U (ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos: Printserve Limited. Falode, A (2003), “Nigeria and the Commonwealth Games” in Faseke, M (ed.) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth: Reflections and Projections. Lagos: JSEP. Ingram, D (1962), The Commonwealth Challenge. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd p. 148. Mearsheimer, J. (1994), The False Promise of International Institution. New York: Boulding Publishers. Nyityo, S (2003), “Technical Cooperation and Social Transformation in the Commonwealth” in Faseke, M (ed.) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth: Reflections and Projections. Lagos: JSEP Publishers.

Obasanjo, O (2005), “The Commonwealth in the 21st Century: Prospects and Challenges” in Ogwu, U (2007) Years of Reconstruction: Selected Foreign Policy Speeches of Olusegun Obasanjo. Lagos: National Institute of International Affairs. Owoeye, J. (1983), Nigeria in international institutions ed. Ibadan: College Press Limited. Sam, E. (1964), Nigeria Speaks: Speeches of Alhaji Tafawa Balewa. Lagos: Longman Publishers pg 4-6. Sueni, A.A (2003), “Nigeria-Commonwealth Relations: Problem and Controversy” in Faseke, M (ed) (2003) Nigeria and the Commonwealth . Lagos: JSEP Publishers. Oshuntokun, A. (2004), “Britain, Nigeria and the Commonwealth” in Ogwu.U (ed.) (2004) Nigeria, Africa and the Commonwealth. Lagos: Printserve Limited. Walker, A. (1978), The Commonwealth: A New Look. Oxford: Pergamon Press JOURNALS Abubakar, A. (2003), “The Commonwealth: An Appraisal In The commonwealth and Africa” in Nigerian Institute for International Affairs Lecture Series No. 84. Lagos: NIIA. Agwu, F. (2004), “The Role of Education in the Future of the Commonwealth” in Bourne, R (ed.) (2004) Nigerian Journal in International Affairs Special Issue on the Future of the Commonwealth. Vol 30 No 2 2004. Keohane, R. (1988), “International Institutions: Two Approaches”, International Studies Quaterly, 32, pp 372-396.

McKinnon, D. (2003), “The commonwealth and Africa: A Precious Partnership”. Nigerian Institute for International Affairs Lecture Series No. 84. Lagos: NIIA Randall, V (ed.) (2001), “Commonwealth and Comparative Politics” Vol 39 No. 3 Sutton, P. (2001), “Small States and the Commonwealth” in Randall, V (ed.) (2001) Commonwealth and Comparative Politics Vol 39 No. 3 INTERNET Anyaokwu, E (1999), “Nigeria Resumes Full Commonwealth Membership” Retrieved from: http://www.thecommonwealth.org. Accessed on the 28th of August 2009. “African Development” Retrieved www.commonwealthfoundation.org /cwealth th march/africa.htm. Accessed on the 29 of March 2010.

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“African Education Protocol” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealth 29th march/130608africaeducationprotocol.htm. Accessed on the 29th of March 2010. “CAN

Nominators” Retrieved www.thecommonwealthfoundation.org. Accessed March 2010.

from on 29th

“Commonwealth Earmarks $30 Billion to Develop ICT” Retrieved from www.allafrica.com/cwealth 29th march/200808280190.html. Accessed on 29th March 2009. “Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group on the Harare Declaration (1995), Retrieved from http://thecommonwealth.org/. Accessed on the 10th of Sep. 2009. “Commonwealth Telecommunication Organization” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth/cwealth29thmarch/commonwealthsecr etariat.htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009. “Dates Agreed for Commonwealth Talks with Nigeria” Retrieved from http://thecommonwealth.org. Accessed on the 28th of Aug. 2009. “Debt management project in Nigeria wins international recognition” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org /cwealth 29th march/csdrms_story.htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009. “Education in Nigeria”. Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealth 29th th march/211107education.htm. Accessed on the 29 of March 2010. “Education Steering Committee meeting” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealthmarch/010409educationste eringcommittee.htm. Accessed on 29th of March 2010. “Fighting Financial Crime in Nigeria” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth/cwealth 29th march/150210cftcprosecutortraining.htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009.

“Nigeria Resumes Full Commonwealth Membership” Retrieved from: http://thecommonwealth.org. Accessed on the 26th of Aug. 2009. “Nigeria Thanks Commonwealth for support in debt management”. Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealth29thmarch/190308nigeriad ebtmanagement.htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009. “Nigerian Wins Commonwealth Regional Literary Award” Retrieved from www.thecommonwealth.org/cwealth29thmarch/38146nigerian-wins-commonwealth-regional-literary-award.html. Accessed on the 29th of March 2010. “Open Schooling in Africa”. Retrieved www.col.org/openschooling. Accessed on 29th March 2009. “Statement on Education”.Retrieved from www.col.org/ccemoo/statement.htm. Accessed on 29th March 2009.