Colwell Hewitt The Teaching of Instrumental Music

 

The Teaching of  Instrumental Music Fourth Edition

RICHARD J. COLWELL  Professor Emeritus University of Illinois

MICHAEL P. HEWITT University of Maryland

 

First published 2011, 2002, 1992, 1969 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published 2016 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint  of the  Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business 

Copyright © 2011, 2002, 1992, 1969 Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.  All rights reserved. No part of this this book may be reprinted or reproduced reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retri eval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Notice: Product or corporate names names may be trademarks trademarks or registere regist ered d trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission,  in this textbook appear appear on appropriate page within. ISBN: 9780205660179 (hbk)

Cover Design: Design: Bruce Kenselaar Kenselaar

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data  Colwell, Richard. The teaching of instrumental music/Richard J. Colwell, Michael P. Hewitt.—4th ed. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-205-66017-9 978-0-205-66017-9 ISBN-10: 0-205-66017-7 1. Inst Instrum rumen enta tall musi musicc--I -Ins nstru truct ctio ion n and and stud studyy. I. Hew Hewit itt, t, M Mic icha hael el.. II II.. Titl Title. e.

MT170.C64 2009 784.071—dc22 2009047151

 

Brief Contents

1

Tea each chiing an and d the the Role Role of Moti Motiva vati tion on 5

2

Objectives

3

Assessment

4

Administration

5

Recruiting

6

Scheduling

61

7

Technology

69

8

Spec Specia iall Popu Popula lati tion onss and and Inst Instru rume ment ntal al Musi Music c

9

The The Phys Physio iolo logy gy of of Inst Instru rume ment ntal al Mus Music ic Per Perfo form rman ance ce 86

19 29 42

55

79

10

Pr Prin inci cipl ples es of Wind Windss and and Acou Acoust stic icss of of Str Strin ings gs 97

11

The Flute

109

12

The Oboe

123

13

The Clarinet

139

14

The Bassoon

159

15

The Sa Saxophone

16

Principles fo for Br Brass

17

The Trumpet and Cornet

18

The Horn

19 20

The The Tro romb mbon one e and and Ba Bari rito tone ne/E /Eup upho honi nium um 233 233 The Tuba 250

21

Percussion In Instruments

22

Principles of Strings

23

The Violin

24

The Viola

315

25

The Cello

321

26

The Double Bass

27

Pl Plan anni ning ng for an and d Rehea Rehears rsin ing g In Inst stru rume menta ntall En Ense semb mble less

28

The Marching Band

29

The Jazz Ensemble

175 191 209

220

260

286

306

331 340

367 393  iii

 

This page intentionally left bank 

 

Contents

Preface

xiii

Prologue 1

1

Teach aching an and th the Ro Role of of Mo Motiva ivation 5 PSYCHOLOGY 6 THE INSTR INSTRUME UMENT NTAL AL MU MUSIC SIC C CLAS LASSRO SROOM OM 8  ADDITIONAL IDEAS FOR MOTIVATING MOTIVATING STUDENTS PER PERFO FORM RMA ANC NCE E 16 CONCLUSION 17 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTI TION ONS S 17  WEB SITES 18

2

Objectives

15

19

THE TH E PU PURP RPOS OSE E OF O OBJ BJEC ECTI TIVES VES 19 TY TYPE PES S OF O OBJ BJEC ECTI TIVE VES S 19 ORGA OR GANI NIZIN ZING GO OBJ BJEC ECTIV TIVES ES 21 CREA CRE ATIN TING G INSTR INSTRUCT UCTION IONAL AL OBJ OBJECT ECTIVES IVES 22 EXTRAMUSIC EXTRA MUSICAL AL V VALUES ALUES AS IN INSTRUM STRUMENT ENTAL AL OB OBJECTIV JECTIVES ES 25 THE PRIORITY OF OBJ OBJECTIVES 26 CONCLUSION 27 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTI TION ONS S 28  WEB SITES 28

3

Assessment

29

DE DEFI FINI NING NG AS ASSE SESS SSME MENT NT IN MUS MUSIC IC 29 PRIN PRINCI CIPL PLES ES FO FOR R ASS ASSES ESSM SMENT ENT 30  ASSESSING MUSIC AS AN ART 32 EV EVALU ALUA ATIN TING G M MUSI USICAL CAL SKI SKILLS LLS 34 OBSE OB SER RVATI TION ON 35 LISTENING 35 PORTFOLIOS IOS 36 RUBRICS 36 TESTS, TOOLS TOOLS,, AN AND D P PROCE ROCEDURES DURES FOR ASSES ASSESSMENT SMENT 37  ASSESSMENT OF INSTRUMENTAL OBJECTIVES 39 GRADING 40 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTI TION ONS S 41  WEB SITES 41

4

Administration

ORGANI ORGA NIZA ZATI TION ON 42 CALENDAR 42 FINANCES 43

42  v

 

 vi

Contents PROPERTY AND ACCOUN ACCOUNTABILITY ITY 46 MUSIC USIC LIB LIBRA RAR RY 47 FACILITI ITIES 49 PU PUBL BLIC IC R REL ELA ATI TION ONS S 50 RELA REL ATIO TIONSH NSHIPS IPS WIT WITH H P PARE ARENTS NTS 51 RELA REL ATIO TIONSH NSHIPS IPS WIT WITH H S STUD TUDENT ENTS S 52 RELATIONSH RELA TIONSHIPS IPS WI WITH TH ADM ADMINISTR INISTRA ATORS A AND ND COL COLLEAGU LEAGUES ES TRAVEL 53 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTIO TIONS NS 54  WEB SITES 54

5

Recruiting

55

PRELIMINA PRELIM INARIE RIES S FOR SUCC SUCCESS ESSFUL FUL REC RECRUI RUITIN TING G GE GENER NERA ATI TING NG INTE INTERE REST ST 56 RE RECR CRUI UITI TING NG PL PLAN AN 57 SELE SELECT CTIN ING G AN INS INSTR TRUM UMEN ENT T 58 LOCA LOCATIN TING G AN IN INST STRU RUME MENT NT 59 FOLLOW-UP 59 RETENTION 59 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTIO TIONS NS 60  WEB SITES 60

6

7

53

Scheduling

61

Technology

69

55

EL ELEM EMEN ENT TAR ARY Y SCHO SCHOOL OL 61 MID IDDL DLE ES SC CHO HOO OL 62 HIGH S SC CHOOL 63 BL BLOC OCK KS SCH CHED EDUL ULIN ING G 63 SU SUMM MMER ER PR PROG OGRA RAMS MS 65 PR PRIV IVA ATE LE LESS SSON ONS S 66 TEAM TE AM TE TEAC ACHI HING NG 66 HONO HO NORS RS CO COUR URSE SES S 66 ELEC ELECTI TIVE VE CO COUR URSE SES S 66 SMAL SM ALL L ENSE ENSEMB MBLE LES S 67 HONORS HON ORS AND COM COMMUN MUNITY ITY ENS ENSEMB EMBLES LES 67 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTIO TIONS NS 68  WEB SITE 68

OVERVIEW 69 TECHNO TEC HNOLOG LOGY Y-AS -ASSIS SISTED TED INST INSTRUC RUCTIO TION N 70 EL ELEC ECTR TRON ONIC IC IN INST STRU RUME MENT NTS S 73 MUSIC MUS IC PR PRODU ODUCTI CTION: ON: D DIGI IGIT TAL AU AUDIO DIO 74 MUSIC MUS IC N NOT OTA ATIO TION N SO SOFTW FTWARE ARE 75 MULTI ULTIME MEDI DIA A 76 FUND FUNDIN ING G FO FOR R TE TECH CHNO NOLO LOGY GY 78 DISCUS DIS CUSSIO SION N QU QUEST ESTION IONS/A S/ACTI CTIVITI VITIES ES 78  WEB SITES 78

8

Spec Specia iall Popu Popula lati tion ons s and and In Inst stru rume ment ntal al Musi Music c

79

LE LEGI GISL SLA ATI TIO ON 79IDEAS FOR TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC INSTRUCTIONAL TO STU STUDEN DENTS TS WIT WITH H S SPEC PECIAL IAL NEED NEEDS S 81 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTIO TIONS NS 85  WEB SITES 85

 

Contents   vii

9

The The Phy Physi siol ology ogy of In Inst stru rume ment ntal al Music Perf Perfo orman rmanc ce 86 MATCH MA TCHING ING STU STUDEN DENT T AND INS INSTRU TRUMEN MENT T 86 SYST SYSTEM EMS S OF BO BODY DY MOV MOVEM EMEN ENT T 90 PREVENTIVE AND CORRECTI  VE VE EXERCISES 91 OTHE OT HER R HEAL HEALTH TH ISSU ISSUES ES 94 PERF PERFOR ORMA MANC NCE E AN ANXI XIET ETY Y 95 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTI TION ONS S 96  WEB SITES 96

10

Prin Princi cipl ples es of Wind Winds s and and Ac Acou oust stic ics s of St Stri ring ngs s BREATHING 97  ACOUSTICAL PRINCIPLES FOR WINDS 100  ACOUSTICAL PRINCIPLES FOR STRINGS 106  WEB SITE 108

11

The Flute

109

HISTORY 109 SELEC SELECTI TING NG TH THE E INS INSTR TRUM UMEN ENT T 109 109 PICCOLO 110  ASSEMBLING THE FLUTE 110 HOLD HO LDIN ING GT THE HE FL FLUT UTE E 11 111 1 EMBO EM BOUC UCHU HURE RE AN AND D REG REGIS ISTER TER 112 112 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 11 114 4 TONE TO NE QUA UALI LITY TY 115 TECHNIQUE: TECHNI QUE: ARTIC ARTICULA ULATIONS TIONS AND FINGE FINGERINGS RINGS 116  WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE 117 CARE CAR E AN AND D MA MAINT INTENA ENANCE NCE OF THE F FLUT LUTE E 118 HEAL HE ALTH TH IS ISSU SUES ES 118 118 TR TROU OUBL BLES ESHO HOOT OTIN ING G 11 119 9 FI FING NGER ERIN ING GC CHA HAR RT 12 121 1  WEB SITES 122

12

The Oboe

123

HISTORY 123 SELEC SELECTI TING NG TH THE E INS INSTR TRUM UMEN ENT T 124 124  ASSEMBLING THE OBOE 124 HOLD HO LDIN ING G T THE HE OB OBOE OE 12 125 5 EMB EM BOUC UCHU HUR RE 126 126 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 12 128 8 TONE TO NE QUA UALI LITY TY 129 REEDS 130 TECHNIQUE: TECHNI QUE: ARTIC ARTICULA ULATIONS TIONS AND FINGE FINGERINGS RINGS 133 CARE CAR E AN AND D MA MAINT INTENA ENANCE NCE OF THE O OBOE BOE 133 HEAL HE ALTH TH IS ISSU SUES ES 134 134 TR TROU OUBL BLES ESHO HOOT OTIN ING G 13 134 4 FI FING NGER ERIN ING GC CHA HAR RT 13 136 6  WEB SITE 138

13

The Clarinet

139

HISTORY 139 SELEC SELECTI TING NG TH THE E INS INSTR TRUM UMEN ENT T 140 140  ASSEMBLING THE CLARINET 140

97

 

 viii

Contents HOLDING HOLD ING TH THE E C CLA LARI RINE NET T 141 141 EMBO EM BOUC UCHU HUR RE 143 BASS ASS CL CLAR ARIN INET ET 14 144 4 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 14 144 4 TONE TO NE QUAL ALIT ITY Y 14 146 6 TECHNIQUE: TECHNI QUE: ARTI ARTICULA CULATIONS TIONS AND FINGE FINGERINGS RINGS 149 REEDS 150  WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE 152 CARE AND MAINTENANCE MAINTENANCE OF TH THE E CLA CLARI RINE NET T 152 152 HEAL HE ALTH TH ISSU ISSUES ES 15 153 3 TR TROU OUBL BLES ESHO HOOT OTIN ING G 15 154 4 FI FING NGER ERIN ING GC CHA HART RT 15 156 6  WEB SITES 158

14

The Bassoon

159

HISTORY 159 SELE SELECT CTIN ING G AN IINS NSTR TRUM UMEN ENT T 159 159  ASSEMBLY  ASSEMBL Y OF THE BASSOON 160 POSI PO SITI TION ON FOR FOR H HOL OLDI DING NG 160 160 EMBO EM BOUC UCHU HUR RE 161 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 16 163 3 TONE TO NE AN AND D EFF EFFEC ECTS TS 16 164 4  VIBRATO  VIBRA TO 165 TONGUING ING 165 FING INGERING 166 REEDS 166 CARE CAR E AND MAI MAINTE NTENAN NANCE CE OF OF TH THE E BAS BASSOO SOON N HEAL HE ALTH TH ISSU ISSUES ES 17 170 0 TR TROU OUBL BLES ESHO HOOT OTIN ING G 17 170 0  WEB SITES 171 FI FING NGER ERIN ING GC CHA HART RT 17 173 3

15

The Saxophone

169

175

HISTORY 175 SELE SELECT CTIN ING G THE IINS NSTR TRUM UMENT ENT 175 175  ASSEMBLING THE SAXOPHONE 176 HOLD HO LDING ING TH THE E SA SAXO XOPH PHON ONE E 176 176 EMBO EM BOUC UCHU HUR R AN GE 180RE 178 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 18 181 1 TONE TO NE QUAL ALIT ITY Y 18 182 2 THE TH E MO MOUT UTHP HPIE IECE CE 183 183 REEDS 184 TECHNIQUE: TECHNI QUE: ARTI ARTICULA CULATIONS TIONS AND FINGE FINGERINGS RINGS 184  WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE 185 CARE CAR E AND M MAIN AINTEN TENANC ANCE E OF TH THE E SAX SAXOP OPHON HONE E 185 HEAL HE ALTH TH ISSU ISSUES ES 18 186 6 TR TROU OUBL BLES ESHO HOOT OTIN ING G 18 186 6  WEB SITES 187 FI FING NGER ERIN ING GC CHA HART RT 18 189 9

16

Principles for Brass

191

CONICA CON ICAL L AND CY CYLIND LINDRIC RICAL AL INS INSTRU TRUMEN MENTS TS 191 SELE SELECT CTIN ING G THE IINS NSTR TRUM UMENT ENT 191 191 STAR STARTI TING NG T THE HE B BEG EGIN INNER NER 192 192 EMBO EM BOUC UCHU HUR RE 193

 

Contents   ix  ENDURANCE 195  WARM-UPS  WARM -UPS AND WARM-DOWNS 196 CONTROL 197 FL FLEX EXIB IBIL ILIT ITY Y 19 197 7 RANGE 198  ARTICULATIONS  ARTICULA TIONS 198 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 20 201 1 MUTES 201 DYNAMICS 202 THE TH E MO MOUT UTHP HPIE IECE CE 20 202 2 CARE, CAR E, CLE CLEANI ANING, NG, MAI MAINTE NTENAN NANCE CE 204 TR TROU OUBL BLES ESHO HOOT OTIN ING G 20 205 5  WEB SITES 208

17

The Tr Trumpet an and C Co orne rnet

209

HISTORY 209 SELEC SELECTI TING NG TH THE E INS INSTR TRUM UMEN ENT T 210 210  ASSEMBLING THE INSTRUMENT 211 HOLDIN HOL DING G T THE HE T TRUM RUMPET PET OR CO CORNE RNET T 211 EMB EM BOUC UCHU HUR RE 212 212 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 21 214 4 TONE TO NE Q QUA UALIT LITY Y AN AND D EF EFFE FECT CTS S 215 215 FI FING NGER ERIN INGS GS AN AND D TEC TECHN HNIQ IQUE UE 216 216  WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE 217 CARE AND MAINT MAINTENANC ENANCE E OF THE T TRUMP RUMPET/CO ET/CORNET RNET 217 HEAL HE ALTH TH IS ISSU SUES ES 217 217 FI FING NGER ERIN ING GC CHA HAR RT 21 219 9  WEB SITES 219

18

The Hor n

220

HISTORY 220 SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT INSTRUMENT:: B  OR F HORN 220  ASSEMBLING THE HORN 222 HOLD HO LDIN ING G T THE HE HO HORN RN 22 222 2 THE TH EB BEG EGINN INNIN ING G S STU TUDE DENT NT 224 224 EMB EM BOUC UCHU HUR RE 224 224 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 22 225 5 TONE TO NE QUA UALI LITY TY 226 FI FING NGER ERIN INGS GS 22 228 8  WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE 228 CARE CAR E AN AND D MA MAINT INTENA ENANCE NCE OF THE H HOR ORN N 229 HEAL HE ALTH TH IS ISSU SUES ES 230 230 FI FING NGER ERIN ING GC CHA HAR RT 23 232 2  WEB SITES 232

19 The The Tro Tromb mbon one e and and Bari Barito tone ne/E /Eup upho honi nium um 233 233 HISTORY 233 SELEC SELECTI TING NG T THE HE T TRO ROMB MBON ONE E 234 234 SELECT SEL ECTING ING T THE HE BA BARIT RITONE ONE O OR R EUP EUPHON HONIUM IUM 235  ASSEMBLING THE INSTRUMENTS 236 POSI PO SITI TION ONS SF FOR OR HO HOLD LDING ING 236 236 THE TH E B BEG EGINN INNIN S STU TUDE NT 238 238 EM EMB BO UC UCHU HUR RING EG 239 23 9 DENT MOU OUTH THPI PIEC ECE E 24 240 0 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 24 240 0 TONE TO NE AN AND D E EFF FFEC ECTS TS 24 241 1

 

 x 

Contents SLIDE TEC SLIDE TECHNI HNIQUE QUE FOR TRO TROMB MBONE ONE 242  WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE 243 CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE TROMBONE AND BARI BA RITO TONE NE/EU /EUPH PHON ONIU IUM M 244 244 HEAL HE ALTH TH ISSU ISSUES ES 24 245 5 FI FING NGER ERIN ING G CH CHAR ARTS TS 24 248 8 –249  WEB SITES 249

20

The Tuba 250 HISTORY 250 SELE SELECT CTIN ING G THE IINS NSTR TRUM UMENT ENT 251 251  ASSEMBLING THE INSTRUMENT 252 HOLD HO LDIN ING G T THE HE TU TUBA BA 25 252 2 EMBO EM BOUC UCHU HUR RE 252 IN INTO TONA NATI TIO ON 25 255 5 FIN ING GER ERIN ING GS 255 TONE TO NE AN AND D EFF EFFEC ECTS TS 25 256 6 CARE CAR E AN AND D MA MAINTE INTENAC NACE E OF THE TUB TUBA A HEAL HE ALTH TH ISSU ISSUES ES 25 258 8 FI FING NGER ERIN ING GC CHA HART RT 25 259 9  WEB SITES 259

21

22

Percu rcussion Instruments

257

260

HISTORY 260 SELE SELECT CTIN ING G THE IINS NSTR TRUM UMENT ENT 261 261 THE TH E PE PERC RCUS USSI SION ON S SEC ECTI TION ON 261 261 SNARE DR DRUM 262 SNAR SNARE E PE PERF RFOR ORMA MANC NCE E 264 264 BASS DRUM 267 MALL MA LLET ET PE PERC RCUS USSI SION ON 269 269 TIMPANI 272 CHIMES 275 TE TENO NOR R DR DRUM UM A AND ND T TOM OM-T -TOM OMS S 275 275 CYMBALS 275 TAM-TAM 278 TAM AMBO BOU URINE RINE 27 279 9 TRIAN IANGLE 280 LATIN LATIN AME AMERIC RICAN AN INSTRU INSTRUMEN MENTS TS 280 OTHER OTH ER W WORL ORLD D M MUSI USIC C P PERC ERCUSS USSION ION 281  AUXILIARY PERCUSSION 283 THE TH E DR DRU UM SE SET T 28 283 3 HEAL HE ALTH TH ISSU ISSUES ES 28 285 5  WEB SITES 285

Principles of of St Strings

286

HISTORY 286 PHYSIC PHY SICAL AL CHA CHARAC RACTER TERIST ISTICS ICS 286 SELECT SEL ECTING ING A S STRI TRING NG INS INSTRU TRUMEN MENT T 289 LEFT LEF T-HA -HAND ND FUN FUNDAM DAMENT ENTALS ALS 290  VIBRATO  VIBRA TO 292 RIGHT RIG HT-AR -ARM M AN AND D HA HAND ND M MOVE OVEMEN MENT T 294 B WAIN 595 DO YN MGICS292 SUZUKI 300 CARE AND MAINTE MAINTENANCE NANCE OF INSTRU INSTRUMENTS MENTS AND BOWS 302 HEAL HE ALTH TH ISSU ISSUES ES 30 302 2

 

Contents   xi TR TROU OUBL BLES ESHO HOOT OTIN ING G  WEB SITES 305

23

The Violin

30 302 2

306

HISTORY 306 SELEC SELECTI TING NG TH THE E V VIO IOLI LIN N 306 306 HOLD HO LDIN ING G TH THE E VI VIOL OLIN IN 30 308 8 LEFT LEF T-AR -ARM M A AND ND H HAND AND MO MOVEM VEMENT ENTS S

309

RIGHT RIG HT-AR -ARM M AN AND D HA HAND ND M MOVE OVEMEN MENTS TS 310 TUNING 311 HARMONICS 312 THE S SH HIFT 312 TEACH TEA CHIN ING G VIB VIBRA RATO TO 314 314  WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE 314  WEB SITES 314

24

The Viola

315

HISTORY 315 SELEC SELECTI TING NG TH THE E INS INSTR TRUM UMEN ENT T 316 316 HOLD HO LDIN ING GT THE HE VIOL VIOLA A 31 316 6 LEFT LEF T-AR -ARM M A AND ND H HAND AND MO MOVEM VEMENT ENTS S 317 SHIFTING 318  VIBRATO  VIBRA TO 318 RIGHT RIG HT-AR -ARM M AN AND D HA HAND ND M MOVE OVEMEN MENTS TS 318 TRAN TRANSF SFER ERRI RING NG FR FROM OM VI VIOL OLIN IN 320 320  WEB SITES 320

25

The Cello

321

HISTORY 321 SELECT SEL ECTING ING THE INS INSTRU TRUMEN MENT T AN AND D BO BOW W 322 HOLD HO LDIN ING GT THE HE CELL CELLO O 32 322 2 THE TH EB BEG EGINN INNIN ING G S STU TUDE DENT NT 323 323 LEFT LEF T-AR -ARM M A AND ND H HAND AND MO MOVEM VEMENT ENTS S 325 RIGHT RIG HT-AR -ARM M AN AND D HA HAND ND M MOVE OVEMEN MENTS TS 328  WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE 330  WEB SITE 330

26

The Double Bass

331

HISTORY 331 SELEC SELECTI TING NG TH THE E INS INSTR TRUM UMEN ENT T 331 331 HOLD HO LDIN ING G T THE HE BA BASS SS 33 332 2 LEFT LEF T-AR -ARM M A AND ND H HAND AND MO MOVEM VEMENT ENTS S 333 RIGHT RIG HT-AR -ARM M AN AND D HA HAND ND M MOVE OVEMEN MENTS TS 335  WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE 336 CARE CAR E AND M MAIN AINTEN TENANC ANCE E OF TH THE E DOU DOUBLE BLE B BASS ASS 338  WEB SITE 339

27

Plannin Plan for 3and Rehears earsing ing Instru Instrumen mental tal Ensening mbglesfor 40 Reh SCOR SCORE E PR PREP EPAR ARA ATIO TION N 340 340 REHE REHEAR ARSA SAL L PL PLAN ANNIN NING G 343 343

 

 xii

Contents DAILY DAIL YR ROU OUTI TINE NES S 34 345 5 TU TUNI NING NG AN AND D IINTO NTONA NATI TION ON 347 HOW HO W T TO O P PRA RACT CTIC ICE E 34 349 9 REHEAR REH EARSIN SING G CON CONCER CERT T LITE LITERA RATUR TURE E 350 SELE SELECT CTIO ION N OF MU MUSI SIC C 353 353 PHRASING ING 354 TONE, BALANC BALANCE, E, B BLEND, LEND, AND IINSTRU NSTRUMENT MENTA ATION 356 MUSI MU SICA CAL L IIND NDEP EPEN ENDEN DENCE CE 359 359 TE TEMP MPO, O, METE METER, R, A AND ND R RHY HYTH THM M 360 360 MUSICAL MUSICA L INTE INTERPR RPRET ETA ATIO TION N 363 BOWING 364 CONCERTS 365 CONT CO NTES ESTS TS A AND ND FE FEST STIV IVAL ALS S 366 366 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTIO TIONS NS 366 366

28

The Marching Band

367

MARCHI MARC HING NG FUN FUNDA DAME MENT NTAL ALS S 367 367 SPECIA SPE CIAL LTY MA MARCH RCHING ING IN INSTR STRUME UMENTS NTS 374 FI FIEL ELDD-BA BASE SED D SHO SHOWS WS 37 378 8 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTIO TIONS NS 392 392  WEB SITES 392

29

The Jazz Ensemble

393

 WHAT IS JAZZ? 393  WHAT HI HIST STOR ORY Y O OF F JA JAZZ ZZ 39 394 4 JAZZ JAZZ IIN N TH THE E SC SCHO HOOL OLS S 39 397 7 PURPOS PUR POSE E O OF F J JAZZ AZZ INS INSTRU TRUCTI CTION ON 397 SETT SETTIN ING G UP TH THE E EN ENSE SEMB MBLE LE 397 397 REHEAR REH EARSIN SING G THE JAZ JAZZ Z E ENSE NSEMBL MBLE E 399 ROLES, PRACTICING, AND REHEARSAL ISSUES FOR SPECIFIC IN INST STRU RUME MENT NTS S 40 404 4 SELECT SEL ECTING ING A APPR PPROP OPRIA RIATE TE CH CHAR ARTS TS 409 IMPR IMPROV OVIS ISA ATI TION ON 41 410 0 JA JAZZ ZZ COM OMB BOS 41 410 0 JA JAZZ ZZ ST STR RIN ING GS 41 411 1 CON ONC CLUSI LUSIO ON 411 DI DISC SCUS USSI SION ON QU QUES ESTIO TIONS NS 411 411  WEB SITES 411  WHAT  WHA T TO LISTEN FOR AMONG JAZZ MUSICIANS

Referen rences Index

445

415

412

 

Preface

PURPOSE The fourth edition of The Teaching of Instrumental Music comes some 40 years after the publication of the first edition in 1969. The excellent reception given to the previous three versions by  readers, as reflected by its use as both a text and as a reference for practicing teachers, has encouraged us to prepare this current edition and to reflect on the reasons for the book’s longevity.. The basic purpose of the book remains the same: to provide pre-service and in-ser vlongevity ice instrumental music teachers the foundation and materials for successful teaching and learning. Being a successful instrumental teacher is demanding, requiring knowledge of organizing and conducting the teaching environment along with a thorough knowledge (or resource) of each of the band and orchestra instruments. Becoming skillful on an instrument or teaching the instruments requires a fair amount of practice as all music majors know only too  well. That practice, however, must be eenlightened nlightened practice. Incorrect practice is all too common and the stories of well-developed bad habits that were only identified when one changed to a better teacher fill the blogs of the twenty-first century.

USES The material required of an instrumental music teacher is sufficiently extensive that the text  may be appropriate for several courses, depending upon how the curriculum of the teaching institution is arranged. It may be fitting for instrumental methods classes and those classes de voted to the teaching and learning of orchestral and band instruments. Inservice teachers will find it helpful as a resource for any number of daily matters that arise in the classroom. Pre-service teachers tell us that what they appreciate about the book is its clarity and thoroughness in treating the more common problems that occur in teaching the instruments in individual and group situations. They also al so tell us that they like the references, method book suggestions, fingering charts, and detailed troubleshooting ideas at the end of each instrument chapter. These all make the book longer and with some repetition, but worth it. They  have also commented that although they do not always have time for additional exploration of these resources while in college, they have found them to be invaluable in field work, in student teaching, and in their positions as instrumental music teachers. College instructors tell us that what they welcome most is the book’s broad coverage of  instrumental music. In each instrument chapter there is a focus on beginning students along  with informative material for the studen student’s t’s major instrument. Often it is one thing to be able to do and model but quite another to explain the actions required to perform correctly. Instructors also appreciate that the information in the book is current, describing the best beliefs and practices in the profession while maintaining references to the standard texts and  works in the field.  A feature since the first edition of The Teaching of Instrumental Music  has been to avoid recommending the idiosyncrasies of many superb performers on each instrument. Great  teachers often have developed strategies that work well with particular students, for their particular teaching situations, or their own performance, but these strategies have not been uni versally accepted by most professionals on that instrument.

 WHAT’S  WHA T’S NEW IN THIS EDITION EDITION If you know the third edition, you will notice that there are changes in every chapter. You will also observe that we have expanded the first and final portions of the book with additional content that readers have told us would be helpful to them.  xiii

 

 xiv

Preface

Much of the new content was examined by a number of reviewers who were most helpful. Although we were initially hesitant to add to the length of the book, this trial version con vinced us that the material would enhance successful teaching and learning and was not  available elsewhere. Highlighted are the most meaningful changes to the edition: Planning for and Managing Instrumental Music Instruction

• Added new cchapter hapterss devoted to Special Learners, Physiology of Instrumental Music , and Technology  that address the expanded responsibilities of today’s instrumental teachers. Motivation  • Expande Expanded d the ch chapter apterthe o on n teacher now serves as an introduction to in thealmost text with the expectation that willthat consider principles of motivation all teaching ventures. • Added “Disc “Discussio ussion n Questions”. Questions”. College instruc instructors tors using the third editio edition n have regularly asked for questions to be included. They are now present for each chapter in Parts I and III to help stimulate meaningful discussion among students in order to relate the content to their current lives and future careers. • Div Divid ided ed Recruiting and Scheduling into separate chapters and expanded the content.

The Instruments

• Reconstructed and updated lists of resour resources ces paying particular interest to high-quality  materials that remain in print. • Added W Web eb sites of interes interestt for each instrument. • Added suggestions to assist musicians in remaining healthy and avoiding injuries while performing. • Update Updated d photos in seve several ral chapt chapters. ers. Rehearsing and Organizing Instrumental Ensembles

• Added new cchapters hapters cconcernin oncerning g the Marching Band and  Jazz Band to assist those teachers faced with developing a parade, football, or competing marching band or who do not have the resources to develop a high-quality jazz ensemble. • Combined chapters on rrehearsing ehearsing for better organization and clarity clarity.. • Included discussion questions for use by individuals, small groups, and classes to assist  in stimulating dialogue among readers.  We feel confident confident that this fourth edition is a major improvement, reflecting contemporary thinking in teaching and learning in music without losing the flavor and reputation of  the earlier editions.

 WHY DO YOU YOU NEED THIS NEW EDITION? EDITION? If you’re wondering why you should buy this new edition of The Teaching pf Instrumental Music , here are 10 good reasons! 1. Revised information throughout the text reflects the most recent research. 2. New chapters chapters de devoted voted tto o Special Learners, Physiology of Instrumental Music , and and Technology that  address the expanded responsibilities of today’s instrumental teachers teach ers have been included. 3. New chapter chapterss on the Marching Band  and  Jazz Band  have been added to assist those teachers faced with developing a parade, football, or competing marching band or who do not have the resources to develop a high-quality jazz ensemble with these specialized ensembles. 4. An expanded expanded chap chapter ter on Motivation  has been added, which now serves as an introduction to the text with the expectation that the teacher will consider principles of motivation in almost all teaching ventures. 5. chaptersQuestions” have been have combined combined for better organization and understanding clarity clarity.. 6. Rehearsing All new “Discussion been incorporated to aid in your of  key concepts. These are included to help stimulate meaningful discussion among students to relate the chapter’s content to their current lives and future careers.

 

Preface

7. Recruiting and Scheduling coverage was increased, which were discussed in one chapter in the third edition but are now given separate, expanded chapters. 8. Healthy performance practices are highlighted, including recommendations for for avoiding injuries. with beginning and advanced players. 9. Reconstructed and updated lists of resources paying particular interest to quality materials that remain in print. 10. We Web b sites of interest for eac each h instrument were added. added.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  ACKNOWLE DGEMENTS

Many individuals should be recognized for their comments on the material in this book throughout the preparation of four editions including Thomas Goolsby who was a coauthor in earlier editions. We want to identify Richard Carlin, executive editor of music at PrenticeHall, who has guided this edition from its inception including critical editing, as well as Ruth Colwell, a superb editor in English and music, who has intelligently labored on every edition.  We are also grateful to Michele, Bethany Bethany,, and Caleb Hewitt along with numerous colleagues at  the University of Maryland who assisted the authors of this recent edition in significant ways.

 xv

 

This page intentionally left bank 

 

Prologue 

STARTING STAR TING OUT Teachers who work with beginning instrumentalists, much like individuals who coach Little League Baseball, play an important role in students’ lives, helping them develop fundamental skills and concepts and encouraging them to establish a passion and curiosity for music. In the schools, teaching these foundational abilities occurs in classroom situations, the organization of which differs considerably from school to school. Instrumental music is taught in small and large classes, individually and in groups, these groups consisting of both like or unlike instruments. When heterogeneous grouping is the only solution, we advocate twisting the arm of the principal to, at least, allow for separate beginning instruction for strings and winds. This text provides detailed information on teaching each of the instruments and many of the tasks encountered by all instrumental teachers—scheduling, administration, motivation—in contexts that range from beginning instruction to excellent high school ensembles. This prologue is designed to set forth general principles for beginning class instruction or individual lessons (the instruction that often precedes admission to a school ensemble). As you read the text, it is important that the information on teaching be placed in context, either that of the ensemble (the orientation of much of the text) or of the pre-ensemble/class instruction portrayed in these initial few pages. Our portrayal is in line with many of the major method books for strings and winds but  covers a much broader learning sequence, emphasizing details and understanding required of the successful teacher. Correct initial instruction is i s of utmost importance, as having to correct poor playing position, embouchure, and bow arm takes away from the fun of learning an instrument. Mixed-instrument classrooms present unique challenges, as the teacher must individually identify problems in instrument assembly, tone production, embouchure, tension, rhythms, and more, many of which are unique to each instrument. Poor hand position on the clarinet is not poor hand position on the violin. Carefully monitoring each student on all of  the foundational skills, correcting and rewarding, while focusing on the lesson objective requires knowledge of each instrument, as well as proficiency in planning pl anning and the ability to multitask. This is possible with a well-structured classroom environment, with routines that are observed by all, and with considerable general student knowledge. For example, students and teacher must have knowledge of concert pitch and transpositions early on so that when a B  concert scale is requested, the transposing instrumentalists know what scale they are to play. Similarly, initial instruction must convey the meaning of “instruments in playing position,” “hands in C position,” and other standard terminology that  minimizes the need for specific instructions for the violas or the percussion. Thus, it is essential to know that “hands in C position” doesn’t apply literally to the violas but, for instance, does mean for the strings to assume a proper left-hand frame. The number of these “fundamentals” for each instrument is considerable and it is understandable that many string pedagogues believe that private instruction (à la Suzuki) is essential for at least the first six weeks of  instrumental instruction and preferably for an entire semester.  Without routine, routine , the pacing of beginning in instruction struction iiss awkward. Pacing in beginning classes needs to move quickly but not frantically. Think of all the information about your own instrument you would like to impart in the first lesson(s) and apply this to each student in a class. Care of the instrument will be a priority along with proper assembly and disassembly. 1

 

2

Prologue

Beyond these fundamentals, the priority of objectives will depend upon your teaching philosophy, the students and their instruments in each class, and a host of factors unique to each school and community. Students are anxious to bow, toot, and pound, excited to have an assignment and to perform a favorite tune. Here, however, is where generalities end. The strings will practice tension-free motions and positions and will likely begin with strumming motions using either the left or right hand or both. Wind instrument teachers may accept minor incorrect positions in favor of learning a simple three-pitch melody at the first lesson. Some method books recommend beginning with whole notes, presumably because because of a belief in the primary importance of breath support and proper posture, although there are more essential objectives. There are no absolute answers to issues faced by the teacher in the first lesson except to set reasonable and attainable goals and an instructional sequence to accomplish these. Teacher and student should feel good about the progress made in these initial encounters  with an instrument. ins trument.  With attainment of these the se initial routines, the class can be organized with a minimum of  interruptions, accommodating the students’ need to “perform.” Chairs and stands should be in place before students enter the room, the day’s objective and any procedures noted on the chalkboard, equipment and music readily accessible when needed. The class may begin with physical, musical, and instrumental warm-ups including breathing exercises, movements to release pent-up tensions from the previous class, and other exercises that prepare all students for what is to follow in the class period. Every lesson requires an initial assessment of progress since the last class meeting and provision for necessary reteaching of concepts and the remediation of acquired bad habits. There is a strong relationship between teacher pacing of the  various instructional instr uctional components and student satisfaction and enjoyment. The introduction of new material will likely require preparation, which is introduced with enthusiasm and, if  possible, a touch of humorous creativity. Above all, each lesson must primarily teach music.

INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACH Direct instruction may initially be the most promising approach due to the highly skill-based nature of instrumental music. Direct instruction lessons have well-defined goals and a systematic, carefully planned sequence of tasks to achieve each goal. A method book can be used but  beyond the book the teacher is involved in clarifying goals for each student or group of students, observing student response, and providing feedback, eventually, to each student on his or her progress. Modeling on each instrument and using the voice is highly desirable. Teacher analytical skills, such as identifying a poor embouchure or hand position and its possible causes, are especially important, as not only is each student unique but the rate of  progress differs by instrument.

Executive Skills The fundamental performance skills must not only be properly introduced but reinforced at  each lesson. These may include in clude but are not limited to: posture, breath support, full bow, elimination of tension, embouchure, tonguing, hand and finger position, and other skills unique to various instruments. Exercises, games, video and audio recordings, competitions, songs, and other creative strategies including systematic practice can aid in the establishment of the physical, mental, and musical essentials of performance.

MUSICAL VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT Rhythm  Accurate reading of rhythms is a principal goal. Before or concurrently with sight-reading rhythms, students should become proficient at aurally imitating rhythm patterns (vocally and  with their feet, hands, and instrument) in various meters. meters. These can be complex and great fun to perform. Gradually, notation for these patterns should be introduced and examples of their use in all types of music performed. The goal of attaining a musical vocabulary is to not only  perform but also to understand. The string players use rhythm patterns in the development of  bowing, the percussionists as an introduction to the rudiments, while the wind players may  employ them in simple tunes. As skill is developed, the student is led to understand how these

 

Prologue

patterns relate to tempo, meter, and subdivisions of various beats. Examples should be found  where rhythm is the the primary accompaniment device.  Various  Var ious counting and syllable-based systems that teach rhythms are available in addition to the mathematically based 1-e-&-a counting system. The Kodály (ta, ti), Gordon (du, de), Eastman (1-te), and Takadimi systems each has its followers. When selecting a system, consider the students’ previous experiences, the familiarity and use of syllables in the school district, and the way in which duple and triple meters are used. In these systems, vocalizing patterns is as important as patting knees, clapping, and performance on an instrument. If there is any subject that the presentation of which differs most among method books, it is the introduction of meters and rhythm patterns. Again, there is no absolute answer. Rote exercises—including notes and rests in various meters—should match, as closely as possible, how the notation of rhythm is presented in the method book being used. The objective is competence in performing rhythms correctly by rote and with notation.

Pitch The sequence to the teaching of pitch is often determined by the method book used and the supplementary songs provided to enhance the performing experience. One popular method book does not have a heterogeneous class play together for the first six lessons, as it is inadvisable to have all instruments begin on a common concert pitch. Some instrumental students may be playing harmonics as basic to that instrument in early lessons. String players usually  begin with the open strings, usually without the bow. The beginning teacher needs to carefully read the chapter in this text on each instrument being taught and make any necessar y adaptations to the material in the method book and to one’s own teaching philosophy.

Expressive Skills Expressive playing by beginners is possible when students understand the importance of playing at varying dynamic levels. The method for controlling the dynamic level differs by instrument, but once these control strategies are learned and students can play both soft and loud, they can be expected to add crescendos and diminuendos and to use these techniques to properly shape phrases.

Learning Musical Concepts Students do not come to instrumental music classes as “blank slates.” Most beginning musicians bring a wealth of musical information (learned in general music class or “picked up” from the television or radio, in church, or from a variety of other sources) that will be helpful to them in music class. They may already know how to read a musical line, sing from sight, play a tune or ttwo wo on the piano, or assemble their instrument. Tap Tapping ping into this knowledge is key to helping them develop rhythm, tone, and other expressive musical skills, along with the executive skills necessary necessar y to play their instruments, not to mention the continual need for motivation. Each child has different needs and the teacher must come to know his or her students as quickly as possible. Elementary students enjoy participating in activities that are fun and interesting, and teachers like to see students progress and learn new skills and ideas. Thus, while working on students’ skills—such as long tones, lip slurs, bowing, and buzz rolls—tap into students’ curiosity for learning something new by asking questions and setting goals for and with them. Questions that ask students to perform a skill can be motivating. For instance, “Can you play  this measure five times in a row with the correct articulation?” “I wonder how long you can hold an A ?” “Can you find this pitch (play or sing a pitch) on your instrument?”

MUSIC LITERATURE AND PERFORMANCES Schedule the first concert as early as possible after learning begins. When a concert is scheduled before the instrument instrumen t rental trial period ends, a successful concert could be an incentive to encourage a skeptical student (and his or her parents) to continue the instruction. The first concerts should include familiar songs that students know well and some that have been memorized. Quality arrangements and original works for beginners exist. Select music that uses meters of 2 ⁄ 4, 4 ⁄ 4, and 3 ⁄ 4, and brief rhythm patterns of quarter note and eighth notes. Pitch range

 

3

 

4

Prologue

should span no more than about an octave, and less for brass players. Stepwise melodic motion is best, with few skips or leaps. Using only the basic keys of concert F, B , and E  major for bands, and G and D for strings, with no (or very limited) use of accidentals will help to avoid problems. Long, slurred patterns are not appropriate, especially for brass, nor are passages that call for complex fingering. Two or three independent lines—of major and minor harmonies consisting primarily of unisons, thirds, fifths, sixths, and octaves, and phrase length usually of four measures to allow for frequent breathing—are adequate. More advanced (second year) groups may include 2 ⁄ 2 or 6 ⁄ 8 meters, and rhythms incorporating sixteenth-note patterns and syncopation. Ranges can be up to two octaves for wood winds and one and one-half octaves for brass. The selection of music for concerts is one of the most important decisions an instrumental music teacher makes. For initial presentations, directors often select tunes from the first few pages of the method book and may have each section of the band or orchestra demonstrate an appropriate or favorite song. As players develop, later concerts can include “concert pieces,” songs played by ear, ear, and more difficult method book tunes in multiple divergent styles. Some styles (e.g., swing, Baroque) may require a more select or advanced group.

LEARNING SONGS BY EAR  Many instrumental music teachers do not spend time helping students learn songs by ear. Many of these teachers may have struggled with their own aural skills in freshman theory  class. There is a connection. Learning familiar songs by ear promotes development of ear-tohand skills and audiation, both of which are important for the development of musicianship. Ear-to-hand skills are those skills necessary for playing music from memory or by improvisation. This is an important step and should be the method that students use to initially learn songs. rote enables a student to focus on developing instrumental skills and earto-handLearning skills thatbyare vital for musicians.

LEARNING TO PRACTICE  Younger students cannot practice what they don’t kn know. ow. Frequently a teacher spends considerable time correcting errors learned in home practice, leaving less time to teach. The solution? Ask students to practice what was taught today in class, trying to make it better, smoother,, more even, faster, and so on. smoother Effective practice requires cognitive knowledge of the music and the instrume instrument nt so as to perform with artistic interpretation. The student can look at the music for some information and listen to recordings to gather more information. Most method books include recordings that model their material. Accompaniments are often included. Software is available that allows material to be performed at a variety of speeds so students can practice more slowly, isolate a difficult passage, or take a faster tempo for a needed challenge. Good practice habits can be modeled by the th e teacher. By providing regular, specific feedback to students, teachers can illustrate what the students should be listening to when practicing. Asking students to assess their peers and to self-assess their own performances assists in locating errors and misinterpretations. Often, young instrumentalists are so focused on the physical aspects of playing the instrument that they are unable to mentally process what they  are hearing. Teaching students to record themselves (there are many low-cost recording de vices available) and play it back can help students identify areas for improvement improvemen t when alone at home. With the use of a computer and microphone, SmartMusic and iPAS software can help students identify their musical errors. Modeling the use of these systems and telling students how to obtain them for use at home can help improve students’ practice habits while making practice more fun. Set expectations high. Let students know that they must develop proficiency by practicing daily. Examples of first-chair high school players who practiced diligently to achieve can be used to inspire players to learn that persistence pays off.

1

 

Teaching and the Role of Motivation 

T

he most successful teachers of instrumental music are those whose musicianship and knowledge enable them to produce good performances of good music and whose understanding of student motivation encourages enthusiastic participation on the part of their students that leads to greater development of their musical skills. Marin Alsop, conductor of the Baltimore Symphony, and Tom O’Halloran, a successful instrumental music teacher in Carlisle, Massachusetts, agree that personal relationships are the basis for understanding teacher–student psychology and student motivation.  We feel it iiss important to discuss motivation iin n this text be because cause the relationships aand nd rapport established between student(s) and teacher will do much to distinguish successful from unsuccessful teaching outcomes. This chapter will outline the most recent thinking about motivation theory and provide a host of motivation suggestions that are used in the best  rehearsal rooms and classrooms. Observing, over time, what motivates your students to improve will be an interesting route to enhancing your teaching success.  A successful teacher initially estab establishes lishes respect by being knowledgeable and helpful, the two essential components in a positive personal relationship with students. What really matters is the effect you have on students and their musical competence. Related to respect is trust, a deeper personal relationship between student and teacher. Trust is so important that it exists at   various levels in all organizations and strengthens over time through through meaningful experiences. It is never quickly gained. Instrumental music is both a team and individual accomplishment: the greater the trust between teacher and students, the greater the potential for musical excellence. The students must have confidence in the teacher’s knowledge and skill in music. But  trust extends beyond t he he ability to conduct, and the list of factors that contribute to trust is lengthy. William Tierne y 1 has written extensively about trust, suggesting that trust is not innate, that it depends on the competence of the trusted (the teacher), and that it can be neither coerced nor commanded. The trustworthy teacher selects appropriate and challenging music, provides help, makes fair decisions, follows the rules and regulations set forth in the handbook, acts on the student’s behalf, has integrity, has a sense of humor, humor, knows what is important  and what is trivial, and more! Instrumental music teachers often become confidants of students  when students recognize that the hard work required to become competent per formers pays off due to the teacher’s ability to meld the efforts of the many into a satisfying whole. More is needed than a solid understanding of the instruments and how to validly assess students. Good teachers can inspire students, and effective teachers continue to hone this skill by improving their understanding of student psychology and the culture of the classroom and school. Some motivational strategies work well with the entire group while others work uniquely well with individual students. Teachers are successful when they understand that the individuals in any group may vary because of home life, talents, past experiences, kinds of  parental support, and specific socioeconomic situations. Students with equal ability and experience, but differing in their motivation (more on this in a moment), will respond differently  to failure and success in the classroom. This initial emphasis on motivation doesn’t imply that an inspirational speaker will naturally be a successful music teacher, but it is an essential characteristic that is often not easily  1

 William Tierney (2006). Trust and the Public Good: Examining the Cultural Conditions of Academic  Work . New York: Peter Lang, p. 70.

5

 

6

Teaching and the Role of Motivation

acquired. A master instrumental teacher must also be a good musician, have skill at modeling, modelin g, have a sense of humor hum or,, use good judgment, and be a self-starter. Are these qualities sufficient? No, the teacher must be broadly educated, be disposed to hard work, be patient and persistent, understand the purpose of schooling, work cooperatively, care about each and every student, be politically savvy, and more! The list of desirable traits is almost inexhaustible; at the height of behaviorism some teacher education institutions compiled lists of over two hundred “essential” teacher traits. The study of motivation is a subdiscipline in educational psychology; from this large and important field we can only sketch some current ideas that help in understanding students. The astute teacher learns to study apply of ideas gained from study oftostudent psychology to the ever-varying teaching situation. The motivation is notalimited education; it is crucial to almost every  field of work. American business studies the motivation of its workforce in an effort to understand the priority workers give to television, sports, vacation, and their families over their job and their advancement. The military uses motivation to attract enlistees and to help them tolerate endurance tasks for vague outcomes. And, of course, coaches of athletic teams depend on their motivational skills to inspire players to overcome those obstacles that interfere with winning. In the examples cited, the priorities of the teacher/leader/coach and those of the students/followers need to match—or at least be compatible. Psychologists tell us that personal incentives usually center on enjoyment, money, power, relationships, recognition, or personal excellence. Instrumental music is about personal excellence, relationships between teachers and peers, and the enjoyment music brings. Students want to be with others and to be accepted.  We all wish to possess high self-esteem and competence and to feel that others have confidence in us. Imparting knowledge about Stravinsky is a matter of teacher clarity and competence, but leading students to perform Stravinsky well is the domain of motivation. The psychologist Csikszentmihalyi suggests that tasks in themselves can be motivating. Students can become so interested in pursuing a task (for example, learning their lesson or part) that they lose all track of time and and,, if interrupted, can’t wait to return to the task. Csikszentmihalyi calls this behavior “flow.” “flow.”2 Teachers seek tasks that encourage flow and that relate to course objectives.

PSYCHOLOGY Pintrich and Schrunk (2002) state that th at professionals disagree over what motivation is, what affects it, how the process operates, its effects on learning and performance, and how it can be improved (p. 4). A central core of achievement motivation, the most common type of motivation in the literature of educational psychology, is competence motivation. That seems obvious enough. The instrumental teacher’s purpose should be to develop musical competence,  which requires that the students acquire skills and understanding, and which is the primar y  focus of this text. Psychologists believe that the desire to become competent is an inherent  psychological need of the human being; thus, the instrumental music teacher begins with a psychological Admittedly, achieving competence is more than establishing teacher–studentadvantage. rapport; parents, the community, private teachers, and the school administration all are involved. Differences in the community and school cultures shape the conduct  of instruction, affecting the rehearsal situation, the priority of objectives, standards, and teaching strategies. Despite these many variables, the teacher with knowledge about student  motivation and the elements of teacher–student rapport can be highly successful. Group motivation may be more important in instrumental music than in math and language arts classes, and it may well be the most important ability a teacher can possess. Because group motivation is greatly influenced by each individual’s motivation, it is impossible to separate the two.

Motivation Orientation Theory The study of individual motivation is centered on “goal orientation theory,” a way of understanding motivation that provides a framework for the students’ motivational orientations as  well as for the learning environment and all three types of outcomes—cognitive, affective, and behavioral. Goal orientation theory also provides a framework for discussions on pedagogy, both in terms of direct instruction and constructivism. Thus, motivation can be discussed in terms of frequency, intensity, and duration, as teacher and student strive to attain 2

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (2008). Flow: The Psychology Psychology of Optimal Performance . New York: Basic Books.

 

Teaching and the Role of Motivation

goals, the most prominent being musical competence. Goals are critical because they organize, encourage control, and direct action. A goal to reduce one’s indebtedness requires organizing (setting priorities), controlling impulse buying, and taking action in general to spend less and save more. A student’s goal to have a “perfect” lesson requires him or her to organize a practice schedule, to control it by staying focused on the most difficult material, and to direct action into daily practicing. When the goal is attained, the student experiences a sense of  competence and avoids all of the negatives that accompany a feeling of incompetence. The prevalent motivational theories based on goal orientation theory and designed to explain competence–incompetence and achievement are termed self-theories  and self-efficacy . Both these insightful theories help capture much of what occurs or should occur in the music teaching–learning situation.

Self-Theories in Motivation The American population is about equally divided about what they believe motivates their desire to learn. About 40 percent of the population desires mastery of subject matter and naturally seeks challenging tasks despite the possibility of failure. These individuals sign up for extra instruction in their weak areas and receive more satisfaction in individually mastering a task than in attaining recognition for it. A second group of individuals (another 40 percent) focuses on performance goals. These individuals are motivated to perform better than others and to  win at competitions; competitions; they avoid aany ny necessary extra instruction and work. They cram cram for examinations, select easy tasks over challenging ones, and avoid situations where they won’t look good. Individuals in this second group are excellent at rationalizing failure. A third group, about 20 percent of the population, is related to the second group. Individuals in this group either have no desire to achieve or perform per form or they shift back and forth from one orientation to the other; their focus is on performance-avoidance goals, that is, avoiding any tasks that  demonstrate low or inferior ability.  A clear example of self-theories affecting motivation can be found in beliefs about intelligence. Mastery  students believe that IQ is changeable—that is, that they can improve—  whereas  performance  students believe that IQ is fixed and that they must do the best they can  with the intelligence they inherited. in herited. A similar, and perhaps more extreme, example in regard to musical aptitude is the belief that one either has or does not have a “talent” for music, and not having “talent” is often an excuse used by those who fail to achieve competence or drop out of instrumental music instruction. The implication of this theory for instrumental music teachers is that members of performing groups are or should be primarily mastery students  who believe that competence in band and orchestra is due to effort more than ability. abili ty. When mastery  students “mess up,” they willingly accept and seek help; they practice, participate in sectionals, and solicit music that is even more challenging than they are expected to know— all to ensure success. If  performance  students “mess up,” they attribute such failure to a lack of talent, to bad luck, to teacher prejudice, or to a host of other rationalizations. They will also attempt to find  ways to avoid being put in the same situation a second time. An understanding of self-theories in motivation helps teachers to recognize and make use of the students’ reactions as fitting one of these three self-theories in motivation. Successful teaching encourages students to think like mastery students, minimizing “cramming” before a concert. If the teacher criticizes mastery students on a difficult task, the students think that the teacher believes they have the skill and competence to succeed. If the teacher praises mastery students on an easy task, these students will think the teacher believes they have minimal ability and competence. The insightful teacher needs to observe all students to see whether they attend carefully to instructions, identify tasks, mentally organize, rehearse, mark their music, check for understanding, and ask for guidance. Teacher comments on these observations reinforce mastery learning.

Self-Efficacy, Including Self-Concept, Self-Estee SelfEsteem, m, and Self-Regu Self-Regulati lation on Self-Concept  Playing an instrument is an individual competency and the student’s percep-

tion of how well he or she can learn lear n is important in self-motivation. Motivational psychologists discuss the desire to learn in terms of self-concept, the belief one has in one’s own general competence. Often self-concept is limited to whether individuals believe themselves to have talent and, in this respect, self-concept is directly related to performance goals.

 

7

 

8

Teaching and the Role of Motivation Self-Esteem  While perceptions of competence are based on cognitive judgments of skill,

knowledge, and abilities, self-esteem is the student’s emotional reaction to his or her own competence. Self-esteem (or self-worth) affects learning, as a student’s positive perception (attribution) of competence helps that student surmount difficulties and sustain motivation, thus contributing to mastery  learning. The student’s perception of what constitutes competence will largely determine his or her level of aspiration for both individual and group goals. Self-Regulation, Self-Control, or Self-Efficacy   Albert Bandura (1997) promoted the concept of self-efficacy , which deemphasizes the importance of natural ability. He believed that  students’ mental effort should focus on the fundamentals of learning and argued that learn-

ing is not primarily influenced by environment (socioeconomic situation and more) or inner impulses (talent), but rather by a student’s ability to reflect, be proactive, be organized, and be self-regulating. Thus, Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy is similar to a mastery orientation in self-theories. It determines how individuals feel, think, behave, and motivate themselves to master challenging tasks. Self-efficacy is negatively affected by stress. One’s experience, role models, peer group, and emotional state influence the approach one takes to any task in life. One is not born with a sense of self but learns that actions produce effects. This learning continues throughout life, with different priorities becoming important at different stages in life.  As one ages, life requires different type typess of competencies that, in turn, require further development of self-efficacy . Students often consciously decide on the extent to which they can be successful and  whether the goal goal is w worth orth the effort that will b bee required. Self-efficacy depends not only on motivation but also on whether one already has a reservoir of knowledge and skills that will make achieving the goal possible. When the goal seems attractive and attainable, the task itself becomes motivating and one experiences “flow.” Student violinists might hear Joshua Bell perform a Beethoven concerto and be inspired (self-efficacy ) to apply their present knowledge and skills to learning that same concerto. The students’ organizing, reflecting, and regulating are aided when the teacher provides appropriate feedback and helps establish intermediate performance goals that are challenging yet feasible. The basic premise of self-regulation is that the students take control of their own learning; the terms ter ms self-efficacy, self-concept, self-regulation , and self-control , as used in the literature on motivation, all refer to the various ways in which students: (1) analyze the task, the environment, and the resources required (including the needed time for learning); (2) adopt appropriate strategies; (3) understand their own tolerance and persistence levels; and (4) judge the tasks to be important. These various mental appraisals should become habitual and should occur almost automatically. Total self-learning in music is rare and, despite self-learning theories, teachers and critics retain a vital role in providing feedback, identifying errors and misconceptions, and originating new learning and new techniques. Music majors understand the importance of  continued private instruction and the role of coaches, along with self-motivation. In leading students to musical achievement (competence), the teacher is guided by an understanding of  motivation self-theories and the various elements of self-efficacy/self-learning (beliefs). Students are likely unaware of these psychological theories but are affected by these forces without their explicit knowledge. And, to repeat, musical competence is also shaped by the influence of students’ backgrounds, the environment, teachers, peers, parents, the community, and more.

THE INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC CLASSROOM Developing pride in a musical organization is an important component in motivation. There need be nothing “second class” about school ensembles. Good music can and should be performed well at any age—having challenging musical standards (an aspect of motivation) is a critical component of being an effective teacher. It is simply not true, however, that good music in itself furnishes sufficient motivation for students. The teacher must understand the students and also his or her own role in helping students take responsibility for their own learning. This idea is not terribly surprising to a student in instrumental music. In other school subjects, ideas about motivation and self-efficacy have altered teachers’ perceptions of  their responsibility and relationship to students. These motivational theories have been successfully applied to individuals; presently the school reform movement is advocating the use of these same principles throughout entire classes and schools. They are asking all faculty  members to understand self-theories and to use them to establish challenging goals, focus on

 

Teaching and the Role of Motivation

the needs and backgrounds of individual students, and apply mastery learning and self-efficacy to entire classrooms. The one-on-one relationships established in the rehearsal situation depend on the principles of motivation that are, in turn, dependent on students having certain musical knowledge and skills. Any music teaching, whether of an individual or a group, has as its aim the development of musical independence, which consists of knowledge, good practice habits, technical proficiency, and musical understanding. To accomplish this goal in a group situation, both individual and group goals are necessary, as are the means to attain these goals. The following pages contain suggestions that can aid students in achieving self-motivation and group motivation thatand will extrinsic work in various situations. These suggestions are divided into the categories of intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation The study of motivation consists of identifying why individuals invest personal resources in attaining a goal. The reasons are multiple and change over time but are usually categorized as being either intrinsic or extrinsic. Extrinsic motivation is easier to understand; it consists of desire for a tangible reward—a prize, a compliment, first chair, or the avoidance of an unpleasant  situation, and so forth. As individuals vary in motivational strengths and in the value they place on various rewards, individual observation is required to determine the motivational strength of external rewards for each student. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, derives from the experience—emotional, mental, or physical—that occurs within the individual. There is no apparent external reward to be gained from the effort ef fort expended. High-Quality Music  The music itself should be the central motivating force for any musi-

cal learning, though it is rarely the only factor. To furnish genuine motivation, music must be of high quality, for poor music soon becomes tiresome and boring. Also, poor music is so easily available to students on CDs, iPods, or television that they do not need to participate in school music groups in order to find fin d it. Teachers are tempted to make one of two mistakes regarding the quality of the music to be used. The first is to use popular commercial music on the assumption that it will interest students. The fallacy in this approach is that the basic goal of developing a discriminating love of good music can never be reached, even though students may acquire considerable performing skill. The second mistake is to set unrealistically  high standards for the music used. To use high-quality music does not necessarily mean to use only classic literature music. The skillful teacher begins where the students are, selecting music that will appeal to them at their present level of understanding and gradually introducing them to more sophisticated music as they become ready for it. Understanding the meaning of the music is as important as cognitive and psychomotor readiness. Using a variety of  types of music is more satisfying than a steady diet of one kind and students stude nts can learn to judge between varying qualities. As long as the music is well written, challenges the students with something new, has genuine musical worth, and is not trite or shallow—in short, as long as it  broadens the students’ appreciation—it is good music and should be used.  A Wide Musical Repertoire  New music is the most obvious way to maintain interest. Even

if the individual or the group is not able to perform frequently rehearsed music perfectly, there comes a time when a change is necessary. Nothing brings on boredom faster than working continually on the same few pieces or trudging wearily over the same exercise until all is perfected. If a long period of time is needed to learn lear n a piece well, the selection is probably too difficult. The exercises should also be of varied levels of difficulty. This wide variety not only  helps maintain interest but also can contribute to the sight-reading and interpretive abilities of the learners. This principle holds for both individual and group instruction. The inclusion of jazz and mariachi music along with instruction in improvisation are examples of methods for changing the pace of rehearsals. Limiting students’ musical experiences to a single method or style contributes to a loss of interest.  A Clear and Attainable Goal   All students should know why they are practicing and what 

their objective is. Similarly, teachers should make clear in rehearsals where they are leading the group. Like the proverbial carrot in front of the donkey, the goal should be visible; unlike the carrot, it should be attainable. Teachers must have long-range goals that shape their planning and programming, but short-range goals are also necessary. For the greatest effectiveness, a goal must be specific and cooperatively established with the students. If the group is working toward a concert performance, members will put forth

 

9

 

10

Teaching and the Role of Motivation

more effort if the date has been set and the music selected. When time is given to drills, sightreading, listening, or factual or technical learning, students will respond more readily if they  know the purpose of the activity and its priority in the time available. The goal should be modeled for students to help them understand both how it should be accomplished and what the desired performance level is. It is especially important that skills be correctly modeled, as students are inclined to decide based on their own level of mastery. With the clarification of  these goals and skills, individual and group errors can be used as an opportunity for learning. Technical Drills Using Real Music  Scales, studies, and exercises should anticipate the

difficult spots in the music being learned. Until students encounter a particular technical problem in a piece of music, they will see little li ttle reason for practicing exercises designed to give them that facility. Treat technical studies like vitamins that are to be taken as needed but  never as the main ingredient of the diet. die t. As with all rules, the exceptions are many—for example, producing long tones and extending students’ range should be daily habits, as are warming up and warming down. This is not to suggest that technical studies be omitted—far from it. Because technical drills focus on particular kinds of learning, they can help students become technically proficient much more rapidly than they would if only musical pieces were practiced. Artists continue to practice exercises in the classic texts for their instrument. Drill needs to be meaningful and relevant, but if omitted altogether, the individual and the group will suffer. Musicianship Skills and Factual Knowledge  Factual knowledge about music and the

ability to perform skills of musicianship, such as transposing, reading several clefs, and impro vising, are both goals of the music program and real m motivators. otivators. Like good music, skill and knowledge have intrinsic value and furnish valid goals for motivation. Students like to know, for instance, the problems that double-reed players have with reeds—how difficult they are to make, how scarce good cane is, and how much adjusting is necessary. They can be interested and inspired by details about composers and about the music—how a fugue is put together, the background for a Wagner composition, or the type of social system in which Haydn lived and worked. The more students know and the more they can do in any area, the more they  are likely to retain a lively, active interest in it. Encourage students to enroll in Advanced Placement (AP) music theory. Teaching appropriate concepts from AP theory to the entire ensemble is valuable, as all students understand the relevance of AP courses.  A Tradition of Excellence  Music programs with a reputation for quality provide a mo-

mentum that motivates students to practice and minimizes discipline problems. When there is an established standard to attain, students usually accept the challenge. High school students are idealistic and take pride in doing things well. They can derive satisfaction from meeting high standards in both personal and group achievement; they develop loyalties toward indi viduals and organizations that expect much of them and enjoy living up to those expectations. Students taking private lessons seek out demanding teachers, knowing that their effort will be rewarded with higher skills and a more successful performance.  A tradition of excelle excellence nce is not establi established shed over night. If a teache teacherr moves iinto nto a sch school ool  without such a tradition, tradi tion, he or she must bu build ild it by starting with w ith the younge youngerr students. Older players unaccustomed to high standards will resist drastic reforms and may retain their habits of sloppy practice or halfhearted participation. Sometimes such students respond to the challenge from younger players who begin to surpass them and occupy first-chair positions. Sometimes the best way of dealing with these students is to be patient and wait for them to graduate. Independent Musical Activities  Try to arrange schedules and assignments to make it 

possible for students to work together toward a common goal. Practicing alone can be boring and take considerable self-discipline, whereas working on parts with other students is much more enjoyable, especially for students who play such nonmelody instruments as tubas and horns. Two or three students practicing together, all on the same part or each on a different  part, can increase the pleasure of the participants as well as help develop musicianship. Supply duets, trios, and other kinds of ensemble music to interested students. Whether the group remains together for a long period or simply reads through the music a few times, such activity should be encouraged. A good library of ensemble music representing a variety  of instrumental combinations and levels of difficulty is essential in a good instrumental program.

 

Teaching and the Role of Motivation   11

Students should be encouraged to study piano, guitar, or a second instrument because  variety makes music more fun and be because cause of the valuable insights obtained by view viewing ing tthe he same musical problems through a different lens. Small Ensembles  The small chamber group presents the greatest musical challenge, the best training, the most individual responsibility, and the highest musical pleasure of any activity. Special problems involved in establishing small ensembles include scheduling, grouping students of similar levels of ability, and helping the groups become independent of teacher super vision. To create an ensemble of students whose levels of ability are comparable comparable is perhap perhapss possible only in a large school. In smaller schools the group will usually be uneven, and the more advanced students will have to wait for or even help those less advanced. This situation can have learning advantages, if it is properly handled to avoid resentment or antagonism. The learning derived from small ensemble work is likely to be more valuable if the teacher does not  have to regularly supervise rehearsal. It is important to promote an atmosphere in which independent rehearsal is desirable and expected. It is also an opportunity for students to develop leadership. With musical independence, students may seek ensemble experiences in the community, with students in neighboring schools, or with friends who are not enrolled in school music. It is the decision of the individual teacher whether small ensembles perform in public, go to festivals and contests, or play only for their own pleasure. Performances for appropriate community groups, however, increase motivation and also strengthen public relations. Music for Supporting Players  The second-chair viola player and the third snare drum

are likely to lead humdrum existences e xistences musically. When possible, the teacher should use music that gives solo passages to the seldom heard supporting players. Even a short solo passage may  offer incentive for additional practice. Such music may be short on artistic value but it is long on psychological value. Every player deserves the opportunity to be heard. Listening Experiences  Players should not play all of the time. They should occasionally  listen. Listening should include both live and recorded performances, amateur as well as professional. Older, more advanced players may perform or demonstrate for younger players. Students are always interested in performances by groups at their own age level, whether these are semiprofessional or simply outstanding public school organizations. Some students  will be more encouraged by virtuoso displays and master performances. Hearing an occasional poor performance may serve as an opportunity for learning to make intelligent criticism.  Attendance at a professional concert, the th e appearance of a teaching-artist in i n the school, informal presentations by skillful adult members of the community, and exchange concerts with other schools are all great learning experiences. Miles Davis is reported to have recorded My   Funny Valentine  Valentine  fourteen times with no two performances alike. Analyzing some of these performances sharpens the ear and the brain and is more like play than work. Teachers can instruct students to download recordings onto their iPods or ask students to purchase a single tune from iTunes, for example, so they can hear a recording of a song they may be preparing for a concert. In listening experiences, the ability to understand and hear musical differences in several recordings commands respect from most students. Good Equipment and Facilities  Much has already been said on this point. Good-quality  tools help to produce good results. Poor-quality instruments affect both the group and the individual: inferior instruments handicap the students and may embarrass them as well. The teacher should see that both school-owned and student-owned instruments are of the best  quality possible. Lack of practice areas or a good rehearsal room can also be a handicap. Players of large instruments instrumen ts such as the tuba, string bass, or drums in particular need an in-school practice room, which may also be a great convenience to other students whose schedules permit practice time during the school day. Regardless of the physical facilities in which teacher and students work and learn, a room that is efficiently arranged, neat, and ready for work provides a certain motivation. A  room in disarray indicates a laxness and lack of concern. Favorable Attitudes  Students will accomplish little without the proper attitude. Attitudes

are contagious—especially among teenagers—and so the attitude of a few may set the pattern for the group. The teacher needs to communicate to the students a sense of responsibility for their own individual parts in the organization, together with a pride in the organization and a desire to work for it. Students need to feel that th at their practicing is important, not only for their own improvement but also for the improvement of the group as a whole. The teacher can

 

12

Teaching and the Role of Motivation

instill a sense of responsibility by taking notice of those students who are responsible, commending sections that have improved, pointing out areas that are weak, and helping students who need extra practice find the time and place to do so. The use of section leaders is motivating both for the leader and the others in the group. Pride in the organization can be encouraged by  stressing honestly the achievements of the group, planning attractive activities, and reporting any commendations that come from the community, the student body, or school officials. Esprit de Corps  In the beginning it may be necessary for the teacher to be the main

source of inspiration. A group spirit of unity and a desire to belong and be accepted will lead a student to adopt the ideals of the group. If the group is included in appropriate decision making, a spirit of pride and responsibility will be fostered that will spread to new members coming into the group. Because high school students are not mature adults, group spirit can be strongly influenced by such extrinsic values as uniforms, contests, social affairs, and good publicity, as well as by successful performances. Student Leaders  Esprit de corps can be enhanced through student leaders. In addition,

some of the less talented students can find recognition and satisfaction in performing organizational tasks or becoming student officers. Student government not only aids in developing group morale but also in lessening the load for the director and providing a chain of command through which the teacher may implement needed regulations. Some leadership positions are best filled by popular election, whereas other leaders should be appointed by the director. Respect for Students and Student Ideas  Students need to see that their ideas con-

tribute to the selection of music, procedures, organizational rules, and even the amount of  practice expected of every member. Even though it must be clear that the director makes the final decision in all matters, he or she must be a good listener. If the atmosphere encourages students to believe that they and the group can improve, students will establish e stablish high standards and expectations for themselves, often exceeding those of the director. Standards and rules must be enforced in such a way that they are perceived as being fair to all involved.  A Sensible Schedule  Schedule  The schedule should make it possible for students to practice and to

attend all rehearsals. Performance goals should be reasonable so that the students are not discouraged. Take care not to exploit talented students. Often they are capable in many areas, and many teachers wish them to participate in those areas of interest. Because of this, such students can become accustomed to doing rapid, superficial work and forget the importance of sustained effort. Persistence is one of the important transferable outcomes of a valid instrumental music program. The teacher must be willing to think of the students’ welfare first by  helping them acknowledge their limits and budget their time wisely. The Motivational Force of the Teacher  The teacher is the decisive element in providing

inspiration, motivation, and learning. Teachers should model the best ethical behavior in their dealings with students, the administration, and the community. Their level of musicianship, technical facility as performers, pedagogical competence, command of musical knowledge, leadership, and depth and breadth as human beings can inspire students to imitate and emulate. Maintaining a sense of humor throughout the day is always important to morale. Teachers of instrumental music ideally provide the inspiration that comes from being a  fine  musician and a fine teacher. In addition to being timely, motivational goals and activities must not be too specific. Teachers should apply the “Goldilocks” principle and pursue programs that are “just right”  with goals that are understandable, relevant, meaningful, meani ngful, and attainable. The foregoing suggestions have a long-range perspective and are based primarily on a belief in the motivating force of good music and in the importance of psychology in working  with students. stude nts. These suggestions should be the basis of the teacher’s planning and decision making. The next section explores the motivational power of temporary or short-term goals.  Although short-term goals alone would never be adequate to provide a healthy atmosphere or a firm basis for musical learning, they can serve to create temporary inspiration and day-today interest. These goals provide extrinsic rather than intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic Motivation Effective Praise  Most students will respond to a deserved compliment from a teacher

 whom they respect, and will work to ear earn n one. Praise can be directed at the entire group as

 

Teaching and the Role of Motivation   13

long as it is specific or focused on one instrumental section or one individual. The praise must  be honest and must not be so frequent frequen t as to become meaningless. Praise remarks rem arks must be varied, straightforward, presented in a declarative manner, and should recognize both the effort  and talent of all students. Praise for individuals and small groups also can be effectively shown by nonverbal gestures. Praise and approval can come from sources other than the teacher teache r. The commendation of the administration and the student body is important and a legitimate goal for which to  work. One excellent excellen t way for a music group to receive deserved deser ved recognition is through publicizing its activities. Newspaper, television, and radio publicity concerning group activities fosters both school and public awareness and encourages pride in the organization. Criticism and Disapproval  Being inspirational should not imply that the teacher always hands out compliments. The teacher should use praise liberally when it is merited but be fi firm rm  when the situation demands it. It is fairly well established that punishment as well as reward is effective in learning. Many successful teachers create a lasting enthusiasm for music while at  the same time arousing a certain amount of apprehension at the weekly lesson or daily rehearsal. When students can relax without fear of criticism regardless of what they do, the atmosphere no longer offers that creative tension in which learning takes place. However, as a general rule, sarcasm, ridicule, and other unfair practices have no place in good teaching, and criticism and disapproval should not be couched in these ter ms. Students do, however, respect firmness and want to be challenged chall enged to meet high standards. Respect for the teacher may  often be based on the number of mistakes the teacher identifies and the helpfulness of the suggested corrections. When offering criticism, teachers need to know whether performance failure is due to lack of ability or lack of effort. Mild punishment works wonders when the problem is a lack of effort; however, when the untalented student is doing everything he or she can, negative criticism leads to discouragement. Parents’ Support  Enlist parents’ support but never allow home practice to be used as a form of punishment for students. Many directors send a periodic progress report to the parents in order to maintain a close relationship between the music program and the home. Electronic newsletters to parents and online expectations should be followed up, on occasion, by printed material. Emphasis on a regular time for practice may serve as a motivator for students. If the teacher feels that practice is important enough to be done at a particular time each day, with few  exceptions, an aura of significance develops around the practice hour and its value is enhanced. Grading Systems  Many systems of grading are used in music programs, including the

following. 1. Practice charts. Students are required to practice a specified amount each day. Those  who exceed the minimum get higher grades. The drawback to this approach is that it re wards effort rather than results. 2. Progress charts. Students are graded for completing specified objectives. Such a chart  has the advantage of establishing definite goals and of rewarding actual attainment. It  gives the teacher an impartial and objective vehicle by which to determine grades and places music on the same plane with the more academic subjects. 3. Point systems. Like progress charts, the point systems rewards achievement. Point systems may be helpful in determining annual awards to members of the organization. Some teachers object to the clerical effort involved in keeping an accurate record of  earned points for each student, but student help and computer programs can be successfully used in keeping records. There should be no surprises in the use of any grading systems. One of the important values of a systematic grading procedure is that students can examine their progress and see the results. By seeing the graphic illustration of their progress for the year and the relationship between work and achievement, students can make personal evaluations of their progress. Competitive Seating Plans   With a competitive competitive seating plan, the better player playerss are encour-

aged to work for the honor h onor of retaining first-chair positions, while others strive to catch up. For this plan to be effective, the teacher needs to schedule tryouts at regular intervals. The importance of the first-chair position for ever y part should be stressed (e.g., first chair, third clarinet) not simply the solo chairs. Students in these “chairs” are responsible musically, academically, and socially for the members of their section. Whether tryouts tr youts are announced ahead of time or

 

14

Teaching and the Role of Motivation

scheduled without notice is the teacher’s decision. Some teachers feel that announced tr tryouts youts stimulate more energetic practicing, whereas others have discovered that their students practice more consistently when they have to be ready for unannounced tryouts. Challenge Systems  Students in the lower ranks may aspire to the higher chairs through

testing the occupant in a fair match. The director should make the challenge system as democratic and fair as possible, probably by including students on the judging committee and by  having a clear procedure that will also serve to produce added practice. In order not to spend too much class time on challenging, it is better to have a set time or schedule in which challenges may take place. Tryouts for Chair Positions or Ensemble Membership   As in other subjects, the music

teacher should make specific assignments and then test all students on their preparation of  the assignments. Such testing may take place at rehearsals, sectional practices, or at lessons, but regardless of the method, students should be expected to do the work assigned and to be graded accordingly. Whether such tryouts affect seating is up to the teacher. All classes and ensembles, except the beginning classes, must have enforced standards for membership that  always include performance competence. Some teachers succeed in holding tryouts during regular rehearsals by calling on individuals to play the assignments in front of the group. The director should not force unwilling students to submit to such a practice if it seems too harsh. Negative criticisms are usually best  given in private. Once the routine is established, however, it may encourage students to be well prepared in order to avoid making a poor showing before their peers or a teacher they respect. Competition on Technical Proficiency  Students can derive a great deal of fun and inspiration from an occasional contest for sheer technical proficiency—players compete to see

 who can play the greatest number of scale scaless correctly, play the ffastest, astest, hold n notes otes the lon longest, gest, and so forth. Competitions for producing the highest note are seldom advisable but students seem to enjoy this task more than seeing who can hold a note the longest. Such contests are not a serious part of any assessment but can be used to stimulate interest and challenge students to greater technical mastery. The Value of Written Tests  Used infrequently, infrequently, tests of musical learning may result in extra

effort from students. Such tests may focus on knowledge of music fundamentals: terms, keys, scales, and tuning. Although these tests give no indication of the student’s playing ability ability,, they  help to emphasize the importance of basic musical knowledge. Written tests take up valuable time, but even in performance groups an occasional written test can provide motivation for learning and give the teacher some valuable insights into areas needing improvement. Public Performance Evaluations  Public performance evaluation, properly handled, can

contribute both to the level of motivation and to musical understanding. For example, an outside critic may be employed during the regular rehearsal period to listen to individuals and sections, commentmay to the group their on its parts performance, to offer suggestions fortheir improvement. Ortostudents perform for the and entire ensemble, analyze own strengths and weaknesses, and suggest how they will improve their parts by tomorrow or by  next week. Such an activity can be great fun, constitute public testimony of intent, and act  intrinsically and extrinsically as a motivator for musical excellence. In addition, members may  comment on their section’s progress toward the overall goal and what they need to do to improve. The more specific the suggestions, the more helpful this activity will be. (This activity is similar to the teaching and motivating devices developed by Project Zero in the Pittsburgh public schools.) Comments like “take your parts home and practice” are not specific enough to be meaningful. Comments about how the intelligent use of warmups and home drills can improve the intonation, balance, or musical line can bring results, if followed. n selectin selecting g Membership Standards for All Groups   Although there must be flexibility iin members for each group in order to achieve instrumental balance, students should have an accurate idea of what is required for membership in the group. A clear set of standards is one  way to encourage practice and achievement. In addition, standards can help dispel any  feeling that the teacher teache r is partial or unfair. Published rules must be followed; the fewe fewerr exceptions made, the more important these rules r ules will become in the eyes of all members. Moreover, there is a natural desire to be a member of a group that has an aspect of selectivity. The Marine Corps and Phi Beta Kappa would lose their appeal if open to all comers. Musical organizations should not be exclusive, but membership should imply that certain standards have

 

Teaching and the Role of Motivation   15

been met and maintained and that each member has attained a certain level of achievement. If a student must be dropped from the group for failure, any failure(s) must be well documented and changes made with the input of all stakeholders, including parents, administrators, and the student. m ay take the form of letters, medals, sweaters, jackets, service stripes, or  Awards   Awards may certificates. An award has no intrinsic value of its own and is important only as a means of promoting greater musical growth. Even so, students often prize an award highly, taking pride in earning it and pleasure in others’ recognition of it. As with membership standards, a definite system for giving awards should be established and well wel l known. Students are concerned about  the “fairness” of any recognition or motivational device. If the point system or competitive chairs are an accepted practice, the awards system should be related to these and to other administrative practices. To be most effective, awards should be presented prese nted in a public ceremony. Scholarships  The scholarship should relate to the music program and its objective—for

instance, a scholarship to an outstanding summer summe r music camp or for private lessons. This kind of award may be used to sustain the interest of the best students in the organization. organizati on. Funds for scholarships may be secured through money-raising projects by the group itself or by parents’ groups. They may also come from one or more civic groups or from private individuals. The scholarship(s) should be publicized throughout the year and be awarded at the close of the school year to enhance the importance of instrumental music. Section Rehearsals  Section rehearsals help the students with specific difficulties and pro-

 vide additional incentive for outside practice. When the whole group always rehearses together, students may not hear their mistakes or realize how important it is that they each perform their parts correctly. If scheduling makes extra section rehearsals impractical, the director should consider using some of the regularly scheduled large-group rehearsal time for concentrated work with various sections. It is easier for students and teacher to identify errors in smaller groups. When feasible, several sections might be scheduled at the same time with responsible students in charge. Summer Music Camps  The inspiration of a music camp comes from excellent teachers,

the outstanding ability of other students, and a high level of performance. The director should encourage any student who can attend a summer music camp to do so. A local summer camp can often be organized with successful results. The staff might differ from the regular school staff and may consist of college music students, teachers with free time, or guest  conductors from college campuses or neighboring school systems. If an actual camp site is available, the experience is enhanced, but even without an outdoor atmosphere the local music camp can be worthwhile. New Instruments  The teacher should encourage students to own the best instruments

they can afford. When a student obtains a new instrument, the teacher should make the acquisition known to the group and draw attention to the student’s new possession. CDs, MP3s, Smart Music, DVDs, and Videotapes  The use of recordings allows students to hear and see their efforts and points their shortcomings as well as achievements. Problems of intonation, wrong notes, and poor attacks and releases often show up more m ore vividly when recorded than in actual rehearsal. Having recordings allows for sectional critiques and external evaluators who perform similar tasks as judges at a music festival. An impending recording session furnishes another incentive for additional work and is in this sense much like a live performance. Social Activities  Special dances, banquets, and trips foster a spirit of unity and help main-

tain interest. They also provide a change from the routine of daily rehearsals, concerts, and sports events. In addition, social activities help the director become acquainted with students in a different setting.

 ADDITIONAL IDEAS IDEAS FOR MOT MOTIV IVA ATING STUDENTS In addition to the motivational devices just described, other possibilities that require extra resources in the way of funds or time tim e allotment are also highly high ly successful. High schools should consider commissioning works and inviting the composer to attend and conduct the premier performance of the work. Frank Battisti, following the lead of the Eastman Wind Ensemble, initiated this idea more than fifty years ago with the Ithaca, New York, high school band, and

 

16

Teaching and the Role of Motivation

it has been adopted by many fine ensembles that have the resources. The thrill of playing a number at its first public performance with the th e composer in attendance and/or conducting is a most memorable event. State and local arts councils will support an artist-in-residence program in your school. Select the instrument you wish to promote, write a proposal, and submit it to the arts council. Many superb performers graduating in applied music from American universities will  willingly teach and perfor perform m in public schools. They are inspirational for both strong and  weak performers. per formers. Form a jazz band, a brass band, a drum and bugle corps, a mariachi ensemble, a recorder or other ensemble. who play or in garage bands on piano,quartet, guitar, and otherattractive instruments to findEncourage their placestudents in the orchestra wind band as  well. These students are enthusiastic, often have special musical skills, and can pr prove ove to b bee motivational for other students. Scheduled Saturday morning sessions at which older students can assist younger students and the entire music faculty is in attendance have advantages for beyond the extra rehearsal. Older students gain a feeling of accomplishment; younger students are inspired by  the performance abilities of the high school students. All participants gain an appreciation for the size and diversity of the school system’s instrumental music program. Performances by  the high school ensemble for the grade schools and middle schools can inspire younger students to begin instrumental music study. Making a CD or DVD, performing on the local television channel, and furnishing pictures and stories to the yearbook and school newspaper are all opportunities for public recognition in which students can take pride. Interesting computer programs that can judge the accuracy of pitch and rhythm or serve as an accompaniment for soloists or for practicing continue to be a motivational tool. Take the opportunity to incorporate music theory and students music history your programs and relate instrumental music participation to experiences mightinto have outside school.

PERFORMANCE Theoretically, the music program does not exist for the sake of performance. perfor mance. In practice, however, most of the efforts of both teachers and students focus on performance as the conscious or unconscious goal; the opportunity to perform naturally represents the greatest single motivating factor. Music is an aural art and the greatest satisfaction often comes when performers perfor mers feel their music has reached a listening ear. Therefore, the instrumental music teacher should provide occasions for a variety of performances, knowing that the opportunity to perform will stimulate more conscientious and concentrated practice, prompt interest in concomitant musical learning, provide an outlet and a reward for students, and serve as a demonstration of  the accomplishments of the music program. The danger is that this last consideration will take on undue importance and that performance will become the goal of the program rather than a vehicle for greater learning and musical understanding. In considering performance and motivation, one should remember that performance is encouraged primarily because of  its motivational power, not the reverse. Students need to be challenged chall enged to do their best and to attain what is possible, for them and for the group; with most groups that means a reasonably  active performing schedule with music that can be performed well. Performance can take several forms. Contests and festivals are a common and valuable form of public performance. In some instances, these occasions are the only times groups play  good music. It is unfortunate that instrumental music organizations have had to publish lists of  “acceptable” music, and even these lists have been corrupted. The challenge to compete successfully is so strong that the music for contests and festivals is learned more thoroughly and played more enthusiastically than music for any other occasion. If the pressure to succeed in the competition is too great, however, the psychological negatives can outweigh the pluses. It is the teacher’s responsibility to see that the efforts of the group are focused on excellence for its own sake and for the sake of the music, not for that of winning the highest rating. Concerts are just as important and nearly as intense as contests and festivals. Here again, the music should be carefully chosen for its value and played as well as possible. The music chosen should be well within the ability of the group, so that a satisfactory performance can be achieved without an unreasonable amount of preparation. Exchange concerts have all the advantages of regular concerts with the additional value of competition—the students’ desire to excel in comparison with another group, school, or

 

Teaching and the Role of Motivation   17

town. The teacher should not make a competition a major consideration and should be careful to emphasize good and bad features of both groups so that the students profit from their own playing and also from hearing the exchange group. Any assignment to listen to another ensemble must be carefully prepared; critical listening has to be learned and is especially difficult in the excitement of exchange concerts. Special performing events are another form of motivation. Bringing in a guest conductor or guest artist to work with the group, hearing an artist perform, attending a clinic, or playing in select groups such as all-state or all-city organizations, youth orchestras, and wind bands, can result in great inspiration for young players. Membership in all-state ensembles or the biannual Nationaloften Youthviewed Youth Orchestr Orchestra a isdismay a major and shouldalike, be publicized. Tours, though with byaccomplishment teacher and administrator have high appeal for students. Although performing tours may not be worth the agony involved, great   value can be gained from them. The kind of “professionalism “professionalism”” gained from performing well day after day is a fine experience for students. However, the teacher must decide whether the expenditure of time and effort for value received is justified. The value of solo, small-group, and large-group performances before civic organizations has been noted. However, here is a word of warning: When one or two highly touted groups such as the jazz band or string strin g quartet are sent out exclusively, e xclusively, these groups tend to become exploited, the learning value diminishes for them, and other deserving students do not  get the opportunity to perform.

CONCLUSION This chapter has explored sound educational principles translated into terms and situations applicable to the instrumental music program. Sound motivation, however, is not used simply  to improve the music program. Motivation is essential. Motivation is the th e sine qua non for learning, musical or any other kind. The teacher teach er cannot take or leave it as desired, for if there th ere is no motivation there will be no learning, and where there is thoughtless or misguided motivation there may be negative learning. Motivation comes from within, but the teacher can provide day-to-day situations that are as desirable as possible so that the student’s interest grows and he or she becomes motivated to develop in those areas that are the teacher’s goals and student’s goals. Basically, individuals are motivated by their own needs. The psychological and physical conditions that hold promise of answering these needs can stimulate students to respond. Hetland, Winner, Veeneman, and Sheridan (2007) have recently completed a study of  the outcomes of exemplary visual arts instruction and they identified eight habits of mind: de veloping the craft, engaging and persisting, envisioning, expressing, observing, reflecting, stretching, and exploring and understanding, each of which has surfaced in our discussion of  motivation and self-learning. Motivation, however sound, is not in itself educational. Even the best motivation may  not lead to learning. In music, we often forget that not all experience is educative, just as not  all experience is motivating. To be educative, experience must be purposeful. Psychological studies have indicated that people attending attendin g lectures or reading material gain widely differing information from what they read or hear, depending on what they expect to gain. When purposes differ, the resultant learning also differs. To apply this to music is not difficult; merely  practicing or reading through music or drilling perfunctorily on exercises is not educative. Thus, with respect to performance, good music must be used and performed with the best  musical insights of the teacher. Instrumental teachers have been accused of continuing to teach primarily in the “drill” fashion, with often poor results. Although drill can be insightful  when there is a musical purpose, exce excellent llent and meaningful teaching is the responsibility of  the teacher. The secret lies, as Alsop and O’Halloran suggest, in the interpersonal relations that are at the heart of motivation.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. In November November 2007, The Christian Science Monitor 

teen pages of goals, rules, expectations, guide-

reported on the Stephen-Argyle High School football team having(Minnesota) won sixtyseven consecutive games. The team’s playbook, however, had no diagrams of offensive formations and defensive counters. Instead it had six-

lines, from nutritional tips, and inspirational such quotations a wide variety of philosophers, as “First say to yourself what you would be. Then do  what you have to do.” How is this coach using motivation? What applications, if any, are there

 

18

Teaching and the Role of Motivation

for the instrumental music teacher? (John Millea: “Stephen-Argyle High School.” The Christian  Science Monitor , Nov 26 2007. Vol. 100[1].) 2. Your first-chair violinist violinist is clearly the best musimusician in the ensemble but does not share equally  in the responsibilities you expect of all members. This situation is affecting group morale. What  strategies, if any, would you employ to change the attitude of either the first-chair violinist or the members of the ensemble? 3. peers What behaviors havethey you are noticed noticed among your that indicate performance or

mastery oriented? Have these behaviors led to the outcomes that you might have expected? How? 4. How important is musical talent in musical competency? Assuming musical talent is normally distributed, how should a teacher use his or her perception of student talent in positive and negative comments (rewards and negative criticisms)? 5. What are the advantages advantages and disadvantages disadvantages of  on-the-spot tryouts for chair positions and group membership? Take aand position and debate issue with a classmate then switch sides. this

 WEB SITES Goal Setting Center for Educator Development in the Fine Arts

 www.teachingmoments.com  www.teachingmoments.com http://finearts.esc20.net/music_strategies/ mus_ strat_moti.html

2

 

Objectives 

THE PURPOSE OF OBJECTIVES Objectives are at the heart of teaching, and instrumental music teachers must provide clear goals for their students as well as the means to attain them. For example, the band’s extra morning rehearsal is not an objective but rather a tool to attain the goal of excellent performance. Broad aims such as competence in critical thinking and problem solving may first require accomplishing many smaller objectives. Setting objectives is an essential but frequently neglected step in teaching. The process of defining goals, aims, and objectives is often bypassed because it seems complicated, takes too much time, and imposes too much structure on the teaching situation. Experienced teachers, however, know that objectives are indispensable for effective teaching. Objectives that provide a structure for the music m usic program should not be confused with the aims of music advocates who are concerned about the quality of curriculum offerings. By formulating specific objectives, a teacher decides what, when, and how to teach. The careful construction of  objectives is the only way in which music instruction can become meaningful. Experienced and successful music ensemble directors often have as much trouble articulating their objectives as do beginning teachers. They can, however, tell you about their  plans , which might be quite detailed. Successful conductors and teachers often have plans for every rehearsal as well as a plan for each day, week, and semester. But an objective differs from a plan in that it is more specific and focused and, most importantly, requires assessment. The primary goal of this chapter is to promote clarity in setting the objectives for an instrumental music program. Objectives stated in terms of “to be aware, to know, to understand, to appreciate, to enjoy, to believe,” for example, are not instructional objectives because they cannot be measured. (Important experiential objectives that are not measurable are discussed later in this chapter.) Objectives help teachers focus their efforts on how student behavior is to be changed as a result of instrumental music instruction. Despite a recent move to call such ob jectives “cognitive process objectives,” the emphasis remains on the intended results and outcomes—that is, behavioral changes in students as a result of instruction.

TYPES OF OBJECTIVES  As already mentioned, ment ioned, there are several types an and d levels of objecti objectives. ves. An example of a global  objective is “all students will start school ready to learn,” a potent objective but not helpful for teachers who need to plan instruction. Educational  objectives are also too broad to guide teaching, but they have a richness that is not conveyed by instructional objectives and are, therefore, also important. The ability to read musical scores fits the definition of an educational objective but is too open-ended to guide instruction. Being able to cite three influences on Stravinsky is a possible instructional  objective and it is such instructional objectives that are the focus of this chapter. Determining priorities, articulating objectives, and assessing students’ learning are the keys to successful teaching. Thus, the second goal of this chapter is to stress the importance of  giving immediate feedback to students concerning their success or failure in meeting objectives, with recommendations to guide their improvement. Long-term, intermediate, and short-term objectives are all important. Expert teachers understand long-term sequencing and instructional pacing. For example, learning to play the 19

 

20

Objectives

bassoon is no simple task; it is an ongoing experience , a procedure. The performance objective states how well the bassoon is to be played. Procedural objectives are not the same as performance or instructional objectives and are often not accomplished in a single semester. Capable music teachers are able to clearly articulate, for each student, both long-term goals and immeimm ediate objectives that are realistic given the particular student’s talent, level of interest, and number of competing interests. They are also able to show students what is required to accomplish their long-range goals, and the rewards that will result from the accomplishment. Good long-term objectives are articulated by the teacher and shared with the students so that they become public for the school and community to assess. It often helps to write them down. If the teacher cannot visual ize visualize how these objectives can be assessed andbe how feedback can be provided to each individual, the objectives are too vague and likely will in effecineffective. These instructional objectives should instruct on a specific change in the learner’s behavior (including listening) and may be geared either toward an individual or the group. Performance objectives suggesting, for example, that the tone quality (or other performance construct) should be performed to the satisfaction of the instructor are not valid instructional objectives because they provide no new information to students who already know that they  must satisfy the instructor. Distinguishing between group and individual objectives is critical to success, and each must be assigned a priority. A rehearsal of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra or the Canadian Brass has as its primary purpose the attainment of group objectives. Each member of  these two ensembles can already accurately and musically play his or her part; thus, the focus instead is on group unity, interpretation, blend, balance, and more.  A group group objec objective tive may be expressed expressed as follows: In performing the Hols Holstt First Suite Suite in E  for  Military Band , no individual clarinet player should be identifiable—the section should sound as if only one memberor is playing The assessment to listenensembles, for any student’s tone quality, intonation, playing the stylepart. “sticking out.” With tool mostis school instructional time is devoted to group objectives, but the teacher must also be keenly aware of each individual’s progress. This is not an easy task when teaching a hundred students each with unique competencies and needs. The basic purpose of the school music program, however, is to teach musical  independence . Music educators have the challenging responsibility of assisting students to accomplish the widest possible range of both individual and  group objectives. Contributing to the complexity of objectives in the music program is the fact that individual students have uneven skills and differing personal objectives for each rehearsal. The genius in teaching instrumental  music is providing specific feedback to each individual student on his or her present performance compe-  tence and also helping that individual or section to progress on objectives important to the entire ensemble . Being helpful does not imply providing positive or negative comments; it implies providing fair and objective comments. Several sources offer help in assessing individual objectives in music, among which are the efforts national of the MENC: The National (MENC) to promote  voluntary standards, specificAssociation statements for in Music state Education curricula frameworks, method books, and extensive professional development offered by school districts to aid teachers in assessing student progress. The emphasis on using standards to set objectives has been generally positive. Unfortunately, some districts have revised their curriculum and translated the standards into a statement of objectives. A satisfactory objective must meet the following qualifications: Is instruction in the ensemble the best means for reaching this objective? Is this problem important and worth solving and, if so, at what level? Students do come with prior knowledge. The clarinetist already has a mental picture, which might be incorrect, of what a clarinet should sound like. With positive answers to these questions, instructional objectives can then be written. Participation in school music is justified justifie d for students only when they are working toward individual, group, and program objectives that have been cooperatively set and have real meaning. If these objectives are attained at high levels, the music experience can be exciting and long lasting. It is not absolutely clear what the minimum skill level must be in the nation’s schools in order to bring about positive results; however, broadly put, each student must be able to perform independently independe ntly as well as contribute to an ensemble by displaying competence in appropriate blend, sound, musical style, and an d character for the music. Certainly, a semester’s acquaintance with the violin in third grade won’t satisfy an objective of “musical intelligence.”  John Kinyon suggests a typical group objective: at the ti time me of a schedule scheduled d concert, students

 

Objectives   21

should be abl ablee to proficiently sight-read music of comparable difficulty to that which they are performing. performin g.1 This is an ambitious objective, as transfer of learning is complex. There are, of  course, musical experiences other than performance; however, performance objectives remain the strongest and most memorable part of any music program. It is probably impossible to teach music in the most efficient manner at all times, because emphasizing one type of objective will result in the temporar y neglect of other areas. Insightful teachers take advantage of the daily mood changes and preferences of the students. The second orchestra and technique classes need objectives as badly as the top organizations—perhaps more so—if they are to produce results and retain students’ interest. Objectives unquestionably student abilities achievement satisfaction at every level, and challenging objectivescontribute stretch thetoteacher’s as welland as those of the students. The teacher must always be concerned with individual differences, because the progress of each individual within ensembles will depend on the individual’s socioeconomic background, motivation, aptitude, interest, private study, peer group, and home cooperation. In spite of the teacher’s desire to retain students, he or she must be honest in evaluating students’ progress and reporting it to them and their parents. Objectives must be challenging. Low aims and low standards quickly breed contempt for the ensemble among most students. Because of the breadth of objectives in instrumental instr umental music, individual students can still have a meaningful experience while struggling to meet the musical objectives of the group.

ORGANIZING OBJECTIVES The effective teacher needs to organize objective domains not only into individual and group objectives but also according to what he or she wants students (1) to know (cognitive domain); to beofable to domains do (psychomotor and (3) to value and/or feel in (affective domain). (2) In each these the re is adomain); there range of possible difficulty. Marzano, developing a taxonomy, placed information, mental procedures, and psychomotor procedures under the single category of knowledge. His argument is that psychomotor procedures are stored in memory just like mental procedures. Skills are first learned as information, then shaped by  practice, and learned to a level of automaticity. This automaticity.  This reasoning  reasoning explains how all instructional objectives can be classified as cognitive processes. processes.2  A cognitive  objective might be as simple as defining accelerando  or knowing that Bach composed fugues, or as complex as listening to a composition and determining whether the structure is (1) theme and variations; (2) theme, development, and restatement; (3) theme 1, development, theme 2, development; or (4) introduction, theme, and development. Cognitive objectives at a higher level involve comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. A recent revision of Bloom’s 1956 taxonomy of educational objectives (Anderson et al., 2001) has all of the following cognitive categories: recognizing, recalling, interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, explaining, executing, implementing, differentiating, organizing, attributing, checking, critiquing, generating, planning, and producing. Food for thought.  A  psychomotor  objective would be to play without error a two-octave ascending and descending chromatic scale at MM=120 using quarter notes. A more m ore complex objective would be for skills to become so habitual that a performance can be accomplished with a minimum of  thought about the skill process itself.  An affective objectiv objective, e, expressed in behavioral behavioral terms, might be that the student save sufficient money to purchase the complete recordings of Leonard Bernstein. A high level of accomplishment in the affective domain is reached when a student’s life is organized by  practice of the viola and participation in the orchestra. Educators have developed splendid taxonomies to assist teachers in ensuring that their instruction does not miss levels of difficulty and sink down to the lowest level in each domain. In addition, teachers need a frame work to help them make sense of objectives and organize them so they are clearly  understood. Teachers do not, however, write objectives to fit a taxonomy, and there will not 

1

K iinyon, nyon, John (1982). The Instrumental Music Director’s Source Book: A Compendium of Practical Ideas  and Helpful Information for Today’s School Band and Orchestra Director. Sherman Oaks, CA: Alfred. 2 Marzano, Robert (2007). The Art and Science of Teaching: A Comprehensive Framework for Effective In-  struction.  Alexandria, VA: VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

 

22

Objectives

always be instructional objectives at each level. Some levels will not offer important and/or appropriate objectives for the unit of instruction.  We like the iidea dea of a four fourth th ta taxonomy xonomy of le learnin arning, g, tha thatt of  perception . The educational taxonomies usually include perception as a cognitive activity. In music, it is helpful to distinguish between knowing and perceiving. Perceiving is the skill of hearing—hearing melodies, rhythms, harmonies, and timbres when performed and hearing them in one’s head (audiation). At a higher level, one might “perceive” that a given melody is more appropriate for development in, for example, symphonic form than elaborated using theme and variations. The teacher’s responsibility is to assist students in reaching standards in all domains—knowledge, skill, valuing, and perception. Mediocrity of achievement, from low teacher expectations using only the lower levels le vels of any taxonomy taxonomy, , destroysresulting student  interest.

CREATING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES Behavioral or Measurable Objectives  With the abundanc abundancee of knowled knowledge ge to be learn learned ed and skills to be attain attained ed in all types of  music, only the well-educated teacher can guide each student’s objectives toward musical excellence. Prior to adopting an objective, the teacher should conduct a needs assessment  and put advance organizers in place. A teacher who does not use a framework for organizing objectives will leave gaps in the learning sequence and thus use the learning time inefficiently or ineffectively. Educational theorists speak of organizing instruction along several themes: problem solving, caring, critical thinking, or the great body of literature to be mastered and understood. Unfortunately, musical competence cannot be achieved this way. One can’t wait until a high C appears in the music to learn to play high C. There is no instant Stravinsky mix that takes only 20 minutes in the microwave when the need occurs. Knowing what Stravinsky often demands of those who perform his music, however, makes practicing exercises more meaningful. Materials used by professionals not only suggest commonly used audition numbers but also exercises that prepare the applicant to transfer skills to an unfamiliar number. Instruction books and materials are important and plentiful—so plentiful that clear objectives are needed if those books and materials are to be used well. Clear objectives will also help to provide additional structure, to weigh priorities, and to focus activities and experiences on meaningful learning. Authors of instruction books, however, organize instruction in distinct ways; the teacher must adjust instruction to the learning situation, being careful to model each objective and its per formance standard.

Experiential Objectives The preparation of objectives in music requires more than a clear statement of behavioral (instructional) objectives. Experiential  objectives, focused and unfocused, are also a valuable part of musical goals. For example, a required experiential objective might be to attend two live concerts each year. (Attendance at concerts can result in considerable learning.) Students may find they enjoy listening carefully to the new music. Although the amount of  learning will differ among jazz concerts or between a wind band and an orchestra concert, students who pay attention ( to something ) will learn. Attending a concert is only one important experience; others include participating in a music contest and downloading favorite musical works. Experiences can also be  focused  toward specific ends; these experiences require more preparation and follow-up, and result in higher and more controlled learning. Selected students might be asked to speak before the school board about the place of the music program in their lives or give demonstration performances for the benefit of potential new  student instrumentalists (and all ensemble members could participate by being a helpful audience for a “run-through” of the demonstration). Other focused experiential activities might include reflecting on a most memorable musical experience, thinking about the “Aha!” moment when a rehearsed piece of music first became meaningful and fun to play, or reporting what they told their parents they were learning in orchestra. Focused responses to experiences might compare and contrast the music heard, he ard, evaluate the performance, or describe the perceived receptivity of the audience. Such follow-up makes the experience an occasion for learning. Further, experiential objectives in the sequence of instruction

 

Objectives   23

make learning come alive. If there is no follow-up to alert students to the educational benefit of an experience, it becomes simply an activity. activity.

Instrumental Objectives Instrumental ob Instrumental objecti jectives ves inclu include de a number of non nonmusic musical al objec objectives tives th that at are byproducts of a school music program. These are considered in the chapter on assessment. Many  are woven into the success of the music program. Students learn to be good citizens, to cooperate, to defer, to respect the situation and the opinions and abilities of others, to take pride in their ensemble and themselves. Further, they may improve academically because they have learned to concentrate and to be responsible—the list could go on and fill a small encyclopedia. The conscientious teacher cannot ignore instrumental objectives. The first required general music instruction in public schools was justified on the basis of health and moral outcomes, and later (1850–1940) when delinquent children (boys mainly) were sent to state reformatories, participation in the reformatory band was considered one of the most important  “reform” experiences. A well-run, challenging music program has many beneficial nonmusical outcomes: students are less likely to drop out of school before graduating, and they learn the importance of community service (through parading on holidays and performing for multiple community events). Good musical work habits transfer to both in-school and out-of-school efforts. Hetland and others found that students in visual arts learn more than a craft: They learn to engage and persist, envision, express, obser ve obser ve,, reflect and stretch, and explore; these habits of mind may transfer to other school subjects. subjects.3 School attendance, behavior, and punctuality frequently improve in members of well-run bands and orchestras. Good musicians take responsibility  for their own health and conduct as well as responsibility for their instrument and music. They must also be responsible for practicing and meeting the many unique requirements of  active ensembles. These instrumental objectives are very visible—the community even notices the good physical condition of drum and bugle corps members, and it is no surprise that instrumental objectives have received more press than the students’ ability to manipulate their  way through two modulations modulati ons and three m modes. odes. Importantly, a school principal’s priority ob jective for high school school ensembles is that they enhance the visibility of the school and are a positive public relations vehicle.

Procedures Objectives in the various domains are often listed as instr uctional objectives, when they are actually developmental processes that focus on “getting better” or “learning” the music. Good instruction requires attainable way stations in any learning process or procedure that provide an opportunity to assess progress and achievement according to performance standards. Delayed gratification is not highly successful with the young.

Performance Standards Instructional objectives should relate to established performance standards and eventually, once the decision is made as to what all students should know and an d be able to do, to a coherent  curriculum. Curricula today are expected to be standards-based. In districts where most of the students take private lessons outside of school, priority will likely be given to a curriculum focused on group objectives. For schools where students do not take outside lessons, a balance between group and individual objectives should be maintained. For any music ensemble, the teacher’s task is to establish priorities in cooperation with the students and communicate these to all stakeholders, including students, parents, and administrators. Because students often have so many opportunities in multiple fields, they must continually establish their own priorities while accepting others they cannot avoid. The two-level sequence for connecting ob jectives to content standards in the school curriculum is as follows: 1. Identify the (long- or short-term) objective so that its content and the performance standard are well defined defi ned and clear. Expectations must be reasonable. On a daily, weekly, or monthly basis, inform all students what they are expected to hear, know, under3

Hetland, Lois, Ellen Winner, Shirley Veeneman, Veeneman, and Kimberly M. Sheridan (2007). Studio Think-  ing: The Real Benefits of Visual Arts Education . New York: Teachers College Press.

 

24

Objectives

stand, and be able to perform—and in what context and with what music. This cannot  become a lengthy process that is burdensome. Brief and concise indications can expedite the daily rehearsal and make the week’s rehearsals more successful. 2. Specify the evidence students must provide to indicate that they have attained adequate, proficient, or advanced levels in knowing, understanding, hearing, and doing. The teacher may wish to model some objectives when words are inadequate. Well-educated teachers can, with some thought, describe the expected conditions and the achievement level desired. In some instances more detail about the specific level of skill desired must be provided (or modeled in a written or aural manner) before all students are clear as to what is expected.

Tools and Strategies Identifying methods and techniques falls into place once the objectives are clear. First, make a list of the desired concepts, principles, facts, skills, and experiences that are potential objectives and then consider the ways of achieving and assessing each. After this list is formulated, the objectives can be prioritized and sequenced and the instructional time and other needed resources estimated. With the objectives of the instrumental program and the potential of  each experience in mind, the teacher can formulate goals for the year. The district curriculum guide will be only partially helpful, as individual schools differ; any model curricula from college will be of even less l ess value. Working backward from the year’s objectives, weekly, weekly, monthly, and sometimes daily goals can be derived. When written, these become a blueprint for teaching. When directors skip lesson plans, this omission usually indicates a focus on the performance perfor mance of  music rather than on music as a vehicle for learning . The music performed must be at least partially determined by objectives; not every class is based entirely on specified instructional objectives, but every successful class is based on a well-formulated plan. The intensity with which any particular composition is rehearsed will depend on what it offers in terms of objectives;  whether a festival is attended or ignored will depend on how it fits into the objectives for the group. The amount of drill, section rehearsal, listening to recordings, and/or marching practice will also be determined by the objectives. To formulate a set of objectives for the total program is a large task. But a careful formulation of objectives is the best starting point for productive teaching, and frequent reference to the objectives is the best method for assessing the quality of the teaching. Music instruction, however,, is often an exception to the teaching models in education because there is no “ideal however time” at which the concert music is selected. Great music has seldom been written with student  performers in mind and very little good music fits a neat pattern of sequenced instruction: sequencing is difficult because, for example, the brass and string players probably differ in achievement level. This explains why difficult concert passages may have to be taught by rote or require intense, time-consuming drill. Although many teachers begin with the music as the teaching objective, a better approach is to select the music at the same time as corresponding instructional goals are identified. The music, however, remains more important than any single knowledge or skill in that piece—which explains the need for occasional rote drills. It is important to remember that rehearsing the music is not enough. Rather, the music must be used to achieve a wide variety of learnings, and laid aside when those learnings are accomplished. The published arts standards are general in nature and focus on content. The nine music standards derived from the arts standards also focus on content and not on performance. Performance standards are the standards that relate to instructional objectives. The arts standards suggest that high school graduates should be able to (1) communicate at a basic level in the four arts disciplines of dance, music, visual arts, and theatre; (2) communicate proficiently in one of these; (3) develop and present basic analyses of works of art  from structural, historical, and cultural perspectives; (4) have an informed acquaintance  with exemplar e xemplar y works of o f art ffrom rom a var variety iety of cultures and his historical torical p periods; eriods; and (5) relate  various types type s of arts knowledge an and d skills within withi n and across the arts disciplines. disci plines. Eac Each h arts discipline has traditional content that will, to some extent, meet these arts standards. The  value of any spe specific cific cont content ent suggestion sugg estion iiss in how it will assist th thee teach teacher er in re reaching aching o objecbjectives. It is important to understand that the voluntary national music content standards are not objectives. An objective is more specific and will state clearly not only the assessment situation but also how well the student is to perform. Think about a standard in science—“understands basic features of the earth”—or a standard in the arts—“communicates proficiently in one art form.” These standards are global in nature, not educational or in-

 

Objectives   25

structional. Objectives are similar to performance standards, the standards of interest. Content standards encompass almost all of the content in a music curriculum; they may very   well be over whelmi whelming ng in their inclusi inclusiveness, veness, but they may ser ve to remind teachers that  there is more that could be done. Instrumental teachers are not primarily interested in the content to be taught, but in student understanding that comes from performing good music well.  A basic performance standard mi might ght be assessed in the following manner: Two weeks prior to any public performance, without advance notice, each student performs any of the music programmed with no more than two errors in pitch and one error in rhythm, and with tone quality, attacks, and releases acceptable to the instructor and matching closely the recorded example provided for the instrument. Every facet of instruction must be supported by clear objectives such as the one just stated. These must be well-understood (printed) performance objectives that are agreed to by  students, teachers, parents, and administrators, and which every student must meet to remain in the ensemble and/or to participate in small ensembles. Meeting standards and objectives must have consequences, both good and bad, for students. Teachers must convey the idea that  some students will have to make a greater effort than others to meet the standards that the group has agreed upon. Effort is a part of achievement and should be acknowledged. Instruments differ in their complexity, as does the music. The required effort is not standardized in any ensemble. Regardless of how specific the objectives are, they are only a list of good intentions. Any  number of bad music programs may possess good objectives. Each objective must have a minimum standard representing a specific accomplishment toward which the students’ energies and efforts are directed.

EXTRAMUSICAL VALUES  AS INSTRUMENTAL INSTRUMENTAL OBJECTIVES OBJECTIVES The school’s broad objectives for the total life of the student—citizenship, literacy, moral responsibility, critical thinking, and skill in problem solving—may indicate very little about appropriate objectives or standards for the music program. Nevertheless, the teacher must  balance the music program’s musical goals with the school’s broad objectives, recognizing how effective musical participation can be in reaching valuable nonmusical goals for the indi vidual student. Two basic objectives seem prominent in today’s schools. One is to fit the student into the complex twenty-first-century American definition of democracy, globalization, and life as a contributing citizen and productive individual. The other is to prepare the student for some form of endeavor after graduation: a satisfying, further education, and/or a rewarding vocation. The school has the continuing problem of balancing these two broad aims of personal development and mastery of subject matter. Since 1900, the appeal of each of these has fluctuated to reflect changing social conditions. At present the pendulum has swung rather sharply in the direction of subject matter (at least for math, language arts, and science) after an era in which personal development and self-esteem were emphasized. Music contributes to each in varying degrees, and what it cannot do it should not attempt. Music is well-fitted for developing a number of nonmusical values promoted by the culture, as our discussion of instrumental objectives indicated. Because music integrates so well with a variety of other sub jects and values, teachers have been known to lose sight of their own goals while pursuing secondary objectives suggested by advocates. With today’s emphasis on subject matter, however, music educators have the opportunity to speak up for the quality of their course content  and of the music being studied and performed.  At the same time, the effectiven effectiveness ess of the extramusical val values ues in program support must  not be underestimated. Consider the history of instrumental music in public schools. Though the orchestra came into the schools first, the marching band has been the vehicle through  which the instrumental music program has flourished, obtaining equipment, literature, building space, professionally educated teachers, extra resources, and public attention, in a manner that was impossible for the wind ensemble or the orchestra. Music found a fairly secure place, not because it caused a noticeable upgrade of musicianship in society or in the school, but because the marching band publicized the school, created excitement and spirit for competitive athletics, and made holidays and celebrations more colorful. The music contest or festival, with its often nonmusical, but clearly defined, goals, including lists of acceptable music,

 

26

Objectives

has helped create publicity and support for the entire music program. The effective teacher utilizes the colorful, attention-getting facets of the music program but keeps them in proper relationship to the actual teaching content of music. It is fortunate that some of these goals are compatible with musical goals—for example, discipline, cooperation, leadership, fellowship, and individual responsibility. And when students are exposed to well-performed quality  music, in addition to these instrumental objectives, the experience is educational and worth while musically even for those who drop out of the program or fail to continue to per form after graduation. byy a commissio commission n of the The Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education , formulated in 1918 b National Education Association, are goals outmoded inin today’s educational thought but not quite out of style. Books and curriculum written the past have offered as the raison d’être  for school music its ability to contribute to health, command of fundamental processes, vocation, responsible home membership, worthy use of leisure time, civic education, and ethical character. Many of these (though not all), including character education, are also twentyfirst-century objectives. Some of the attractions of school music are that it promotes collegiality, makes use of physically healthful activities, and involves interrelationships with the student’s home life. Music can provide the benefits of teamwork, yet it has an advantage over competitive athletics in its utilization of larger numbers of students and wider ranges of student ability. Compared to the first five players in basketball, the “first-string” band contains a greater number of students, many of whom have not developed skills comparable to the firststring basketball players. Still, they derive the same feeling of accomplishment from concert  and competition, even while sitting in last chair. The fact that music can accommodate groups of widely varying size with a wide variety of ability and interest levels is strongly in its favo favorr.

THE PRIORITY OF OBJECTIVES Many critical and important objectives are possible in instrumental music but they cannot  all be accomplished at the same time and to the same level of competence. Priorities must  be established and understood. Any teacher of the arts must be concerned primarily with guiding the students’ growth in aesthetic sensitivity and understanding—with helping them learn the principles of that particular art, what the artist is trying to do, and how to find meaning in the great works of art.

 Aesthetic Growth Growth Teaching for aesthetic growth is not simple. Writing clear instructional instr uctional objectives in aesthetics is a challenge to be overcome, not avoided, and these objectives are realized by helping students recognize what they hear in a composition—in terms of balance, contrast, tension, relaxation, form, texture, color, mood—and how these are related. The teacher’s purpose is to develop in students the ability to hear music, understand its structure, and evaluate whether they have heard great music, good music, or trivial music, and why. Such teaching requires teachers who can really hear music and understand it well enough to explain and model it.  Aesthetic growth has as its objective “appreciation” in the genuine sense—not appreciation as the term is often used, to denote a course in which many ma ny compositions are heard, their composers discussed, and their dates fixed, but instead denoting careful attention to a few  compositions. Music being performed or studied should be examined to hear how it is put together, how many voices there are, how melodies interact, how harmonies create tension and resolve, how instruments blend and stand out, how phrases return and lead to other phrases.  Aesthetic growth also al so means th that at students should learn what, for instance, make makess the quali quality  ty  of Franz Schubert’s music higher than that of John Williams. Students should learn to hear the difference for themselves, themselve s, not simply be told of it—and should be at least respectful, if not  loving, in the presence of Bach. To teach music as an art requires the teacher’s skill and preparation. Directors of performing groups tend to slide over this objective, presuming that as students play more music and play it well they will acquire understanding and appreciation. This is simply not so. Players  who are struggling with their parts do not pay much attention attention to the principal musica musicall themes and perhaps not even to the harmonic structure of which they are a part. Players should be aware of the harmonic structure of the music they play—where key changes occur, where unusual chords appear, and how unexpected harmonies heighten tension or create suspense in the music. Can students recognize the central thematic material when it appears in an inner

 

Objectives   27

 voice or in altered fo form? rm? Do they understand how the composer uses motives and themes bo both th to hold the work together and to give it contrast and variety? Because these things differ in every musical work, the teacher must spend time during rehearsal talking about characteristics of the music itself, not just the logistics of being able able to simply play the piece.  At times ti mes students should listen rather than play. Listening to ar artistically tistically recorded ve verrsions of the music they are rehearsing, or compositions with similar form or style, can broaden understanding. But one does not become aware of all the things happening within a complex piece of music simply by sitting passively and listening—the process is active and takes expert guidance. Being proactive is the teacher’s job, whether as an instrumental director or a grade school music teacher.

CONCLUSION  Valid music programs programs need objectives that focus on mental skills, aural skills, physical dexterity on an instrument, and with musical understanding. Knowledge of key signatures, time signatures, clefs, and tempo indications is not enough. Players must also learn to hear the notes they see on the page; they must listen intelligently to hear and understand tonal centers and modulations, meter changes, return of previous thematic material, and changes of mode and texture in the music. Students must be able to look at their part in the score and play it musically, with thought for line and phrase, while at the same time managing the techn technical ical requirements of the part. They should be able to concentrate sufficiently on a three-minute piece of  music to keep their minds actively on it from beginning to end. Instrumentalists ought to have sufficient tonal memory to retain obvious themes after hearing them a few times. The experience of skillfully performing a piece of music should not be underestimated. Skillful group performances are important both for the thrill they offer and for the high standard they set. Playing music badly is a waste of time. A polished performance of concert music encompasses a majority of the important goals of music: good tone, correct notes, technical skill, knowledge of musical symbols and terms, awareness of the style and form of the music, control of  tone quality and intonation, and ability to follow the conductor. Each student must excel on his or her part, even if it is simple; the necessity for excellence from everyone in the group is the primary reason why performance is of such value for learning. The teacher alone will have to decide how much emphasis to place on developing skills and on the basic understanding of music, and how much of the year’s music should be performed with the goal of perfection in mind. If flawless flawle ss performance alone is the goal, students tend to become mechanical wonders who can play with precision but often without musical independence or understanding. On the other hand, the goal of excellent performance is both the inspiration and the chief learning vehicle of the program. It is also fun. In formulating objectives, therefore, the music teacher must realistically consider all types of objectives as important, with the highest priority placed on the individual progress of each student. Students may try to make music an activity rather than a course. But—and the teacher must not  overlook this—students like to learn, enjoy challenges, and relish progress in knowledge as  well as skill.  When the th e high sch school ool direc director tor thinks about the music progr program am at the lower le levels, vels, he or she is inclined to complain about what the students failed to learn instead of taking responsibility for the long-term objectives of the program and making the process a continuous one. The high school band and orchestra share the same broad goals as the kindergarten and fourth-grade music classes and the high school music appreciation class. High school instrumental teachers will do well to visit grade school music classes occasionally, occasionally, talk  with eleme elementar ntar y te teachers, achers, students, student s, an and d mu music sic ssuper uper visors, help with rhythmic activit activities ies or recorders and other such activities, and discuss common goals and how to reach them. Finally,, the director must be willing to work cooperatively with individuals and communiFinally ty groups that want the services of a school performing group. To accomodate administrators, administrators, athletic directors, and civic leaders who wish to have bands and orchestras perform for various school or community functions, the instrumental teacher has to sacrifice some orderly, logical scheduling of learning experiences, despite the importance of a sequential curriculum. Within high school bands and orchestras, however, a sequential curriculum with twelfth-grade students undergoing different experiences from ninth graders, makes little sense. The importance of musical independence has been forgotten. The theory of asking each student to  work to his or her fullest potential thro throughout ughout high school, ho however wever,, is sound, as is the concern for a rich, pedagogically based program designed to enhance musical understanding.

 

28

Objectives

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Students join high school ensembles because they are interesting and fun, and because the students want to play their instruments. Would requiring work and competence in music theory, including ear-training, be exceeding the bounds of what ensemble experience is all about? Is this different for middle school students than for high school students?

3. A long-term objective is to perform, intelligently intelligently,, the music of Libby Larson. What short-term ob jectives might you employ to reach the long-term goal? As not all good objectives are noticeable in performance, which ones are “most likely” to improve the performance of Libby Larson’s music? 4. Select a piece of music in your present present ensemble folder and suggest appropriate technical exercis-

2. Your principal seems seems determined to insert accountability into each program and asks what  global, educational, and instructional outcomes should be considered in the instrumental music accountability plan. What are these outcomes?

thatprincipal could facilitate 5. es Your agreesperformance. that that the competencies being attained by the high school ensembles are important but that you must justify allocating resources for such a small percentage of the student body. Articulate your response.

 WEB SITES  American Federation of of Teachers Teachers  Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development  National Education Association National Standards for Music Education Coalition of Essential Schools

 www.aft.org  www.ascd.org  www.ascd.org  www.nea.org  www.nea.org  www.menc.org/resources/view/nation  www.menc.org/resources/view/national-standardsal-standardsfor-music-education  www.essentialschools.org  www.essentialschools.org

3

 

Assessment 

S

 ystematic assessment is the keystone of the teaching process, yet it is an area often neglected by the music teacher. Parents hear their child practice and per form for friends and relatives and they, along with school administrators and the public, judge the program at public performances. The purpose of assessment is generally perceived as being the assignment of  grades to determine qualification for per formance groups, a means of motivating students, or as an administrative necessity. It is also high on the agenda of advocates for music in the schools who believe that those subjects that are tested will find a place in the curriculum. Though all are important, these uses are minor when compared with the real purposes and  value of assessment. In this chapter, chapter, we discuss many of the assessment tools, such as formative assessment. We organize other assessment tools that are used, but often unsystematically, and emphasize that student learning (skills, values, knowledge, and habits) is the primary purpose of instruction and that learning can be enhanced when the right assessment tools are used at  the right time.

DEFINING ASSESSMENT IN MUSIC The purpose of assessment in instrumental music, as in other subjects, is to improve learning. For all students from preschool through college, the private lesson is the most effective vehicle for teaching music as an art and as a skill. The chief activity that distinguishes a private lesson from other music teaching is the role of assessment in instruction. During private or group lessons, the primary teaching function is to assess each student’s performance, making suggestions, changes, and assignments based on an appraisal of the student’s progress. The objectives of the private lesson are made clear to the student by the teacher’s concern for specific strengths and weaknesses in the student’s performance. At the end of each lesson, both teacher and student know what the student can do well and what needs attention. Assessment  is consistently made in terms of the music, the assignment, and the student’s potential and present competence. If classroom teachers and ensemble conductors were to spend the same amount of time on assessment, the results would soon be seen not only in increased student  competence but also in the teacher’s own improved use of methods, materials, and teaching strategies. Admittedly, this is a formidable task with a class of eager students holding instruments in their hands. In the absence of systematic assessment, however, any results can become meaningless in the hustle of intense instruction. Teaching is facilitated when the goals and objectives of the lesson are clear. Behavioral language is especially clear and appropriate for objectives in skill development. Good teaching can happen without stated objectives, but it is just that—a happening. Such chance occurrences of exemplary teaching appear throughout the K–12 schools, but are seldom permanent. Without objectives that can be verbalized and organized into a flexible curriculum, good music programs and good bands and orchestras come and go with the director. Music teachers often give grades and counsel students without consideration of their goals and objectives, rendering their grading and counseling ineffective, if not harmful. In music as in other areas, assessment and advice should be as accurate as the science of music teaching allows. Assessment often prescribes the dictate objectives (teaching to the should not. The teacher’s and school’s school’ s philosophy what is important in test), musicbut andit what should be taug taught. ht. 29

 

30

 Assessment

 Assessment is often thought of only in ter terms ms of wh what at the teacher does to  the student— the kind of test created, the tryout or challenge system used, or the point system enforced. However,, one of the greatest benefits of assessme However assessment nt is how it w works orks for the student. Fisher and Frey state, “We need to focus our instruction and ensure that students are learning, thinking, understanding, comprehending, and and processing p rocessing at high levels. We can only do this when we regularly check for understanding.” understanding.”1  Any student student ccan an rela relate te to the importance importance of ass assessment. essment. The fir first st qu question estion by st students udents in a new course is frequently about the kinds of tests they will have to take. Equal to anxiety over a grade, however, are the student’s pleasure in recognizing progress and a need for structure in the learning process. The knowledgeable teacher uses this concern to motivate learning. Students often work best under some pressure, and so those activities not assessed tend to be neglected even when they are valued. Thus, assessment, when used for motivation, is more than simply giving a grade. The terms measurement, evaluation , and assessment  are not synonymous. Although assessment and evaluation have similar meanings, assessment has become the term of choice in education. Measurement follows a set of rules that allows behaviors to be translated into categories or numbers, a strategy not applicable to assessing constructs essential for achievement.  Assessment encompasses a host of other factors and tools, including obser vations, inter interviews, views, checklists, portfolios, and subjective appraisals. It culminates in establishing the value or quality of the entity being assessed. The giving of grades or the assignment of chair placement, so often considered the sum total of assessment, frequently depends on a single act of measurement, one test or one tryout. This is a complete misrepresentation of the role of assessment  and is unfair to both teacher and student. Most important, effective assessment must be systematic as well as comprehensive. Frequent, carefully planned steps employing formative and summative assessment, will with give the most accurate and complete appraisalboth of the teaching–learning situation. In music, its many subjective judgments, frequent, organized assessment procedures are essential.

PRINCIPLES FOR ASSESSMENT In one sense, all teaching can be looked upon as an experiment—that is, a continual, creative process of improving the learning process through continually sampling what appear to be potentially more effective materials and instructional strategies. Effective teaching, like effective experimentation, cannot take place without tools for determining the success of the endeavor. Once proven successful, methods, materials, and teaching strategies should be retained, with the recognition that each combination of lear ning experiences and each group of students present a new situation. To put it more simply: the purpose of assessment is to help  teachers help students to learn. The alert teacher uses informal assessment daily when observing the results of his or her teaching. Most often, assessment is dependent upon clearly stated aims and objectives, and objectives cannot function without assessment. The importance of the connection between objectives and assessment cannot be overemphasized;  overemphasized;   Chapter 2  2  gives careful attention to objectives and their uses. Presently there is a movement to construct assessments based on the Voluntary National Standards that helped shape the most recent music portion of the National Assessment for Educational Progress. This interest in assessment is commendable but misguided. Goals for the band and orchestra must primarily be those that are reasonably attainable. A common set  of objectives for all school situations is not feasible in view of the students’ diverse backgrounds and the differences in school systems. Assessment must be based on the philosophy  of the school system and a realistic appraisal of what is possible. The concept of a sequential, grade-level curriculum is more difficult to implement for band and orchestra than for any  other subject. Not only do all students learn differently, but the demands of each part in any  piece of music differ in complexity and requisite skill. The most successful teacher considers the student, the instrument, and the environment in formulating objectives and conducting systematic assessment.  Assessment must be part of curriculum planning at every eve ry stage. In other disciplin disciplines es it is termed a needs assessment. Teachers often tend to emphasize favorite materials, ones they enjoy  1 Fisher Douglas, and Nancy Frey (2007). Checking for Understanding: Formative Assessment T Techniques  echniques   for Your Classroom. Classroom. Alexandria, VA: VA: ASCD.

 

 Assessment   31

teaching, rather than basing content on an objective appraisal of student needs. With valid means of assessment, however, materials and methods can be appraised by experts, other faculty, parents, students, and administrators, as well as by the teacher, to shape course content  and keep it in line with w ith student needs. A major criticism of ensemble teaching te aching is that the quality and difficulty of the music used for instruction and performance often are not appropriate. Proper planning and frequent assessment of methods can minimize the need for radical curriculum revision later.  Assessment in music must take into consideration the influence of noncurricular factors. Because music has entertainment and activity value, much learning takes place outside of school. The effect of private music instruction, church or community music groups, performance in a combo, garage band, or other ensemble, and the exposure to music in the home environment must be factored in before giving the school credit for student achievement. The factors that impact student outcomes must also be considered in teacher assessment plans, especially the interpretation of any results. It has become educationally fashionable to compare students, schools, teachers, buildings, states, and even nations with respect to school achievement. The public seems to accept  performances at sporting events, concerts, and contest placement as evidence of a solid music program; additional evidence is needed for music educators to know that students are learning to understand, appreciate, and read music, as well as acquire historical and cultural knowledge about music and develop those skills needed for successful performance. Ideally,  when objectives obje ctives for tthe he year aare re establish established ed cooperativ cooperatively ely with students, ad administrators, ministrators, and parents, the teacher can be expected to provide evidence at the end of the year on the extent  to which these objectives have been met. What is a reasonable expectation of how well the objectives will be met? The teacher should know the students well enough to estimate a percentage, perhaps 70 or percent of the students, whowhich shouldcan be be able to meet thecompetengoals that  have been described in 80 terms of performance  standards, equated with cy or proficiency. Some schools have adopted a “gain score” or “value-added” “value-adde d” approach to evaluation. The objective is to preassess all students and judge adequacy of the program on any gain over a specified time frame. Although such a plan has h as obvious strengths and is valuable in portfolios, sufficient weaknesses render it inappropriate as the sole assessment criterion. Because measureable gain depends on the students’ initial ability and achievement level, students could show marked gain and remain below acceptable standards or show little gain and be among the finest in the nation. Additionally, skill development in music does not appear to progress in a straightforward linear fashion. Students can practice diligently one week and still have a poor lesson, but next week this practicing pays off. Gain is often faster if one starts with limited competence. With high initial achievement it is more difficult to demonstrate gain in raw  scores, percentages, or performance; the most advanced artist may spend months to improve the most subtle interpretations.  Assessments can be de described as being auth authentic enticassessment or inauthe inauthentic, formative mative or summative, and criterion-related orscribed normative. An authentic isntic, onefor that corresponds to an out-of-school or practical situation such as would occur in a lived experience. Many, if not  most, assessments with ensembles, such as tryouts, concerts, lessons, and auditions, are authentic. Listening assessments can be authentic when the tasks are similar to those used by an educated audience. Even knowledge questions can be authentic; authen tic; for example, students can be expected to know what to do when faced with a crescendo sign.  Another differentiation is between formative and summative assessment. Here, the terms indicate how the assessment is used: assessment of learning (summative) and assessment for the purpose purpose of learning (formative). Summative assessment summarizes; that is, it  appraises competence in terms of a contest conte st rating, an audition outcome, or whether a student  passes to the next grade level or graduates from high school. Summative assessment is often criticized as tending to base decisions on a single test score rather than on a reasonable sample of the student’s competence. There is increasing evidence that the use of formative assessment improves students’ performance, especially when it includes immediate feedback to the studentaction and corrective action inassessment the learning situation as to a result of by thethe assessment. The corrective step in formative is not limited actions student; formative assessment usually requires that the teacher adjust the instruction as well. Formative assessment (or needs assessment) at the beginning of an instructional unit might reveal that most  students are already competent or have partial knowledge. Formative assessment is an instruc-

 

32

 Assessment

tional tool, assessment as learning ; no records of student (or teacher) competence are made, as the primary purpose is the improvement of teaching and learning.  Another important distinction is between criterion-related and normative scoring. These are often confused because of the general perception by parents and others that any an y assessment should indicate how their child is doing in relationship to other members of the class (normative scoring). Interpreting an assessment in normative terms does have an important function when comparisons are required—all-state selection, for example, or selection for concertmaster of the orchestra, or when parents want advice as to whether their child has the potential to become a professional musician. However, the present emphasis is on criterion-based assessments—every child (or most children) can reach minimum competency. It is certainly feasible that all students can earn an A (demonstrate authentic musical competence), especially in elective courses such as AP theory or symphonic band. Because grade inflation does occur, however, the use of criterion-related assessments requires insightful interpretation of the results. Advocates Advocates of state and national tests believe in a common standard of what constitutes minimum competence (criterion-related assessments) in math, language arts, or even music, enabling valid comparisons to be made among students in widely   varying learning environmen environments. ts. Multiple factors affect lear learning, ning, including the priorities prioritie s within a school or classroom and a student’s background; without consideration of these factors,  valid comparisons are not likely to be made. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is an effort to allow the public to make comparisons among districts and states as to what percentage of those tested can be classified as proficient. Such comparisons are a normative use of the assessment results. State assessments tend to be more readily used as criterion-based assessments where the interest of state officials is in determining which schools require assistance to meet the state standard (which is and often a cutAlthough score on the an NAEP examination—the cut score the cutoff point  between “pass” “fail”). is a valuable tool, it has being been based on content  standards with no priority indicated among the standards. Content standards are subject to change, and the content standards of NAEP do not fairly represent the present standards of  most instrumental music programs. This chapter is organized on a broader basis than NAEP, that of music as an art, musical skills, and the general, nonmusic objectives that characterize important outcomes of group and individual learning in ensemble situations. State and national assessments have interpreted their results in terms of performing, reflecting, and composing. These three concepts seem unnecessarily narrow; they overlook important areas of  learning such as recognizing, understanding, perceiving, exploring, using, analyzing, and evaluating.

 ASSESSING MUSIC MUSIC AS AN ART To acquire an understanding of music as an art and to derive meaning from listening or performing is the focal goal of school music. This is far more difficult than to participate in music as an activity. Yet music is from first to last an art; activity and skill are only facets of  learning this essential quality. Most appropriate in instrumental music is to differentiate among the various kinds of learning that assist aesthetic (artistic) development and to assess these subcompetencies. subcompetencies. Such learning may also fit into the category of skills because certain skills are required in any reflective response. The learning related to understanding music as an art includes factual knowledge (historical, cultural, and musical); discernment; understanding of style, orchestration, and structure; and perceptual listening skills. The director  who is teaching music th through rough par participation ticipation may fi find nd it difficult to objecti objectively vely me measure asure tthe he student’s awareness of music as an art, but resources should be allocated to do so.

Factual Knowledge Measurement of factual knowledge is relatively easy. The problem is not testing for knowledge but preventing knowledge tests from becoming the only type of assessment used. Machinescorable tests are attractive to administrators and to teachers because they are economical in terms of time financial outlay. There a tendency in research the arts topapers, begin as with a valid assessment plan thatand includes on-demand tasks,isportfolios, and well as multiple choice tests, only to scale back to machine-scorable assessments under the pressures of  monetary costs as well as limits on student and teacher time. Too often a hastily constructed knowledge test is given in order to have a grade for semester reports, an inexcusable practice

 

 Assessment   33

in either teaching or assessment. Certain factual knowledge is related directly to growth in musical skills, for example, knowledge of key and time signatures, pitch and rhythm symbols, tempi, and expression terms. These are found on the musical page and must be understood for skillful performance. They relate only indirectly to musical growth, however. The type of  knowledge essential to musical understanding concerns the music itself, including its historical place and significance, form and structure, style, instrumentation, performance practices, composer,, and social or extramusical connections. The more the students know about the composer t he way  music is put together in all such contexts, the greater will be their musical understanding. Paper-and-pencil tests are always a better way to assess knowledge than attempts at oral assessment by asking selected students or those who raise their hands. Recognition tests (multiple choice), recall tests (short answer), essay tests, and occasional true/false tests can accurately measure factual knowledge. Of greater importance is measuring the student’s ability to apply knowledge when listening and/or performing. For listening, aural stimuli are appropriate and the test may consist of listening to a short composition one or more times and answering questions directly related to that piece of music. The piece may be familiar, perhaps one the group has been rehearsing, or it may be unfamiliar, depending on the teacher’s purpose. Listening to different interpretations and identifying the differences is especially valuable. Test questions may ask for responses related to form, style, melody, use of counterpoint and countermelody, historical period, composer, instruments used, tempi, dynamic levels, tessitura, the number of voices, or texture. Questions must be specific and elicit specific answers. Heightened aural perception is an important musical objective. In performance, the players’ musical perception should be apparent throughout.

Musical Discernment Discernment is more than recognition of melodies or moods; it involves perceiving, discriminating, and judging. It indicates the ability to follow the music as it unfolds, to distinguish great music from good music, to recognize the style of the composition, to understand the composer’s message as reflected in the structure and style of the work, and to assess accurately the quality of the performance. Assessment can take the form of the critical-incidence test, in which the student listens to music and answers questions about it—the high point, the length of phrases, or other musical element that has been taught. Or the student may be asked to listen to two or more compositions and state which is the superior piece of music or superior performance and why. In creating such tests, the teacher needs to be certain that he or she understands the music well, has taught the competencies, and has formulated valid questions that truly reveal the acuity of the student’s listening.

Recognition of Style and Structure Students should be able to intelligently discuss the music as well as perform and listen to it. Recognition of style and is a part factualof knowledge and discer nment, a key unlocking the mysteries of structure musical art. One of essence an art object is its form, and thetostyle through which the form is displayed changes with each historical or cultural period. Understanding form is important and should transfer to objectives relating to improvising and composing as well as listening and performing. After students have become familiar with, for example, the Baroque concerto style, the classical chamber music style, or a contemporary  style, they are free to follow the form, to form expectations as to what will happen in the music, and to take pleasure in how the composer fulfills or alters their expectations. The difficulty in hearing form is not the same for all musical periods and the assessing teacher must  be aware of what is easy and what is difficult for the students. Tests in this area may take several formats. First, the sim simple ple objective test may be used, in in  which the students list the characteristics of an art period, select the correct answer from a given list, or answer true/false questions. The same can be used to test knowledge of form by  asking the students to identify, label, or define certain musical identities such as rondo, sonata, or tone poem. These tests give no indication of a student’s ability to apply the knowledge tothe listening, A more a single-lineand score test where the student  follows score ofhowever. the melody whilerevealing listeni ngtool listening to a iscomposition indicates in the appropriate measures items that reveal style or form. The student may be asked to describe what is happening in certain important measures. A single-line score test can be as simple or as complicated as the situation requires; the teacher’s responsibility lies in selecting a composi-

 

34

 Assessment

tion that can elicit good answers and in developing complete answers by which to assess the student’s responses. A third type of test for this area was described in the previous the previous section, in  which the student listens to a work, reflects on it, and writes answers to specific questions about it, without the score present.

EVALUATING EV ALUATING MUSICAL S SKILLS KILLS In the majority of K–12 schools, music was w as for many years thought of primarily as a performance  skill. This is natural because music depends on performance, but other skills must also be de veloped if performance perfor mance is to lead to a lifelong interest in music. Chiefly, Ch iefly, these other skills fall into two categories: reading skills and auditory and auditory-visual skills .

Performance Skills  Any number of vehicles exist for assessing per formance skills. The most familiar of these are private lessons, sectional rehearsals, daily rehearsals, tryouts or challenges, concerts, contests, and festivals—in short, any type of student performance. These vary in value because group situations of any type increase the difficulty of objective measurement of individual performance skill. In order to avoid a subjective judgment, the teacher should use a list of specific ob jectives. For example, objectives for perfor performance mance may include the following: (1) production of good tone throughout the pitch and dynamic ranges; (2) the ability to change tone quality  to suit the music; (3) accurate intonation; (4) a pitch range sufficiently wide for the level of  music played; (5) dynamic range from pianissimo to fortissimo; and (6) accurate and rapid use of one’s hands and fingers. Each of these objectives can be measured on a point scale, ranging from 0 to 25 or more. When ratings are made using multiple anchor points (terms) such as poor  poor,, good, excellent , and superior , the student can more easily understand the expected standard. Some teachers expect instrumentalists to be able to sing as well as play their parts. This is an excellent suggestion for music that is in a reasonable singing range. Surprisingly, performance skill, which receives much teaching emphasis, has had little attention from test makers. It is an on-demand task in teacher-constructed assessments. Only  one performance test is in print, the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale , which is available for  wind, string, and percussion instruments. In this test, fourteen graded melodies of sixteen bars each are given to the per former to play. These range from the easiest type to one of ne neararprofessional grade. Performers are graded on the number and type of errors they make.

Reading Skills Reading skills are one of the keys to pleasure in musical participation. When players can understand the musical page by themselves without direction from the teacher, they can learn new music on their own, play in ensembles, enrich the family music circle, and in general enjoy musical freedom. In sight-reading, the student should see more than the notes. Assessment should note awareness of the key signature, all accidentals, dynamic markings, accents, and phrase and tonguing (or bowing) markings, and recognition recogniti on of the phrase so that proper articulation is observed. A teacher-constructed assessment can include a single piece of unfamiliar music or exercises of graded difficulty, dif ficulty, as long as there is sufficient variety of musical elements and styles to include all items to be assessed.

 Auditory and and Auditory-Visual Auditory-Visual Skills The third area of skill is auditory discrimination. Included are those skills that depend on the ear’s relationship to the fingers and the eye and the ability to visualize what is being heard and to hear inwardly what is seen on the musical page. It differs from sight-reading in that an instrumentalist may successfully sight-read music without hearing inwardly what is read.  Auditory-visual skill is what the sight-singer uses to hear the music inwardly before singing it  accurately. Objectives for auditory-visual skill include the ability to visualize simple melodies, intervals, and phrases heard and, conversely, to inwardly hear these when seen in the score. They also include the ability to recognize the tonal center and modulations, commonly used chords, and unexpected harmonies; to than remember melodies adequately forrecognize following timbre simple formal structure; to follow parts other the principal melody; and to and texture. Strategies such as the syllable system are often used as teaching devices.  Auditory-visual skills are commonly measured by tests requiring the student to follow  short musical items (usually four or eight measures) in a score and to determine where the

 

 Assessment   35

score differs from the musical items played. There are standardized tests of this type as well as tests that measure only auditory skills.

OBSERVATION Teachers who don’t don’t observe closely m miss iss a most valuable assessment tool. In fact, teachers who do not habitually and systematically observe the students, both visually and aurally, are not  teaching at the optimum level. Aural and visual obser vation is critical with ensembles in which each member’s input affects the result. Most instructional objectives can be judged by listening and observing. With beginning especially with the strings, observation is particularly useful (e.g., in notingstudents, incorrectand fingerings and positions). As visual valuable as obser vation is, however however,, it is notoriously unreliable because of conscious and unconscious bias on the part of the observer. A second and related concern with observation as an assessment tool is the lack of objectivity. Teachers are caring human beings and their judgments are affected by knowing their students. The talented lazy kid, the untalented but hardworking one, the special-needs student, the troubled student from a broken home, or the star athlete who is the first violist in the orchestra must each be assessed with care and objectivity. Important criteria that can be assessed by observation (and use of a checklist) include the following:

• • • •

absen absence ce of instrument fro from m school locker locker atti attitud tudee be beha havi vior or bo bowi wing ngss

• • • • • • • • • • • •

bre breath athing ing care of iinstrumen nstrument  t  coo coopera peratio tion n emb embouc ouchur huree fin finger ger pos positio ition n finger fingerings ings and sl slide ide positio positions ns marc marching hing style penci pencill availab availability  ility  percus percussion sion pla playing ying pos position ition postur posture—from e—from head to to toee pun punctu ctualit ality  y  rea readin diness ess

•• reh rehears earsal al ility  decoru decorum res respon ponsib sibilit y  m • tens tensio ion n  Assessing students every day or periodically is not easily done in the music classroom. Teaching well is intense work. The subjectivity of observation must always be kept in mind. In many situations using a second assessor is particularly important.

LISTENING Related to observation is assessment through listening—undoubtedly the most important assessment tool for improving the quality of the ensemble and the learning of its members. The following list provides observations and suggestions to assist in assessing musical attributes: 1. The opportunity for the most accurate listening assessment is having one student perform at a time. Assessment for blend, balance, matching pitch, maintaining one’s own part, so forth must be done in a group situation, but ideally it should take place in small and groups. 2. It is difficult to make sensible judgments about b beginners eginners who have little embouchure or air control. Timbral differences are easily mistaken for pitch and intonation problems.

 

36

 Assessment

3. Listen for specifics, to improve your own listening reliability: focus on tone quality, quality, attacks and releases, centered tones, clarity of production, as well as the correct pitches and rhythms. 4. Hearing incorrect notes, rhythms, rhythms, or even harmonics in a large ensemble of beginners takes practice, and cannot be expected of most beginning teachers. Assessing in groups of three or four and gradually adding more students is a reasonable way to begin. Sectional rehearsals provide the instructor with an opportunity to assess individual performers. In the full rehearsal, it is often difficult even for conductors of advanced groups to know who is participating wholeheartedly, playing accurately and musically, and paying attention. When sectionals sectiona ls are student-led, the teacher has a better opportunity to listen, observe, and judge. Ratings must be systematic, complete, and analytical. Superficial observations often lead to unfairness and erroneous conclusions that hinder rather than aid the learning process. Contemporary method books encourage assessment and include achievement charts that can be prominently posted. These method books emphasize visual and aural observations as a skill-assessment technique. The teacher must have aural models available that pro vide students with representative examples of “superb,” “wonderful,” “magnificent,” and “unsatisfactory” performances. Teacher modeling is also a powerful tool in motivation, learning, and assessment. These models should be familiar to the students so they can learn to listen critically as well.

PORTFOLIOS  A portfolio portfoli o is a tool used use d iin n assessment. It m may ay contai contain n homework assignments and any extended research projects. In their portfolios, students may also collect awards, trophies, newspaper articles, contest sheets, practice cards, letters of appreciation for community service, CDs, mementos of trips, athletic event souvenirs—any items that document their participation and competence in music and music ensembles. Items in a portfolio may be assessed by  one or more of the means suggested in this chapter. A disadvantage to the portfolio is that a student usually receives delayed feedback on the portfolio items, which lacks the power and importance of immediate feedback to enhance learning. A major advantage of the portfolio occurs when students reflect on the substance of their accomplishments. Should students be interested in their improvement over time, a recording of their solo and ensemble playing at two or more different time periods during the year can be included in the portfolio. A portfolio containing a “best” possible per formance provides material for serious self-reflection. Recordings in a portfolio can serve as a means to refresh the director’s memory, as well as the student’s, of how far the student has come over a certain time period. Closely related to the portfolio is the student log, which is a record maintained by the student  of his or her musical experiences. To be most helpful, the log should include both formal and informal encounters with music, for example, concert attendance, recorded performances heard, musical participation in organized groups (such as church or club ensembles) and unorganized happenings (such as campfire singing, improv sessions, and family music making). Items in a portfolio or log are quantitative and qualitative keepsakes varying in usefulness as assessment tools.

RUBRICS  A rubric is is a guideli guideline ne used for for rating student performance. performance. Familiar rubrics ar aree the guideli guidelines nes provided for judges at music contests and festivals. They describe the full range of possible performance levels. A rubrics book for the ensemble that describes, as clearly as language can portray, the local standards of excellent, proficient, basic, and unsatisfactory should be considered. These rubrics should be established locally and their meaning made clear (through models) to the users. Students may assist in building the rubrics book using their own terms, and the models can be changed annually as the group improves. Descriptors need to be formulated for levels of pitch and rhythmic accuracy, tone, aural perception, error identification, phrasing, musicality, and even musical understanding. The rubrics book describes how accurate, how musical, how expressive, how rhythmic rhythmic a performance need be to meet the performance standards that have been cooperatively established.

 

 Assessment   37

TESTS, TOOLS, AND PROCEDURES FOR ASSESSMENT  A standardized or formal test is an important tool although other valid assessment techniques must be used to ensure that assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. Unfortunately there are few appropriate standardized assessments. Adaptations of state tests, NAEP, and AP theory may m ay provide good classroom tests but such adaptations are no longer standardized. Following are some of the various ways to measure progress in musical learning.

Measures of Musical Aptitude Students must understand the importance of effort in achieving results. As in all classroom learning, the aim is to develop each student to his or her fullest potential based on the ability  and interest the student possesses in the subject. Teachers who help slow and average students to achieve deserve respect, but they fail to fulfill their responsibilities unless they also provide talented students with appropriate challenge and opportunity. The Musical Aptitude Profile ,  with its related aptitude tests (PMMA, IMMA, and AMMA), is the only music aptitude test  presently published. Manufacturers of instruments provide unstandardized measures based on principles of aptitude established by Carl Seashore around 1939. In addition to published measures, the teacher can obtain indications of potential from private instructors, from the level of the student’s ability in singing or on the recorder, from the classroom teacher, and from the student’s past achievement. All indications of talent should be noted.

Measures of Music Achievement Both standardized and teacher-constructed measures of music achievement should be used.  Achievement tests reflect refle ct not only aptitude but also motivation, hard work, parental support, interest, good teaching, and a host of other factors that contribute to success. Published measures of musical achievement are scarce and many states are initiating unstandardized measures. Ideas on test construction can be gleaned from the AP theory tests and the tests constructed by Educational Testing Service for teachers and graduate admission. Colwell’s Music Achievement Tests provide excellent examples of exercises found to discriminate among those who have learned and those who have not on the most popular objectives of  music programs. Tests based solely on Arts Propel are too narrow nar row to provide a comprehensive measure of learning. Teacher-constructed achievement tests are of value when based on principles of good test construction and valid testing procedures.

 Audio and Video Recordings Recordings  Audio and video recordings, re cordings, includi including ng interactiv interactivee video, are good as assessment sessment tools. Li Like ke the proverbial picture, recorded sound can be worth a thousand words. Used with rehearsals and classes as well as with concerts, recordings provide an opportunity for the teacher to examine the strengths and weaknesses of any performance. Often sections that sound good in rehearsal contain flaws when heard later, and those that were annoying in the stress of  “drilling” are acceptable. Video recordings allow the director and the students to see as well as hear themselves and to adjust accordingly.

Student Judges Students can judge themselves them selves and each other. Making critical decisions about one’s own performance or that of another student provides a means for motivation, for developing values, and for increasing aural attention to the details of performance. Students often set higher standards for themselves than those set by the instructor. The effectiveness of group opinion and peer standards is well known. Students tend to believe that their performances are better than those of their peers. Good teaching and group assessment can help alter this belief.

Computers in Assessment Computers can judge on atprograms least the factors pitch Performance and rhythm, to whatever degree of precision is performance desired. Software such asofFinale Assessment  and SmartMusic can judge performance but are weak for assessing tone quality, phrasing, and interpretation. The computer is patient, and there is less chance of personal embarrassment when a machine judges and provides the feedback. Feedback can be immediate.

 

38

 Assessment

Music Contests or Festivals The music contest or festival can furnish an ideal assessment situation. Both teacher and pupil, however, must view it as an opportunity to learn rather than as glorification of a cause.  Adjudicators are always hurried and sometimes biased, but they usually offer some suggestions of value. The adjudication sheet or recording should be considered carefully before it is posted with pride or destroyed in anger.

Private Lessons The private lesson, as previously discussed, is a fine vehicle for assessment. When possible, the private teacher’s opinion should be solicited and compared with other data on the student’s progress. Whether information from private teachers is obtained by interview or written inquiry, a definite set of questions should be formulated formula ted in advance. General statemen statements ts seldom offer enough details to be of value as an assessment tool.

Student Interviews Intervi ews with students can reveal special strengths, interests, background, and environment, Interviews as well as prejudices, weaknesses, and dislikes. Although time may not be available to interview  all students, an interview can be a valuable device for assessing students who are not responding favorably to the present learning situation.

Critical-Incidence Test, Test, Attitude Scales, and Preference Scales The critical-incidence test is an effective tool for measuring a student’s perception in musical situations. The test consists of having the student describe the best and worst moments of   yesterday’s concert or Friday’s halftime show, for example. The teacher should also take such a test; in so doing he or she must remain open-minded to students’ reactions and to their  various degrees of understanding.  Attitude scales are used use d in many areas of educati education on to discover how students fee feell about  something. The attitude scale is usually a list of statements, each reflecting a slightly different  point of view, to which the student responds with a “strongly agree,” “agree,” “no opinion,” “disagree,” “strongly disagree,” or a similar set of choices. In the most carefully constructed attitude scale, each statement is given a numerical weight that indicates the negative or positive value of the attitude it reflects. Less objective scales reveal information by the type of answers given and the number and degree of negative and positive statements. These may take the form of open-ended statements to be completed by the students, matching of pictures to feelings, or questionnaires that the student answers with a set of short essays. A valid scale is one constructed so as to not reveal the attitude being assessed, as students usually prefer to make the “right” response rather than the honest one. Statements must be of sufficient variety, contain different viewpoints, and offer an occasional “distracter” to conceal the purpose of the scale. Having the student complete the scale in homeroom or some other neutral situation helps elicit honest responses. Preference scales are easier than attitude atti tude scales to construct and are of value though selsel dom instructional and objective. In this scale the student ranks in order of preference such items as school classes, recreational activities, musical compositions, recording artists, tone quality, and others. As with attitude scales, in order to minimize attempts to give the “right” answer, preference scales should be completed in homeroom or other neutral situation with sufficient distracters to disguise the purpose of the scale.

Practice Cards and Student Demonstrations Demonstrations Practice cards on which the student records his or her amount of daily practice can be useful. They do not reveal the student’s achievement, but when filled in honestly, they are an indication of students interest and effort. In practice well-run as ensembles, students are surprisingly honest. Consider having list what they well. Student demonstrations, whether spontaneous or planned, afford opportunities to assess skill and understanding. Spontaneous demonstrations de monstrations occur when the director or section leader requests a student or section to correctly perform some musical passage or pattern.

 

 Assessment   39

Planned demonstrations of technique, tone, or timbre, performed in public or rehearsal, are an effective device for motivation and learning. The teacher must observe these demonstrations carefully and record his or her reactions objectively.

Checklists Checklists ensure greater objectivity and coverage of the factors of musical performance and are applicable to all forms of assessment, including teacher self-assessment. A common use of  checklists is to rate the student’s performance on a number of criteria such as tone, articulation,routines, expression accuracy, rhythm accuracy rests, keys, breathing, tice andmarks, style. phrasing, Checklistspitch are beguilingly simple,accuracy, but, like, all assessment devices,practhey  can be misused. It is easy to violate the principles of good assessment with a checklist because of its simplicity and openness to bias and selectivity. Teachers must think about the checklist’s  validity and reliability. It is important to know that the same result will occur at different times or when used by different assessors (reliability) and that the item checked is truly an indicator of the desired behavior (validity).  A student can be appraised on a ten-point checklist (with evaluations ranging from awful to stellar) on the ability to sing his or her part, perform on his or her instrument, warm up intelligently, and perform required skill exercises for endurance, range, bowing, tonguing, and fingering. Although the checklist is good for assessing abilities, it is not strong as a diagnostic instrument. Group objectives of balance, blend, common interpretation, diction, and almost any aspect of performance, knowledge, or personality can be only partially assessed using a checklist. Checklists need to be created with careful attention to the selection of items that are pertinent, appropriate, and useful.  Any attempt to ccollect ollect data on sstudent tudent achieve achievement ment must always be m made ade with reference to known objectives. Frequently, tests or other assessment tools that do not reflect the actual objectives or content of the music class are selected. To be genuinely appropriate for a music program, a test must enhance progress toward the accomplishment of objectives already determined. The purpose of instruction is not to provide material for testing; rather the purpose of testing is to provide information for the improvement of learning and instruction. In closing this section, it must be emphasized that assessment requires a careful, systematic approach. Inspection of only the final test scores will seldom improve the teaching–learning process. Use of any one or all of the suggested tools will not in itself ensure good assessment. Good assessment must be carefully planned, frequently administered, varied, and objective. Assessment in music should be designed to improve instruction, not to judge.

 ASSESSMENT OF OF INSTRUMENTAL INSTRUMENTAL OBJECTIVES OBJECTIVES Music involves participation, and participation fosters attitudes and habits. These the attitudes and habits are often seen as the major goal of school music experiences. At present, effectiveness of music participation to nurture instrumental objectives is the focus of much research, discussion, and publicity. This aspect of musical participation is not new. Good habits, attitudes, and values have always resulted from engaging in music, and these are deserving of  assessment. Instrumental, or behavioral, objectives do not relate to music as an art ; nevertheless, they should be assessed and are grouped here under participation, attitude, and habit.

Participation Participation can be assessed by student logs, checklists, interviews, critical-incidence measures, practice cards, point systems, and other ways devised by the instructor. 1. Full participation in a musical group group requires regular attendance. Is Is the student dependable and punctual? Is the student responsible for his or her share of any activity? Does the student take initiative appropriately? 2. Does the student participate wholeheartedly in rehearsal activities? Reading books, doing assignments, and talking off-task during rehearsal are negative indicators of participation. Assessment may indicate whether the fault lies with the student or with a rehearsal that lacks challenge, interest, or musical satisfaction.

 

40

 Assessment

3. Does the student use his or her music skills in leisure ac activities? tivities? 4. Does the student participate in civic or church music organizations? 5. Does the student take full advantage of school music offerings? 6. Does the student student attend con concerts? certs? 7. Do the good habits of gr group oup participation carry over into the student’s everyday life?

 Attitude  Attitude can be appraised using the questions regarding participation and by sophisticated attitude scales. Levels of agreement with written statements can be obtained. Attitudes can be changed by effective discussion, reading, the relating of interesting facts, and similar endeavors; however, change is most effective when students, through participation, discover for themselves how satisfying experiences with good music can be. The major task of the instructor is to provide skills and knowledge, including reading, ear training, and performance per formance skills, and to provide rewarding musical experiences in large and small ensembles where attitude formation and change can be expected to occur. 1. Does the student participate fully? Does he or she act in a democratic and cooperative spirit? 2. Where does music rank in the student’s preference for school subjects? In his or her preference for recreational activities? 3. Which selections selections and kinds of music doe doess the student prefer prefer??

Habits Good habits do not spring automatically from a good music program. Like transfer of training, habits must be specifically taught by insistence on schedule and routine. In habit formation, regularity is more desirable than spontaneity. In the same way that habits are hard to break, some are also hard to form. They are generally reached gradually through the careful attention and dogmatic insistence by the instructor rather than through inspired teaching. 1. Does the student have a regular regular daily pract practice ice routine? routine? 2. Does the student consistent consistently ly warm up and warm down properly? 3. Does the student routinely routinely take car caree of his or her instrument?  Although we are ending this chapter with a discussion of secondary objectives, let us reiterate that assessment must focus on priority objectives if it is to accomplish its i ts purpose, which is to enhance learning. Teaching requires making choices and establishing priorities. Musical understanding is a high priority for objectives and an d also for assessment. Musical understanding is not guaranteed by high-level skills and copious knowledge, although these are important  components. understanding transfers, to those who understand music and musical performance canBecause apply their skills and knowledge unfamiliar musical terrain.

GRADING The important principle in the giving of grades in instrumental music is that everyone be informed in advance and in writing of every factor that can affect the grade. We want to emphasize again that there is usually little or no connection between assessment and grades. Instrumental music teachers assess continually and on multiple factors as this chapter has suggested—always to improve teaching and learning. Chair positions may be based on one type of valid assessment but have no relationship to the semester grade. With elective music, arguments are made that membership requires proficiency which would result in all members receiving a satisfactory or A grade. A different philosophy would apply to exploratory classes and to beginning instrumental classes.  Your philosophy on grading should be discussed with the school administration. In many schools, music grades are not tabulated as part of a student’s cumulative grade average; this has implications for grading practices. Many colleges do not consider grades in music  when considering admission and scholarships because grades in elective music tend to be uniformly high. High grades are understandable as they interact with recruiting and providing opportunities for all students; further, high grades do not deter honors students from participating in instrumental music throughout the high school years.

 

 Assessment   41

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. In what ways, if any, any, can a viable assessment plan encourage students to become better musicians? 2. If instrumental music is an academic academic subject in  your school, what philosophy for giving grades (e.g., grading on the curve, having firm criterionrelated standards, etc.) would be considered fair by most students? 3. T eachers often stipulatefor how grades are lished (e.g., percentages homework, forestabclass discussion, for final exams, etc.). Develop a trial grading formula you would like to try in your first teaching position.

4. Your principal has has called you in and informed  you that grades in instrumental music cannot be counted in a student’s grade point average because your grades are so much higher than those of any other classroom teacher. What is your response? 5. There is much talk in education about about the need for assessment to be authentic. What assessments  would be inauthentic in instrumental instrumental music? 6. Construct the rough outline of an assessment  assessment  that you might use as an admission criterion for students to enter your highest level ensemble.

 WEB SITES  American Evaluation Association  American Federation of of T Teachers eachers  Association of Supervision and Curriculum Instruction Edutopia A ssessment ssessment Site Ericae.net Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation The Evaluation Center NAEP Arts Assessment  National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, & Student Testing National Education Association

 www.eval.org  www.eval.org  www.aft.o  www.aft.org rg  www.ascd.org  www.ascd.org  www.edutopia.org/assessment   www.edutopia.org/assessment   www.ericae.net   www.ericae.net   www.wmich.edu/evalctr  www.wmich.edu/evalctr http://nces.ed http://nces.ed.gov/nati .gov/nationsrepor onsreportcard/ar tcard/arts ts  www.cse.ucl  www.cse.ucla.edu/in a.edu/index.asp dex.asp  www.nea.org  www.nea.org

 

4 Administration 

ORGANIZATION The orchestra director could not find an appropriate baton to begin the rehearsal—again. The small (but appreciative) orchestra in the rehearsal hall waited patiently for the missing baton to be found. An excellent musician, indeed, but the teacher just couldn’t get organized.  Across the hall in the band room the director stepped up on the podium and the band snapped to attention with military precision. Today they were going to play a new band overture.  And so iitt goes. We might imagine a musical seesaw with the perfect musician on one end and the perfect administrator on the other. To stay on an even keel, a balance must be struck between music and administration. At times the teacher is clearly more administrator musician, and, fortunately, there areequals many aother times when the teacher canmay be foremost  athan musician—the resulting combination “music teacher.” One director think of  administration as consisting of mostly forms, record keeping, inventories, and bids, while another may think that objectives, assessment, and curriculum development are the essence of  administration, but the truth is that none of these various aspects should be neglected. Though it is often said that good musicians are poor administrators, this is not so. Music educators have spent many years developing high-level skills in making music, but attention to administrative tasks is often learned on the job. Record keeping does not have to be a fulltime job, although without organization it can turn into one. The teacher who can smoothly  and efficiently run a music program has more time for actually making music, selecting and learning scores, and organizing his or her teaching. The prospective music teacher should begin to collect a private store of good administrative techniques: sample seating plans, records, forms, and the like. Numerous computer programs are available to help keep records and do other tasks such as organizing the music library, li brary, the instrument inven inventory, tory, and uniform inventory/assignments. Such programs save both time and space and need to be includedThe in the budget. present chapter offers ideas that will assist the teacher with organizing the people, places, and things associated with the instrumental music program. The chapter begins with a discussion of the formulation of a calendar to help guide the year’s events and financial information and goes on to discuss acquisition and maintenance of property and facilities. The chapter concludes with ideas for establishing and maintaining solid professional relationships with students, administrators, and others through strong public relations.

CALENDAR  The first important task for the teacher is to organize the year’s calendar calendar.. It is useful for the director to carry a pocket calendar or personal digital assistant, have a “master calendar” on the office desk, and post a large wall calendar in the rehearsal room. One of the first tasks for new  directors is to contact the state music educators association (contact information is available through www.menc.org) through  www.menc.org) or district band or orchestra division president to join the organization and receive a calendar of the year’s events. These events should be placed on the calendars of instrumental teachers at all levels. From this schedule, the instrumental music teacher can plan concerts, band camps, recruiting activities, and any other events (such as trips) for the year. Each of these dates should be cleared with the school’s principal and coordinated with other music teachers. All tentative 42

 

 Administration   43

performance dates should be mailed or e-mailed to students and their parents in the summer or very early fall with an update of the handbook plus a note to contact the director immediately if these dates conflict with previously scheduled family activities. Early notification can help prevent scheduling conflicts. Coordination between music teachers is important. In school systems that have a music supervisor, coordination problems can be minimized. When a school system has no designated chair of the music program, the high school band or orchestra director should simply assume the role of coordinator by asking the other music teachers for their schedule of  activities. If other teachers have not planned ahead, the director can simply provide them with a list of dates (i.e., whoever is most organized gets to be the chair). High school orchestra and band directors should also work with the middle school and elementary teacher(s), because these individuals can make or break the secondary school music program. It is virtually impossible for an instrumental music teacher to accomplish all the administrative chores needed for a band or orchestra alone. Students and parents should be called on to handle many of these responsibilities so the teacher may focus on teaching. Students may be elected to positions of president, secretary (to check roll), quartermaster (to oversee the uniform distribution, collection, and storage), property manager (to keep track of and maintain all equipment—stereo system, video cameras, etc.), and treasurer. The director should appoint students to the positions of student conductor, librarian, publicity chairperson, section leader leade r, and dr drum um major. Parent organizations can handle a variety of tasks such as helping with concerts, trips, fund-raising when necessary, and chaperoning. All of the effort put into administration will be enhanced by the practice of consistently keeping the principal informed.

FINANCES

Dealing with financial issues is perhaps the most serious nonteaching task that a music teacher must face. If possible, music teachers should look for ways to remove themselves from the process of directly handling checks and cash by putting procedures into place that  allow interested parties (i.e., students, parents, merchants, and administrators) to deal with each other directly. When not possible, a trusted parent volunteer or school system employee should be found to manage these affairs.

Budgeting Good financial policy begins with good budgeting. Budgets are generally provided to the instrumental music program on a yearly basis. If additional funds are not requested, additional funds will usually not be appropriated; if parents are willing to make up the difference between the required funding and that allocated by the principal or board of education, the administration may be less inclined to provide additional funding. If the band and orchestra have a good history of retaining their membership, and if the ensembles and individuals perform as frequently as possible for as many people as possible, the community and school administrators will feel they are getting their th eir money’s worth, and will lend greater support to the program. Although ideally every dime used for the instrumental music program should come from the board of education, the ideal situation is often not the case; consequently, raising funds and support has become a vital component of the music teacher’s job.  When budgets are inadequate, it is tempting to exploit parents’ organizations or charge students fees in order to maintain quality instruction. The better approach is to continue to seek funds from the principal, letting the parents raise money only for those items the director knows the school cannot afford. Although students should be entitled to a free public education, most instrumental programs are not without some cost. Budgets are usually presented to the principal each spring for the following school year and take effect on the first of July. New teachers should ask to see the budgets for at least the three previous years to determine any growth or reduction and to know on what items the funds were spent. Most school systems use a numbered code to denote how funds were used. The beginning teacher should learn this code in order to present the instrumental budget in as orderly and accurate a fashion as possible. All teachers must discover the process by which money is spent, that is, to whom they submit their requests for purchases. And, most importantly, teachers must determine how the funds are allocated. Site-based budgeting has changed the rules of the game. In some systems the upper administration will directly provide

 

44

 Administration

the instrumental music program with a budget; in others, the principal is provided with a budget, which is then allocated based on individual school priorities. The budget request should be as specific as possible, using round figures only on items  whose prices are impossible impossibl e to determin determinee precisely (such as instr ument mainte maintenance nance or telephone calls). A short explanation justifying each request can help facilitate a principal’s decision, and attached bids indicating that the director has done the necessary homework also help. For example, in the budget request under the line item educational equipment , the ffigur iguree might represent the total sum for a cello, an oboe, a euphonium, and two marching mellophones (plus shipping). Attached to the budget request should be a paragraph listing how  that sum breaks down and a sentence or two about why each instrument is needed, including how long the instrument can be expected to last. A long-range purchase program helps the school board determine the reasonableness of the music department’s requests. Instrumental budgets are usually divided into the following areas:

• supplies (expendable items that normally do not last more than a year or so) • equipm equipment ent (i.e., “perman “permanent ent supplies” supplies”)) • music (which may fall into either of the previous two categories), including including commissions • instructional staff (clinicians, hon honoraria, oraria, color guard instructors, arrangers, or director’s pay for summer band camp) • instrument maintenance (for yearly overhauls of selected school-owned instruments, piano tuning, and minor repairs for other school-owned instruments) The director must attempt to prevent the cost of items such as file cabinets, stereo and recording equipment, and office furniture from being part of the yearly budget. These items should be taken from funds other than program funds, such as those for building-level equipment. A sample list of budget items is shown in Figure in  Figure 4–1. Early on, all new teachers need to create a wish list, numbering each item in order of  priority. This list should be submitted annually and updated as items are acquired and new  needs identified. Such a list is helpful in long-term planning. New teachers should check last   year’s inventory and immediately delete missing items, such as school-owned instruments that  are not worth repairing, and request replacement.  A time-consuming task for the instrumental teacher is to list the missing scores and parts. There is the danger that the first year’s appropriation for music may be spent on missing first violin parts and needed flute music, resulting in no new music being purchased.

Purchasing The most economical method for school instrument purchase is to advertise for bids, despite the disadvantage that it may not be possible to obtain the exact instrument desired unless the bid is drawn up to indicate that only one specific brand and model will meet the requirements. A bid should specify make, model, key, finish, special features, accessories, case, acceptable standards (i.e., provision for rejection of shipment), acceptable alternates, desired method of shipment (if important), latest date for delivery, and possible trade-ins. The teacher must draw up the bid carefully and obtain several bids for the best results. Occasionally, a company may try to substitute a less expensive item for the one specified, specifie d, omitting certain features or making what it considers to be relatively unimportant changes in the specifications. Usually, however, instrument companies are eager to have their best instruments in the schools and cooperate in providing competitive prices. If a trade-in is i s involved, it is even more important to see that multiple bids are obtained because trade-ins are more valuable to some firms than others. The greatest disadvantage in bidding for instrumental purchases is that tax dollars may  not flow to the local merchants. These businesses feel, with some justice, that they support the schools and that the schools should in turn support them. The director may thus be forced to choose between saving money and gaining goodwill. With more and more instrument companies developing an online presence, the decision becomes even more difficult; there may be fewer opportunities to develop relationships with local merchants. A decided advantage of dealing with local businesses is that they can help out in an emergency. For example, if the school gives a local dealer its business, then the director is much more likely to be able to “borrow” a drumhead to replace the one broken only a few hours before Friday evening’s performance.

 

 Administration   45 Figure 4–1 Sample Sample Music Music Departme Department nt Expense Expenses s

I. Capita Capitall Outlay (E (Equipmen quipment) t)  A. New Instruments i. Str String ing bass bass ii. 2 full full-si -size ze cell cellos os iii. Holton Holton horn hornss iv iv.. Yamaha euphoni euphonium um  v. Pearl bass drum B. Uniforms Uniforms i. Orche Orchestra stra replaceme replacement nt unif uniforms orms C. Sound Sy System stem II. Instrumen Instrumentt Repair Repairss  A. Piano Tuning B. Summer Cleaning III. Instructional Instructional Supplie Suppliess  A. Music i. Or Orch ches estr traa ii ii.. Co Conc ncert  ert  iii iii.. Ma Marc rchi hing ng iv iv.. Jazz Jazz  v. Solo/ensemble B. Awards Awards C. Percussion Supplies (Drumheads, Mallets, etc.) D.Software E. Copy Machine Machine Supplie Suppliess F. Marching Supplies (Auxiliary Equipment, Flags, Poles, Line Paint, etc.) IV. Transportation (Buses, T Truck ruck Rental, Gas)  A. 6 Marching Festivals B. District Band and Orchestra Festival C. Jazz Band Fest Festival ival D.Amusement Park Trip  V. Uniform Cleaning  A. Marching B. Concert  Concert   VI. Salaries/Stipends  A. Marching Band Staff  i. Drill Drill instruc instructor tor ii. Per Percus cussio sion n iii iii.. Au Auxi xilia liary  ry  iv iv.. Wood oodwind wind  v. Brass B. Applied Lesson Instructors/Sectional Coaches C. Guest Artist(s) Artist(s)  VII. Filming and Recording  A. Marching Festival B. Concert Concertss  VIII. Entry Fee Feess  A. Solo and Ensemble Events B. Orchestra Orchestra and Band Festival

 

46

 Administration

 A major m ajor purchase from year to year is music. Band directors must be careful to purchase a balance of marching and jazz band music with both light and serious works for each ensemble. Orchestra directors must also purchase a balance of arrangements and compositions for string and full orchestra with both light and serious pieces. Undoubtedly the most  neglected music is that for solos and small ensembles. Although this music is fairly inexpensive and absolutely essential to the program, band and orchestra directors are usually more familiar with many good large-ensemble works, as they hear new ones at conventions, on demo CDs distributed by publishers, and at other band and orchestra concerts. Selecting brass quintet, string trio, and woodwind quintet music at appropriate levels for different students will require additional learning on the part of most instrumental music teachers. Music for pep and jazz bands as well as rental charges for music for the annual musical cannot be overlooked.  Valve oil, cork grease, violin strings, reeds, ree ds, tape for repai repairing ring m music usic an and d scores, and a host of other supplies that the school does not stock but should be on hand should be purchased as soon as the new fiscal year begins. Otherwise, the director will have a quadruplicate form to fill out the day of a performance or each time a roll of adhesive tape is needed.

PROPERTY AND ACCOUNTABILITY Once acquired, an inventory of equipment must be maintained. As with all public property, the teacher is responsible for the equipment in the instrumental area and at all times must  know who has what. An accounting should be made for all music stands, regular classroom furniture, instruments, uniforms, music, computers, and stereo and recording equipment— those items that are standard paraphernalia and are movable.

School-Owned Instruments Keeping instrument records can become very ver y extensive, but making duplicate copies is not difficult, especially with computers, printers, and copy machines. Thus, the teacher can have signout cards for all equipment filed alphabetically by student, maintain a file by instrument  indicating those checked out and those still available, give a copy to the student so that the student understands his or her responsibility, and have a copy available for the business office, principal, or other interested parties. The same applies to a contract, contract, which in elementar elementaryy and  junior high schools is more common than a sign-out card because the parents are usually the responsible parties. Some practical suggestions pertaining to record keeping follow: 1. The record should have the student’s name, address, phone number, and ID number. A  complete description of the instrument, including all of its parts and its replacement   value, is a must. A statement that sets the limits of responsibility responsibilit y and the uses prescribed for the instrument is also desirable. 2. It is a good legal precaution as well as good psychology to have both the parent and the student sign for the instrument. Both will then feel responsible for its care. 3. The form should tell whether the school or the user is obligated to pay for normal repairs during the year, and it should set a monetary limit. 4. The same form may be used to record the rrepair epair work done on the instrument: the date, cost, type of repair, and a yearly depreciation record showing percentage of depreciation each year and the present value of the instrument. If it seems more desirable to use separate forms for signing out the instrument and for recording its year-to-year history, a note on the sign-out form stating the present value of the instrument is important. 5. If rental fees are charged, the form should include a statement of the fee and should show payments. Rental of instr uments is not always the best idea, however. A rent-free system, one making the users responsible for repairs during the time the instrument  is in their possession and obliging an immediate return of the instrument at the end of the period in as good condition as when received, entails fewer problems for the director and may be just as feasible economically. 6. If rental fees are charged, the director can save many prob problems lems by having them paid directly to the business office. If the business office assumes responsibility for collecting fees and issuing the necessary bills, hours of the teacher’s time will be saved. It is possible in most situations to have the rental funds deposited into a specific account for

 yearly repairs.

 

 Administration   47

7. The school office should handle the signing out of all school property, property, including that of  the music department. When this route is taken, the instrumental teacher’s sole responsibility is to fill out an authorization slip indicating who is to have which instrument. The school office may then decide on the necessary forms or contracts and make decisions about rentals, deposits, and repairs as well as rules for use of the instrument. The principal should be part of the decision on whether school instruments can be used for nonschool functions. Other records on instruments may include any of the following: 1. A record of repairs for each instrument allows a sy systematic stematic approach to overhauls overhauls and helps avoid serious last-minute repairs. Keeping track of what has been done helps the director decide what should be done to maintain mai ntain the instrument instrum ent in good working order.  A long-range schedule can be based on a revolving system in which two or three instruin struments receive an extensive overhaul every few years. 2. A repair list on each instrument furnishes valuable information about which brands and models have given the best service. In addition, it may be used as a guide for the purchase of new instruments, because it can show at what date it would have been cheaper to invest in a new instrument rather than to repair the old one. 3. A checklist for student maintenance of the instrument is helpful. Some directors set  set  aside a class period twice a year in which the energy of all students is devoted to a thorough cleaning cleaning job on every instrument—whet instrument—whether her it needs it or not. 4. A standard method should be followed for getting school instruments to the repair shop and for picking them up when repairs are completed. The director should delegate this task to a responsible member of the boosters or a member of the school facilities staff. Instruments and cases should be marked. The manufacturer’s serial number is the best  and easiest way to keep track of the equipment; it is already on the instrument, it is not  easily removed, and it will probably not duplicate any other number. A school number can be put on the case, neatly and in small size numbers, by using a stencil and aerosol paint.

School-Owned Uniforms Uniforms are probably the most difficult item for the director to handle efficiently. e fficiently. Each Each separate part of the uniform should be numbered for record keeping. A set of records by number should be maintained so that if a shortage is discovered (e.g., belt 45 is missing) a check can easily be made. However, it is just as necessary to have a record of every part of the uniform each student is using— José has coat number 32, trousers 39, plume 67, and so on. A master sheet should be posted stating the size and number of every item. A tailor can judge which basic sizes can be successfully altered to fit any particular individual. It is important to get the largest number of students fitted well, so having a tailor do the fitting and the major alterations  will be a wise expenditure of time and money money.. A tailor sho shop p may often assist in the purchase of  uniforms for a school in return for the alteration and cleaning business. Having students maintain their own uniforms unifor ms is often unsatisfactor y. Many schools keep the uniforms at the school; students change immediately before and after the performance and never take the uniforms home. Cleaning is paid for by the school or charged to the students. In some schools parents sign contracts for the uniform, similar to those for the instrument, and often damage deposits are charged. There are other situations in which use of the uniform is entirely free; in some places the students are required to purchase a uniform for the period of time they are in band—from one to four years—and sell it back to the school at  the end of that time at its depreciated value. In four years’ time a new uniform depreciates perhaps 40 percent; the student absorbs this loss.

MUSIC LIBRARY  As any professional librarian can tel telll you, there is practically no limit to wha whatt can be done in the library routine. Besides listing the music by composer, a cross-filing system by titles is useful, which can be expanded to cross-filing by the filing numbers, type of composition, required instrumentation, date of publication, date of last performance, and so on. In organizing the instrumental music library, two areas must be considered: music in the library 

and music in the hands of students.

 

48

 Administration

Music in the Library In the library, it is absolutely necessary to have a system that allows the teacher or ensemble librarian to go to the files, find the desired composition quickly, and know that all parts are there. The teacher may not always know which specific composition is needed but may have only a set of stipulations in mind (especially when pulling a selection for sight-reading). Therefore, two things are essential: (1) a means for storing music so that browsing is facilitated and (2) a listing of holdings by composers, styles, and levels of difficulty. Nothing has yet replaced a heavy manila folder and a regular filing cabinet for storing music, except perhaps boxes and cabinetry by Wenger. Music is placed a folder on which is printed thethe title, composer, and filemade number. The folder is put in its in numerical order in the filing cabinet or on a shelf. The filing drawer must support the music upright in a way that its name is easily seen. Storing music in paper envelopes has disadvantages: it is less accessible for browsing; the top corners of the music get ragged, bent, and illegible; the te tempmptation is always present to try to squeeze in that last single piece of music without taking the envelope out of the file, and paper cuts occur. Boxes are a better alternative to envelopes as they provide superior protection. With folders, instrumentation can be printed on the folder or on a separate sheet inserted in it or stapled to it. On boxes, the instrumentation is listed on the outside. Narrow shelves are also often used for storing music, but they waste space. The shelves are either too narrow to accommodate the thick symphonic parts of larger works or are too  wide to be well utilized for the thinner numbers. Systems and products are being designed that may alleviate some of these issues, but a filing cabinet still provides the best option. Filing cabinets built for march-size and for octavo-size music can also a lso be obtained. Music should number assigned according to the order it isbecause acquired rather rearranging than alphabeticallybebyfiled titleby or acomposer. The latter is too time-consuming, it means almost every drawer and changing the labels on the outside of the drawers when a quantity of  new music is purchased. New music can be given the next higher number above the last acquisition and placed behind it in the newest file. An Excel or other database or spreadsheet  system can easily tell where the composition is to be found simply by its number; for example, “4-A-12” means cabinet 4, drawer A, folder 12. Separate files should probably be set up for chamber, jazz band, marching band, and small ensemble music. These files should be cross-indexed according to ensemble type: wood wind quintet, string trio, string quartet, brass sextet, jazz band, and so on. It is best to file percussion ensemble music by the number of players required, for example, trios or quartets.  A library should be equipped with proper materials to care for the music. These materials and equipment should assist in mending, filing, and distributing music. A paper cutter, computer and printer, tables, sorting racks, scissors, and tape are minimal. Every piece of  music must be stamped with the name of the school to establish ownership. Stamping should be done an obvious spot andisshould with the page andtasks. not smeared. Of in course, the computer usefulbe forneat—straight any number of administrative Music-specific administrative programs such as those published by Pygraphics (Pyware Music Office and Music Administrator, Pygraphics, P.O. Box 399, Argyle, Texas) and Riden Consulting (RCI Music Library and RCI University College Music Library , Riden Consulting, Inc., 621 E. Geneva Drive, Tempe, AZ, 85282-3734) can be helpful for organizing instruments, uniforms, music, and student information. Other administrative software such as that used for spreadsheet, database, and word processing can be helpful to the ensemble director. Though learning these programs may take some time, when used regularly and effectively  they can certainly be helpful to the music teacher. See Chapter 7 on “Technology” in this text for descriptions of other uses of technology in the instrumental music classroom.

Music in the Hands of Students Procedures should be in place for the distribution of music during rehearsals to eliminate  wasting any unnecessar y time during class. Ideally, all folders should be available from a movable folder cabinet that can be placed inside or outside the rehearsal room. The trusted student librarian can then place and remove music from each folder before the rehearsal rehe arsal begins. If no librarian is available, then the director will need to sort new music into piles by instrument so that the designated section leaders can pick up new music at the beginning of each rehearsal and distribute the parts to all players in the section. The director should communi-

 

 Administration   49

cate with the section leader the number of players needed on each part and should assign percussionists to specific parts. It is easier to identify folders and to pass out music when the small shelves on the folder cabinet are labeled with an individual’s name, part assignment (if predetermined), and a number (shelves should be arranged in score order). Folders (supplied as advertisement by  music dealers) protect the music and are useful any time music must be taken outside the classroom. Some directors prefer a more permanent “concert” folder. Often teachers forbid students to take single pieces of music from the folder, stipulating that the student who wants to practice at home must take the entire folder. The object of this rule is to prevent lost and mutilated parts of music. Less important, but contributing to efficiency, are the following practices: 1. Music should be kept in a certain order in the folder folder,, separated as to size, and arranged numerically or alphabetically. This will save rehearsal time when the folder contains a number of selections. 2. In putting music in the folders, the librarian should leave a note in the folder when a part is missing so that the player does not take rehearsal time to settle the problem. 3. If the performing group has instrumentation requiring extra parts beyond the publisher’s normal set, give the local music dealer a list of these additions. The dealer can see that these parts are included in the order, saving time that would be wasted by treating each order as a unique request. 4. Every music educator should have the integrity to follow copyright laws. When one arranges copyrighted music for athletic and other public performances, permission to use must be obtained. The following acts are expressly forbidden according to according to T he he Unit-  1

ed States Copyright Law: A Guide for Music Educators, revised by MENC in 2003. 2003. a. Copying Copying to avo avoid id pur purchase chase b. Copying music for any kind of performance (though copying for emergency purposes is an exception) c. Copying without without includ including ing a copyrig copyright ht notice d. Copying to create anthologies anthologies or compilations compilations e. Reproducing materials designed to be be consumable (such as workbooks, standardized tests, and answer sheets) f. Charging Charging students beyo beyond nd the actual cost invo involved lved in making copie copiess as permitted above.

FACILITIES Most of the time a director doesn’t choose the physical characteristics of the instrumental rooms. of the for rehearsal and practice rooms is important, if  only to Knowledge determine how farideal fromspecifications the ideal conditions are. MENC has published an excellent  pamphlet on the subject, covering the number of cubic f eet eet per person, types of acoustical treatment, the height of ceilings, and the use of window s. window s.2  Additionally  Additionally,, National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities (NCEF) has made recommendations about the structure and needs of music rooms.  When a new rehearsal room is being built or an old one remodeled, the director can get  the most accurate information about acoustical materials and their sound-absorbing qualities from a basic acoustics book. Architects are not always well informed on the subject of  acoustics, so the director should know what is wanted by doing some research. If the rehearsal room is not carpeted, it may be possible to solicit used carpet from someone in the music parents’ organization. A carpeted floor or wall deadeners and curtains on windows are among the most essential acoustical treatments of a rehearsal room. Air conditioning is also frequently a necessity so that doors and windows can be kept shut to pre vent rehearsals from disrupting other classes and make summer programs fe feasible. asible. Be sure 1

MENC: The National Association for Music Education (2003). The United States Copyright Law A Guide   for M usi  usi c Educators . Reston, VA: Author.  Author. www.menc www.menc.org/resources/view/copyright-center .org/resources/view/copyright-center 2 Geerdes, Harold (1987). Music Facilities: Building, Equipping, and Renovating. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.

 

50

 Administration

the air conditioner itself is not located in the room, where its sound interferes with the rehearsal. Permanent risers have both advantages and disadvantages. The disadvantages are chiefly that they severely limit flexibility of seating and make coping with changes in the size of a section difficult. They also discourage experimentation with seating effects. In addition, they make small ensemble arrangement troublesome because they are usually not wide enough to permit the V- or U-shaped seating of quartets and sextets. In rooms without satisfactory ventilation, players on the top risers may be playing in a tropical climate, adding to intonation problems and encouraging sleepiness. On the other hand, permanent risers are an asset for two reasons. First, they make it possible for both students and the director to see and be heard. If risers are used in concert, it makes good sense to use them in rehearsal. Second, they discourage use of the room for meetings and academic classes scheduled during the room’s free hours. Because such meetings can leave the room in a state of chaos, this advantage should be given serious consideration. Risers should be in approximate six-inch increments and be deep enough to accommodate all the necessary equipment (e.g., instruments, music stands) and players, while allowing for breathing space. Instrumental practice rooms and small ensemble rooms are costly to build and must be used if the expense is to be justified. Administrators should be aware, before having these rooms built, that they will be used largely before and after school rather than during the school day. The advent of computer-assisted instruction and programmed learning such as the Temporal Acuity Products rhythm and pitch machines, SmartMusic, and so on may increase the opportunity for individual study and the need nee d for practice rooms during the school day and even during rehearsals. Some schools have converted practice rooms into small recording studios. Other rooms included in the ideal set-up would be director’s office with a soundproof  glass wall that peers into the rehearsal room; a library with sorting racks, worktables, and files; a small room for instrument repair that includes a sink, a storage place for tools, a table for repairs; and a uniform storage room. Others could be added, but these offer the most in efficiency and usefulness. Equipment for the rehearsal room can be extensive and expensive. It can also be excessive if not properly used. Among the articles that have been useful to most instrumental groups are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Numbered chairs with a straight back and with metal or rubber tips on the legs A sufficient number of metal or plastic (not wire) music stands An electronic tuner and metronome with proper outlets outlets and cords for amplification A quality digital audio (MP3) recorder/player with high-grade microphone A high-end stereo system to include CD and DAT DAT players, an amplifier, amplifier, and speakers Music cabinets, reed supplies, basic repair items, and other daily needs such such as valve oil and pencil sharpeners 7. A movable chalkboard and/or whiteboard and a bulletin board 8. Stands to support large instruments such as sousaphones and baritone baritone saxophones; lockers or cabinets for all instruments, including percussion 9. An acoustic acoustic and an electr electric ic piano 10. Indirect Indirect lighting or light lighting ing from the rear 11. A sound system including microphones, mixing board, and speakers for the jazz groups groups 12. Visual projection projection equipment: an overhead project projector or or digital visual presenter

PUBLIC RELATIONS Publicity through newspapers, radio, and television is an important way of strengthening community relations. Any band or orchestra activity is of potential interest if the announcement is attractively written and accompanied by well-chosen pictures, such as activities of parents’ groups, trips, fund membership work with other departments as drama athletics, twirlers, and or new instrumentsdrives, or new uniforms. Work by students,such parents, and or service clubs should be recognized at programs and in public service announcements. Unique features of the group may furnish material for a story: examples might be rare instruments, an unusual library collection, or a musical family with members in the band or orchestra. The

 

 Administration   51

director should take the time to submit a short press release on individual band or orchestra students’ accomplishments even if these achievements are not related to the music program. Headlines such as “High School Band Member Is National Merit Scholar” can do wonders for fo r public relations. Publications designed to help the director with publicity are available. available .3 School Web sites, for example, can announce events and give results of competitions. Press releases should be fairly short and to the point. (Most newspapers like to create their own “catchy” headlines.) Include several short paragraphs indicating who, what, when,  where, how, how, and why w with ith students’ na names mes and grade levels. Some d directors irectors shy away from w writriting press releases because of the time involved or because of a perceived lack of experience or skill in writing. This task, however, cannot be ignored. Publicity is required to make the community aware of these activities, especially those residents who do not have students in school. One of the most important benefits of good public relations is to prevent administrators or boards of education from neglecting or overlooking the instrumental music program in their attempts to conduct the school’s business. If the public is unaware of the numerous and  varied activities of the instrumental music program, boards of education are more likely to take funds from this “expensive” activity to fund other areas.  When photographs are scheduled, schedule d, ever everything ything should be ready when the photographer ph otographer arrives. This is especially important for large groups. Many photographers have wasted their time and lost their temper while waiting for the orchestra or band to collect itself. It is better to spend group time beforehand than to waste a paid professional’s time. Chairs and players should be in position before the photographer is ready to take the photo. The seating arrangement should enable every player to be seen. Chairs should be placed so that proud parents can spot their child playing third sax or fourth horn. The teacher should consider the value of using a Web site to communicate with students, parents, and alumni; publicize concerts, fund-raising events, and other activities; and provide homework/practice materials and generally support the instrumental group. A Web page can easily be added to the school Web site by the Webmaster and a student or parent   with skills could develop the site. The director will only need nee d to update it when necessar y.

RELATIONSHIPS WITH PARENTS Good relationships with parents can make the difference between a smooth and a thorny  path for any teacher. A director cannot handle all the details of trips and performances; help from either a parents’ organization or the cooperation of individual parents is needed. Contests, trips, housing, food, festivals, games, fund-raisers, the problems of uniforms, instruments, stands, and music, to say nothing of props for halftime shows, are part of a director’s everyday work. The best ways to gain parental cooperation are (1) to earn the admiration of the students; (2) to keep parents well informed; and (3) let it be known that  help is needed. Parents will appreciate being informed about policies and procedures governing uniforms, practice, attendance, regulations on instruments, grades, point systems, merits and demerits, and rental fees; they will also benefit from receiving a brief statement of objectives. For each performance, the parents should be informed what time the student is to arrive and at   what place, place, what uniform is required required,, how long the performance will last, an and d whether the public is welcome. Parents should not simply be invited to attend a rehearsal—their attendance should be requested and presented as an opportunity for them to see what the director does in a class period.

 Working  Wor king with Booster Booster Clubs Music parent organizations (booster clubs) are essential to help the director accomplish a myriad of necessary tasks. These organizations are almost always helpful, though there has been the occasional group that believes it is in charge of the program, or conversely, wastes a lot of time. The organization must always have a project and should be able to participate in recruiting, organizing trips, publicity, and fund-raising but should never play a role in formulating objectives or running the program. If no parent group exists, the director can enlist an energetic and organized parent to initiate one. Sample booster club charters and by-laws can be found online using a basic Web search. 3

For instance, the Teacher Success Kit by MENC: The National Association for Music Education

(2006).) CD Rom. Also available online at  http://www http://www.menc.org/resources/view/tea .menc.org/resources/view/teacher cher success kit 

 

52

 Administration

Though there are obviously views to the contrar y, fund-raising and fee collecting for special events should not be necessar y. Students should not be expected to pay extra fees for contests or for all-state festivals. If these events are educational experiences, the school should be  willing to underwrite them whether they happen during or outside the school day. day. In the real  world of the twenty-first centur y, however, however, fund-raising has become the norm, especially for bands. Striking a balance between educational priorities and the local political climate is necessary to establish procedures for the use of nonappropriated funds. Program costs to meet the educational needs of the students are the responsibility of the school board and administration and must be met before embarking on any fund-raising campaign.  With multiple sources of support resulting from fund-raising and grants, there is the issue of ownership and use. In theory, all equipment should appear on the school inventory, but the local culture may dictate more imaginative arrangements. An external organization that has purchased major equipment or even a vehicle may need to retain ownership and establish a long-term lease arrangement with the school system. Covering all the educational and legal issues that can arise when multiple funding sources are required to support a musical program of excellence would entail a lengthy treatise. For example, parent clubs often raise funds to pay for auxiliary instructors such as drum line experts, instructors of flags or majorettes, clinicians, and sectional help. When these individuals are not employees of the school district, interesting legal issues of responsibility and accountability can arise as laws differ by state and there are often different legal interpretations of the same law.  We recommend that all possible legal situations be submitted to the school administrator with a request for a ruling from the school attorney. Travel, including that by commercial companies; the role and responsibilities of parents and chaperones; performances in nonschool public and private buildings; use of school instruments when students receive remuneration; acceptance of prize money, m oney, concert receipts, and surplus and deficit fund-raisers are all examples of potential legal situations. Teachers should not exaggerate the possible negative consequences of an active program but they must act to keep the best interest of the students and the program in the forefront of all decisions. Only explanations of important  administrative issues and responsibilities, written jointly by students, administrators, and teachers, should be published in the instrumental music handbook; once published, the handbook should be widely distributed, both electronically and in a printed version. School administrators, board members, and even local business people might read a copy of the handbook if it is lying around home or the office. Even the word responsible must be carefully  considered and selectively used. For example, holding parents and students responsible for damage to school-owned equipment is a tricky matter in a court of law. It is best to convey the impression of responsibility and omit explanation of any exception.

RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENTS First and last, the success of the director’s program depends on student response. Although ability as a musician and teacher is decisive for the achievement of musical objectives, the ability to involve students and keep them interested must also be present before these objectives can be taught. One of the most important considerations is realizing that the band or orchestra is not likely to be the most important thing in the students’ lives, though it may be in the director’s life. The basic relationship between the director and the band or orchestra should be the typical student–teacher relationship. Because the high school band or orchestra director has the same students for four years, and extra time is often spent in working/rehearsing, most directors develop special relationships with students. Directors should take an interest in students’ activities outside of band or orchestra, but listening to students talk negatively about other teachers or other students is never appropriate. The director should never  speak negatively  about other students, parents, administrators, or other music programs and be careful to say  only those things that they wish to be heard throughout the community. Every director must  strive to give the same attention to every student. Acceptance is important to adolescents and lack of acceptance is the most common and serious threat to a student’s self-esteem.

Student Responsibility  When student responsibility and efficiency are emphasized, a few individual students with oversized egos may develop a system that is exclusionary to all but those in leadership posi-

tions. At times, even a complex military-like structure can evolve, with superiors and subordi-

 

 Administration   53

nates, fines and prizes, demerits and awards, and rules and regulations for everything. The director must know his or her students and the kind of atmosphere that is desired and then patiently but firmly work for the appropriate balance of control and freedom. The delineation of the authority of the officers of ficers is another important area that should be clearly spelled out so that they and the rest of the students know the limits of their authority. If the delineation of authority is not clear, the director can become a full-time adjudicator. It is often a good idea to hand out a band or orchestra handbook with printed instructions and behavior rules. If there are only a few rules that the teacher has to enforce, a single page containing instructions may be sufficient. These instructions should be given to every student so that no pleas of ignorance are possible. Rather than a list of rules, the booklet should contain procedures. For example, behavior at a football game should be a procedure (“this is  what we do”) rather than a list list of “don’ts.” “don’ts.” Behavior at games is a good illustration o off what can be included (e.g., what are the procedures for getting up to buy food and soft drinks?). Written procedures may help to curb students’ enthusiasm and outline the eexpected xpected behaviors.

RELATIONSHIPS WITH ADMINISTRATORS  AND COLLEAGUES COLLEAGUES One element in developing and maintaining a good relationship with the school principal is that each action discussed in the preceding sections should be cleared through the principal’s office. In matters of curriculum, discipline, budget, scheduling, and giving permission, most  authority for the important decisions lies with the principal. Simply stated, it is virtually impossible for the instrumental music teacher to provide too much information to the principal. The principal should be kept well informed of every aspect of the program. The first point to clarify with administrators is the amount of school time allowed for extra appearances such as at pep rallies, team send-offs, and similar spontaneous outbursts of goodwill toward defenders of the school’s honor. Administrators must be informed that   when a p pep ep rally is sched scheduled uled for the last 15 m minute inutess of the school day, the band must be called out of class 15 or 20 minutes earlier so that equipment can be readied and some coordination with the cheerleaders can take place. In addition, addi tion, the band and orchestra director should send memoranda to other teachers giving as much advance a dvance notice as possible of  any activity for which students must miss class, and reminders should be sent out closer to the event.

TRAVEL  Travel is the student’s great delight and the bane of the teacher’s existence. Even for a short  trip to a neighboring town there are so many things to load and unload that using a checklist  of some sort is standard procedure. For a long trip, there are additional considerations, such as meals, lodging, chaperones, loading crews, and schedules, to mention a few. A phone tree and an e-mail distribution process for communicating with parents and guardians are essential. And buses sometimes sometimes do break down or arrive late.  Adequate insurance coverage must be in place in case of an accident along with full administrative approval of every detail so that the teacher will not be held liable. If a student  rides across town with the teacher to pick up an instrument from a repair shop, the director and the school are assuming responsibility. All types of releases have been required of parents by school districts in the case of travel; however, no release will stand up legally if some negligence can be proved. Recent court decisions have found schools liable to the extent that the legislators in many states are passing laws to cap the amount of liability. The teacher cannot be too careful or provide too much detail to the administration. Students should never be allowed to come to an event by school transportation and return home by other means. The only exceptions to this should be if they are going home with parents, and this only when the proper release has been executed exe cuted before the trip begins. Even if the student’s parents have given permission to ride home with someone else, it should not  be allowed unless it is in i n writing prior to the event. The best be st policy is to allow no exceptions to the rule, even to parents. Always use a school bus (even if it may be only partially filled) or commercial transportation, so that all students come and go by the same means. Much more can be said about the nature of traveling with a performance group. Concerts, festivals, and competitions have been set up over the entire globe to cater to  American  Ameri can instr umental umen tal ensembles ense mbles that wish to travel travel.. Most M ost of these even events ts are sponsored sponso red

by companies working exclusively with traveling school music groups. These trips may be

 

54

 Administration

of benefit as a recruiting tool or even as a cultural excursion, but the value of the educational experience may vary significantly between events and companies. Be sure to do your homework by investigating the companies’ track records with other directors and asking a lot of questions pertaining to the performance. In the end, the director should weigh the educational value of the trip against the time and resources needed to prepare for the trip.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Identify and discuss several administrative tasks that you could justify as being “outsourced”; that  is, given to parents, students, or even commercial enterprises. 2. A high school orchestra orchestra at a magnet school school in California undertook a fund-raising campaign to purchase adequate chairs for the music room. Discuss whether these chairs should be considered school property. What, if any items, procured from student fund-raising should remain the property of a music booster club or even an independently chartered student organization? 3. An active supporter of music music in your community  has initiated a campaign to ensure that all students receive a free public school education. It  has been noted that reed players must buy their own string players must buy and rosin,reeds, and brasses must buy valve oilstrings plus other incidental expenses. Is there a justification for the school to provide such items at no expense to the student? Is there a moral obligation to

provide reeds to students who are on a freelunch program? What would you say about this issue in the instrumental music handbook? Should any student be allowed to use a school instrument, rent free? Is there an issue of fairness if the tuba is provided by the school but a clarinet is not? 4. Discuss the advantages advantages and disadvantag disadvantages es of  rental fees for use of school-owned instruments.  Would you you include percussion instruments? instruments? Why  or why not? What are the advantages and disad vantages of rental fees fees for band band uniforms? 5. Is it educationally defensible for for there to be members of the school’s marching band, jazz band, or jazz strings who are not also members of  the concert groups? Should students who do not  rehearse with a group (due to scheduling issues) be allowed to perform with the group? 6. In preparing your your departmental budget, what  technology (hardware and software) would be a high priority in that budget?

 WEB SITES Financial Planning Resources Fundraising for Educators Web Resources Music Administration Software: RCI Music Library  Pyware Music Office and Music Administrator

 www.financialplan.about.com  www.financialplan.about.com  www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/grants/4edfrais.htm  www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/grants/4edfrais.htm  www.riden.com  www.riden.com  www.pyware.com/MO_MA.htm  www.pyware.com/MO_MA.htmll

5

 

Recruiting 

R 

ecruiting has indeed become embedded in American culture. Professional recruiters may work for business and higher education as “headhunters,” be assigned to the recruiting command of the military, or visit high schools to recruit students for college. Beginning teachers may attend a job fair and “be recruited” by desirable school districts. Starting with competition among preschools and continuing throughout the school years, options are increasingly part of every ever y aspect of education including decisions about schools, teachers, clubs, and various after-school activities. Recruiting is selling—selling oneself and one’s program. The instrumental music program has much to offer but its benefits have to be “sold” to students, parents, and administrators. Tradition can be a major factor in recruiting students—if the school has an orchestra that is known for “bringing home the gold” at state contests, is popular in the community with overflow crowds at performances, and boasts past graduates who received four-year scholarships to the colleges of their choice, recruiting might be more selecting than selling. As the story goes, in the heyday of the Joliet, Illinois, grade school band, parents of newborns would meet with Charlie Peters to select an instrument instr ument based on projected needs, and their child entered school knowing that he or she would play the oboe, violin, or other instrument. It is not  the same in most communities today; recruitment has become an essential component of the  job description of the instrumental music teacher teacher.. Although one may abhor competition, having a successful instrumental music program means competing successfully for the student’s time and winning out over athletics, a host of other attractive and worthwhile options, and the natural impulse of kids to just kick back and let the world pass by. Instrumental music recruiting is complex, with many players involved. The student, the parent, the school principal, the guidance counselor, and other teachers are interested in finding the right area in which to focus the student’s energy and talent. The instrumental music teacher has available a rich array of resources provided by  music advocacy organizations, state arts councils, and community partners interested in furthering the arts. Television and newspaper reports often look to the school for feature story  topics, including individual accomplishments and general music program activities. On the national scene, VH1’s efforts to provide instruments to school systems have become well known, and now accompanying instructional materials are available at no cost to qualified applicant schools. NAMM: The International Music Products Association and the NAMM Foundation offer continuing sources of support including recruiting strategies (visit  NAMM’s Web site at at www.namm.com). ). Every  Every community has service clubs, businesses, businesses, and local arts groups that can be persuaded to support local education. If recruiting is successful and there is a high demand for membership in the performing ensembles, instrumental music will have administrative and community support and not be affected by the vagaries of  financial and curricular support.

PRELIMINARIES FOR SUCCESSFUL RECRUITING First, recruiting is not just a one-shot (e.g., one-week or one-month) event that takes place at  one grade level. Recruiting is a yearlong endeavor and can be effective with students at any  age. Because students’ interests, preferences, abilities, and sometimes even their potential may change rapidly, flexibility in beginning instrumental programs should be maintained and

55

 

56

Recruiting

instruction should be offered when the student is interested. Second, recruiting requires energy and an enthusiastic approach. Enthusiasm is contagious; excitement about what is being accomplished in the instrumental music class influences students’ attitudes and provides intrinsic motivation. Third, the maxim “Nothing succeeds like success” is certainly true in instrumental music. Peer acceptance of the program is important; having a large number of  students participating encourages other students to enroll. The recruiting plan should promise something for everyone. It must be attractive to boys and girls of all backgrounds, abilities, and interests—it is diversity in action.

GENERATING INTEREST Successful recruiting begins well before the time when students need to decide to participate in instrumental music. Developing interest and motivation is an early strategic goal for the instrumental music teacher. Though implementing each of the ideas that follow is not necessary, directors should understand the attributes of the school and an d community and apply those that might be most successful. Tradition is important. Exposing students, especially young students, to first-rate music performances is an initial key to attracting students to the program. This can be accomplished in multiple ways, such as by organizing field trips to hear music performed by exceptional middle and high school ensembles. Elementary school students should attend concerts given by their own high school orchestras and bands before going to local symphony orchestra concerts. Trips to see city and community groups, as well as professional touring ensembles are important, as is inviting these groups to perform at the elementary schools. Urge artist artistss visiting the community to appear at the school and perform (a local business or arts council will often pay  any fee involved, although artists like Midori and Joshua Bell promote instrumental music in the schools at no cost); establish a partnership with the local symphony where, again, soloists and small ensembles will promote your program at little or no cost. Any expenses for travel or remuneration could be included as a line item in the annual budget. College music departments may have faculty and student chamber ensembles or individual performers who  willingly volunteer to talk and perfor perform. m. Last year’s beginning, middle, or high school students make great performers and may be more effective role models for this potential class of recruits than older musicians. One cannot overlook the importance of the general music teacher in a coordinated and sequential music program. Instrumental music m usic is an important component of a balanced general music program and a solid relationship with the general music teacher is important. A  good general music program is beneficial for everyone and should provide young students the foundation they will need for success as instrumentalists. In many schools, the instrumental music teacher instructs the general music class on song flutes or recorders for a unit of instruction; the results of this instruction, when done  well, generate ge nerate an interest in wind instrum instruments. ents. The general music teac teacher’s her’s impression impressionss are also helpful in recruiting. Some school districts offer an exploratory instrumental music class to all students the year before they may elect instrumental music. In these classes, students learn the fundamentals of violin, trumpet, clarinet, and flute. Song flutes, pennywhistles, and recorders teach basic music-reading skills, develop finger fin ger dexterity and coordination, and generate interest. A final recorder concert, which should include the high school’s recorder quartet, may be part of a demonstration night for parents or used as a separate recruiting event. The idea is to involve all parties with an interest in education in promoting the program. Guidance counselors, administrators, teacher’s union and/or NEA officers, parents, local businesses and service clubs, local radio and television personalities, community musicians, and music store personnel can all provide multiple perspectives. There are many  possibilities as to what might trigger a student’s interest in performing on an instrument. It could be the parent who used to (or still does) play or an older sibling. Parents might  have read of social, academic, cultural, or health benefits. Students may see an instrument  in a music store or on television and be intrigued. Keep an open mind, as it is not always the instrumental music teacher who is most influential in attracting students to the band or orchestra. Recruiting intensifies as students enter third grade. Students can successfully begin instruction on strings at age five and most other instruments when eight or nine years of age;

most are ready by fourth grade, while a few may not catch the fever or be sufficiently mature

 

Recruiting   57

until fifth grade. Most individuals who currently enjoy listening to and participating in music began at an early age; there appear to be no disadvantages to an early start. Recent research indicates that involvement with music at the earliest ages is especially beneficial to cognitive processes. With proper parental support it is almost never too early to seriously study music. Piano teachers and Suzuki specialists have demonstrated that preschoolers can successfully participate in beginning instrumental music classes, and experiences with instruments are an essential component of most early childhood programs. When the physiological and psychological attributes of a child indicate readiness, let instruction begin.

RECRUITING PLAN  A truthful recruiting program is the only way to long-term success. Any misconception of  instrumental music as all fun—trips, uniforms, concerts, and immediate success will bring negative reactions as soon as the child is in the program. Prior to the demonstration with parents, it is essential that the instrumental teacher have some knowledge of a student’s academic achievement, ability, and work habits. Instrumental teachers must provide guidance in the selection of the instrument that will both (a) meet the needs of the student and (b) ensure the most balanced ensemble. The success of  both goals is important. Students do not benefit if, by high school age, there are twice as many  saxophones as clarinets or triple the number of violins as cellos. Persuasion can be offered in any number of ways, such as modeling, discussing opportunities and challenges, and stressing the importance of low brass, double reeds, and cellos.

Testing Testing a student for his or her musical is an are important part of recruiting even if you accept all applicants. If the student andaptitude the parents given evidence that the student has sufficient musical aptitude to make the investment and effort worthwhile, most students will enroll. If the parents believe the student has exceptional music talent, almost no price is too great to pay to provide the child an opportunity for instruction. The instrument manufacturers have learned the importance of aptitude testing in recruiting and most companies have published simple pitch and pattern recognition exercises. Mixon (2007) recommends the established Selmer Music Guidance Survey and simpler games (p. 4). These tests and surveys are limited in their ability to determine musical aptitude, but most are based on good common sense and are preferable to no assessment. assessme nt. The Musical Aptitude Profile is a dependable vehicle but requires a testing time of three 50-minute periods, which is too much for most  teachers’ schedules. Two shorter tools, the PMMA (Primary Measures of Music Audiation) and the IMMA (Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation), are based on the same rationale as the longer test and should be considered. The results of any testing and teacher recommenrecommen dations should be incorporated in the letter to parents announcing the instrument demonstration. We suggest that a no-testing approach is a no-recruiting approach.

Contact with Parents and Guardians Letters to parents and/or guardians should be sent prior to the beginning of recruiting activities. The letter should be full of information about the instrumental music program, its objectives, benefits, history, and the role of instrumental music in achieving accepted schoolwide goals of a balanced education for all. The letter should contain information about their child’s potential for success based on test scores, progress in school, recommendations, and demonstrated interest in music. Also included should be well-organized information concerning costs, obligations, grading practices, rules and regulations, and expectations. Enclose a copy of  the instrumental music program’s handboo handbook; k; if possible, testimony from one or more parents in the booster club; a report on the success of present and former students; and even a word or two from a student on how the program has benefited him or her. If the letter is a joint letter from the school principal and the president of the music booster club, so much the better better..

Demonstration

The first step is to schedule an instrument demonstration and invite parents, school administrators, counselors, curriculum specialists, general music teachers, and representatives of the local music stores. Publicity, contact with the parent–teacher organization, and classroom dis-

cussions should precede the demonstration. Although many students will wi ll have participated in

 

58

Recruiting

the local symphony orchestra’s “petting zoo” or in an exploratory instrumental experience, the evening recruiting demonstration for parents and students requires consideration of multiple factors, as a commitment is envisioned. (Earlier demonstrations in the school day for prospective students with time for explanations and questions are, of course, an added bonus.) School systems differ widely in their philosophy of instrumental music; some start all students on school-owned violins in third grade with the option to change instruments at the end of one year of instruction. Others, as a rule, begin string instruction a year prior to band. Thus, all instruments, band and orchestra, should be available at the demonstration. Each instrument should be played with excellent tone quality using music that is familiar to parents and students (e.g., music from musicals, movie themes, and commercials often work well) and characteristic of that instrument in orchestras and wind bands. As some instruments instrument s are more popular in today’s media and culture, careful planning by the instrumental music staf stafff and coordination with local music store representatives are essential. Classes and ensembles with no lower strings or double reeds deprive all students of rewarding musical experiences. Traditionally, needed instruments can be attractively modeled. The number of beginners on an instrument may be limited (this must be done cautiously and with administrator approval), or all students may begin on the basic instruments of violin, clarinet, trumpet, and marimba with options to change at the end of a year based on progress and potential. The popularity within a school of selected instruments may be due more to tradition than to the popular media. Traditionally, males played brass instruments, while females played wood winds and the higher strings. However, this stereotype ha hass largely di disappeared sappeared and there are really no longer gender-specific instruments. The staff can come to the demonstration prepared to discuss recent professional success by female tubists and male flutists. Retail music dealers will usually eagerly participate in lending instruments, setting up a display, and even providing refreshments. (Again, be sure to obtain administration approval before inviting retail dealers and be sure all are invited, as having a resulting lawsuit can ruin an otherwise successful demonstratio demonstration n meeting.) Students from the high school orchestra and band should be at the meeting, dressed in their concert attire and prepared to demonstrate their instrument, say a few words, and answer questions. Parents of students in the high school ensembles (booster club members) should be solicited for assistance: setting up chairs, helping  with refreshments, passing o out ut information sheets that, again, co contain ntain information about co costs, sts, parent and student obligations and responsibilities, and any scheduling issues including afterschool and weekend requirements, now and in the future. In addition, the information sheet   will have a listing of recommended instruments, instr uments, rental plans, and considerations in the purchase of new and used instruments. The teacher’s contact information should conclude this information sheet. As parents pass out these sheets, they should ask if there are any questions that they might answer. Time should be allocated for students and parents to ask any additional questions. If a supportive administrator will attend, a spot on the program should be arranged for that administrator to speak briefly. Representatives from the retail music stores are superb sales personnel but they can also exert high pressure on prospective buyers. Control this by providing them a place on the program and not allowing any sales at their displays. Parents are influenced by observing their child’s and other students’ excitement and enthusiasm about the instruments and the instrumental music program. Program registration forms should be available at the end of the meeting for parents and guardians to take home to discuss. The commitment of resources required to be a contributing member of the school’s instrumental music program must be made clear with the  jointly signed registration (parent and student) returned retur ned by a specified date.

SELECTING AN INSTRUMENT Following the demonstration, students may not have firmly decided on any one instrument, so that having the student rank his or her preferred instrument(s) provides important information for the one-on-one meeting with students in making any final selections. a student’s preferences each student should assessed on a number of  points:Once musical aptitude, instrumentare fit,known, and extramusical needs andbe attributes. Matching a student and his or her physical attributes is another step in a valid recruiting plan. The ideal physical attributes are discussed in each individual instrument chapter, but there are a few universal issues everyone should understand. Student size and physical strength may make a difference.

Certain facial features such as lip configurations may lower a student’s potential for success.

 

Recruiting   59

Some physical characteristics may affect breathing or fingering requirements. The point of exercising care at this stage is to help students select the instrument most suitable for them and the program. The student’s passion and motivation to play a certain instrument is an important  consideration and often overcomes any physical disadvantages.

LOCATING AN INSTRUMENT  When beginning instrumental music instr uction is limited to the basic instr uments and the long-term choice of instrument is made after one year of instruction, it is common to supply  school-owned thatorfirst year.service. The majority students acquire their first ment through instruments a local musicfor store online Rental of fees are usually reasonable forinstrumost  instruments, making instrumental music affordable for most families. For low-income students, there is usually a source of support from the principal, a local business, busine ss, or the VH1 program. A little initiative on the part of the parent can usually identify available and unused instruments in the community. It is not advisable to assign all low-income students to the snare drum. Many stores allow some or all of the rental costs to go toward the purchase of the instrument (rent to own). This may not be a wise economic move; it should be carefully considered, as that instrument may no longer be appropriate for the student at the end of the rental period. Because the cost of some instruments is more than most families can afford, school districts often own the more costly instruments and students either pay a rental fee to the school or are afforded their use without cost. Proper records must be maintained on all schoolowned instruments. A contract should be signed by parent and student that holds individuals accountable for any lost, stolen, or damaged school instruments. New instruments are available from both local and online music dealers but purchasing locally may allow for better or more efficient service. Teachers should not recommend a single brand of instrument but  should be available to consult with parents on adequate instruments and best buys. Parents should be informed that used school-level instruments do not retain their value  when offered on the used market. Used instruments, however, can be an appropriate purchase but one that should not  involve the music teacher. The prospective buyer should be sent  to the repairperson at the local music store for an opinion with the expectation that the repairperson already knows the minimum quality of instrument acceptable in your school.

FOLLOW-UP The final step in the recruiting process is to ensure that students arrive at the first class with the proper instrument, accessories, and method book. Clearly communicating these requirements has been part of the information process. A follow-up procedure after this initial class is required, as no one wants an interested and talented student to fall through the cracks due to delays and administrative issues. As troublesome as it is for the conduct of sequential instruction, students should be allowed to enter the program at any time of the year. Students may have valid reasons for missing the initial class. Instrumental music teachers are welcoming individuals. Recruiting success depends, as does successful instruction, on the charisma and personality of the teacher, who should conduct all of the relationships with parents, students, and administrators in a caring, honest, and professional manner.

RETENTION Retention is, of course, even more important than recruiting. A high attrition rate reflects negatively on the instrumental music program, but some attrition should be expected and may be good for the program. Although students should be provided every opportunity to  join the program, it is iimportant mportant that stude students nts and their the ir parents understand that instrumeninstrum ental music is a long-term commitment. Music classes can and should be fun, but instrumental music should not be treated as a home video game to be shelved as soon as the student becomes the least bit bored. In every music program there are times when at least some of the students will be bored or too busy to practice, and virtually every willoccasional at one time or another encounter frustration. Parents and students must keep instudent mind that frustration is natural, and the instrumental music program can help students in an extramusical  way, teaching them to deal with the less glamorous as well as the glamorous periods of any experience. Use of the ideas in other chapters of this book and a personal concern for every stu-

dent are the most effective methods for retaining students in the program.

 

60

Recruiting

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. List three recruiting strategies that you believe are effective at the fourth-grade level. Would  your recruiting be controlled in any way—only  so many instruments, only students who have been recommended, only those with good academic records, and so forth. 2. In recruiting students for instrumental music, music, should special effort be made to recruit any special populations? If so, which ones and why? On  what basis, if any, any, might you exclude students from beginning instrumental music instruction? 3. The local music store calls and asks for time time in the school day to recruit fourth-grade students for instrumental music. How would you respond r espond to this request?

4. A parent has located a used violin in the attic attic and  wishes her child to learn lear n to play it. What might   you say to the parent? parent? 5. Data indicate that the highest highest dropout rate from the instrumental music program occurs when students change schools. What actions can be taken to better facilitate this transfer? 6. Based on your experience, what what are the important reasons students drop out of instrumental music? Are there actions the teacher or students might take to reduce the number of dropouts?  What might be an “appropriate” percentage of  dropouts from a program at the end of the first   year?

 WEB SITES Music Achievement Council  VH1 Save the Music Foundation Foundation National Association of Music Merchants Support Music Music for All Advocacy Resource Center

 www.musicachievementcouncil.com  www.musicachievementcouncil.com/pdf/practicalguide.pdf  /pdf/practicalguide.pdf   www.vh1.com/partners/save_the  www.vh1.com/partners/save_the_music _music  www.nammfoundation.o  www.nammfoundation.org rg  www.supportmusic.com  www.supportmusic.com  www.musicforall.org/Resources/Advocacy   www.musicforall.org/Resources/Advocacy 

6

 

Scheduling 

ne of the most important tasks facing the instrumental music teacher is scheduling. The task is difficult due to the limitations imposed by available facilities, facil ities, the size of the instruO mental staff, and the other demands on student and faculty time. Since the mid-1980s when a strong emphasis on basic education began to emerge, instructional time has been a major concern in virtually every school. This emphasis and a lengthening list of core subjects have limited students’ elective choices and oriented parents to greater concern for academics, and in many instances this emphasis has also brought about after-school scheduling for instrumental music. The schedule can make the difference between a successful and an unsuccessful program. The director should distribute an approved schedule at a meeting with parents and students prior to the students’ entry into the program. The schedule should show how students can earn a “college prep” diploma and yet take instrumental music through middle and high school. Parents, teachers, administrators, and students must know that participation in instrumental music does not place students at risk in any school subject or experience. The general rule is that to make instrumental music available to all, students must be scheduled by the administration into the instrumental music classes first. There are multiple sections of other courses and more scheduling flexibility even with single-section courses. Instrumental teachers often have limited flexibility in their own schedules, so a careful consideration of the possibilities of adjusting the schedules of other courses is important. Scheduling problems are not new but they have become more acute due to changes in the organization of the schools, increased graduation requirements, high-stakes testing, and the pressure for students to take Advanced Placement (AP) and International Baccalaureate (IB) classes. The problems and suggestions presented in this chapter are organized by elementary, middle, and high school levels.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL  Many programs begin instrumental music instruction instruction in the elementary grades and often use a rotating pullout program to schedule students. With this system, students are re moved from other scheduled classes in such a way that they do not miss the same class each week. week. Figure 6–1 shows a sample rotating schedule for an elementary instrumental music program. program. Missing any class can be a sensitive issue with teachers, administrators, and parents alike. The instrumental teacher needs to be aware of the demands on the classroom teacher’s expectations. Furthermore, administrators and parents are concerned about students missing classes in which students must take high-stakes tests—like reading, science, and math—and some have prohibited students from missing instructional time in them for instrumental music. Instrumental classes may be grouped according to instrument, ability, grade, or often a combination of each of these, as can be seen in Figure 6–1. 6–1. Homogeneous instrument groupings are perhaps the most common form of organization, as this helps music teachers more directly focus their instruction. The benefit of this strategy is that it impacts the fewest students in a class at any one time, but it means more interruptions throughout the day for the teacher. Once fundamental instrument skills have been learned, teachers may be able to schedule students in homeroom groups or other heterogeneous combinations.

61

 

62

Scheduling   im i me

Week

W eek2

W eek3

W eek4

W eek5

W eek6

9:2

9:5

A

B

C

 

E

F

9 :5

1

B

C

 

E

F

G

C

 

E

F

G

H

E F

F G

G H

H H

H J

:2

1

:2

1

:5

1

:5

11:2

11:2

11:5

E

11:5 1 2 : 4 5 Lunch/Prep Lunch Prep 11:50–12:45 12:5 1:2 12:50–1:20

F

G

H

H

J

A

1:2 1:5 1:20–1:50

G

H

H

J

A

B

1:5

2:2

H

H

J

A

B

C

2:2

2:5

H

J

A

B

C

 

2:5

3:3

J

A

B

C

 

E

Group A B C   E F G H I J

Grade and and In I nstrument Rute  t h Violin Viola  t h

 t h th  t h  t h  t h  t h  t h  t h

Figure 6–1 6–1

Clarinet Saxophone Brass Percussion Cello Bass Brass WW Advanc Adv anced ed Brass WW Percussion Strings

Sample Sample Elementar Elementary y School In Instrum strumental ental Music Music Schedule Schedule

The instrumental music teacher must become acquainted with the priorities and philosophy of the particular elementary school and work to obtain teacher support for the music schedule. The better your program is and the more students are involved, the more easily administrators find ways to overcome obstacles andbework for theabout continued success of the instruinstr umental music program. Parents also need to informed scheduling; a supportive group of parents is of value at any level of instruction.

MIDDLE SCHOOL   According to the Carnegie Counc  According Council il on Adolesce Adolescent nt Development rep report ort Turning Points , emphasis at the middle school level should be on building self-esteem, on inculcating the belief beli ef in in each  each individual that he or she can succeed, and on recognizing that it is okay to be differen t.1 A cadecademic course content, although important, is often not considered as basic as learning how to learn and deciding on long-term goals for their life. Formative instruction takes place at the middle school level; it is the age when attitudes are established, including attitudes toward band and orchestra. To accomplish the Turning Points objectives, students are to be members of small groups that are supervised by the same teacher for all the middle school years. Instruction is to be coordinated by team leaders who supervise the teachers of the core subjects for a pod of 100 or so students. The teams are assigned a large block of time to be divided as the team sees fit. These teams their days weeks and are understandably possessive their time. The team does notplan object if its podand of 100 students is scheduled into electives or of exploratory classes 1

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1989). Turning Points: Preparing American Youth 

 for the 21st Century: The Report Repor t of the Task Task Force on Education of Young Young Adolescents . Washington, DC: Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development.

 

Scheduling   63

at the same time, because this frees them of teaching duties and facilitates cooperative planning. This schedule, however, means that a pod of students must fit their electives into a period or two, bringing about competition among the teachers of electives. Students might be forced to choose between orchestra, chess club, or Tae Kwon Do. If students took orchestra as an elective every quarter with such a schedule, they could miss out on interesting exploratory classes. In some schools competition has been lessened, but instrumental music instruction destroyed, by  shortening the exploratory classes to six weeks, with the student abandoning strings after six  weeks to take compu computers, ters, vi visual sual arts, physical ed education, ucation, or some something thing else. The centrality of teams often has resulted in the orchestra and band not being scheduled so all members could attend at one time. In another scheduling variation, the ensembles are scheduled by grade level—bringing together one-third or fewer of the members of the band or orchestra with no concern for ability or instrumentation. Our suggestion for the instrumental teacher is to learn as much as possible about middle schools and the philosophy that presently dictates scheduling. Middle school philosophy  can be quite opposed to instrumental music per se, as shown by the following statement from Paul George and William Alexander’s The Exemplary Middle School : “Further, others argue that  the traditional approach to instrumental music in the middle grades (an intensive focus on the few and the talented) when judged by the criterion criteri on of continued participation in high school, college, and adult bands is a staggering failure.” failure. ” 2 One final alternative is to convince the administration of the need for either a daily activity period scheduled at the same time throughout the school, or a lunch hour scheduled in such a way that instrumental students eat together, leaving at least 45 minutes for rehearsal. HIGH SCHOOL 

Curriculum reform in the secondary schools has had an impact on instrumental music programs. The “back to basics” and “arts are basic” movements often lump all the fine arts together, making little distinction among them. Additional required courses leave little room for students to participate in band or orchestra every semester. The highest dropout rate in band and orchestra occurs when students transfer schools or transition from middle school to high school. There is a natural concern for the unknown: Will the next grade or school be more difficult? Will W ill I still have time to practice? High school graduation requirements affect college choices. Pressure on teachers to improve learning has resulted in more homework and higher course demands. Again, it is an advantage for the high school directors to distribute schedules to parents that indicate how their children can complete the high school requirements and remain in the instrumental program all four years. Perhaps the optimum secondary school scheduling for instrumental music would be to schedule a select group that requires setup time for the first period of the day (accommodating all students in grades 9 to 12 or 10 to 12) and to schedule concurrently only those courses  with multiple sections. With the increasing importance of AP and IB subjects, students should not have to choose between an AP or IB core subject and instrumental music, because instrumental music students are also likely to be involved in these advanced classes. The option of  taking these courses at the local community college for credit also exists in some districts and should be explored. BLOCK SCHEDULING

High schools are increasingly adopting some form of block scheduling. Block scheduling generally refers to any scheduling format that allows for longer class periods than a traditional schedule does. Annual surveys by The Instrumentalist  magazine indicate that its readership is concerned about the negative effects of block scheduling on high school bands and orchestras, with some states affected more than others. Block scheduling is not always bad; some variations are advantageous to instrumental music. For example, 90-minute blocks can be broken into i nto full ensemble rehearsal, followed foll owed by  sectionals with specific goals set for each section, and then a return to the full ensemble. Another advantage is that the longer period allows for the listening activities so essential to learnlearn ing. However, students may need more motivation to practice when they rehearse only every  other day. Precious rehearsal time cannot be used for practicing the music. 2

 Alexander,, William, and Paul George (1981). The Exemplary Middle School . New York: Holt, Rine Alexander hart and Winston.

 

64

Scheduling 4x4 Block Schedule

90-Minute Blocks

First Semester

Second Semester

Course 1

Course 5

Course 2

Course 6

Course 3

Course 7

Course 4

Course 8

Figure Figur e 6–2 4x4 Blo Block ck Schedule Schedule,, the “Pur “Purist” ist” Form of Bl Block ock Schedul Schedules. es. Source: T. N. the Florida Public Secondary Conners (1997). A Survey of Block Scheduling Implementation in the Schools and Its Effect on Band Programs, unpublis unpublished hed doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, Tallahassee; R. L. Canady and M. D. Rettig (1995), Block Scheduling: A Catalyst for Change in High Schools, Princeton, NJ: Eye on Education, p. 69; J. Carroll (1987), “The Copernican Plan: A Concept Report, Paper for Restructuring Restructuring High Schools,” American Association of School Administrators Report EA019, p. 373.

Students can take more subjects—eight each year—with 4x4 block scheduling (see Figure 6–2). 6–2). The illustrated version has students finishing a year’s course work in one semester by meeting daily in double periods. A double-period schedule means that students have only four subjects a day, thus reducing the time devoted to changing classrooms and to class start-up and wind-down compared to that needed with six or more subjects in a day. The disadvantage is that this schedule cannot accommodate yearlong subjects such as foreign language or music. A philosophical issue arises when students elect to take instrumental music all eight semesters in high school, as this would result in 25 percent of their high school education consisting of ensembles. At issue also is whether ensemble grades should be included in computing a student’s high school grade point average, whether colleges should consider these grades in admission decisions, and whether there is grade inflation in music courses.  Visual arts teachers are often satisfied with longer pe periods riods in a single-semester si ngle-semester experience whereas music teachers expect and need the th e same students in the large ensembles for all six or eight semesters of high school. The formation of small schools of no more than 400 students within the larger school (schools within schools) heightens the scheduling problem, as each school is independent. Athletics, which is always after school, can assemble all the soccer players from the schools within schools to form a winning team, whereas band and orchestra are expected to meet during the school day and offer academic credit. A more popular iteration is to have classes meet every other day (four periods per day) for an entire year. Under this “AB Rotating Block” (two days one week, three the next) music can be scheduled along  with other core courses (see Figure (see Figure 6–3) 6–3)..  Another variation variation is to empl employ oy a modified block schedule for core courses while us using ing rregegular scheduling for two or more “individual” courses that meet for the entire year (see Figure 6–4). This form of block scheduling is the most flexible. Additional block schedules extend the 6–4). school day for students but not for teachers, or have semesters of 75 days of core subjects and a 15-day term for makeup work and enrichment activities. Block scheduling must account not only for the needs of instrumental ensembles but  also the need for two or three lunch periods to accommodate students attending large mid AB Rotating Block Schedule  Alternating Daily

A Day

B Day

Full School Year Schedule

Course 1

Course 5

Course 2

Course 6

Course 3

Course 7

Course 4

Course 8

90-Minute Blocks

Figure 6–3 6–3 AB Rotating Rotating Block Schedul Schedule, e, the Most Pop Popular ular Type Type of Block Schedul Schedule. e. A compromise designed to facilitate courses that may be sacrificed under the 4x4 schedule—these courses benefit from meeting throughout the year. It does defeat the purpose, however, however, of limiting students to only four courses each semester.

 

Scheduling   65 Modified Block Schedule First Semester

Block 1 (90-Minute Block)

Second Semester  

Block 5 (90-Minute Block)

Split Block 2A (40–45 minutes) for entire school year Split Block 2B (40–45 minutes) for entire school s chool year Split Block 3A (40–45 minutes) for entire school year Split Block 3B (40–45 minutes) for entire school s chool year Block 4 (90- Minute Block)

Block 6 (90-Minute Block)

Figure Figure 6 6–4 –4 Modifi Modified ed Block Block S Sche chedul dule. e. The most flexible, allowing for 45-minute periods throughout the school year (eight periods) or collapsing split blocks into 90-minute blocks (also resulting in eight periods).

dle and high schools. Block scheduling is complex and worthy of study by all music educators. The block schedule in which a year’s course is completed in one semester has significant consequences for a student who fails—not only is it a “big” failure (two semesters of  traditional work) but the student may need to wait until the next year to retake the course. The student who falls behind academically may not be able to schedule music, or music may  conflict with an AP or other desired course, requiring that the student drop out of music for a year. Although most scheduling plans make it difficult for a student to participate in more than one music organization, the right type of block scheduling (eight periods rather than six or seven, see Figures 6–2 6–2 and  and 6–3)  6–3) allows for this, and may make for a richer high school music experience.  A block schedule with a single slot to accommodate yearlong courses is not recommended. AP courses require the yearlong experience (the tests are always given in the spring and students do better on the exams in yearlong classes); foreign language becomes a competitor, forcing a choice to be made whether the band, orchestra, or chorus is scheduled for that  individual slot, and requiring the other ensembles to meet for a double period for only one semester. Physical facilities in most high schools would seldom allow three or more music organizations to be scheduled at the same time, and some schools schedule string and band students in the same class. In the worst-case scenario, as the course requirements for high school graduation become more stringent and student schedules more difficult to manage, periods are added to the school day. The extra period may be a “zero period,” beginning an hour or so before school “technically” begins, or might be an additional addi tional period after school. In other schools an extra period may be created by lengthening len gthening the school day by 30 minutes, min utes, with 5 minutes borrowed from each of the other periods.  Advocates of block scheduling state that presently th thee typical high school is organized  with a six-period day and that only about 41 percent of the t he instructional time is devoted to core subjects. Such data have prompted school supporters to accept these scheduling changes! The longer blocks allow students time to think, to research, and to solve problems, thereby achieving greater understanding and mastery. Today’s challenge is to secure a schedule that will allow the teacher to build strong instrumental programs even in schools with no tradition of excellence in ensembles or in schools whose administrators are unfamiliar with the educational benefits of excellent bands and orchestras. That challenge can be met only if  the instrumental teacher te acher possesses both knowledge of the total educational program and considerable leadership skills.

SUMMER PROGRAMS In addition to summer high school marching camps, many school systems schedule six-week summer programs for beginning and advanced students, grouping them by ability level and/or by instrument. The one- or two-week summer music camps that are available on many 

 

66

Scheduling

college campuses provide wonderful experiences for high school and middle school players. These programs provide many students with their initial introduction to music theory and history, an opportunity to interact with other motivated and gifted players, and a unique performing experience not available in the regular school program.

PRIVATE LESSONS Elementary, Elementar y, middle, and high school students can benefit from year-round or summer private lessons. Because parents of students still struggling to play “The Old Gray Goose” may be reluctant to spend dearly on private lessons, advanced high school or college players provide a pool of teacher/coaches at reasonable fees. These lessons motivate both the teacher and learner to greater achievement, as teaching is among the best ways to learn to perform. Middle school string, wind, and percussion players teaching elementary students for a nominal fee is a win-win situation, but the real prize is that both levels gain in performance skills. Allowing high school students to teach middle school students for slightly higher fees has the same effect on performance—students who teach begin to give much more thought to the performance process and greater credence to what their teachers have told them. One possibility is to allow high school students to earn academic credit by participating in an official internship.

TEAM TEACHING Having more than one director at a school to teach classes can be an ideal situation. In the elementaryy setting, two or more teachers can work with multiple groups simultaneously, thus diementar minishing the overall impact on instr uctional time. If music teachers pull all of the students at  the same time, then less time is lost. Music teachers can then work with the groups separately  or combine them as concert time approaches. At the secondary level, a second teacher in the room will allow for sectional opportunities during the class. Other benefits include the teachers being able to observe and learn from each other and the students receive varying forms of  instruction. If this system is implemented, it will most likely work best if the teacher roles are clearly defined and if one teacher serves as the instructor for the class.

HONORS COURSES One trend emanating from the educational reforms that began in the 1980s has been honors or, as previously mentioned, AP and IB courses. These courses often receive more units of  credit than other courses. In school systems that use some form of course weighting, the ambitious and bright students may believe they have no choice but to drop out of music and an d take honors courses in order to attain the highest possible GPA and be admitted to the best colleges. Some school districts with multiple ensembles have solved the issue by establishing the top group as an honors course, thus receiving greater weight in the calculation of the GPA. Fortunately, the best colleges value ensemble participation. Countering negative feelings from other teachers, administrators, and critics toward schedules and grading practices requires both initiative and patience. Each school system appears to be unique in its priorities and traditions, but solutions can usually be found.

ELECTIVE COURSES Each scheduling option depends on a number of factors. Where the instrumental program is fairly small, all players should be scheduled into a single performing ensemble, with separate technique classes for beginning strings, winds, and percussion if feasible. Where a program has a strong performing tradition, the quickest way to improve the top-performing ensemble is to start a second one. The improvement improvemen t results not only from grouping the more proficient  players to together butability also from a senseonly of pride, esprit de corps, and a general positive attitude.  Again, group by is possible if music is scheduled before all other courses. The purpose of a second group is also to prevent the weaker players from becoming buried in the second violin section or relegated to a four-year tenure on third trumpet. In the

 

Scheduling   67

second ensemble, less advanced musicians play first parts and establish a second leadership corps. The second group is expected to play as clearly, with the same tone quality and intonation, as the first group, though some allowance may be needed for late starters. One final point about scheduling first and second ensembles: Students, parents, and administrators should be informed whether students will be selected according to an audition process in which students who score below a set standard will be assigned to the second group or if standards will var y according to instrumentation. Selection for two different orchestras or bands may be influenced by the concert literature and thus display a double standard; that is, a  weaker bassoonist may qualify before a strong violinist. In such a case, directors must avoid placing unreasonable demands on weaker players simply because the instrument is needed in the top ensemble. Private lessons can assist the weaker players to “catch up” with the other members of the top group—plus obviously allow them to contribute more to the ensemble.

SMALL ENSEMBLES  Another effective ef fective way to improve the high school instrumental music program is to require membership in small ensembles that rehearse on a regular basis before or after school. If bus travel is a concern, discussion with administrators and/or parents may result in a solution. Another option is to have students meet in chamber groups at a centrally located home after school, to which the parents carpool or the students are able to walk. If such an arrangement  is established, the teacher needs to hear the group on a regular basis and provide guidance for what the students are accomplishing on their own. Small ensembles place unique technical and musical demands on individual students  who generally rise to these new demands. In a small ensemble, ensem ble, performa performance nce errors and intonation problems are immediately apparent, and aural skills are developed more quickly. It is easier for students to perceive and comprehend style when four to eight players are trying to achieve a uniform style; players can quickly become sensitive to the necessity for a uniform interpretation (e.g., articulation, nuances, and tempo). Students should not be allowed to form their own in-school ensembles as they may become cliquish and not be organized educationally. The instrumental music teacher should assign each student to at least one ensemble and carefully avoid assigning the best players to more than two. Students should be grouped according to interest and ability level. Players of average ability and those sitting toward the bottom of sections can benefit greatly from small ensembles in which each player is responsible for a part and cannot depend on other players. Mixed-instrument small ensembles have a distinct advantage over ensembles of like instruments because through them players can learn more about balance and blend. There are, of course, benefits from participating in ensembles comprising like instruments. Regular meetings and rehearsals of a clarinet choir, flute choir, cello choir, or percussion ensemble can be held in lieu of rehearsal time for sectionals. In those homogeneous groupings, clearer instruction in tone production, embouchure, technique, bowing, bowin g, intonation, and articulation can be provided.  Jazz ensem ensembles bles require special specia l mention m ention due to ttheir heir popula popularity rity as a curri curricular cular offering in many schools. Chapter schools.  Chapter 29 explores specific issues related to scheduling these groups.

HONORS AND COMMUNITY ENSEMBLES Honors groups provide additional motivation and musical challenges. The best examples are the stunning youth symphonies in many cities. An all-county or all-city band/orchestra comprising the better players from each of several groups in a geographic area, which rehearses once a week on a regular basis throughout the school year, provides additional learning opportunities. Such all-city groups can perform more challenging music than any one school can attempt, and can constitute an additional source of visibility for instrumental music. The high school and/or middle school conductors who provide students for the group can take turns conductingtoorteachers a collegeasor professional conductor canamong be employed. This ensemble can offer inspiration well as students. stude nts. Any rivalries directors and/or students should be set aside and not allowed to enter into decisions regarding the honors group (e.g., chair placement, soloists, literature, and more).

 

68

Scheduling

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Your school administration administration has not the foggiest  idea at what age instrumental instruction should begin. What would be your recommendation and what justification would you provide? 2. The elementary principal is a strong supporter of your instrumental music program but his teachers want fewer interruptions in the school day. He asks whether the program can be offered after school or in the evenings and he will treat it as a scheduled class. What is  your response? respon se? 3. At the high school level, what what after-school after-school and summer rehearsals (or ensembles) can be academically justified?

4. You are a member of a fine arts team and and the team has agreed to make joint proposals for their needs. Visual arts, theatre, and dance teachers make a strong case for block scheduling—longer but fewer periods due to their need to get out  equipment, dress, and so forth. You are pretty  sure that your students cannot play for 90 minutes without becoming fatigued. What solutions are there to this dilemma? 5. The school board believes that that the minimum enrollment in an elective course should be 10 students. Such a rule impacts upon your plans for a small ensemble program and could impact upon offering AP theory. Are there solutions and/or recommendations?

 WEB SITE MENC Scheduling Site  www.menc.org/resources/view/block-sche  www.menc.org/resources/view/block-scheduling-resources duling-resources

7

 

Technology 

OVERVIEW The orchestra director enters the room and flips on an LCD projector displaying a technical exercise. A button on an MP3 player is pressed and a recording of the exercise e xercise by a wellknown musician is played. Students repeat the exercise and the director records the group  with a digital recorder. This re recording cording is immediatel imme diatelyy playe played d back tto o the sstudents tudents and compared to the ideal recording. The teacher then uploads the group’s recording along with the score to a Web site for students to access at home that evening. As students perform the exercise at home, their performance is recorded using a microphone connected to the computer and assessment software. The software program shows students the notes and rhythms that were properly played and those that were not. The student performance is scored by the software and a report is sent to the teacher, who then transfers the grade to an electronic grade book. Despite technological advances, the role of the teacher remains critical—a teacher who knows each instrument, recognizes problems and solutions, establishes rapport, individualizes instruction even in the largest large st ensembles, inspires, models, and seeks the musical over the technical. The preceding scenario can be seen in instrumental music classrooms thanks to recent technological advances. Teachers who are not familiar with such technology are missing out on opportunities that might benefit their students and perhaps make certain tasks more efficient and lessons more interesting to students. This chapter presents ideas for using selected technologies in the instrumental music classroom. It is organized according to the problems that instrumental music teachers face and the technological solutions that may be used to solve them. The range of hardware, software applications, and tools available for use in the instrumental classroom is vast and, particularly part icularly for the director who is not technologically techn ologically savvy, getting started with these tools takes some time. The Technology Institute for Music Educators (TI:ME), an organization devoted to assisting music teachers with technology to improve teaching and learning, has organized technologies helpful to music educators into six categories: (1) electronic musical instruments; (2) music production; (3) music notation soft ware; (4) technology-assisted learning; (5) multimedia, including use of the Web; and (6) productivity tools and classroom/lab management. The first requirement is to understand the technology itself. Teachers who master the basic functions of the hardware, software, and peripherals pe ripherals available; how to store data (such aass student work); and how to manage video and audio can create a more productive teaching en vironment. Thus equipped, teachers also need to be aware of the programs and tools that will allow them to function better with technology in the classroom. Computers come in all shapes and sizes, in laptops and desktops, Macs and PCs, and so on, but all function with the same equipment. The heart of every computer is the central processing unit (CPU), and the faster the better, as it is the part of the computer that processes the vast majority of the functions. Random access memory (RAM) or temporary memory is also important, as the more you have the more programs that can run at a single time. As its name suggests, this type of memory is not retained once the computer is turned off. Storage devices are important to save data (work) that will need ne ed to be used at a later time. Flash drives, CDs/DVDs, and the computer’s hard drive all store information in files for later retrieval (if  one recalls where it has been stored.)

69

 

70

Technology

Selecting an operating system, or platform, is an important decision that is often based on the software that will be used. Both Macintosh from Apple computers and Microsoft Windows-based (PC) systems are available, but not all software is created for both platforms. For instance, the composition program GarageBand  works  works only on a Mac system whereas Super  is available only for Windows. Knowing the type of work that will be done  Dooper Music Looper  on the computer before it is purchased is wise. Most productivity software (e.g., word processing, database) works across platforms so a design for a concert program that was started at  school on a Mac can be finished at home on a PC. Retrieving files or programs when needed helps to increase productivity. Thus, a system for saving, storing, and retrieving data must be established and followed. Saving material using folders in a hierarchical system is best. If a teacher wants to save a fingering worksheet  created in Sibelius  for the sixth-grade clarinet class, the file can be saved on the hard drive (usually labeled “C”) in a folder marked “sixth Grade.” Inside the “sixth Grade” folder is the file “Clarinets” and within that folder sits the file named “sixth-Grade Fingering Worksheet.” Other systems could work, too, but this one enables the user to find the information quickly. Frequently used programs and files can be housed directly on the desktop using shortcuts for easy retrieval. Types of storage can be either stationary or mobile. If a file will be used on a single machine, then the computer’s hard drive is most likely the best place to store it. If it is to be transferred between computers, then a portable flash drive, Zip drive, or other such device will work. Large files, particularly video files, require much storage space, perhaps too much to be kept on the hard drive. Thus, an external hard drive can be used to house these. In facilities that are shared, student work should not be stored on the computer’s hard drive. Instead, use an external hard drive, the school server, or portable storage device (one for each student or class). Installing and running software, formatting documents, and printing documents are important skills for the teacher te acher.. A school librarian or computer technician may be assigned to help teachers with this, but these individuals are often in high demand. Teachers who can take care of these functions themselves can be sure that work is done when it is needed. The technician can then be called when there is a real emergency. If a MIDI workstation (explained later) or a multistation lab is part of the setup, the music teacher is often the person responsible for keeping it running. Knowing how each piece of equipment functions and how to troubleshoot if something goes wrong (and it will) can keep students on task longer. Storing and tracking various cords, extra keyboards, microphones, and other recording equipment is part of the job. Understanding the types of interfaces, projection systems, and arrangement of electronic systems is also useful.

TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION Once a teacher knows the fundamentals of using technology tech nology,, he or she nee needs ds to be able to use the appropriate software programs. These are divided into two categories, productivity tools and technology-assisted instruction (TAI). Productivity tools include the hardware devices and software that are used regularly, but not solely for the purpose of instruction. They make tasks easier to accomplish. Word processing, spreadsheet, grade book, calendar, e-mail, and database programs fall into this category. Hardware devices can include personal digital assistants, whiteboards, and even some cellular phones. Music teachers might add those tools that  make the music lab run better, such as networking devices. Instructional tools are hardware and software devices specifically geared to helping teachers teach and students learn. TI:ME suggests that “teachers should have a broad familiarity with available software. They should understand how to install, use, and integrate these programs into their music curriculum taking full advantage of the record-ke record-keeping, eping, evaluation, and instructional support  CAI [Computer-Assisted Instruction] provides.” provides.”1  We agree. This section will describe several areas of software and then present representative software and Web-based programs designed specifically for the instrumental musician and teacher. The terms technology-assisted  and computer-assisted learning/instruction  are used interchangeably. TI:ME uses TAI because it encompasses Internet in addition to computer software. In their book,resources  Experiencing Music Technology  , David William Williamss and Peter W Webster ebster div divide ide instructional resources into seven categories based on approach and content:

1

See ee  http://www.ti-me.org/timeareas.html.

 

Technology   71

1.  Drill and Practice —instruction —instruction is dictated solely by the software authors and the computer. er. It is primarily used to develop mu musical sical skills such as listening. Student Studentss who achieve at  beginning levels may move on to more challenging problems. 2.  Flexible Practice —these —these programs provide more choices for the user in order to focus instruction on a particular set of skills rather than relying solely on the computer to select  the structure. Usually there is a record-keeping component to the software so that user progress can be tracked. 3. Guided Instruction —the —the user is led through unit-based, interconnected tasks often using multimedia demonstrations. can be entertaining entertaini ng and engaging to the student, but the content is still dictated by theItsoftware. 4. Game-based — —instruction instruction uses prizes, adventures, and multiple players to help motivate students to learn. Skills are the focus, with much use of animation, graphics, and sound. 5.  Exploratory/Creative — —the the user can work in a nonlinear fashion to create or explore music. Users are in control of much of the content, and multimedia tools such as MIDI and digital audio are utilized. 6. Teacher Resource —provides —provides teachers with predesigned lesson plans and other resources to help them with the teaching process. 7. Web-based — —each each of the preceding approaches can be delivered through the Web, often free or for a small fee. Examples of content include instrument identification, ear training, note iden identification. tification. Teachers can include resources for their own courses on the 2  Web as well. well.

Productivity Tools Tools Productivity tools are the hardware and software used to assist in making teaching easier. Productivity easier.  Word-processing programs are primarily used to create text, such as letters to parents, whereas spreadsheet programs allow for record keeping, calculating mathematical formulas for use as a grade book, and creating charts, tables, and graphs to display the data in an organized way. Band or orchestra newsletters can be designed using desktop publishing programs that easily combine text and graphics. Graphics programs are used to create concert announcements, banners, and programs. Multiple copies are quickly made with color or grayscale printers. Two music-specific database programs deserve mention; both perform similar tasks. (www.riden.com)   is a database program based on RCI Music Library  by Riden Consulting (www.riden.com)  FileMaker that runs on both Mac and PCs. It is used not only for organizing the music library, as its title suggests, but also for creating, maintaining, and cross-referencing uniform, color guard, and instrument inventories. For communicating with parents and students, a number of form letters are included that can easily be merged mer ged with student contact information. Classroom procedures can be enhanced by creating seating charts, recording grades, assigning lockers, and maintaining fund-raising accounts. From the software, group e-mails can be sent  and grades maintained. Three templates are available availa ble for middle school, high school, and college; no additional fields can be added. Once data are entered, those data can be accessed from any screen and printed reports can be created. One unique feature is that, with a scanner, barcodes on inventory can be imported directly into the program. Pygraphic’s (www.pyware.com (www.pyware.com)) Music Administrator  (Mac) and Music Office  (PC) have similar functions to Music Library. Student information, instrument inventory, grades, fundraising, and a library database are part of both programs. In comparison with Music Library , it  provides less detail among categories (e.g., student information has eight fields compared to over twenty for Music Library ), ), though it allows for additional fields to be created as necessary. Reports can be generated and printed. Pygraphic’s database programs are not what the company is most noted for. Rather, the company produces a marching-drill design program called 3D that allows drill writers to create and display formations and movements for field-based marching shows. Once formations are developed, they can behelp viewed in transitions. animation, edited, andown morphed intohome new  forms. Newer versions create Studentstransformed, can view their drill from using a computer and 3D Performer Performer Practice Practice Tools . They can print out individual coordinate

2

 W iilliams, lliams, David, and Peter Webster (2006).  Experiencing Music Technology , 3rd ed. Be Belmont, lmont, CA: Thompson Schirmer, pp. 408–423.

 

72

Technology

sheets and drill books that indicate the marcher’s place in the show. With a specialized electronic mat connected to the computer, students can practice marching their show. The program is expensive to purchase but may be worth it for the serious marching band drill writer and teacher. The program is cross-platform. Field Artist , by Raven Labs Labs (www.r (www.ravenlabsinc.com) avenlabsinc.com) is a lower-cost alternative for PC users. It has fewer bells and whistles but will work for most drill  writers. Individual parts can be printed for marchers and animation is included.

Instructional Software Software that directly impacts student learning learnin g is vast and varied. TI:ME suggests that teachers need to be aware of available programs so that they can be integrated into the music curriculum. The primary responsibility of instrumental music teachers is to help students perform better on their instruments. This section of the book will present samples of software and  Web-based programs programs that are most beneficial. Specifically, Specifically, programs that help with skill development of performing, note reading, and practicing will be examined. Performing Skills  Programs for improving knowledge of and performance skills on certain musical instruments are available. Sibelius Instruments  (www.sibelius.com) (www.sibelius.com)   and David  Ahmed’s MakingMusic are both interactive encyclopedias of instruments that allow the user to read about the history of each instrument, examine its range, and hear sample recordings. Guided instruction programs are available online and a nd as software packages. A n online example is the Berklee School of Music’s Berklee Shares  (www.berkleeshares.com) program. program. The school offers online instruction for orchestral (and other) instruments. Content employs multimedia with sound files embedded in PDF files. Students click on a sound file, listen to instructions and/or directions given by faculty, sometimes followed by a musical example that  they can play. The Dallas School of Music’s Smart Practice program program (www.musicked.com)  (www.musicked.com) of ffers ers three levels of lessons on orchestral instruments. The eMedia Guitar Method ( www.emed  www.emediamusi iamusic.com c.com)) is organized into eleven chapters, each with multiple lessons focusing on topics such as holding the instrument, playing chords, and reading notation and tablature. An animated fretboard shows where fingers are placed and movie files use a split-screen effect that shows hands in a close-up position. Tracking of on-screen music is highlighted while the music is played so that students follow  appropriately. MIDI files with variable speeds are provided so that users can practice at  their own tempos. Most users of the Ricci Adams’s Web site (www.musictheory.net) site  (www.musictheory.net) use it to learn basic music fundamentals of note reading (see below), scale development, and so on, but it also includes an interactive training program for learning brass instrument fingerings. The computer keyboard is used to enter fingerings and immediate feedback is given as to whether the answer was correct. If incorrect, a correct answer is displayed. Students can track the number of problems accomplished along with the number and percentage answered correctly. While other programs exist, these are representative of the possibilities available for learning instruments electronically. Note Reading  Interactive Musician is a software program that offers students the opportuni-

ty to practice reading rhythm, pitch, and improving sight-reading ability; the rhythm reading program is particularly helpful to band and orchestra musicians. Students use a computer keyboard to tap rhythms along with a metronome and students receive immediate feedback (and a score) on their achievement. Teachers develop targeted assessments that provide individual instruction for each student. Students work individually or in groups and progress through multiple levels at their own pace. Music Lessons I and Music Lessons II (www.mibac.com) assist instrumentalists in learning pitches for their instruments. Whereas Music Lessons I  begins with simple note reading, it  quickly progresses to key signatures, scales (modes and “jazz” scales included), and interval training. Music Lessons II focuses on chord development, triads, and chord identification with Roman numerals. The quick progression makes this most appropriate for middle and high school students. Online, the free  free musictheory.net presents lessons on note reading that include key signatures, pitch names, major and minor scales, intervals, and much more. Content is presented through text and graphics and students move through lessons independently. Students can

also complete “trainer” programs similar to the one mentioned earlier for fingerings. The number of correctly identified notes or intervals is tracked and the percentage correct is

 

Technology   73

calculated. Students can turn certain features on or off, like the use of double sharps and flats during interval training or selected key signatures when attempting to identify them. Practicing, Accompanying, and Assessing  Technology has been particularly helpful to

instrumentalists and their teachers in the software available to assist with student practicing, accompanying, and assessing student learning. Both SmartMusic  ( www.smartmusic.com)  www.smartmusic.com) and (www.pyware.com) are  are examples of programs that incorporate each of these features fe atures into iPas (www.pyware.com) a single program. How it works: Accompaniments are downloaded downloade d from the Web or uploaded to the computer from a disc or MIDI file. Repertoire for SmartMusic includes a wide variety of  solo/ensemble music cross-referenced by state contest lists l ists and method book materials, along  with band and orchestra arrangements in its repertoire. The iPas system includes the first two editions of the Standard of Excellence  band method. Users listen to pieces at varying speeds  while fingering or per forming. When a microphone is connected to th thee compute computerr the program is able to “listen” to the performance and record it. It then compares the player’s performance to the original, identifying errors in pitch and rhythm on the screen to give students immediate feedback on their performance. SmartMusic’s system is able to follow the performer while he or she is playing. This feature is one of the th e reasons it is allowed to replace live accompanists at solo and ensemble festivals in some states. Student versions of both SmartMusic and iPas can be purchased for greatly reduced prices to be used at home or in a practice room at school. Pricing for both programs is done on a yearly subscription basis. With student versions available, recorded exercises and summary scores can be e-mailed to teachers. SmartMusic also includes a feature allowing for the creation of quizzes, surveys, and tests, along with a database to track student grades and demographic information. Amazing Slow Downer  and Band-in-a Box , offe Other programs, theSmartMusic, offerr some som e of the features included with such iPas as and but not all. The former programs are more cost-effective and do not require a yearly subscription. The Amazing Slow Downer  (www.ronimusic.com),, as its title suggests, manipulates the tempo of any song without chang(www.ronimusic.com) ing the pitch. With Band-in-a Box (www.pgmusic.com) teachers teachers can create accompaniments by  typing the chords of any tune into the program and then selecting from a multitude of styles. Players can then click on the play button and the accompaniment is heard.  As TI:ME suggests, instrumental music teache teachers rs must familiarize th themselves emselves wi with th available software for use in instructing students. The few programs briefly outlined make excellent examples to begin this familiarization. Many can be explored online while others have made the programs downloadable to “try out” before purchasing. By doing this, teachers can be assured that the programs are appropriate for their students before making a financial commitment. Teachers can also learn new programs at in-service conferences and by taking classes sponsored by universities or TI:ME. TI:ME also offers three levels of certification in music technology for teachers who are particularly interested.

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS  When a jazz band is part of the program, teachers will need to deal with electronic instruments. Though electronic instruments come in all shapes and sizes (drum machines, electronic wind instruments, etc.), the most frequently used are keyboards. Teaching and learning the jazz idiom require the use of electronic pianos, keyboards, and synthesizers. Keyboards have been common for some time and come in an endless number of brands, a variety of sizes, and with optional features. The simplest is a piano that requires electricity with a built-in speaker or output device; other keyboards have features that allow for special effects, a variety of audio and output capabilities, and timbres. Each option comes with a cost and the instrumental music teacher should carefully consider his or her he r needs prior to purchase. Many teachers use electronic keyboards rather than an acoustic piano, as they are portable and produce a variety of sounds, both features that are particularly useful for the jazz ensemble. A keyboard can be hooked to a computer to serve as input device for a multitude of software programs or to access the computer’s sound resources. Timbres generated by keyboards can include nearly any acoustic instrument and a variety of other sounds and special effects. One of the first decisions to make when selecting a keyboard is whether it is MIDIcapable, in other words, able to talk to a computer or other electronic instrument. MIDI

stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface. Inter face. It is a computer language that allows information to be transmitted between these devices. The volume, length of note, type of attack,

 

74

Technology

pitch, and timbre are among the information that can be communicated. Often these sounds are embedded in the keyboard’s ke yboard’s own system, but when it is attached to the computer compute r its applications and sound sources are available to the keyboard. MIDI does not store sound and no sound is recorded; this is the responsibility of the keyboard or other sound-generating source. Some high-end instruments have recording capabilities and allow for the creation of accompaniments that can be saved to disc for use at rehearsals or improvisation sessions.  Additional features fe atures can be selecte selected d for the keyboard. A synthesizer can create and alter new sounds, while a sampler is capable of recording and manipulating sounds from external sources. A sequencer  allows for recording and manipulating sound, while a music workstation  combines some or all of these features. Digital pianos are keyboards with weighted keys that feel more like an acoustic piano. They are smaller and cheaper than many acoustic pianos and can provide a solid alternative to an acoustic piano if the school budget is tight. Most digital pianos come with headphone  jacks for silent practice, which is a great option for group piano instruction in a keyboard lab. They often do not come with a wide selection of timbres as do synthesizers. Other electronic instruments exist: those for wind, string, and percussion instruments that allow for communication with other MIDI devices, but these are seldom used in the typical instrumental music classroom. A motivated student may purchase an EWI (Electronic  Wind Instrument) to perform with in jazz band or to experiment experime nt with, but this is rare.

MUSIC PRODUCTION: DIGITAL AUDIO Instrumental music teachers are presented with many issues surrounding the production and recording of music: providing feedback to students, recording students individually and in groups in an way, producing recordings to recruit students current ones, andefficient raising money. money . To do this, instrumental music future teachers need toand usemotivate digital audio hardware and software to capture (i.e., record, import), manipulate (i.e., edit, arrange), and share (i.e., duplicate, upload) musical sound. Live audio recordings of rehearsals and performances are regularly made by band and orchestra directors. Reel-toReel-to-reel reel tape and cassettes have been replaced with digital audiotape (DAT), CD recorders, and minidisk recorders. CD recorders (such as SuperScope) are especially useful, as sound is recorded directly to a CD-R  that can immediately be transferred to a computer or CD player for playback. That said, portable digital or “flash” recorders (Zoom H2, Edirol R-09, or M-Audio Microtrack II) may be the best option for the teacher as they (1) are more portable—small enough to fit in a pocket; and (2) easy to use—often only a single button needs to be pressed to initiate recording. For $200 to $700, a teacher can have an instant recording studio that can move from the rehearsal room to the marching band field to the concert hall or practice room. The sound files can then be transferred to a computer faster than “real time” for editing or burning to a disk. Music can be also captured by downloading from the Internet. This needs to be done legally, butrecordings plenty of files and a number of sites available forserve this as purpose. Directors might  download for students to analyze andare MIDI files to an accompaniment for performers. Once in digital form, music can be easily manipulated to create a “cleaner” copy or to generate new music for instructional purposes. This is done with digital editing software,  which allows the user to perform “basic” functions such as trimming, editing, or splicing. More-advanced software has features allowing final touches to control dynamics and balance tone. Teachers use the software to create accompaniments for improvisation or for solo playing at festivals and elsewhere. Looping  is a popular feature of these programs; it allows for a musical passage to be repeated as often as necessary. That passage can then be used as a metronome and drum machine or to record “changes” for the latest jazz piece. One of the key elements of digital audio editing software is that it provides a visual representation of the music that allows for easier referencing and editing. Audacity  (http://audacity.sourceforge.net) (http:/ /audacity.sourceforge.net) is a free, downloadable program that allows for recording and editing of audio. Live performances can be recorded directly to a computer using single or multitrack recording with Audacity . Other sound files on the computer can be imported into the program. Once saved as an Audacity  file, sound (or part of the file) can be cut and pasted into a new program or duplicated and turned into a “loop.” Tempos can be changed  when an accompaniment needs to be slowed or quickened.

 A number of fre freee programs are available for mana managing ging sound re recordings cordings that are designed for maintaining a music recording library. RealPlayer, Windows Media Player, and

 

Technology   75

iTunes each allow a user to extract (or rip) a song from a CD to store on a computer. Within the programs, music can be organized into folders and cate categorized gorized by composer composer,, title, length, or a host of other items. The database can be searched and music located immediately. Compact discs can be burned or transferred to a portable music player such as an iPod and played through any loudspeaker or headset. One can store an entire music collection with these programs for immediate access.  We would be be remiss if we did not mention that sequencing and looping programs (digital audio) are used often for introductory composition exercises with students. Apple’s GarageBand , Sony’s Super Dooper Music Looper and Acid Xpress (free), and PG Music’s Band-in-a-  Box  are excellent choices. Each provides friendly, easy-to-use interfaces allowing students to change sounds, create layers of sounds, and explore different timbres and styles. Compositional processes and musical concepts such as phrasing, repetition and contrast, form, transposition, and orchestration can be creatively taught.

MUSIC NOTATION SOFTWARE If a director is presented with an ensemble that is not perfectly per fectly balanced or has students at different competence levels, he or she may need to rewrite parts or arrange the music so it can be performed by the available instrumentation. i nstrumentation. Music notation (score writing) software is useful in creating musical scores and parts to solve these and other issues related to music notation. The programs allow users to manipulate, listen to, and share written musical notation, enabling students to perform original compositions, arrangements, warm-ups, and technique exercises. Music files are also shared electronically through e-mail and on the Web. Printing flash cards, worksheets, and other materials that require musical notation is easily done. Rewriting a part isit aeasier common issuedifficult. solved with notation teachers rearrange a part, making or more Users can alsosoftware; listen to here the score, savecan it, and share it with others through e-mail, transport it to a MIDI keyboard, or upload it to a Web site. How it works: A number of options exist for entering music into the program. An electronic MIDI keyboard or keyboard controller is fastest as it can be inputted in real time. A computer keyboard and mouse can be used in place of a piano keyboard. Music can also be entered using a flatbed scanner, though further editing of the written page is necessary as the technology at this time is not yet perfected. Finally, MIDI files can be purchased or downloaded from the Web and then transferred to the notation program. Once the music is entered, it can be changed using a mouse and computer keyboard. Entire songs can be transposed to different keys; pitches and rhythms can be changed; and expressive and technical markings, other text, and slurs, staccatos, bowings, and so on can be added. Parts of scores can be cut and pasted into a new part with immediate transposition. If there are no violas, for instance, in the orchestra, a part for violin or cello can be created quickly to cover the missing lines. Some programs allow for creation of a new arrangement from a current score. Thus, if the Jingle Bells flute trio arrangement for last year’s concert needs to become a trombone quartet, the program can change the arrangement. Listening prior to printing is a distinct ad vantage over over writing parts by hand, as mistakes ccan an be cau caught ght befor beforee students play them. Notation programs should not be confused with sequencers, which can also produce  written notation. n otation. The primary use of sequencers is to manipulate sound, not written music. Many sequencers can print notation but are not set up to be manipulated from a written score. Notation programs come in all shapes and sizes and are available for both Macintosh and Windows systems. The industry leaders are  Finale  and Sibelius , which both offer entire entire lines of notation products for the novice and professional user. The downside of these programs is that they are more expensive than some of the entry-level programs that can be bought for under $100. These entry-level products include Encore , MusicTime , Score Writer , G7 , PrintMusic, and Finale Notepad . In his excellent book, Teaching Music with Technology , Thomas Ru Rudolph dolph sugg suggests ests the following uses of notation software that are applicable to instrumental music teachers: 1. Simplify Simplify parts fo forr studen students ts 2. Reorchestra Reorchestrate te an existing arrange arrangement  ment  3. Create warm-ups warm-ups and pract practice ice exercis exercises es 4. Create ensemble ensemble music such as duets duets,, trios, and so on

5. Compose more difficult parts, such as descants, to challenge students that are more advanced

 

76

Technology

6. Write your own compositions, arrangements, or even a method book 7. Use the transpose transpose function to quic quickly kly prin printt out parts in a different range or arrangement than the piece originally called for for3 These uses are also available to students.

MULTIMEDIA Teachers must find methods for engaging students with interesting and relevant material; for this, many have turned to multimedia sources as an option. Instrumental music teachers use multimedia any time that text, graphics, video, and sound are combined to create presentations, Web pages, movies, and electronic portfolios. The time it takes to learn to use these technologies is often a deterrent to teachers, but once learned, they open up a range of opportunities for improving instruction and productivity.

Creating a Web Site Presently, more band and orchestra teachers are developing Web sites with two primary purposes. The first is to enhance instruction for students and the second is to communicate information about their program to students, parents, administrators, and other interested parties. There is no better single tool available than a Web site as a place where students, parents, and others can locate information about the band or orchestra program. Announcements, schedules, orchestra handbooks, and so on can change frequently and having this information immediately accessible can be the key to communication. In the past, teachers may have been put off by creating a Web site because it appears to be a daunting and expensive task, but tools for creating sites have become almost as easy to use as word-processing programs and come at little or no cost. Of course, some organizations have spent thousands of dollars to develop and maintain a professional Web site, but a simple site using a template can be updated easily and quickly at a reasonable cost.

Presentations (PowerPoint, Keynote) Presentation software is usually combined with a projection system that projects images, text, movies, and other items onto a screen easily viewed by a group of people. This software is used regularly in business, academe, and even in high school chemistry classes, to enhance lectures, presentations, and teaching. Music teachers have little need to use it for this purpose. Instead, the technology can be used to replace a handout, warm-up exercise, or material normally placed on a chalkboard or whiteboard. Posting the daily schedule, schedule , listing concert procedures, and other administrative procedures can be expedited, as can daily technique or rhythm exercises and historical notes about a composer or composition being performed (with pictures, sound clips, or videos). Teachers can display a method-book page eliminating the need sheets ofPowerPoint  music. Howfor it individual works: Microsoft’s and Apple’s Keynote  are the most commonly used programs for creating presentations. Both programs use a series of slides, on which text, graphics (including music notation), video, and other multimedia are organized. The developer places content onto a slide and arranges it. Multiple slides are then placed in sequence to be displayed one at a time. Within each slide, multiple files can be embedded so that a picture and sound file, or video and text, can be presented simultaneously. A keyboard, mouse, or remote clicker is used to advance slides. Learning to use the program does take time, but  once basic skills are established, it can save both time and money. Slides should be developed from the audience’s perspective, not that of the presenter. Though the presenter may need the entire outline or lesson plan, students need only the intended information or example. Too much information, especially text, can get in the way of  learning. It is preferable to include material that highlights and enhances what is being said.

Movies/DVD/Images Movies and DVDs can be used to enhance instruction in instrumental music classes. Instructional videos are provided. Particularly helpful are video and audio recordings that address performance issues, marching fundamentals, color guard routines, jazz styles, and a host of 

3

R u udolph, dolph, Thomas (2004). Teaching Music with Technology , 2nd ed. Ch Chicago icago,, IL: G GIA IA Mus Music, ic, pp. 172 172–17 –173. 3.

 

Technology   77

other content areas. Demonstrations of skills by peers and experts can help skill development  and lead to class discussions. Videos are also available on the Web at video sharing sites such as YouTube  and Yahoo! Video. Selecting videos to display certain performance passages, an entire performance (good or bad), or a specific piece can be done relatively quickly. Samples from instructional videos are on the Web to provide previews of content for checking its appropriateness. A good example of this is Mimi Zweig’s StringPedagogy video and Web site at   www.stringpedagogy.com.  www.stringpedagogy .com. Movies of concerts, marching performances, and rehearsals can be created for purposes of instruction, archiving, and even fund-raising. Directors have always used sound recordings, but video offers performance components such as bowing and articulation for strings, and posture among wind players. Videos can be uploaded to Web sites so that evaluations can be done at home or so distant friends and family can “attend” the concert. Digital movie cameras record videos directly to discs and hard drives for uploading to the computer. DVDs can then be burned using iMovie or RealPlayer, or they can be outsourced to companies specializing in video recording and duplications. Desktop or handheld scanners are used to convert hard copies of images (such as a musical score), printed or handwritten text, or any item to a digital format. for mat. Once on the computer, the image can be customized by rotating, cropping, changing the size, and so on to fit the needs of the teacher. Teachers can paste pictures of the latest performance into a newsletter or promotional brochure to be printed and distributed or uploaded to a Web site. Musical excerpts can be placed into a word-processing program, presentation, or other software and e-mailed to students for study.

Electronic Portfolios

Teachers across multiple disciplines in higher education and K–12 settings have found value in having students create electronic (e-) portfolios; these are a set of documents, materials, and other evidence assembled by the student or group of students. Similar to a portfolio assembled by an artist, it is often a collection of some of the best work the student has done. Text, images, movies, Web sites, audio clips, and so on can be included and stored to document progress. Frequently, they are placed on the Web for others to view, which can be particularly helpful to musicians who wish others to hear their work. Students can also use the portfolio to document progress over time by including two performances of the same piece, a few weeks or months apart. Self-reflection is generally included as part of the work as well. Other uses are listed in this text’s chapter on Assessment (Chapter ( Chapter 3). Electronic portfolios can be placed entirely on a CD-ROM or set up on a Web site, though space is needed for the latter. Institutions frequently provide Web space for students to store portfolios either using an instructional utility such as Blackboard , iWebFolio , or the school’s servers. Commercial entities such as MySpace and Facebook are used primarily as social networking tools but are free and can be used cautiously as part of a portfolio. portfoli o. Other commercial sites provide space, for a fee, to “house” the work; however, if one is savvy a host of free tools (including free Web site, blog space, and video hosting) can be found and connected from a single home page using hyperlinks. E-portfolios can be particularly useful for students pursuing a college degree in music and aspiring to a professional career, though all students may benefit from creating the portfolio.

Internet  A discussion of multimedi multimediaa would not be complete w without ithout a brief mention men tion of the Inte Internet, rnet,  which itself is a m multimedia ultimedia instr ument. The Internet, a chain of interconnected computers, houses an infinite number of resources. The Web has become the first source for most individuals when information is needed. The inherent problem is that it is generally unpoliced, and both good and bad information, right and wrong, is available. Directors must carefully peruse the sites for the best available resources compatible with their teaching philosophy and point  students in that direction. given a research learning information about a composer or piece When of music, students often assignment, head straightsuch to a as search engine. Unfortunately, they are often led unknowingly to questionable sources. Providing sources known to be accurate, such as an online encyclopedia or the Web site of a knowledgeable organization,

helps students focus their search on quality information. in formation. Further, opportunities for plagiarism have become abundant and must be carefully monitored.

 

78

Technology

The Web is also a tool for locating resources for use in the music classroom. Ensemble music can be found and ordered; online help from message boards and blogs about how to rehearse a specific piece or how to create an oboe reed can be researched. Finding private instructors for students or an accompanist at the last minute might also warrant a search. Communication via e-mail can be enhanced as can many administrative tasks.

FUNDING FOR TECHNOLOGY Instrumental music teachers with limited resources will need to identify sources for acquiring technology technology. for technology is infused throughout school most of the terials listed. Funding in this chapter should come from the music budget asbudgets allottedand at the school or madistrict level. Smaller items may come from the supplies area of the budget with big-ticket items designated as equipment (or capital expenses). Funds may also be available from the music or arts supervisor, the curriculum specialist, or the assistant superintendent responsible for technology.. The technology teacher at the school may also have a budget for instructional software. nology Not all funding will come from the school board (though it should), and teachers may  need to identify external funding sources in order to purchase computers, software, and electronic instruments. Most band and orchestra directors (and their students) already spend time raising funds for trips, equipment, and instructional staff. The same methods can be used for securing funds for technology techn ology,, though there are other othe r avenues that could be taken in addition to the yearly fruit sale. Thomas Rudolph lists the following sources as possible avenues to pursue funds for technology: 1. The schoolwide schoolwide technology technology budget  2. Sch School ool libra library  ry  3. Existin Existing g music music budget  budget  4. PT PTA  A  5. Local service clubs 6. Busines Businesses ses that may soon be replacing their current equipment equipment with new  7. Music vendors vendors may have rent-to-own rent-to-own programs programs 8. Federal funds funds through the Elementary Elementary and Secondary Education Act  Act  9. State technol technology ogy gr grant s 10. Privat Privatee foundatio foundations ns4

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1. Explore the Web Web sites listed througho throughout ut the chapter. Which do you feel might be best 

 your principal for purchase of one program over over another.

applicable to elementary/middle school/high school? Why? 2. For what purposes purposes would a teacher or student  student  need a sequencer, sampler, or music workstation? 3. Explore current attributes (including pricing) for two similar types of programs (e.g., notational software, administrative software). Compare and contrast and write a recommendation to

4. Write a mock grant proposal proposal to a local funding agency requesting funds for a computer workstation for your orchestra classroom. 5. What are the advantages advantages of recording using  versus portable “flash” recorders? Audacity  versus 6. Why would you use electronic instruments in  your band/orchestra rehearsal? rehearsal?

 WEB SITES The Association for Technology in Music Instruction  www.atmionline.org  www.atmionline.org Building a School Web site  www.wigglebits.com  www.wigglebits .com Electronic Portfolios http://elect http:/ /electronicpor ronicportfolio tfolios.org s.org Electronic Musician http://emusic http:/ /emusician.com ian.com Keyboard Magazine  www.keyboardmag.com  www.key boardmag.com Music Tech Magazine Technology Te chnology Institute for Music Educators

 www.m  www.musictechmag.co.uk usictechmag.co.uk  www.ti-me.org  www.ti-m e.org

4

Rudolph, pp. 442–444.

8

 

Special Populations and  Instrumental Music 

T

his short chapter has two parts: The first part outlines legislative acts that affect teaching instrumental music and the second part offers a few suggestions on complying with these acts. In general, instrumental music has not been “controlled” by any external mandates. The public has not been critical of instrumental music instruction and any rules, regulations, and/or standards are, in general, the responsibility of individual teachers with the exception of the education of students with disabilities.

LEGISLATION  As in other are areas as of education, public opini opinion on and the resulting legislation may affect your school’s instrumental music program. One example is a newly required course that reduces time for electives such as music. Our focus in this th is chapter is on legislation dealing with special populations and a brief definition of those populations. The fundamental legislation is the Elementary and Secondary Education Act ,  which at this writing is often referred to as No Child Left Behind (NCLB). That act evolves with each renewal but it is likely to continue to influence educational policy. NCLB includes regulation for special populations, those defined as gifted students and students with disabilities as well as students with disabilities who may also be gifted. Federal involvement in educating students with disabilities dates to the 1970s with the passage of the Education of the Handicapped Act, followed in 1975 with Public Law 94-142, Education for All Handicapped Children. This latter act is associated with the term mainstreaming , which is defined as the inclusion of all students without restrictions or barriers in regular classes. was environment not required but by the as the meansstate of educating the education “handicapped” in Mainstreaming the least restrictive wasact a local and/or decision. Education in the United States is now governed in part by Public Law 108-446, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004. This law l aw is of importance to instrumental music teachers because of the stipulation that no public or private school, psychiatric hospital, or residential facility for individuals with disabilities can reject a student from any  curricular (academic or nonacademic) or extracurricular experience. Any offering open to all students (e.g., beginning strings) must accept any student with a disability. This part of the legislation is usually referred to as the “zero reject component.” Exceptions to the law’s stipulations can only be made by the student’s team , whi which ch iiss a group of individuals responsible for the student’s program of study. The team must consist of  a counselor, a school representative who is not the classroom teacher, a parent, the classroom teacher, and possibly the student. It is important that the music teacher be a member of this team. The team also has the authority to make referrals for any specialized services, those provided by the school and by outside agencies. Along with the school administration, the team has considerable leeway in placing students in the least restrict restrictive ive environment, an en vironment that is most promising of sstudent tudent success and school safety. If an audition is required for membership in an ensemble or a music class, every student must be allowed to audition for the class/ensemble but can be rejected by the teacher for not meeting estab-

lished standards. You can readily see, in this instance, the importance of having clear and 79

 

80

Special Populations and Instrumental Music

 well-establi shed objectives and standards for each of your teaching responsibiliti  well-established responsibilities es in the event your decision is challenged. Without them, expect to spend your free time with lawyers and other interested parties.  Whether the teacher will have to accommodate a large number of students as a result of  IDEA 2004 is impossible to answer precisely, as determination of who is eligible for special services is decided at the local level. The national average at present is that about 14 percent  of school-aged students have a disability of one kind or another. In the last decade the number of students identified as having disabilities has increased more rapidly than the school population. The reasons for this increase are not at all clear and may be both substantial and political. Students might also be placed in special education through Section 504 of th thee Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which mandated that no institution could discriminate solely on the basis of a disabling condition. Students with HIV or other disabilities can, thus, qualify for special education services under this civil rights provision when they would not qualify under IDEA. IDEA has established thirteen categories of disabilities that might affect developmental delays: autism, deaf-blindness, deafness, emotional disturbance, mental retardation, multiple disabilities (usually mental retardation plus at least one additional disability), orthopedic impairment, other health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder, specific learning disability (problems with listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia), speech or language impairment, traumatic brain injury, and visual impairment including blindness.  ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity (atte ntion-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) an and d ADD (attention deficit disorder)  were added to the llist ist of categories in 1999, as students with these disabilities have problems similar to those of established disabilities: trouble maintaining attention, limited ability to concentrate, impulsive behaviors, and a tendency to act in aggressive ways. School districts or states may combine one or more of these categories (e.g., (e .g., placing disabilities of hearing, vision, and deaf-blindness in a single category of sensory impairment). The categories will be of importance to the music teacher as a member of the team recommending an educational program and/or specialized help. The relationship of IDEA with the updated Elementary and Secondary Education Act  (No Child Left Behind) is direct because NCLB requires testing of all students, including special needs students, against a single curriculum standard in each mandated subject. The few  known exceptions have been for students with profound disabilities. There is little guidance for the team in determining the appropriateness of instrumental music for students with disabilities other than a statement in MENC’s The School Music Program: Description and Standards ,  which suggests that placeme placement nt of a student with disabilitie disabilitiess in a music class should be determined primarily on the basis of musical achievement, a reasonable but idealistic suggestion .1 The music teacher, as a member of the student’s educational program team, should have considerable sway in determining what is educationally sound. The team for each student with disabilities establishes an individualized education program (IEP). The purpose of the IEP is to have agreed-upon written goals and pedagogically  sound methods to accomplish these goals. IEPs must be determined for each situation, as each student is so unique that few concrete guidelines exist as to how a student with disabilities can best be included in the school offerings in the least restrictive environment. Disabilities are affected by gender, race, and economic situations and range from mild to profound. Unfortunately, there are very few specialists who can provide guidance on how instrumental music might benefit the students with disabilities. Special education teachers do not  study music as part of their degree program and often have little understanding of how music instruction is conducted. What about music therapists? Few of the more than 4,000 certified music therapists are employed in education and those few usually are consultants at a very  high level in a large school system. Music therapists are more often found in hospitals, assisted living centers, mental health centers, and in a variety of rehabilitation programs. The team, however, has the power and the responsibility to recommend special services if music therapy  or other therapies seem appropriate. What about the school’s counselor? Again, most counselors are poorly informed about music education and the complexity of a valid instrumental music education class/ensemble. They may have heard about the benefits of music instruc-

1

MENC: The National Association for Music Education (1986). The School Music Program: Descrip-  tions and Standards . Lanham, MD: Author and Rowman & Littlefield.

 

Special Populations and Instrumental Music   81

tion from arts advocates, and these benefits are often real, but it will be up to the teacher, as a member of the team, to clearly outline the conditions, costs, and other resources needed for the student to profit from instruction. Wonderful outcomes, musical and developmental, have been accomplished with one-on-one music instruction and/or with very small group instruction but these same outcomes may be impossible in regular classrooms.

INSTRUCTIONAL IDEAS FOR TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC TO STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS  Why is instrumental music such an attractive educational option for all students, including those with disabilities? Business gurus and educators often cite bands and orchestras as ideal learning situations to help students develop individual competence while functioning collectively within a symphonic whole. Instrumentalists become completely immersed in how they  are performing, yet also have to be aware that their actions have consequences for others and for the ensemble. Instrumental teachers have traditionally taught and treated each student as a unique member of the class. The needs need s of the oboist differ from the needs of the cellist, ce llist, and even within a violin section the assistance required by the concertmaster and the last chair violinist is more dissimilar than similar. Unless the instrumental teacher knows each student   well, appropriately challenging tasks, both musical and nonmusical, will wil l not be possible. Many individuals with physical disabilities have achieved competence in music. Itzhak Perlman has long been a spokesperson for those with physical disabilities disabiliti es and has demonstrated that if physical accommodations are made, these individuals can succeed. The bass-baritone Thomas Quasthoff has done the same for vocal music. There is a lengthy list of  accomplished blind musicians including Ray Charles, George Shearing, Stevie Wonder, Andrea Bocelli, and others. Because of her uncanny musicality and achievements, Evelyn Glennie has demonstrated that a deaf percussionist can rise to the top of the profession and be invited to perform with the best symphony orchestras. To ensure that such talent is not lost to the nation, VSA (formerly Very Special Arts) is funded through the Kennedy Center in Washington and receives more than 20 percent of the money appropriated for Arts in Education at  the federal level. Success stories in music are reported for almost every category of disability, especially  those with only mild impairments. Many of these reports involve students with delays in mental development. Mental delay may be caused by numerous factors beyond genetics including adverse social and economic conditions, early child abuse, and health issues, many of which can be attenuated with supportive parents, caring teachers, and social workers. One needs to understand the student’s mental rather than chronological age, proceed slowly, and use direct instruction on small tasks in small groups. With this understanding and the suggested support, developmentally delayed students can usually become contributing members of  most school ensembles. The issues of educating special populations are complex and it is important to proceed cautiously. There are multiple stories of students being misdiagnosed and placed in special education, which places additional burdens on the special education teacher. te acher. Unruly students or students with language issues may be classified as needing special education services when their need is elsewhere. Behavioral issues are often associated with special education students making it more difficult for teachers teache rs to identify the student’s problem, to offer assistance, and to conduct a sequential instructional program developmentally appropriate for all students. Disruptive behaviors of all students can be caused by instruction moving too rapidly or too slowly. When the class is too heterogeneous, an aide or special education teacher should accompany special needs students to music and their role specified in the students’ IEP for music. Disruptive behavior may also be occasioned by placing students in instrumental music  who have little or no interest in the subject or are simply incapable of making reasonable progress toward the music standards of the class. The social benefits of being a member of an instrumental ensemble should not outweigh the music objectives. Students are continually maturing and changing and may outgrow some disabilities such as ADD or ADHD. The guidelines for IDEA (and NCLB) require only an annual assessment  that the student’s IEP is appropriate. Recently Recently,, a promising strategy that can be helpful to accurate student placement, entitled Response to Intervention (RTI), has been introduced into

most special education programs. This strategy requires that special needs students (and in some situations those students who verge on qualifying for special education) be continually 

 

82

Special Populations and Instrumental Music

assessed according to a three-tiered model. Level 1 includes students with mild disabilities  where the students can be fully integrated into the regular classroom with the assumption that  all teachers have sufficient knowledge of developmentally appropriate instruction for these students. At level 2, the student needs some small group instruction provided by the special education staff but other instruction, often music classes, can be provided in the traditional setting. Level 3 students require that almost all of their instruction be provided by special education staff in a one-on-one or small group configuration. RTI is a data-driven program  whose genius is the constant assessment of a student’s progress, often on a daily or weekly  basis. Thus, RTI enables students to be quickly moved to a more appropriate level of instruction at the first signs of success or difficulty. With RTI, parents and teachers can act to close any emerging learning gap and students can receive the needed support. Even at level 1, students can be placed in different reading or music groups, provided with a tutor, or given supplemental instruction. What RTI requires is clear benchmarks for each student in each subject and, of course, considerable communication and cooperation among the teaching staff. Instrumental music teachers will be involved primarily with students at level 1. Should the school district have sufficient resources to employ a large music staff and offer private instruction to selected special needs students, student attainment in music can be considerable. The success of instrumental music teachers with special needs students is partially due to the fact that the instrumental music classroom has always been a place with a trusting atmosphere between teacher and student. Instrumental Instrume ntal teachers listen to their students and are accustomed to making individual suggestions for improvement. Instrumental music is nonthreatening and conducted in a classroom where mistakes are expected but also in a challengchal lenging atmosphere where the expectation is that the same errors do not recur. Maintaining a challenging atmosphere is important, and one of the reasons that the terms handicapped, educable , and trainable  were  were dropped is that their use suggested a lower expectation of special needs students. The music room is accommodating but the standards, as with NCLB, are what  could be expected of any diverse musical ensemble.

The Classroom Many instrumental music teachers will have limited contact with special education students and, as we have suggested, teaching each student requires specific and individualized instruction. The first task is to learn as much as possible about the disability and how it affects the student. The second task is to explain the characteristics of the disability to all of the members of the ensemble/class, as success depends on not only an understanding teacher but also an understanding class that willingly offers the necessary support structure to enable the special needs student to succeed. There may be privacy issues involved and you can expect assistance from your school administration, counselors, and special education teachers in how each special needs student’s etiology is to be professionally explained to class members. We mention a few characteristics of the more common etiologies as an example of the needed knowledge. Each disorder ranges from mild to severe and our examples speak in generalities. Autism  (Autism Spectrum Disorder) is a neurobiological disorder characterized by  repetitive activities, resistance to change, inappropriate response to sensory stimuli, communication issues, including an inability to understand others’ thoughts and feelings, and an inability to conform to social customs that might include daily hygiene. These students often may not understand the consequences of their actions. Some autistic students have cognitive delays whereas others are cognitively gifted. Autistic students may excel at rote learning but are not necessarily above average musically. Music classes can also overstimulate the student, but many autistic students are successful in music. Asperger’s syndrome  is a type of autism that also ranges from mild to severe. The IQ of individuals with Asperger’s syndrome is within the range of normalcy. The characteristics that accompany this disorder are extreme sensitivity, obsessive routines, and most particularly a different perception of  how the world operates.  Down syndrome  students traditionally musically normalDown but music is often reported to be more are important to them than it(and is to academically) the average student. syndrome students often have other disabilities, however, such as hearing loss. Whether these students are better at rhythmic tasks than at pitch perception is unknown but is part of the

folklore; thus, Down syndrome students are often assigned to the rhythm section of a class or ensemble. They are easily excitable and controlling their enthusiasm may become an issue.

 

Special Populations and Instrumental Music   83

Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, an illness that affects the nerves in the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of the central nervous system, is not uncommon, nor is cerebral palsy or muscular dystrophy , with inclu inclusion sion dependin depending g on the sever severity ity of the affl affliction. iction.  Epilepsy is a concern because an epileptic epilepti c student might have a seizure in class but other wise these students are normal in ever y respect. In the event of a seizure, the student must be placed flat on his or her back, action taken so the tongue is not swallowed, and given ample breathing room. Mild attacks may require only a quiet respite. Once the seizure has passed, the student and the teacher can decide on whether to resume normal class activities. Emotional disturbances affect learning in multiple and unknown ways. Schizophrenia is one type of emotional disturbance. These students have difficulty maintaining positive relationships with classmates and teachers, expressing themselves in appropriate ways, and are often depressed and/or fearful of new situations.  Emotionally disturbed  students may be the most difficult to include in a well-disciplined ensemble. For example, students qualifying for special education due to emotional disturbances may exhibit similar symptoms to those of a regular student who is socially maladjusted who requires only firm insistence that he or she follow the rules of a well-disciplined classroom. Students with mild cognitive impairments can attain many, if not most, of the goals of  the instrumental music program while benefiting in numerous social competencies. (We are omitting any discussion of the nonmusical benefits to all special education students as these tend to be overemphasized by counselors and school administrators in making placement decisions.) Our position, which coincides with that of MENC, is that there must be the potential of gaining some musical competency if the placement is appropriate. A better quality of life is always an outcome of valid music instruction. With the very young, music can aid in rewiring the brain, and this seems to be a possibility with students who have cognitive delays. We know  of no magic IQ cutoff point below which students studen ts cannot attain minimal music competencies. competen cies. There is ample evidence that students with IQs below 70 can succeed in music. Instruction has to move at a slower pace, objectives need to be clearer, individual instruction should be available when needed, parents should be supportive, instruction should be direct and often focused on rote learning, and icons and other devices used rather than extensive verbal and/or written directions. As with other special needs students, changes in routine may trigger confusion and even result in disruptive behavior. Distracters of any kind should be avoided. Being accepted into an instrumental ensemble can be very rewarding to students with cognitive delays and, once the procedures of the ensemble are learned and mastered, these individuals can be expected to be responsible members of the group. The teacher and peers should establish expectations of these students based on their mental rather than chronological age, which pose some difficulty as there are few established mental progress benchmarks in our profession. Instrumental music pedagogy is based on challenging goals for each individual as much as it is for the group, which means that cognitively challenged students can and have attained membership m embership in the school’s top performing groups. Although we are more inclined to cite experience than research to justify our statements, we make an exception to cite a well-designed study by Feuerstein that employed the early intervention theory of  structural cognitive modi modifiability, fiability, a form of mediated learning, used to teach 6- to 9-year-old music students in Israel. Israel.2 The procedure focuses on a student's ability to relate simultaneously to multiple stimuli and integrate them, and to use pattern conservation, holistic perception, multiple representation, and self-regulation. All of these are important to music instruction where pitch, rhythm, dynamics, expression, and pattern conser vation in various melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic patterns are integrated. Positive results were found on the Raven standard matrices and Raven colored matrices, conservation of patterns, complex figure tests, the Glantz’s and Fitt’s self-esteem questionnaires, and teacher reports.  ADHD and ADD students have symptoms similar to other behavior disorders. They are likely to be as musically competent as other class members but could be disruptive to the learning situation. At least half of the concerns with including any special education student are associated with a behavioral disorder. There are numerous rating scales for assessing behavioral disorders and the school counselors should be able to provide guidance in explaining the student’s particular behavior and possible treatments. Behavioral disorders may be symptomatic of underlying problems such as depression. Because instrumental music teachers have

2

Feuerstein, Reuven, and Ya’Acov Rand (1997). Don’t Accept Me As I Am . Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight Professional Development.

 

84

Special Populations and Instrumental Music

a long-established tradition of helping students develop appropriate behaviors of cooperation, independence, persistence, respect, and self-discipline, counselors may well expect you to be able to solve any student behavioral problems. Ritalin and similar medicines help to control behavior disorders and along with strong parental support, students with ADHD and  ADD often become accomplished musicians. Physical disabilities may have little or no impact on a student’s potential for musical learning. We find no evidence that students with physical impairments impair ments (such as blindness) are more musical than other students, only that they have focused their energies in specific ways. Physical disabilities may require the use of wheelchairs, crutches, and other prosthetic devices and a limited choice of instruments. The school facilities should already be configured to accommodate these students, although a “buddy” or aide may be needed to assist in specialized tasks such as reaching for items on the top shelf or transporting the instrument. Adaptations can usually be made that will allow students to hold and play an instrument. Again, strong parental support is important. Blind and visually impaired students are aided by a stable arrangement of the facilities in the rehearsal area. Changes in the physical arrangement of the room are often disconcerting to students with other disabilities as well. Blind students, by themselves or with canes and/or dogs, quickly learn to find their place in the classroom. Sensitive teachers verbally convey any instructions that are normally written, although a “buddy” system is helpful to communicate the many  gestures that occur in the instrumental music classroom and to stave off any embarrassment  caused by continuing to play after a cutoff or failure to start with the rest of the ensemble. The visually impaired are aided by Braille music and technologies such as the Optacon, VersaBraille, reading machines and, of course, recordings. The teacher or fellow students may have to make a recording of the music to be learned, which is easily accomplished, although it is more difficult to learn exercises through recordings. Reading stands with extended arms are available for visually  impaired students. Although the student will likely already know about possible support, the National Library Service provides music, textbooks, librettos, and courses for guitar, accordion, piano, voice, and other instruments. The Library of Congress will provide any music in Braille, and Recordings for the Blind is a support agency. Planning ahead is necessary to receive these services. Hearing-impaired students may require only a hearing aid or may be sufficiently deaf to require use of American Sign Language for effective communication. Some students will have had cochlear implants and rely on a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), closed captioning, and alert devices that replace any sounding devices necessary to manipulate through the school day. Although much has been written about music and theatre for the deaf, it has little direct application appl ication to the K–12 schools. The task is one of communicating communi cating with the student who may be adept at lip reading but misinterpret many gestures of the teacher and/or fellow students. Misunderstandings occur through partial information, humor, sarcasm, and improvised movements and gestures. Special education students may have multiple m ultiple disabilities or a disability so severe that accomplishing musical objectives in the ensemble/classroom becomes infeasible. It is important  for the music teacher to explain clearly to the school administration and to parents what can and cannot be accomplished without sacrificing critical musical goals for the student and for the class. Should the team determine that some instruction in music might be beneficial, the school administration is morally obligated to provide the one-on-one or small group instruction that could be beneficial. Important aspects of the music teacher’s role follow:

•  A welcoming, nonthreatening environment that employs multiple means of nonverbal instruction, such as aural, visual, and kinesthetic strategies, is needed. Nonmusical outcomes are expected to be a major benefit to special education students, including social skills, self-esteem, help with speech, problem solving, and orientation to the real world. • Students need to feel comfortable and the teacher needs to be more caring about these individuals and their needs. When the overall expectations are that the students can be successful, failures are minimized.

• The music teacher must involve the parents, for few outcomes can be accomplished  with special education students (or regular students) solely by the school. • Consistency, clarity, and support from the teacher and peers are important.

• Careful pacing is required in that it is nearly impossible to arrive at instructional pacing that is appropriate for both special education and regular students.

 

Special Populations and Instrumental Music   85

• The music teacher may have leverage on modifying behavior beh avior especially when the opportunities to perform, join a group, wear a uniform, receive an instrument, help around the music room, and care for equipment are contingent on appropriate behavior. • Special education students are often overprotected so, although celebration of accomplishments is the norm with these students, any celebration must reinforce appropriate behavior and extinguish the undesirable. •  A trusting atmosphere, characteristic characteristi c of good instrumental instruction, is of specia speciall importance. The instrumental teacher must continually pay attention to the needs of each student, listen carefully, and suggest strategies for improvement. In instrumental music, mistakes are expected to be a normal occurrence but they are not expected to recur because help is available from the teacher, peers, and the profession. •  When extra resources are needed, the instrumental teacher can expect they will be pro vided. We list only a few of the state and national resources that are available where teachers and the school administration can obtain assistance. • The teacher needs to continually reassess his or her level of tolerance, patience, and needs. The definition of an orderly classroom differs from teacher to teacher and from situation to situation. • The importance of everyone (students, teachers, administrators, parents) caring cannot  be overstressed.

Gifted Students Special populations include the gifted as well as those with disabilities. Unfortunately, there has not been an equal emphasis on providing “special” education for this element of the school population and presently only thirty-one states require districts to offer special services to gifted students. As most music educators were themselves musically gifted, an understanding of this population usually presents no pedagogical problems. The gifted need a superb educational environment that is both stimulating and challenging. As painful as it might be to recommend that your concertmistress transfer to an arts magnet school, that option should be presented to the student and his or her parents. It might be equally satisfactory for you to offer advanced placement theory to your gifted students, create a system of small ensembles comprising students with comparable talents and competencies, or find ways these individuals indi viduals can teach and assist. Private music lessons are always an option and some schools fund private instruction or allow the use of facilities for private instruction and/or partnership arrangements with community music groups. Teachers should be as creative as possible in providing appropriate educational environments that benefit the eager, talented, students.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. In what ways ways do public laws 94-142 and 108-446 (IDEA) differ in their implications for teaching instrumental music in the public schools? 2. How does the the Elementary and Secondary Education Act affect instrumental music instruction? In what situations could a student claim admission to instrumental music under the auspices of  civil rights? 3. Write a hypothetical hypothetical one-month music IEP for a beginning instrumentalist who has a disability  about which you have some knowledge.

 WEB SITES

 American Music Therapy Therapy Association Council for Exceptional Children

4. In what ways can instrumental music aid in overcoming a student’s poor home background? 5. What considerations, if any, any, are are important in selecting an instrument for a student with ADHD?  Autism? A cognitive impairment? 6. What might you do to encourage a student   who is musically gifted to profit from school experiences?

 www.musictherapy  www.musictherapy.org .org  www.cec.sped.org  www.cec.sped.org

National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities U.S. Department of Education, IDEA resources

 

 www.nichcy.org  www.nichcy.org  www.ed.g  www.ed.gov/p ov/policy olicy/spe /speced/g ced/guid/id uid/idea/ ea/ idea2004.html

9 The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance 

M

uch has been written about the importance of the body—muscles, tendons, nerves, and bone structure—in avoiding fatigue and injury while performing. Indeed, it is a major issue with professional musicians who practice and perform for hours at a time. In the late 1980s, the International Conference of Symphony and Opera Musicians surveyed its membership as to physical effects from performance, with over 2,000 members replying. Most respondents indicated that they had experienced one or more medical problems and 76 percent  indicated that the problem had affected their performance. Usually, pain was present. Fortunately, pain in student musicians is unusual (10–15 percent might be a high figure) but  should not be ignored. Students are reluctant to report pain that might result from playing an instrument, so it is good to occasionally ask if any students are experiencing pain. In such instances, your first action should be to send the student to the school health professional who, if needed, will recommend a professional physician who specializes in the type of pain noted. The information in this chapter is not about treating pain; the emphasis is on preventive preven tive activities that help avoid physical (and sometimes mental) discomfort. Care and maintenance of the body is the focus of this chapter. The discussion is divided into four sections: matching the student and the instrument, the observations a teacher should make on a daily basis, a review of some widely used preventive pre ventive medicine strategies, and suggested exercises for all students.

MATCHING MA TCHING STUDENT AND INSTRUMENT K–12 teachers need to consider the student’s physiology in specifying instruments suitable for study. These considerations include body size and strength and any abnormalities, finger length, facial characteristics, lung capacity, and double-jointedness. First, if a student is passionate about learning to be a cellist and has limited interest in learning any other instrument, most if not all physical disadvantages can be overcome by the student’s dedication to the instrument. Adjustments will likely have to be made. Making adjustments in the instrument is possible as are adjustments in the playing position. Students who are either deaf or blind have had success as have students with less incapacitating afflictions. Thus, the statements in this chapter are not absolutes. Student size is important in instrument selection, as the student must be able to reach keys and strings without causing tension or muscle strain. The bassoon may be the least flexible instrument as the holes and keys are quite far apart, although we have known of a few instances in which bassoon keys and holes have been adjusted to accommodate small individuals. There also are half-size bassoons. There are neck straps, chest harnesses, and seat  straps designed to help hold this heavy instrument. For the school to accommodate young beginners, purchasing less than full-size instruments makes sense. Parents, however, may become reluctant when repeatedly asked to purchase a new, larger, or better instrument. Insightful teachers have started students as young as fourth grade on bassoon being mindful of appropriate music and with careful observation of any compensation the student has to make due to the weight of the instrument or the need to stretch the fingers. Bassoonists

should not flex the right wrist in stretching to cover the holes or reach the keys. 86

 

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance   87

Strength is a consideration in selecting flutists as the instrument must be held nearly horizontal without any body support. Especially important with the flute is to not drop the wrist. The result is often more neck tension in flutists than even in violinists and violists, which can also make correct embouchure formation difficult. Flutes can be purchased with two head  joints, curved for the beginner and standard standard as the student matures. matures. The solutio solution n for strength issues, of course, is to practice in more-frequent but shorter blocks of time until sufficient arm strength is attained, while remaining alert for developing muscular issues. Elastic neck straps and harnesses are available for woodwind and guitar players as are thumb supports for the clarinetist. Clear vinyl plastic lip shields are an embouchure aid for clarinetists and saxophonists. String instruments come in various sizes, which allowed Yo Yo Ma, who was determined 1 to play the cello cell o at the age of four four,, to begin on a  ⁄  1 16 6-size instrument. The viola is the most awk3  wardly shaped instrument differing in size from around 15 ⁄  4 inches to 17 inches or more, although reduced-size violas are made. Finger pressure is necessary with string instruments, requiring some strength and making double-jointedness a serious disadvantage.

Maturity Factors  Adolescence and preadolescence are the time when braces appear. This is a time when the mouth structure is changing and permanent tooth eruption is stabilizing; thus, parents may  question what effect practicing might have on overbites and/or lip size. The research on dental occlusions indicates that only small differences are caused by playing a wind instrument, instrumen t, although forces introduced by the tongue and facial muscles can alter the equilibrium between dental and skeletal structures. A few dentists have been known to recommend a brass instrument to assist in correcting an occlusion such as an overbite during middle school years. A  great deal of precision is required in aligning the lower incisors with the upper incisors to pro vide equal support of the mouthpiece and some brass players have difficulty placing the lower  jaw far enough forward for ward to reduce air leakage around the mouthpiece. mouthpi ece. Brass players often ad just by playing with the mouthpiece slightly of offf center, which also can avoid ir irritation ritation of the lips. If a student is wearing a retainer on the teeth, the brace should remain on as long as possible to prevent tooth crowding and backward inclination of the lower incisors. The instrumental teacher should be cautious about making any statements or recommendations affecting the young that might conflict with opinions offered by the student’s dentist or pediatrician. Adolescence is also a time for growth spurts, with the bones growing first and the muscles having to catch up. Teachers can, however, be quite comfortable in exercising  preventive medicine (exercises) associated with performing on an instrument. Posture is key to protecting students from muscle, nerve, and tendon issues including muscle strengthening and avoidance of pain. Pain while practicing or performing can range from a minor headache to nagging and persistent discomfort. Only rare musical passages require any deviation from somatic positions that are tension-free, although there are times  when students must play backs,band. necks, wrists, arms, and so on in some unnatural position, such as flutebriefly posture inwith marching The most common physical problems (cer vical or neck lordosis and lumbar or low-back lordosis) result from incorrect spinal posture. Correct spinal posture has the head balanced so the spine supports the heavy weight of the head. Good posture has one’s head up, chin in, back flattened, and the pelvis straight. straight . A “braced” posture with the head back and chest thrust  thru st  forward might look impressive with military-type units but it is not good posture. Good posture is comfortable posture. A parent’s admonition to sit up straight with shoulders back is, again, poor posture for instrumental music as muscles lose flexibility fl exibility and tighten when forced into uncomfortable or unnatural positions. Students should stand tall with shoulders relaxed and breathe normally.

Basic Physiology The musculoskeletal system is comprised of muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments. The skeleton is somewhat like the girders in tall buildings but, unlike the girders, the structure must allow one to bend, twist, and move. Bones meet at the joints and that’s where movement  takes place. A typical joint is surrounded by a capsule of fibrous tissues filled with synovial fluid, which cushions the joints and provides nutrition for the cartilage. The cartilage does

not have any blood supply of its own and cannot obtain oxygen and nutrients in any other way.

 

88

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance

The muscle is made of strands of tissue called fascicles. Tendons are the connective tissue that  bridges muscle to bone, and need to be flexible. flexible . Ligaments are the connective tissue th that at connects bone to bone. Ligaments are sturdy bands of fibrous tissue that bind our joints together and keep internal organs in place; they are flexible but not elastic. If severely stretched, ligaments do not return to their th eir normal length. Tendons are also composed of fibrous bands and connect muscles to bones. Strength and stability are provided by the muscles and their tendons. Central to the musculoskeletal system is the spine, and it is the spinal cord that sends messages to the nerves that will let you know when you are uncomfortable.  Alice Brandfonbrenner, one of the leading physicians specializing in performing arts medicine, believes that the greatest risk factor for injury among musicians is psychological stress. A part of this stress will be due to the relationships between students and teachers. Another part will be the normal and desirable tension in learning and performing, and then there is the stress of being a youngster in today’s society with numerous responsibilities and concerns.

Teacher Teach er Responsibility  What should the teacher look for? Athletes have coaches and trainers who look for problems; the instrumental teacher has a similar responsibility to be attentive to poor habits that can cause long-term injury to the individual. Injuries occur in everyday living that may be exacerbated by performance issues. The string section is a good place to start. Beginning violinists tightly grip their instrument by the neck (probably to avoid dropping it) and sometimes do the same with the bow. The violin has four sources of support: the collarbone, left arm and hand, the stabilizing trajectory of the bow, and the weight of the head. Violinists with short  necks don’t require a shoulder rest while long-necked students probably will. Almost all violists use a chin rest. Where the chin rest is placed affects neck posture, and when neck n eck muscles tighten, tension is produced in both upward and downward directions. di rections. Downward pressure of  the head on the chin rest presses the shoulder upward, causing the arm to freeze in place. The result is often that the back, neck, and arm ache. The weight of the head should be removed from the instrument when not needed. Violinists often move their instrument and head in relation to the music and the result is a tightened neck. Cellists should have one foot in front of the other. Violinists and violists sit on the edge of the chair, dropping the right knee to free up playing the upper strings, a position that won’t  twist the spine. Next, glance at the percussionists who are inclined to grasp the sticks as if they   were playing keep-away. Then look for the brass players using too much lip pressure and the clarinetists supporting the instrument awkwardly. An eagle-eyed teacher can likely spot other students who appear glued to their instrument. George Bornoff taught string players to form a “frame” on string instruments, the rationale being that this left-hand frame would remain in place as students shifted to any position on the fingerboard. Any “frozen” position on any instrument, including the guitar, even if correct, signals trouble and students of all instruments should not lock necks, knees, elbows, or fingers. String players who suffer from a nerve entrapment like carpel tunnel syndrome can be assisted by braces or splints. Draw attention to any curvature of the spine, which should always be avoided. Guitar players in particular are noted for their poor spine positions. Bassoon players are subject to a downward pull of the instrument and some support system is required. The clarinetist has a similar problem, which includes weight on the thumb, but it is not clear that all clarinetists need additional support other than a cushion for the thumb. Woodwind players must use pressure not only to hold the instrument but also to depress keys and cover finger holes; however, excessive pressure must be avoided. The head should almost never jut forward as  forward head position  contributes to headaches, myofascial pain, TMJ (pain in the muscles and joints of the lower jaw), as well as shoulder and arm pain. Wind players commonly play with the head extended; bassoonists often tilt or rotate their head. The movements of the neck affect the discs in the spine, which are the body’s shock absorbers. The angle at which the flute is held, the elbow elevated or acutely bent with the head tilted to one side, creates tension in the wrists and hands, which can cause pain not n ot only in the  wrist or hand h and but in the upper back as well. The weight of the flute, with so little support to

help hold it in proper playing position, means that flutists must be most careful about their posture, especially the left side. The flute must be brought into playing position with minimal body movement, keeping the spine at its full length and avoiding tension in the neck.

 

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance   89

The position of the violin and viola also create tension although the student’s shoulder provides support that the flutist does not have. If the neck ne ck is bent and a bit of ne neck ck force is exerted to hold the instrument, the result is a bit of neck, hand, and arm discomfort or pain. Downward pressure of the head on the chin rest or downward pressure of the fingers on the fingerboard and on the bow creates tension. The strings need not be hammered into the fingerboard to obtain the correct pitch. If the head presses into the chin rest, the shoulder then presses upward causing stiffness in the arm not to mention stiffness and aches in the neck, back, and arm. String players, including guitarists, need a flexible, mobile thumb in order to avoid tension in gripping. Neck muscles may be the most important set of muscles, as tightness here radiates down the back and stops only when this tightness reaches China. The importance of neck muscles is at the heart of the Alexander technique that many musicians find helpful in remedying bad posture habits. Excessive motions such as shifting for one note on strings (and also on trombones) are to be minimized. Each student differs in somatic ways and requires, at some point, personal attention. The point of a chin rest and shoulder pads for violinists and violists is to reduce tension; the size of these devices depends on the student’s body, especially the length of the neck as well as the size of the instrument. Different physiques require different accommodations. Short horn players rest the instrument on the knee while tall students need not. Stands at improper height or placement  discourage proper posture. The head should remain level and the student should not have to twist or turn to see either the music or the conductor. Improper placement of stands can also cause eye problems. Because of height differences and sharing of music stands, one can expect undesirable contortions by students as they alter position to adequately see the conductor. Chairs should allow the knees to be lower than the hips and the feet flat on the floor. If  chairs are too high, allow students to occasionally cross and recross their legs.

Tension The issue for the teacher is to focus on proper posture to avoid tension. Pedagogues suggest  that the word tension should not be used in instruction as the fact fa ct of mentioning it causes even more tension. There are other words—relaxed, casual, flexible, pliant, malleable, limber , and so on—that can get the point across. Many students don’t take posture seriously, as their natural flexibility at this age allows them to survive comfortably any number of multiple contortions. Tension can be caused by many movements or postures of the body and may be unrecognized. Tension brings excitement to performances and is important for creative experiences; the issue is having the right amount at the right time. The fact that composers create tension and release in their music means that there is some tension involved even in listening to music. Physical therapists report that stressed muscles may feel natural to the student because of habits formed at an early age. Overuse, force, and cramming by practicing more than usual just before a lesson also create tension. Beginners bring on tension by using more force than depress keys, andparts valves. Painphysical in the lower portion of the arms may  be thenecessary result of to tension andstrings, stress in other of the body and, of course, tension is also a cause of lower back pain.  Anxiety, high standards, a demanding teacher, and friend and family issues are tensionproducing. Some students grind their teeth, others clench their jaws; as has been said, stress causes muscle tension that, in turn, can result in pain or discomfort. Tension also invariably  prohibits correct breathing. Tension in the upper back, common with clarinet and oboe players, leads to pain in the upper chest and back. Oboe players commonly tense up as they bring the oboe to their lips. By watching to see that the head leads, the spine can be fully extended  when the performer pe rformer is in the “traditional” backward curl. Instruments in poor condition can result in tension. And, of course, fatigue is a prime suspect in the tension of adolescents. Highly sensitive musicians appear to be the most vulnerable to tension. Performing musicians should be as physically flexible as a professional gymnast or circus clown.

The Body Overuse is likely to be most common when students attend summer camp or all-state and play  or practice for five or six hours a day—probably a major change from their normal routine. The critical muscles are not those that control the hand and fingers but the larger muscles

that control posture—those of the back, neck, and shoulders. To be “in shape” as a musician means to have enhanced endurance, all body muscles in balance, and flexibility that comes  with swimming, running, runn ing, cycling, and most cardio-based exercises. One need not lift weights;

 

90

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance

indeed, rigorous weightlifting leads to muscle imbalance, a disadvantage for performing musicians. Torn fibers in a muscle heal in about four weeks although severe tears may take two months. Sprains, which are torn ligaments, heal in about six weeks with rest and appropriate exercise to loosen tight muscles that restrict blood flow, entrap nerves, and affect circulation. The better the circulation, the more oxygen and other nutrients will reach the muscles and stimulate the lymphatic system. Flexibility and stretching are required to avoid injuries, to aid muscles in recovering, and to increase mobility. Flexibility pertains to a single joint, and the performer can be flexible in one part of the body and stiff instudents another.toFitness andflexibility limberness have a genetic underpinning that makes it easier for some maintain than others. To become more flexible, one must stretch slowly to extend the muscle to the end of its range of motion. Stretching increases the blood flow to the muscles and lubricates joints. In stretching, you continue doing an exercise to the point of slight discomfort and then hold the desired position for at least 10 seconds. When a muscle contracts, it shortens and pulls the tendon. The tendon, in turn, moves the bone in its joint. When muscles become stronger, they tend to become shorter. Tendons also get stiffer as they get shorter so that some immediate stiffness often results from exercise but later one is in better shape. Stretching should be done daily and with a focus on the muscles that need work. Stretching of a muscle begins with wi th the basic unit of contraction in the muscle fiber. When this basic unit contracts, the muscle fiber lengthens. One holds the stretch (but not one’s breathing) for several seconds as the connective tissue aligns itself with the force of the tension and the muscle spindle becomes accustomed to the new length and stabilizes in that position.  When muscles muscle s contract, they produce tension whe where re the muscle is connected to the ten tendon don and a signal is sent to the spine. This signal tells the muscle where the maximum tension will occur and a reaction occurs that allows the muscle to relax. Watching good athletes can be helpful as they are well versed in a good follow-through to any motion. The torque created by  a proper golf swing produces an enormous amount of pressure on the lower spine, as does rowing at the catch of the stroke. The follow-through actions that professional athletes use help them reduce lower back problems related to the spine. Athletes and musicians must have good posture, and so one is admonished over and over again to sit up straight and, if one must  lean forward, to bend from the hips instead of slouching.

SYSTEMS OF BODY MOVEMENT  Warm-ups must precede stretching. Warm-ups bring blood to the muscles and m make ake injuries from stretching and performing less likely. Cold muscles are more likely to tear. Warm-ups might include jogging in place, riding a stationary bicycle, and doing aerobics or activities associated with Tai Chi. At least six major systems of helpful body movements are widely used in the United States. Classes in one or more of the systems can be found in many gyms and healthTai clubs. Chi  has more than a hundred movements and postures that appear effortless. Slow  dance motions, pushing one’s way through imaginary water, breathing deeply, maintaining one’s balance and centeredness, and gently moving one’s arms and body are all possible Tai Chi movements. Chi is the vital force or energy that animates the body, so both the mind and the body are involved. One might slowly and gently give a friend frien d a high five or think of clouds, flowers, gentle winds, and sweeping wings. Tai Chi also has a martial component in which a fighter anticipates the movement of an opponent, gets out of the way gracefully, and follows that movement in a receptive mode rather than an aggressive approach. The important factors are a straight spine, abdominal breathing, and natural moves. Tai Chi is related to Wushu,  which was accepted at the end of th thee twentieth century as a competitive sport in the Asian Games; this form of movable yoga informs us of correct and incorrect warm-up motions. Motions, often utilizing the hands, always maintain a sense of centeredness of the body. The  warm-up does n not ot involve bouncing or vigorous exercises; its purpose is to prepare one for stretching. These low-impact movements can supposedly burn bur n more calories than many vigorous activities such as Professional musicians may spend 10hours to 15 of minutes in  warming up prior to downhill stretching stretchin gskiing. for another 20 m minutes inutes before begi beginning nning rigorous practice or performance. School musicians do not have this amount of time but a physical

 warm up should be a part of the beginning of each rehearsal. rehe arsal. Yoga is similar to Tai Chi but without the movement. It relies on the weight of one’s body  to gently and gradually stretch muscle tissues prior to active stretching. Yoga stresses proper

 

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance   91

breathing and a connection of mind and body. The Pilates system has at its core a pelvic and thoracic stabilization similar to yoga and an association between body and mind, flow and precision of movement. The mind is important as the student must recognize poor postural habits and motions and use thinking, sensing, and imagining to improve any and all movements. The Feldenkra  Feldenkrais  is  technique for warming up combines mind and motion in exercises that  usually begin with lying on the floor. Feldenkrais uses gentle movement and directed attention to improve function, and to enhance one’s ability to think and move in the domains in which one wants optimal performance. Private lessons are given as  Functional Integration ; group lesThrough Movement  sons entitled . The teacher often mental picture and asks are students to Awareness portray that image through movement, andprovides studentsa can practice some Feldenkrais by thinking through the movements. The students might sit or lie on the floor or even stand with each movement, and the movements are designed to exercise a specific part of  the body . Te Teacher touching is related to better knowing one’s body body,, a technique known as body  1 mapping.. The central point in the Feldenkrais method, as in the Alexander technique (see mapping below), is for the individual to become better acquainted with his or her own body body.. The Taubman approach for pianists is similar in that the emphasis is on unified finger, hand, and arm movements. Taubman has exercises that facilitate changes of direction, leaps, fingerings, legato, and tone exercises, as well as for avoiding incorrect finger, hand, and arm movements in response to notation. The back, shoulders, and neck are not key; rather it is the hand, wrist, and forearm movements, that are most critical. The Alexander technique may be the most popular among musicians advocating intensity   without tension. Alexander’s focus state statess that the primar y control of the body is the interaction of head, neck, and back. In this sense it is comparable to the Palmer Method in chiropractic massage, where the goal is to work on the neck muscles to provide ease and freedom of  movement, balance, support, flexibility, and coordination. Both rely on the importance of  pulling or pushing on the head, neck, or spinal area with the idea that if the neck muscles are properly aligned and the head is balanced directly above the spine, performing can be free and relaxed. Proper posture is stressed and a well-trained teacher is as likely to watch students  walk, bend, reach, or sit as to watch them the m play an instrument. instrume nt. If a player pulls the h head ead down and back into the neck, this initiates a downward pressure that has a collapsing influence on the rest of the spine and the whole body structure. Improper use of neck muscles can cause headaches, backaches, asthmatic conditions, and a general lack of suppleness and lightness. The task is to free the neck and release the head away from the neck—if possible, the neck should be slightly forward and up to encourage a lengthening of the spine and its effect on the torso. Physicians agree that tightness in the neck area can affect all of the muscles in the body. Instruction in the Alexander technique techni que is individual, not group; it takes a trained teacher to correct and guide. The guidance might begin with learning how to get out of a chair or pick up a pencil. One learns all of the facts of good posture such as that a heavy object should be held close to the body. The Alexander technique is based on psychology and biomechanics.  An extension of Alexander principles is body or muscle mapping. Joan and Alexander Murray, flute instructors, have a well-developed system of muscle mapping for flutists, perhaps based on the body mapping introduced into string instruction by William Conable at Ohio State University. Students are often required to diagram the muscles used in the multiple aspects of  performance—similar to a course in physiology. At lessons, students are asked which muscles are being used in a continuing effort to focus on knowing how their body works. Critics argue that our habits are so strong and sensation so unreliable as to negate aspects of body mapping.

PREVENTIVE AND CORRECTIVE EXERCISES  A physician who in midlife elected to obtain a doctorate in music begins his dissertation di ssertation stating that playing the guitar involves the whole musculoskeletal system from lower limbs and trunk to fingers. Although the focus is usually on the upper limbs, the other parts of the musculoskeletal system provide basic stability and support (with some mobility in the th e pelvis, spine, and nec neck), k), which creates a dynamic equilibrium that is modulated at various levels in the 2

brain.. Flexibility is a key element of fitness. Stretching, done after the warm-up, should feel brain 1

Brandfonbrener,, Alice (2002). “The Arts in the Post-9/11 New World.” Medical Problems of Perform-  Brandfonbrener

ing A rtist  rtist s, s, 17 (1), (1), pp. 1–2. 2 Ozgen, Mesut (2006). Designing Technical Training Training Programs for Classical Guitarists Based on Exercise  Physiology Principles . DMA dissertation. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, U niversity, p. 5.

 

92

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance

good. Static stretches can be held for 10 to 30 seconds and then repeated a couple of times for their full benefit. When the muscles are in a stretched position, they become used to the new  length and tend to stay in this position. When muscles contract, they produce tension at the point where muscles connect to a tendon. Some exercises can be done individually in the rehearsal whereas others should be done at home and incorporated into the practice routine. Many are so well accepted that individuals in all walks of life do these stretches on a regular basis to ensure that their bodies remain relaxed, flexible, and able to perform any task that requires coordinated muscular movements. Ample The spaceteacher for individual movement is necessary these exercises arespace to bebetween used in the rehearsal. should use good judgment as toifwhether adequate individuals is available. Static flexibility exercises are often done prior to beginning an activity like performing; dynamic flexibility exercises are mastered to be used while performing. Isometric contraction exercises take little time and are fine exercises for strengthening muscles. muscle s. One pushes or pulls against an immovable object such as a wall or pits one muscle against another. This can be done alone or with the person next to you pushing on the designated muscle. You relax and  your partner pushes the muscles into a static stretch and holds it there for a few seconds. One hard six-to-eight-second isometric contraction can make a major difference in strength in as little as six months’ time. All exercises should start slowly and with less than full force. Other individual exercises can be derived derive d for each muscle group. For the neck , sit or stand  with interlaced fingers on the forehead. Keep shoulders down. Forcibly exert a for ward push or pull of the head while resisting equally hard with your hands. Then place your right hand on left side of head. Gently pull the head toward the right shoulder and hold for 10 to 30 seconds. Switch sides and repeat. Pull your head straight back, either supporting your neck with  your hands or pulling back without wit hout use of the hand, keeping the eyes and jaw level while retaining your best posture. Repeat 10 times. For the shoulder blade pinch, pull the shoulder blades together to create tension in the upper back area with arms at your sides. As you do this, th is, your chest should move upward. Hold. Then relax and gently pull your head forward. Straighten the curve in your neck by standing tall with chin slightly tucked in. To straighten the curve in the lower back, tuck in your stomach and tilt your pelvis forward while tightening the muscles in your buttocks and bending  your knees slightly.

 Wrist and Arm Exercises Wrist  The wrist is aided by keeping the elbow straight, grasping one hand and slowly bend-

ing that wrist (up and then down) until a stretch is felt. Wing Stretcher  Stand erect, elbows at shoulder height, fists clenched in front of chest. Thrust 

elbows backward vigorously without arching back. Keep head erect, elbows at shoulder height. Other Arm Exercises  Stand with feet slightly apart. Flex right elbow close to the body,

palm up. Place left hand over right and forcibly attempt to curl right arm upwards while giving equally strong resistance with the left hand. Repeat with left arm. Hold your left arm just  above the elbow with your right hand. Gently pull your left elbow toward your opposite shoulder as you look over your left shoulder. Hold the stretch. Do both sides. The lateral raise is done while standing straight with arms at your sides with a heavy book in the left  hand. Slowly lift your left arm out to the side until it is parallel to the floor. Hold for a few  seconds and then slowly lower it back to your side. Repeat several times and then switch sides. To do a shoulder shrug, raise the top of your shoulders toward your ears until you feel a slight tension in your neck and shoulders. Hold this position for about five seconds. Then relax your shoulders downward into their normal position. Repeat several times. Stand tall and erect, keep the chin tucked in, keep the head and shoulders in alignment, and slowly circle the shoulders backward. Relax and repeat several times.

Body Exercises The general idea in getting ready for an intense performance session is to move, wiggle, shrug,

move arms forward and backward, stretch the neck, and bend to facilitate the blood flowing through the muscles and, thus, to warm them. The musician needs to strengthen all of the muscles that circle the spine. The abdominal muscles should be contracted during most exercises.

 

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance   93

Contracting is a small tightening, not the same as sucking in your gut. Cold muscles simply will not stretch. Easy-to-do exercises include swinging your arms, ar ms, giving yourself a hug, touching your chin to your chest, leaning back, leaning back while putting your hands on the lower back and rocking back and forth, or standing on one leg and pulling the other back to touch the buttocks. Breathe deeply while doing all exercises. Massaging the muscles is recommended, your own muscles or those of the person next to you. Standing while playing is better for the posture than sitting—except for the cellist. When standing for lengthy periods of time keep the hips level. This may require resting a foot on a stool. This posture straightens the lower back and keeps it from sagging. A and break, after sitting forms a long time, should standing up,  with the knees slightly bent, placing your pal palms on the lower backinclude jus justt above the hips, fingers pointing downward. Gently push your palms forward to create an extension in the lower back. After sitting, just standing and “shaking out” the arms, neck, and legs reduces tension. Cramps occur from muscle overuse. Slowly and gently stretch the affected part to lengthen the muscle that has shortened by rubbing and massaging to stimulate blood flow. Body Bender  Stand, feet shoulder width apart, hands behind neck, fingers interlocked.

Bend trunk sideways to the left as far as possible, keeping hands behind neck. Repeat to the right. For a backbend stretch, lean back, bending your lower back with little or no bend at  the knees. For the abdomen, stand, knees slightly flexed, hands resting on knees while you contract your abdominal muscles. To reduce tension in the lower back, tighten your buttock muscles and at the same time tighten your abdominal muscles to flatten the lower back. Hold this position for several seconds. Concentrate on maintaining constant muscle contraction. You can do this sitting or standing and the bonus is that it helps good posture.

Other Exercises Standing 

1. Facing the wall, with hands on the wall, arms slightly wider apart than shoulder width and feet six inches from the wall, gently lean the torso toward the wall. Practice by moving the feet farther from the wall. 2. Grab the top of a file cabinet or similar object object and let your upper body drop down, keepkeeping knees slightly bent. Hips should be directly above your feet. Bend knees at different  heights and place the hands at different heights (filing cabinet, table, buffet, etc.). 3. Stand with your back to the wall with head, shoulders, buttocks buttocks,, and heels all touching the wall. Hold this position for half a minute. Then take two steps away from the wall, step back to the wall, and realign. 4. Stand and grab the left foot with the right hand. Holding the top of the left foot foot from the inside of the foot, gently pull the heel toward the buttocks until a stretch is felt in the front of thigh. The knee bends at a natural angle and creates a good stretch of  several muscles. Sitting 

1. A variation of stretching stretching the neck is to sit in a straight-backed chair with feet flat on the floor and elbows resting on a table. Place the right hand on the side of the face. Push the head against the resistance of the hand and hold for five seconds. Relax and then repeat with the other side of the neck. 2. Sit in a chair with your back back straight, feet firmly on the floor, floor, toes pointing up slightly. slightly. Lock hands behind head, elbows out, and chin down. Contract abdominal muscles. To loosen up, twist the upper body to one side as far as you can, then repeat four times in the same direction. For the last time, rotate, hold, and then flex the torso forward, leaning toward the floor with the elbows. Hold for a few seconds. Return to an upright position. Repeat about 10 times and repeat the routine for the other side. Lying 

1. The basic crunch works the upper abdominals. The sit-up is not a recommended exercise but the curl and crunch are good exercises. The curl: Lie on your back, knees bent, feet flat on the floor, the fingers interlaced behind the head and the arms ar ms resting on the

floor. Keeping the lower back pressed to the floor, slowly curl your head and shoulders up, hold for a few seconds and then lower yourself. The pelvis is tilted to flatten the back, as the spine should not be flat against the floor. The pelvic tilt is done by lying on

 

94

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance

 your back with knees bent and feet flat on the floor with arms straight down on either side of the body. Pull the abdominal muscles in, tighten the buttock muscles, and press the small of the back into the floor. Add a twist to work the oblique muscles. As you lift, twist your upper body to the right knee, bringing your left shoulder toward your right  knee. Finish with a reverse crunch. 2. Lie on your back. With your legs straight, bring one knee up to your chest, pulling it in  with your hands as you curl your head toward your knee. Relax, repeat, and then switch to the other side. Then bring both knees up together to stretch the lower back. 3. Lie on your back, resting your arms at your sides and bend your knees at a 90-degree angle. Your hands and feet should be flat on the floor. Then lift your left foot and rest  the ankle comfortably on your right knee. Raise the hips and lower back, squeezing the buttock muscles as you go until your head h ead is about eight inches inche s off the floor. Don’t raise  your heel as that’s cheating. 4. Lie on your back with your knees bent bent and heels twelve inches from the body. body. Place a small piece of foam at least three inches thick (or a light medicine ball) between your knees. Draw your navel in toward your spine and squeeze the foam tightly between the knees as you raise your hips off the floor. Make sure your buttock muscles are contracted. 5. Lie on your stomach stomach with arms on the floor above the head, hands and knees on the floor, and your back flat. Tighten your abdominal and buttock muscles. Lift your right  arm straight in front of you while simultaneously lifting your left leg straight in back of   you. Do not lift your foot higher than your hips or your hands higher than your leg. Do not let your back sag. Do not arch your back. Spine Exercises 

1. A more difficult difficult exe exercise rcise is the the superman . Start with the knees and elbows on the floor and locked. One lifts the opposite arm and leg off the floor while keeping the hips and shoulders down. 2. We would be remiss remiss in not suggesting an exercise you can do while getting into bed. Sit  on the edge of the bed, feet on the floor, and place one hand on your chest and the other on your abdomen. Breathe naturally. As you inhale, gently arch your spine, lifting  your chest and collarbone as high as you can. Look up, stopping as soon as you see the ceiling. As you exhale, draw your tailbone under you, and let your back curl forward. Look down. On your next inhale, go back to the beginning and slowly repeat the exercise several times. 3. A modification of the cat stretch stretch starts with hands and knees on the floo floorr, shoulders above the hands, and hips above the knees. Tighten the abdominal muscles and buttocks. Let your head hang down naturally. Pull the chin toward your chest and arch the back toward the ceiling. Slowly return to the original position. 4. This modified push-up is helpful: lie on your sto stomach mach and raise the head and upper torso while keeping the elbows on the floor. Hold the position for at least a minute. 5. The side-bridge is an exercise that helps support support the spine. Assume a position that puts the muscles at a disadvantage that forces them to work harder by lying on your left side  with your knees straight and your uppe upperr body propped up on your left elbow and forearm. Place your right hand on your left shoulder and slowly raise your hips until your body forms a straight line from your shoulders to your knees. Hold this position for several seconds. Switch sides. A variation is to lie on your side with your legs bent at the knee and your upper hand across your chest. Slowly raise your shoulders, keeping the spine straight and hold for eight to ten seconds. Do both sides. 6. And probably the most important preventive advice for instrumentalists: Don’t trip on the risers!

OTHER HEALTH ISSUES

The statement is often made that hearing loss is the most pervasive occupational health problem in America with more than one-tenth of the population exposed to continuous or intermittent loud noise. The data are mixed as to the degree of hearing loss in musicians.

 

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance   95

Electronic gadgets allow us to have our music loud and it is likely that extended periods of  sound above 80 dB are harmful. Lead trumpet players, trombonists, and saxophonists in jazz bands are often exposed to 90 to 95 dB. Electric guitar players are probably exposed to even greater sound levels. Ear plugs made of a fibrous substance reduce the sound level while not  interfering (too much) with the ability to hear the necessary musical components. A draft position statement of the National Association for Music Education (MENC, 2007) states that  “exposure to loud music for long durations can lead to noise-induced hearing hearin g loss, a problem that is increasingly prevalent among chi among children ldren due, in part, to changing listening habits associ3

ated withaspersonal listening Teachers devices .” can devices.” This is not only true but also applicable to teachers well as students. bestatement exposed for extended periods to sound exceeding the 85 dBA that is considered the maximum safe level. Educators working with percussion ensembles and jazz bands appear to be especially subjected to excessive sound. One final area to consider is that of diseases dise ases from germs. Many diseases may be transmitted by the sharing of mouthpieces. Include adequate means for sterilizing mouthpieces in the annual budget request. Cramps are identified as focal dystonia and can be permanent, as illustrated by the loss of use of the right hand by pianists Leon Fleisher and Gary Graffman. Hand cramps seem to occur most often with flutists and clarinetists. Clarinetists with a tightness in the thumb and  wrist may have De Quervain’s Q uervain’s syndrome, and a nd poor posture is the leading cause of carpal tunnel syndrome. Researchers have tried to rectify weakenesses that are found in specific instruments. Smaller-size instruments may be the answer. For example, flutes are sometimes made with two head joints, the curved and the standard. Lighter bows are made, usually of carbon fiber. Different length mouthpieces can help protect brass players from lip damage. There are cases  where lowering the bridge on string instrum instruments ents or on the guitar alleviates stress. Flutists use a device called Bo-pep to better fit the hand to the instrument. On some clarinets the thumb support is placed in a different position to accommodate individual differences and there is a  wide variety of thumb supports. Some teachers recommend a neck strap for clarinetists or even a harness to prevent the choking feeling that comes from neck straps. Finger supports are available for trumpets and guitars.  We have presented a number of stretching stretching exercises in which flexibility is a key element  of fitness. Stretching should be done after the warm-up—the warm-up will have brought  blood to the muscles and fluid to the joints. Stretching should feel good, not carried beyond the point of mild discomfort. Static stretches can be held for 10 to 30 seconds and then repeated a couple of times for their full benefit. When the muscle is in a stretched position, it  becomes used to the new length and tends to stay in this position. When muscles contract they  produce tension at the point where the muscles connect to a tendon.

PERFORMANCE ANXIETY  Although this chapter focuses on the physiology of performance, performance anxiety, a mental process, affects the physiology of performance in numerous ways. Must one seek a psychological counselor if nervous while performing? Probably not, as more than half of professional musicians report moderate to marked distress, with at least 10 percent indicating that  they are always anxious about performing. A few students may feel relaxed even when faced  with an audition, which is reported to be a greater cause of anxiety than public performance. per formance.  A bit of anxiety can help students per form musically: They get “psyched up,” experience an adrenaline rush, and become motivated to do well. Symptoms can be cognitive, behavioral, or physiological and differ somewhat by gender and instrument as well as by individual. Psychologists define anxiety in one of two categories: state or trait anxiety. Trait anxiety relates to personal characteristics, part of the body’s crisis system learned at an early age. These individuals are likely “scared to death” when called on in the classroom. They have learned to fear a cracked note, a squeak, incorrect bowing, and parental disapproval. Anxiety can cause a shortness of breath, dizziness, inadequate oxygen State anxiety  getting to the muscles, and constriction air passages. relates more to the situation at hand—to peer pressure, previousoffailures, inadequate practice, a bad reed, previous successes (individual and group), demand on self, fatigue, home issues, excessive caffeine

3

MENC: The National Association for Music Education (2007).  Draft Position Statement on Hearing  Loss . Reston, VA: Author.

 

96

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance

and/or sugar, and fear of humiliation. The way the situation is presented to students can cause any number of reactions, positive and/or negative. There are solutions in addition to prayer, carrying a rabbit’s foot or four leaf clover in  your instrument case. The exercises suggested earlier in this chapter—Alexander te technique, chnique,  yoga, stretching, Tai Chi, massage therapy—are all effective. effe ctive. In addition, biofeedback (whi (which ch actually increases blood flow or air), talking about the situation (mind over matter), “self-hypnosis,” and trust in the teacher and one’s peers all work. Directors need to remind students of the importance of communicating the art form to an audience and that of theon concert is to inner give the audience pleasure. Anfor excellent  book for every  o one to ne  to the readpurpose is one based Gallwey’s game ideas and adapted music 4 by Barry Green. Green.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What physical devices are available for each instrument to assist in improving the physiology of  performing? 2. How would you handle handle the situation if your oboist were advised to have braces on his or her teeth? Is this different than for a trumpet player? 3. What differences exist between between tendons and ligaments? If you wished to strengthen either of  these, what might be appropriate exercises? 4. What techniques techniques described in the chapter chapter (e.g.,  Alexander  Alexa nder techniq technique) ue) can best best be adapted for for in-

strumental music? Why? Are there others not mentioned that may be helpful to instrumentalists? 5. Demonstrate to the class, as you would to a middle school student, Yoga, Pilates, Feldenkrais, or another such technique. Describe how you could implement these techniques in a small band or orchestra rehearsal room that has limited space for movement. 6. For violinists and violists, violists, of what value are the chin rest and the shoulder pad? Describe both the advantages and disadvantages of using them.

 WEB SITES Musician’s Health Drummer’s Health  Alexander Technique Technique Feldenkrais Method Medical Problems of Performing Perfor ming Artists (MPPA) Performing Arts Medicine Association (PAMA) Pilates Taubman Approach Mayo Clinic Tai chi: International Center for the Enhancement of Learning Potential

 www.musicianshealth.com  www.musicianshealth.com  www.drummershealth.com  www.drummersh ealth.com  www.alexandertechnique.com  www.alexandertechnique.com  www.feldenkrais.com  www.feldenkrais.com  www.scian  www.sciandmed.com/mppa dmed.com/mppa  www.artsmed.org  www.artsmed.org  www.pilates-studio.com  www.pilates -studio.com  www.taubman-institute.com  www.taubman-institute.com  www.mayoclinic.com/health/tai-ch  www.mayoclinic.com/health/tai-chi/SA00087 i/SA00087  www.icelp.org  www.icelp.org

4

Barry Green with W. Timothy Gallwey (1986). The Inner Game of Music. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday.

10

 

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings 

E

ach wind instrument has its unique characteristics, including fingerings, inherent intonation problems, and timbre. The wind instruments also have common characteristics. As their collective name indicates, each instrument’s “tone generator” is dependent on air, affecting tone quality and intonation. This chapter is devoted to common characteristics of   wind instruments, instr uments, primarily addressin addressing g similar and dissimilar factors of the woodwind fami family  ly  and, to a lesser extent, similar factors of the brass family, which are covered more thoroughly  in in Chapter  Chapter 16. T The he acoustic principles for strings are also examined. First and foremost, the brass or woodwind player must have a good sound. No matter how well developed other musical skills are, if the student plays with a bad tone all else is of little concern. Tone quality is determined by a number of factors: equipment, embouchure, and breathing. The first two topics are covered in the chapters for individual instruments and the third topic is covered in the present chapter. Each instrument produces a unique timbre, determined by the overtones present, their strength, and the degree to which they are audible. The harmonic overtone tone that predominates helps create the unique timbre. Whenever a particular musical pitch is produced by a wind instrument, one or more overtones of that pitch also sound. The details of sound production and perception make up the discipline of acoustics.

BREATHING Proper breathing involves maximizing the amount of air drawn into the lungs plus the th e process of exhaling that supports the tone.

Posture Establishing good breathing habits is possible only when the performer establishes and maintains good posture. Though the position for playing a wind instrument may appear unnatural, the proper position need not and should not strain any part of  the body. The neck, throat, shoulders, chest, and arms must be free of tension; the upper part of the body rests naturally on the lower part, and the player is alert but relaxed. Good performance posture is difficult to attain if the student has used the  wrong muscles for years and incorrect posture has become habitual.   Fig bitual. Figur uree 10 10–1 –1 illustrates the difference between proper and improper posture and the effect of the breathing system. Figu Figure re 1 10– 0–2 2 il illustrates lustrates proper posture for playing a wind instrument. Note that the player pictured appears to be relaxed and comfortably seated. The arms are free, extended from the body. Elbows are comfortably away from the rib cage and feet  are flat on the floor, balancing any weight. The instrument is

held with the hands and neck strap, not propped on a leg or

Figure 10–1 Proper Proper an and d Improper Improper Postu Posture: re: The Affect on Breathing 97

 

98

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings

chair. The body is erect, eyes straight ahead, and no neck tension is apparent. The “rag doll” approach is frequently used to eliminate tension throughout the body so that the right muscles for playing can take over. To be a rag doll, flop over from the hips, let the top of the body fall in a limp, rag-doll fashion, and rotate the head in a large arc. In rehearsal this exercise can be used as part of the warm-up before students take their seats. Exercises to loosen facial muscles, as dropping and taking deep relaxed breaths athrough asuch “throat as openthe as jaw a tunnel,” yawning, and extending pencil straight out of the middle of the lips for 30 seconds, then yawning more, will further aid relaxation. Encouraging relaxation techniques as the first item of business in rehearsals and lessons can establish good habits. Relaxation exercises are limited only by the teacher’s imagination. For all winds, the correct playing position is based on moving the instrument to the player, the mouthpiece or reed to the embouchure. In no case, not even with the sousaphone, tuba, or baritone saxophone, is it desirable to bring the player to the instrument or to adjust the head and shoulders to the position of  the mouthpiece. On the larger instruments, any supporting stand should be adjusted, extra shanks used, or even a towel folded to the correct width (on the knee for the baritone) to bring the Figure Figure 1 10–2 0–2 Proper Proper Posture Posture While While Playing

mouthpiece to the to player. Thebending player should sit or stand with the spine straight prevent the trachea. Mosttall players  will need to sit s it away from the back of the chair, unless they are tall tal l enough to keep the spine straight. The notion of a string attached to the top of the head being pulled like a puppet will help create a posture in which the air column is not constrained at the throat or by the rib cage.  A relaxed but erect posture is also necessary in marching band. Players must remain erect (“stand tall”) without tension and allow the breathing apparatus to remain relaxed in order to maximize the airstream necessary to adequately project the sound.

Diaphragm Proper breathing involves the diaphragm as well as the lungs. With hands on the waist just  below the rib cage, thumbs in front and fingers in back, one can feel movement in the lower torso when breathing properly. If the diaphragm draws the maximum amount of air into the lungs, the lower torso will expand in the back as well as the front. It  is impossible to expand the back of the abdominal cavity without expanding the front, but it is possible for the front to expand without the back expanding. The diaphragm is a rather large large,, flat muscle located on a plane Dome-shaped Top muscle parallel with the floor (Figure (Figure 10–3) 10–3)   that separates the upper body  muscle of of diaphragm diaphragm from the lower. When the diaphragm is relaxed, it has the shape of a dome lying over the abdomen. When this muscle contracts, it flattens to create a vacuum, drawing air into the lungs and displacing the orFigure Figure 10–3 10–3 Drawin Drawing g o off Uppe Upperr gans in the abdomen, resulting in a slight projection of the abdominal Torso Showing Location of   wall. Due to th thee fi fixed xed n nature ature of th thee abd abdomina ominall viscera, vi scera, there is a limit  Diaphragm to how far this projection can extend; consequently, full and deep breaths result in the rib cage expanding. Proper breathing does not  raise the shoulders. One inhales downward, drawing air to ward the waist, waist , a practi practice ce th that at eelimi liminates nates raisin raising g th thee shoulder sh oulderss and help helpss ens ensure ure tthe he p proproper use of the diaphragm. Thefingers feelingpositioned for a deeptobreath be developed taking sudden inward gasp, with the feel thecan expansion of the by lower backa and stomach, then shouting “hey” in a deep voice and feeling what happens to the mus-

cles. Practicing Santa Claus belly laughs or panting like a tired puppy on a hot day can reinforce these sensations. The following devices are helpful for teaching teachin g the student to inhale correctly.

 

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings   99

1. Imagine stepping into a cold shower on a hot day day.. The result is a sudden gasp as the air rushes deep inside, seemingly to the stomach. 2. Imagine taking an unmannerly “slurp” of soup. Actually make the sound, and then duplicate the sound silently. 3. Sit in a chair and lean forward with the chest touching or almost touching the knees and the arms extending extendi ng beside the legs to the floor. floor. Breathe as deeply as possible. In this position it is difficult to inhale incorrectly. 4. Inhale several short breaths in sequence. For instance, before playing a whole note, inhale on the four preceding counts. 5. Stand with the heels and shoulder blades touching the wall. Inhale without moving the shoulders or chest. 6. Lying on the floor, inhale slowly, slowly, the small of the back touching the floor.  Whereas these exercises communicate the feel of proper breathing, in actual pe performrformance the majority of breaths are taken take n ver veryy quickly. Therefore, breathing exercises should also be practiced rapidly. Musicians should also try to eliminate unnecessary sounds during inhalation. Controlled proper breathing means inhaling sufficient air and then exhaling it under pressure. Many players run out of air because they force it out too fast, a universal problem  with beginning begin ning flute players. The player who can sustain a long phrase is one who has (1) a good embouchure that enables an economical use of air, and (2) control over the muscles used for exhaling air. Although most students can learn to inhale properly, the process of  exhaling correctly has the most direct effect on tone quality, pitch and intonation, and range. To exhale properly, the following exercises are helpful: 1. Hiss in imitation of a teakettle (being careful to make sure that the sound is produced produced by air rushing by the tongue and not produced by a tense, tight throat). 2. Blow up a balloo balloon. n. 3. Whistle a note in a comfortable register and sustain it as long long as possible without  diminuendo. 4. Place a piece of paper paper agains againstt the wall. Let go and try to keep it in place with you yourr airstream. Exhaling is often neglected, or taught in such a manner as to increase tension or pressure in the body. The first exhale following a slow inhale should be like a sigh. The inhale should be silent (as any noise indicates tension in the throat or mouth), and the sigh should expel all the air in a second or less. Exercises to assist in controlling the exhale might include a slow, four-count, four-count, relaxed inhale followed by blowing out 16 separate se parate candles (“hooing”) and observing the belly bouncing. Initially, some students will have difficulty hooing 16 times; others may cheat, holding back the air to have enough air remaining in the lungs at the end of  the count. One of the signs of an incorrect exhale is that the belly is not bouncing. Another exhalation exercise has the students hold a sheet of music in the middle and at the top about  six inches in front of their face. Then they should take a slow, full, relaxed breath and exhale toward the paper attempting to blow it straight away from the face. Any exercise that attempts to blow an object straight out reduces unnecessary pressure from the muscles surrounding the lungs. Here are additional inhaling and exhaling exercises that may speed the development of  proper breathing habits. 1. Inhale as though yawning and exhale by sighing to promote relaxation through both the inhale and the exhale. 2. Inhale as as in a rel relaxed axed gasp. gasp. 3. Inhale rapidly. rapidly. 4. Pretend to blow out the candles on on the birthday cake at your one-hundredth one-hundredth birthday. 5. Inhale while the teacher counts aloud to four and then exhale hot air in four counts at  the same tempo.

6. Inhale while the teacher counts aloud to four and then exhale cold air in eight counts. 7. Inhale while the teacher counts aloud to four and then exhale while hissing fo forr twelve counts.

 

100

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings

 A helpful concept is to think of blowing the th e air through the horn, through the stand, and through  the wall. The idea of projecting air through the instrument rather than just into the mouthpiece helps both inhaling and exhaling and creates a more centered tone. Tense throat muscles that constrict the throat and affect the free passage of air are a common breathing problem. Symptoms of a closed throat include raised shoulders, tense neck muscles, slightly protruding tendons and blood vessels in the neck, a pinched sound in the upper register, a weak lower register, and the inability to tongue rapidly. A closed throat  may result from attempting to play in the upper register before the muscles are developed (usually to satisfy demands the performing asto inyawn, jazz and marching band). For players with a the closed throat,of the remedy lies in situation, pretending relaxed gasping, and fogging a mirror while saying “ah” (i.e., slower inhalation and exhaling a warm airstream).  When practicing to correct a closed throat, the student should avoid playing in the upper register of the instrument, concentrating on the registers in which playing is comfortable, relaxed, and in which a good sound can be produced. Tension must be avoided in all parts of the  body for good wind playing. Breathing can be restricted by playing with the teeth together (a problem with young brass players), blocking the air passage with the tongue, or failing to exhale completely. The quantity of air required for good tone quality varies with the different instruments.  Among woodwind instruments, the oboist requires the least amount of air, air, the bassoonist and clarinetist the most. With the brasses, the air required is proportionate to the overall length and diameter of the tubing in the various instruments: The tuba requires the most, the trombone more than the trumpet, and an d the horn the least. Young players often confuse the quantity  of air  with the speed of the airstream. The quantity of air determines the volume level, and the speed of  the blowing air determines the pitch of theof note. frequently exhale too much air whentoo they should be the same amount air Students faster faster.. Another common problem is exhaling slowly for a given pitch, which creates an unfocused tone. The steadiness of the speed of the airstream is crucial both to good tone quality and to good intonation. Gaining the benefits of breathing exercises and proper breath support takes time— months and years—not a few focused rehearsals. Band and orchestra rehearsals should frequently start with breathing exercises. Breathing exercises in the midst of a rehearsal are also a valuable way to refocus a group after a break or intensive rehearsing. Full ensemble practice on breathing exercises should include the percussionists and string players, as proper breathing improves virtually every aspect of band or orchestra performance (e.g., entrances) and emphasizes the importance of proper breathing in daily life. The exercises should start with a relaxed, slow inhale that fills the lungs at the bottom, then the middle, then the upper part without raising the shoulders. Having students extend both hands/arms above their head and inhale a large amount of air demonstrates filling the bottom part of the lungs. A student may attempt to please the teacher by pushing the stomach out—muscles that  obviously are not related to the breathing apparatus. Teachers must emphasize relaxation during inhaling to allow the appropriate parts of the body to expand. As the daily breathing exercises progress, the inhaling should become more rapid, with continual emphasis on a relaxed, erect body.

 ACOUSTICAL PRINCIPLES FOR WINDS  Although more detailed and technical explanations are available, some knowledge of the acoustics of woodwind and brass instruments is useful for clarifying any misconceptions from “common wisdom.” Two important terms for all musical instruments are resonance and damping . Everything that can vibrate has a resonant frequency, the “pitch” at which it will vibrate most freely when set in motion. Some objects have more than one resonant frequency. Multiple resonant frequencies are related mathematically, as one frequency is twice as fast as its fundamental, or three times as fast, and so on. The resonant frequency is the frequency with the greatest amplitude (loudness), or the longest sound, for any given object. Tuning forks are labeled with their resonant frequencies, and it is this frequency’s pitch that is heard when a tuning fork is made to vibrate.1

1

Benade, Arthur H. (1992). Horns, Strings, and Harmony. New York: Dover Publications, pp. 29-31.

 

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings   101

Damping  All sounds have h ave a measurable decay. A pen striking the desk is dampened ver y quickly—in a matter of a few milliseconds. The water glass has a longer damping time and the tuning fork still longer. Factors such as friction, mass, and sha shape pe affect the damping time. Mass and shape 2 along with the damping time affect resonance. resonance. The frequency of a pitch is the number of wavelengths per second. The sound perceived comprises the pitch’s fundamental frequency plus pitches derived from its multiples, called overtones. “Pure” sounds that are generated electronically have only one frequency. Upper harmonics, overtones, or partials are present in the tone produced by all musical instruments; their amplitudes vary with the instrument. A glockenspiel sounds brighter than a marimba due to the upper partial being much stronger (greater in amplitude). The presence of specific partials (multiples) when a fundamental pitch is sounded, as well as each partial’s individual amplitude, gives each musical instrument its own timbre.  A musical instrument achieves its maximum amplitude (loudness) at its resonant frequency. The resonant frequency is also the least damped frequency. When a trumpet player attempts to make a piano string sound by playing a specific note, while depressing the damper key, the resonate frequency will dominate and the upper partials will quietly ring. When the exact same pitch is played, the piano string will vibrate.  Air contained in a bottle, jug, pipe, or other solid container will vibrate at its particular resonant frequency if some type of tone generator (vibrating reed, plucked string, buzzing lips) sets the air molecules in motion at the appropriate speed. Wind instruments are lengths of  plastic, wood, or metal tubing in which the air column inside the tube is set into motion at a resonant frequency; string instruments instrume nts are a somewhat oddly shaped box that encloses en closes the air, providing a multitude of resonant frequencies due to that shape. For winds, the vibrating air column is called a standing wave, as it primarily remains in the tubing with very little air escaping, due to the difference in air pressure on the “bell end” (or open tone holes) and the tone generator on the other end. The cymbals and timpani are particularly useful for coloring effects due to their relatively long damping time. The bursts of air from brass instruments pass Open Pipe (Conical) through the mouthpiece and create a pressure  wave inside the brass tubing where air molecules Open push against each other traveling longitudinally  Open  Air  Air through the horn (as opposed to transverse motion when a violin string is plucked). The longituOne Cycle Complete dinal pressure wave is kept in motion by a stream of tiny bursts of air at an appropriate frequency or Figure 10–4 Illustrati Illustration on of the the Standing Standing Wav Wave e of Most Most speed. These standing waves are stationary be-  Wind Instruments tween points called nodes—points where the longitudinal motion is reversed. For brasses the vibrating air column in the tubing is reversed at  the bell and at the mouthpiece where the air column is reenergized (see  Figure 10–4);  10–4);  for  woodwinds it is i s at  the  the bell or last open hole reversed to the point where the reed reenergizes the air column. column.3

Brass  A standing wave  in a brass instrument is created by exciting the enclosed air column with a steady stream of tiny bursts of air. These tiny bursts of air are created by the performer opening and closing the lips very, very rapidly (appearing to buzz the lips) and are controlled (i.e., contained, directed, and even altered) by the shape and size of the mouthpiece. This air passing through the lips is needed to resupply the vibrating air inside the instrument as there is a large amount of friction and a mass of air escaping from the bell—both producing a damping effect. Figure 10–5 The change of air pressure at the bell of a brass instrument is enough Change of  to reflect the pressure wave back toward the mouthpiece (see Figure (see  Figure 10–5). Partial Pressure at Bell Only a slight amount of air escapes the bell of a brass instrument; this phenomenon can be observed by placing the hand over the bell of an instrument being played at 

a high pitch and at a very loud dynamic level. Pressure waves that start at the player s lips and 2 Ibid., 3

p. 412. Benade, Arthur H. (1990). Fundamentals of Musical A Acoustics. coustics. New York: Dover Publications, p. 406.

 

102

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings Closed Pipe Start Pull (Air Reflected)

Resupported with Air

One Cycle Complete

Figure 10–6 Illustrati Illustration on of the Standi Standing ng Wave Wave of a Clari Clarinet net

travel through the tubing are reflected at the bell (by the change in air in  air pressure), aand nd travel back to the player’s lips where they are resupplied with air (energy) (Figure (energy) (Figure 10–6). This type of vibrating air column is defined as a standing wave . Because the lips are more pliable than the reeds used by woodwind players, brass players have more control over the frequency of the pitch. When the brass player creates greater tension in the lips in order to produce a stream of airbursts at twice the speed, a new resonant frequency is heard. This frequency, twice that  of the fundamental, becomes the new primary pitch. The process of mathe2nd Partial matically increasing the speed of the “tiny burst of air” (or what we view as buzzing lips) can be repeated in order to continue raising the fundamental pitch through the overtone series. The instant the initial vibration is doubled, a node appears at approxi3rd Partial mately the middle of the length of the tube (slightly toward the mouthpiece or the energy source) of the brass instrument. A node is a spot inside the tube that remains stationary when the speed of the vibrating standing wave changes, dividing the standing wave into two equal waves that are half its 4th Partial length. The node cuts the standing wave by half and the frequency is doubled. The doubling of the air column is achieved by the player’s lips buzzing twice as fast as tiny bursts of air are projected at a sufficient speed to sustain the faster  vibration of of the air column. This new pitch enhances the higher partials (overtones) that give brass instruments their unique timbre (Figure 10–7) 10–7).4 Figure Figure 10–7 10–7 Illust Illustrat ration ion of  Brass players are prone to miss the initial pitch, as the first tiny bursts  the Standing Wave Wave of a Brass Instrument with a Node of air sent through the instrument must wait for the wave to be reflected at  Halving the Standing Wave the bell before the pressure wave and lips work together to “lock” onto the  that Increases Frequency desired pitch; during that brief instant, one occasionally hears brass players “crack” pitches. This coordination between air, lips, and brass instrument becomes a performance problem when a musical passage requires frequent and rapid changes between partials. Experience and practice develop the kinesthetic skill required to create the necessary firmness firm ness in the embouchure to obtain the desired pitch consistently. The simplest illustration of the overtone series is the valveless bugle. The bugler is capable of producing at least the second to eighth partials in the overtone series shown in  Figure 10–8. The fundamental is B (extremely difficult to play due to the small diameter of  the tubing in proportion to the length). Each pitch has its resonant frequency and each pitch also contains the higher overtones, although alth ough some are barely audible. These overtones can be heard by playing a pitch into a piano pian o soundboard with the damper pedal depressed and listening to hear the resonant frequency dominate and the upper partials ring. Each pitch in the overtone series can be lowered to pitches of the chromatic scale by  adding the appropriate length to the bugle’s tubing (this is how the trombone operates). For trumpet, cornet, baritone, euphonium, trombone, and tuba, the largest interval between the “usable” notes in the overtone series series is that which occurs between the second and third



Figure Figure 1 10–8 0–8 The Over Overton tone e Series Series ffor or a B Brass Instrument 4

Ibid., p. 412.

 

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings   103

partials (the interval of a perfect fifth). There are six pitches missing between these two notes. Consequently, the trombone is designed with six slide positions beyond the first position. Each slide position on the trombone progressively lowers the pitch one half step, enabling enablin g the trombone to bridge the gap between the second and third partials. The valved brasses produce each of the six missing pitches between the second and third partials (the perfect fifth) in the following manner. The middle valve adds tubing to the extent that the partial is lowered one half step, the first valve lowers the partial by two half  steps, and the third valve lowers the partial by three half steps (as do the first and second  valves in combination). Different these valves are to lowerpartial. the third partial four, five, and six half steps incombinations order to playofchromatically to used the second Today, many of the brass instruments have devices to enhance the lower register to reach the first  partial: F and G attachments on trombones, a fourth valve on baritones and euphoniums and four or five valves on the tuba.  A musical instrument achieves its maximum amplitude (loudness) at its resonant frequency. The resonant frequency is also the least damped frequency. If one blows into an empty soft drink bottle at just the right angle, the air inside the bottle will respond at its resonant frequency. Altering the angle and/or the speed of the air inside the bottle will set the “trapped” air in motion at a faster or slower frequency, but only the resonant frequency will respond at maximum amplitude. This resonant frequency can be altered by changing the shape and size of the trapped air by partially filling the bottle with water.

 Woodwinds  Woodwind s  With the woodwinds, there are eexceptions xceptions to vi virtually rtually ever everyy com common mon d denominator. enominator. For example, all woodwinds are (or were) made of wood—except the saxophone; all use a wooden reed as a tone generator—except the flute; all have undergone extensive improvements to the key mechanisms during the last century— except the bassoon; all overblow overblow the octave for their second register—except the clarinet; all of the upper woodwinds have one register key—except the oboe; all are based on the acoustics of a pipe closed at one end—except the flute; all have been manufactured with open tone holes that are covered with the fingers— except the saxophone; all behave acoustically as a conical bore instrument—except the clarinet; all are suitable suitable for beg beginners—excep inners—exceptt the bassoon; bassoon; all have bells— bells—except except the flute . . . and so on.  Woodwind instruments, like the th e brasses, produce sound from the longitudinally longitudinall y vibrating air column contained inside the instrument. Air enters a woodwind instrument through the mouthpiece, vibrating the reed that acts as the tone generator to force the air column inside the instrument to vibrate. The air molecules move longitudinally back and forth between nodes at a frequency equal to the pitch being played. As with the brasses, the basic node is at  the bell of the instrument where the air column is reversed; unlike with brass, the last open key can also be a n node ode that shortens the fundamental and reflects the air column in the opposite direction. direction.5 The length of the air column is determined by the length of the instrument (which is shortened or lengthened by the tone holes). There is always at least one node present   when the t he low reg register ister iiss playe played d on any wood woodwind; wind; tthis his node forms n near ear the b bell ell (or th thee first  open tone hole) where the change in air pressure is sufficient for the air column to be reflected. As tone holes are uncovered, the node moves up the instrument to the highest  open hole; consequently, the air column is shortened and the pitch is raised proportionately. The sound is projected through the first open tone hole where the air column is re versed,  verse d, and the air surrou nding the instr ument umen t is set into motion motion,, carr c arr ying the sound to the listener (the same as the node at the end of a brass bell and the f-holes in a string instrument. The air remains in the instrument, but the air directly at the node radiates in all directions). One important feature that makes woodwinds different from brasses is that each wood wind makes extensive use of its fundam fundamental ental pitch and uses iits ts second partial for the middl middlee registers (except the clarinet). The woodwinds have six tone holes that are uncovered one at  a time to produce a seven-note scale. The upper tonic of the scale is played by again covering

5

For a more detailed explanation, see John Backus (1969), The Acoustical Foundations of Music. New   York: W. W. W. Norton; Benade, Horns, Strings, and Harmony ; or Everett Timm (1971), The Woodwinds: Perfor-  mance and Instructional Techniques, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

 

104

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings

all of the tone holes and overblowing the fundamental frequency to sound the second partial—this point between the first and second registers is called “the break.” Additional tone holes and keys are added to extend the range downward and to play the chromatic scale. For all of the woodwinds, keys extend the range and create chromatic pitches. The exception to the above is the clarinet, the only truly cylindrical instrument in the  woodwind family, which overblows a twelfth, skipping the even-numbered partials. If one depresses all the keys, the lowest note is a written E. Overblowing to the next partial sounds a B (an octave and a fifth). The notes in the gap between that upper fifth (B) and the missing octave are achieved by “throat tone” keys locatedto near node(E) is needed to divide the vibrating air column halfthe its middle length. of the instrument where a On all woodwinds, the second register is made accessible by use of an octave or register key that opens a vent hole closer to the mouthpiece than to the open end. (On the clarinet  this is not an octave but a twelfth.) The octave or register key makes the lower register (fundamental pitches) impossible impossible to sound due to an opened vent hole that changes the instrument’s resonant frequency. In short, the octave key does not facilitate the second register; it  simply makes the lower register difficult to play. The left thumb operates the register or octave key.  Woodwind players often have difficulty developing a good tone quality quality,, due to the wood wind player’s dependence on the reed and the instrument’s unforgiving reliance on a proper embouchure. Woodwind beginners should be instructed in homogeneous classes to avoid the mistake of matching the brass players, which results in poor tone quality. Homogeneous ensembles, such as woodwind choirs, clarinet or flute choirs, and saxophone quartets, also promote better intonation, balance, blend, and tone quality.  Woodwind performers arewell, expected to beproper able to style play lush, lyrical, or fast technically demanding passages equally and with and precision. For and example, the  clarinet and trumpet are both pitched in B , but due to the clarinet’s ability to play lower and higher than the trumpet, as well as its ability to play larger intervals with ease, the music considered idiomatic for each is quite different. Fast passages are found more frequently in  woodwind than in brass music. And while double- and triple-tonguing are becoming more commonplace among reed players, they must first learn to single-tongue at rapid tempos. Consequently, technique is an element of woodwind performance that is constantly practiced and improved. Because technique is a psychomotor skill not unlike a sport, woodwind players must continually work to retain the skills they have, plus work toward faster fingers and a faster tongue, all with control and precision. Technique is the synchronization of the embouchure, the fingers, and the tongue with the brain. The way the instrument is held is essential to finger dexterity. Almost all beginners initially find the woodwind holding position awkward. Scales and arpeggios are the basis of at  least 75 percent of all finger technique required of school bands and orchestras, and form the th e foundation of all exercises designed improve finger dexterity. Scales should be practiced tematically in major and minortokeys (plus chromatic); the maximum tempo should besysestablished at which the student can play evenly and accurately with good tone quality and intonation. Scales are best practiced beginning on the tonic, playing up to the highest note learned (or possible) in that key, then down to the lowest note learned (or possible) in that  key, and back up to the tonic. Due to the fact that woodwinds raise their pitch by uncovering tone holes, adjacent notes are often different in tone color. This is especially apparent when the break (or octave) is crossed. Practice on scales while listening and thinking about tone color helps the student maintain good, and consistent, tone quality throughout the range of the instrument. Arpeggios are an excellent means to practice raising and lowering more than one finger at a time. Arpeggios also help develop the embouchure, secure good tone quality across registers, and train the ear.

Flute  With a flute, the sharp outer edge of the embouchure hole splits the airstream. This split  airstream is a simple division, some of the t he air going into the flute an and d the rest blown across the top of the embouchure hole. Almost all of the airstream ai rstream is directed into the head joint ((which which

fills with air in milliseconds); the airstream is deflected out of the embouchure hole and “across the room” until the air pressure in the head joint is lowered again and the airstream is again pulled into the head joint (again, taking only milliseconds). This “up-and-down” motion across the sharp edge of the embouchure hole creates turbulence that th at triggers one of the

 

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings   105

flute’s resonant frequencies (depending on how many tone holes are covered and the speed of the air); a fundamental pitch should sound. Increasing the speed of the airstream will wil l cause a slight rise in pitch (but only within wi thin the confines of the length of the flute’s bore). A greater increase in the air speed with a slight  change of direction of the airstream will cause the vibrating air column to double in frequency and the second partial will sound (the second octave). This principle of a sharp edge splitting the airstream to produce a sound is also how a recorder works—the performer blows through a rectangular chamber which controls the direction the airstream amount air thatlevel, is allowed thethe sharp edgeThe (consequently of determinin determining g theand tonethe quality, theof volume and, totoanreach extent, pitch). flute embouchure serves the same function, but the flutist has greater freedom to alter the tone quality, volume, and pitch.

Reeds The other woodwinds use a reed as the primary tone generator. The fundamental and second partial produce the first and second registers (except on the clarinet, previously discussed) and six tone holes are used to relocate the “last” node. The reeds are flexible slivers of wood carefully carved to vibrate at the appropriate resonant frequencies. Because reeds are considerably less flexible than brass players’ lips, wood wind players playe rs cannot manipulate pitch as easily. Whereas a brass player can play seven to ten pitches without changing the valves/slide combination, the woodwind player can play only  one pitch (sometimes two and rarely three) using the same fingering. Reed players learn to care for the reed early in their instruction (another advantage to homogeneous classes). Single-reed players do not make their own reeds; double-reed players, however, benefit from learning how to finish and make reeds. Many single reeds are playable straight from the box, but most can be improved and ad justed to respond better better.. Basic care and adjustment of the reed includes sanding the back of  the reed to make and keep it flat, lightly sanding or rubbing the beveled portion of the reed to close the pores, and clipping the tip if necessary. Unfortunately, accurate reed adjustments take a great deal of experience, and students will produce more poor than good reeds in the process of learning this skill. The ability to produce a good sound on a good reed is obviously  a prerequisite to being able to evaluate and adjust a reed.

Single Reeds  When the air is expell expelled ed into the instrument, th thee resonant frequency determined by the fingering is set in motion and the instrument responds. Because the reed itself has a resonant  frequency, care must be taken not to allow it to sound (this happens when the player bites); nor should it be allowed to squeak (as happens with incorrect embouchures).  As the air ai r pressure inside the single-reed mouthpiece builds, it forces th thee flexible reed to bend open allowing more air to enter the mouthpiece but only if the air pressure in the performer’s mouth is greater than that inside the instrument. This puff of air forces the “high-pressure area” inside the mouthpiece and down through the instrument that in turn creates lower pressure in the mouthpiece. The low pressure acts as a vacuum to pull the reed toward the mouthpiece, sealing off the player’s airstream. This oscillation of the reed is very  fast; it is considerably faster than the frequency of the pitch being sounded by the instrument. Two factors make it difficult to play softly on a reed instrument. First, the frequency of  the reed must be faster than that of the instrument’s air column (which requires a fast  airstream). Second, any slight drop of the performer’s air pressure will force air into the mouth rather than into the instrument. Both factors require the player to blow a steady, supported, fast airstream into the mouthpiece. (It is often difficult for students to realize the difference between velocity of the airstream and the volume of the air blown.) Clarinet   A cylindrical pipe closed at one end, such as the clarinet, produces only the odd-

numbered partials of the overtone series. This means it misses 18 half steps in the normal overtone series. The basic six-tone-hole scale produced is a G scale; tone holes and keys are 



added to extend the range down to an E and up to the G, G , A, and A  above the seventh scale degree. To play the next B, all of the tone holes are covered (as if fingering the low E), and the fundamental is overblown to the third partial (the interval of a twelfth). The second partial, or octave, will not sound; rather, the clarinet jumps to the third partial.

 

106

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings

The second register is assisted by pressing the register key that opens an additional  vent hole near the mouthpiece and destroys the resonant frequencies for aall ll of the fundamental pitches. For some of the higher notes in the second register and for notes in the third register, additional tone holes covered by the first few fingers are opened to serve as additional vent holes. The distinctive timbre of the clarinet is due to the odd-numbered partials sounding.  When a low F concert is played the octave partial is not present. However, However, the third partial, C, is sounded and becomes the dominant pitch when the register key is pressed. The fifth, sev

enth, and ninth (A, E , and G) partials are also present. Saxophone  The saxophone uses a single reed like a clarinet but is the most obviously conical instrument in the woodwind family. Because it is conical it overblows the octave with the help of an octave key that opens a vent hole on the neck. Its basic six-tone-hole scale is D, like  the flute, but it has additional tone holes and keys to extend the range down to B and to pro vide the chromatic scale.

Double Reeds The tone generator for double reeds is also the reed—but in this case two reeds sounding simultaneously. Whereas the area inside a single-reed mouthpiece acts as a vibrating chamber, the double reed’s vibrating chamber is the area between the two curved reed blades and is much smaller in size, producing the nasal-like quality these instruments have. This vibrating chamber allows the performer to have more control over pitch, volume level, and tone color. The two flexible reeds vibrate toward each other and then away from each other to create the same effect as a single reed vibrating. Oboe  The oboe is a conical-shaped instrument that overblows the octave. The basic six

tone-hole scale is D to C with keys to extend the range down to t o B . The octave key destroys the resonant frequencies of the lower octave. Some notes in the second and third octaves require additional octave keys. To compensate, the oboe is provided with several vent holes, and also uses a half-hole technique to provide a small vent for obtaining some pitches. Other pitches are played with upper tone holes opened while lower tone holes are covered to provide yet a third type of vent hole (called (calle d “forked fingerings”), and this technique is also al so used to improve intonation in the lower octave. The oboe has virtually the same fundamental pitches as the flute. Though the oboe and clarinet are similar in size and shape, the pitch difference occurs because the clarinet is cylindrical and the oboe is conical. Bassoon The bassoon is also a conical-shaped double-reed instrument. Its total length is about 100 inches (over eight feet), doubled up to position the six primary primar y tone holes and keys  within reach of an average-sized adult hand. Even in this position the fingers must stretch for certain keys. The double reed attaches to the bocal that is inserted into the wing joint. If the first  three tone holes were positioned properly in the bore of the bassoon, they would be too far apart for the fingers of one hand h and to cover all three. Wood has been added to this joint to make the area thicker, allowing for the tone holes to be cut at an angle such that the first three fingers of the left hand can cover them and still open into the bore of the instrument with the correct distance between them.  The basic six-tone-hole scale is G to F. The range is extended down to a low B  with the addition of keys and tone holes. Because the tube is so long, there is no way for one vent hole to serve as an octave key for all pitches. As the notes ascend ascen d upward, additional octave keys are provided that open vent holes farther up the instrument.

 ACOUSTICAL PRINCIPLES FOR STRINGS Consider a string of fixed length that one cannot adjust, like a piano string (we know the piano is usually considered a percussion instrument, but think of it as a string instrument for

the moment). Each string is set vibrating by a sudden action or disturbance, and rings freely  until the energy is completely spent and the string comes to a stop. Plucking and striking a string produce the same effect.

 

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings   107

Glancing inside the piano, one sees that the lengths of strings vary from fairly short at  the treble end to much longer at the bass end. Further, the strings on the bass side are  wrapped with a metallic wire (usually copper). Consider these the se principles: 1. A longer string vibrates at a lower pitch than a shorter string (when tension is equal on both), so that the longer string must be twice the length of the shorter string to play an octave lower. (Strings use the same harmonic series as brasses.) 2. The frequency that a string sounds is pro proportionate portionate with an increase in tension, so quadrupling ontwo a string will raise it an octave. Increase the tension on a string 16-fold the andtension it will rise octaves. 3. For fixed string tension and length, the frequency is determined by the diameter of of the string and its mass. If the piano string tension and diameter were held constant, the highest C  would be two inches long, the next C four inches long, and so forth; the lowest C on an 88-key piano would have to be 21 feet long. The tone would be thin and “bright.”  Another approach would be to make most of the strings three or four different  lengths and adjust the pitch by altering the tension. This, however, has a detrimental effect on the tone quality because each “set” sounds different. The third option would be to increase the diameter of the string for the lower pitches to reduce the length. The same tension on all the piano strings would require the diameter of the lowest notes to be pencil size, with the tone adversely affected. The solution has been that from the highest C on the piano to the C an octave below middle C, the strings are lengthened by 1.94 for each octave rather than doubled, while their diameters are increased b y 9. 9.3 3 percent per octave. The notes are 6 then tuned correctly by adjusting the tension. tension . Below this C, the strings are lengthened by relatively small amounts, and the pitch is lowered primarily by increasing the mass by wrapping different diameters of  Figure 10–9 copper wiring around the primary string so that the string itself doesn’t have to be as Mechanical Tuners stiff (as a steel bar). The diameter (and stiffness) of the last unwound C string is seRequired for String Bass Strings lected to match the next lowest C (which is wrapped in copper wire) to produce a perfect octave with similar tone quality. Most pianos produce an acceptable sound around middle C, but there is a difference in tone quality between upright and concert grand pianos in the lower register. One point of trivia is that on a concert grand, the tension is over 400 feet per pound on some strings with the total “pull” on the frame being almost 20,000 feet  per pound of torque. In the string family, the string bass is the best example of this compromise between tension, the string’s mass, and length. The resulting tension is so great that regular pegs cannot  hold string bass strings in place. Rather, a mechanical device is used to secure the string’s tension and allow tuning, as illustrated in Figure in  Figure 10–9.

The Bowed String Family The violin, viola, cello, and bass incorporate the same acoustical principles as the piano. Instead of a flat soundboard, they have a characteristically shaped “box” with four strings stretched over it. The box has a bridge that elevates the strings and serves as a conduit to the box or body and the air that fills the body. The sound is produced by rubbing tautly stretched hairs on a stick across the strings and using the fingers of the other hand to shorten or lengthle ngthen the vibrating strings, with the box acting as the resonating chamber. The rosin rubbed on bow hair creates a vibrating motion when the bow is drawn across the string. A string player can choose where on the string to bow and how much bow hair (friction) to use, and the amount of force to use. This action is like the pianist choosing a hammer (piano key) to strike a string. The bow affects tone quality, as the friction created by the bow damps the strings. A  pitch produced by a plucked violin string dies away faster than the same note played on a piano. These and other factors determine why a string instrument produces a broad variety 

of sounds (both good and bad) with various uses of the bow bow.. 6

Benade, Horns, Strings, and Harmony, p. 113.

 

108

Principles of Winds and Acoustics of Strings

Effect of the Instrument’s Body The purpose of the shaped body of a string instrument is to ensure that the air inside has a large number of resonant frequencies (about 5,000 on a violin). When the box itself is set in motion via the bridge, the air oscillates violently and radiates from the f-holes. The skilled violin makers of the past discovered through trial and error that positioning the bridge with its shaped feet resting over the bass bar on one side and near the sound post  on the other side produced the best sound. Bowing Bowin g a string causes a side-to-side rocking of the bridge above the sound post so that the bass bar sets the entire top of the instrument vibrating, spreading to the rest of the body and finally to the enclosed air inside.  As with the brass an and d winds, the string instruments make use of the harmonic series. Stopping a string at its midpoint produces an octave; one-half that length produces a twelfth and so forth.

 WEB SITE Basics in Music Acoustics  www.ph  www.phys.unsw ys.unsw.edu.au/jw/basics.html .edu.au/jw/basics.html

11

 

The Flute 

T

he flute is the soprano instrument of the woodwind family, together with the C piccolo (which uses the same fingerings and reads in the same register as the flute but sounds one octave higher). Pitched in C, the flute is nontransposing. Other flutes include the seldom  used E flute, which is pitched between the regular C flute and piccolo; the alto flute pitched in G (below the C flute), which is becoming more popular in jazz; and the bass flute in C pitched one octave below the regular C flute, which is not a popular instrument.

HISTORY The flute has the longest history of any of the wind instruments. There is in existence today a flute taken from the Geissenklösterle Cave in southern Germany that dates to approximately  35,000 BCE. Made from a single wing bone of a griffon vulture, it had three finger holes and  was less than five inches long; it was not playable. There are also two flutes taken from Egyptian tombs that scholars date to about 2200 BCE and both are in playing condition. Wall drawings and paintings from this period show flute players at various court and religious functions.  Around 1300 BCE, a double-pipe instrument related to the flute existed, each pipe with three finger holes. By 79 CE the art of music had advanced to the extent that a fifteen-hole instrument existed that was fitted with silver bands that slid or twisted to cover the holes not being played. Most of the ancient flutes were not n ot transverse but held vertically, and the vertical flute, in its familiar form for m the recorder, was popular through Bach’s time. Transverse flutes also existed in ancient times. Pictures of transverse flutes are found on Japanese monuments dating from about 50 BCE. During the 1600s the flute began to take on its modern moder n aspects. The first key, the D (E ) key, was added about 1600; the bore was changed from cylindrical to conical in 1680; the round embouchure hole was replaced by an oval hole in 1724. By the mid-eighteenth mid-eigh teenth centur y, the flute was among the most popular wind instruments. Alterations continued for the next  century, with the most significant by Boehm, who made the flute very similar to what it is today. In 1832 Boehm invented a ring-key flute; in 1847 he changed the conical bore back to cylindrical; and in 1851 he added covered, open-standing keys.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT Most student-line flutes manufactured by reputable companies are fine for beginners. The majority of these flutes have a head joint bore that starts at 17 millimeters at the cork end and is graduated to 19 millimeters where it joins the main body. The remaining length of the flute is cylindrical, through the body and foot joint.  Various  Var ious aspects of new flutes can provide evidence of the quality of craftsmanship. Those aspects include the keys, tone holes, post mounting, and optional keys. A good studentline instrument instrumen t has forged keys as opposed to cast ones, “pulled” lone holes as opposed to soldered ones, and posts mounted on ribbing rather than directly on the body of the flute. Optional keys may be added to the flutes at additional cost, to help mitigate technical difficulties such as an resonance awkward fingering or trill.tone Perhaps the to easiest to justify is theOther low B keys key,  which primarily adds and enhanced quality the lower register.  such as the split E key (to make the high E easier to play) and the C trill key are recommend-





ed, as are the rollers on C and D to facilitate fingering. Other optional keys should be avoided except by the most advanced players. Adding keys complicates mechanical adjustment  problems.

 

110

The Flute

The closed-hole plateau instrument is easier to master in the early stages than an openhole French flute and it is usually less expensive. The primary advantages of the open-hole flutes are that (1) the player can control the intonation more exactly by partially covering the holes with the fingers (some avant-garde music requires pitches played by partially covered holes); and (2) the open hole promotes proper hand position. In fact, it cannot can not be played successfully without good hand position. Used flutes should be inspected for common signs of use such as worn pads and for indications of abuse such as damaged keys and rods, and dents or scratches. These may indicate more serious neglect or excessive wear wear.. Furthermore, the prospective buyer should make sure that the outer edge of the embouchure hole is still sharp to the touch, that the keys are in alignment and the pads seat properly, that the cork in the head joint is tight (if the crown can be turned easily with the fingers, the cork may be too loose), and most importantly, that the instrument fits together easily but not too easily. Although minor repairs may be inexpensive, too many repairs may warrant buying a new instrument.  A possible option for the young flutist is the curved head joint available from a few manufacturers as shown in  in  Figure 11–1. This option makes good hand position easier while enabling a satisfactory tone. As the student grows physically, this head Figure Figure 11 11–1 –1 Flute Flute with with Curved Curved Head Head Joint Joint  joint should be replaced with a standard one.

PICCOLO The piccolo is similar to the flute, and all accomplished flutists should also be able to play the piccolo. It has the following distinguishing characteristics: 1. Low D is the lowest note because the piccolo has no foot joint; otherwise, the piccolo plays the same range and notes as the flute but sounds an octave higher. The piccolo usually does not go beyond a written G. 2. Although the C piccolo is almost universal today today,, the D piccolo is scored in older march music and transcriptions. The ability to transpose is useful. 3. The piccolo piccolo has less pitch flexibi flexibility lity than the flute. 4. The wooden piccolo, more sonorous sonorous than the metal, is more desirable for orchestral playing, but lacks an embouchure plate. The lower lip is often placed higher on the  wooden instrument. The metal piccolo is easier to blow and more brilliant in quality. Plastic piccolos have become common and are satisfactory. 5. The piccolo requires a tighter embouchure and more pressure on the extreme high notes to overcome the instrument’s tendency to sound flat in this register; hence, it is more tiring to play than the flute. 6. Because there is greater resistance, resistance, a smaller quantity of of air is rrequired, equired, but the airstream must move more rapidly. 7. Piccolos are made with either a cylindrical or a conical conical bore. Most flute teachers recommend the cylindrical-bore instrument for marching band and the conical-bore instrument for professional and orchestral players. 8. An advanced flutist with good intonation is the best candidate for playing the piccolo. Students with small, dexterous fingers and thin lips are usually the most successful.

 ASSEMBLING THE FLUTE  Although assembling the flute is a simple matter matte r, a few precautions may help establish good habits that contribute to playing technique and to keeping the instrument in good repair. The flute consists of three pieces: the head joint, which includes the embouchure hole, the embouchure plate, and the cork; the body of the instrument; and the foot joint that contains three tone holes. Correct alignment of the three pieces is important. To align, the head  joint should be grasped between the embouchure plate and open end with the left hand

109

(where the label or manufacturer’s name is engraved). The right hand gently picks up the body of the flute without grabbing the key mechanism any more than is necessary. The two pieces are twisted together, not pushed or wiggled. The center of the embouchure hole in the head joint should align with the center of the line of keys. The foot joint is grasped in such a

 

The Flute   111

 way that the keys will not be damaged, then gently twisted onto the body of the flute. The rod on the foot joint should bisect the D key on the body of the flute. In correct position, with the fingers of the right hand on the keys, the little finger of the right hand can drop to the low C key without the right wrist having havi ng to move. If the foot joint is turned tur ned in too far, the little finger  will hang over; if out too far, the little finger must poke at the key rather than depress it. Student-line flutes are often made with an engraved mark on the head joint and a matching mark on the body so correct alignment can be achieved. If the embouchure hole is turned in, a slightly covered sound and flat pitch result. If the hole is turned out, higher pitch and better projection are obtained. The correct alignment allows complete finger freedom, proper balance, and an embouchure hole parallel with the lips. The beginning student must adjust his or her embouchure to the correct alignment, not the alignment to the embouchure. After a player has acquired considerable skill, the head  joint may be turned slightly one way or th thee other, other, but experimenting should be postponed until the student has had considerable experience playing with the conventional alignment. The head joint is not pushed all the way in, but is pulled pul led from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch, to allow for tuning with other instruments. The tenons, the ends of the joints  where two pieces fit together, together, are somewhat delicate and can bend easily if assembled carelessly. The flute should be assembled with a smooth, circular movement, pushing and turning t urning the parts together. If the flute is difficult to assemble, clean only the tenons with a mild silver polish. Using a lubricant causes the tenons to attract dirt and grime.

HOLDING THE FLUTE Most students are uncomfortable when first attempting to hold the flute. Their fear of  dropping the instrument often results in improper habits, and beginners must be monitored carefully. The size of the hand determines the hand position that will allow the fingers to rest properly on the keys. The flute is supported primarily by the base of the left  forefinger and the thumb of the right hand, with the right little finger adding balance. The lips also serve to balance the instrument. The right thumb supports the flute from below and should be placed approximately  underneath the F key, or between the right index finger and middle finger (see Figure 11–2).  11–2).  The thumb does not extend under and past the flute; it should be bent so the side of the thumbnail supports the instrument. The right wrist should not  bend; it should be held straight with the fingers slightly  curved, the hands forming a C, or as if feeding a hamFigure Figure 1 11–2 1–2 Hand Hand Pos Positi ition on for tthe he Fl Flute ute burger to a person sitting across the table from you. The pads of the four fingers should rest on their proper keys (rechecking the alignment  alignmen t  of the foot joint is advised). The instructor must watch that the fingers do not overlap the keys, a practice that reduces finger dexterity and in extreme cases can cause uneven wear of  the keypads. In general, the left wrist must be curved, so that the base of the left forefinger touches the instrument for support  but the left thumb is free to manipulate the B and B  keys. The fingers of the left hand, especially the forefinger and less so for each successive finger, are curved more than those of  the right hand to allow easy manipulation of the proper keys. The left hand has a tendency to rotate to the left, forcing the  fourth finger to stretch for the G key, thus hindering technique. The fingers must be kept very close to the keys. The left thumb is placed on the B key at a slight tilt so that the edge of the thumb presses the key. Beginners often have a tendency to slide their thumb too far under the instrument  to help hold it. The left thumb should not be used primarily 

to support the instrument: it must be able to move freely to Figure Figure 11 11–3 –3 Holdin Holding g Posi Positio tion n for Flute Flute  manipulate the B key. Initially, this position may feel some what artificial artificial and unnatur unnatural al to beginner beginners. s. The teacher sho should uld check freq frequently uently to see that the player has not relaxed into habits that feel more natural but will eventually affect technique.

 

112

The Flute

The position for playing the flute is shown in  in  Figure 11–3.  11–3.  The flute is held approximately parallel to the line formed by the lips; that is, the embouchure hole should be parallel  with the lips both horizontally horizontally and vertically. Proper position keeps the flute almost parallel to the floor—with the end joint a little lower than the rest of the flute (no more than a 20-degree tilt for the instrument). A slight tilt to the head is appropriate as long as it is not due to poor posture and does not restrict the airstream. The right elbow is raised until the muscle in the upper part of the arm begins to pull. The correct position is when the elbow is dropped to a point where pulling ceases. Beginning students often drop the right arm to a more comfortable position, but this cramps the hands, flattens the fingers, and hampers technique. In playing while seated, the th e feet are flat on the fl floor oor with one foot slightly in front of the other; the body is erect and the back is away from the chair cha ir.. The bottom half of the body is rotated approximately 45 degrees to the right, which results in the right arm being placed in a more comfortable position. The arms must be free of the body, body, not draped over th thee chair. The student should stand part of the time during lessons and during practice. Proper upper body  position does not change when standing. For beginners, maintaining correct playing position may cause some fatigue; therefore, the beginning flutist should practice frequently for short  periods of time. Good flute playing depends upon good flute position. In slow passages students tend to raise their fingers far above the keys. Young players also learn incorrect fingerings. An exam  ple of the latter is the D (E ) key. This key should be used for most of the notes played on the flute As the little finger is usually the weakest finger, many youngsters soon discover that the   D (E ) key can be avoided completely and play these notes “close enough” to pitch that many  teachers do not catch the error.

EMBOUCHURE AND REGISTER 

Figure Figure 1 11–4 1–4 Direct Direction ion of of Airstr Airstream eam for Playing Flute

The flute is not played like a pop bottle. This approach, taught all too often, results in a hollow sound. The air is directed primarily across the embouchure hole, although somewhat downward for the low register, slightly upward for the upper register, and more directly into the embouchure hole for louder volume (see Figure (see Figure 11–4). The beginner should start on the head joint alone so that he or she can concentrate solely on the proper embouchure to produce an adequate tone and not get dizzy. Then, relax the lips as if vocalizing “mmm” (this keeps the teeth apart and the lips together). The head  joint is tilted upward ever so slightly. The bottom lip is spread gently  across the embouchure plate and turned out as if slightly pouting

(some of of thethe pink should be hole. visible). loweroflipthe covers approximately one-quarter to one-third embouchure TheThe corners lips are then tucked slightly to anchor the embouchure.  With the head joint closed by the palm of the right hand (see Figure (see Figure 11–5 11–5), ), the student  should be asked to blow air as if vocalizing “pee” (syllables such as “poo” cause the embouchure to pucker too much and should be avoided). This small puff  of air should produce second-space A; when the hand opens the head joint, an A an octave higher is sounded. Beginning students often use more air than is required and become dizzy when placing their first tones. Students should be encouraged to focus the airstream, keeping the aperture of the embouchure a small oval as if holding a coffee stirring straw. The width of the embouchure opening should not exceed the width of the flute’s embouchure hole. The head joint should align on two planes—parallel to the and the hole and centered on the this lips position theembouchure airstream (fast focused) haschin. theWith best 

Figure Figure 1 11–5 1–5 Studen Studentt Pla Playin ying g He Head ad Joint—Closed

chance to be directed to the edge of the embouchure hole  where the the airstream is split evenly without wasted air (as shown in Figure in Figure 11–5). T The he instrument should not be angled

 

The Flute   113

too far backward or forward. The head joint should not be rolled in too far, as this results in a muffled nasal sound, nor rolled too far out where the sound is i s thin and unfocused. A telltale sign of where the airstream is crossing the plate is the trail of condensation formed by the breath. The trail should look like a small triangle with the base at the far edge of the embouchure hole. The “pee”-type articulation is recommended to help the student produce the beginning sounds, but its use should not become automatic because the syllable “pee” uses a burst  of air to open the lips, whereas the player should form the embouchure opening prior to blowing the air. The Suzuki flute teacher Takahashi advocates that students “‘spit out one grain of rice at a time” to establish the embouchure. This task keeps the aperture in the embouchure small and the corners firm (but not too firm), and a burst of air pressure is required to send the rice flying.  When the student can sustain the two A’s on the head joint for two or three seconds  without fainting, he or she should be guided to focus focus the airstream by making the aperture in the embouchure slightly smaller and blowing the air more toward the outer edge of the embouchure hole. This can be accomplished by moving the jaw forward slightly while maintaining the “spitting rice” embouchure. This change should produce the third harmonic, high E,  when played on the closed head joint. In the first attempts, the student may blow more  air rather than a faster airstream. Usually, blowing more air results in blowing the aperture of the embouchure open, which in turn loses focus of the air and actually allows the air to slow  down, defeating the intention. Encouraging students to maintain the size of the aperture and blow the wind faster helps students comprehend the difference between betwee n amount of air and air  velocity. The player should try to produce the upper harmonic by blowing less air more quickly. Beginners generally have a problem in focusing the airstream. It is common for these beginners to use excessive wind, and mostcompletely of it wasted, and find Beginning themselves themse lvesflute shortplayers of air, dizzy dizzy, , unable to complete a note or phrase, frustrated. should know  that it is okay to take breaks and try again. Basically, the flutist’s embouchure has these characteristics: (1) The corners of the mouth are stretched somewhat down but not too firm or pinched or clamped; clamped ; (2) the corners of the mouth are straight or even turned or tucked down rather than in a smiling position; (3) the lower lip is drawn back just enough to allow the upper lip to protrude over it slightly. If the lower lip is too far back, the air column is directed straight down; if it is even with the upper lip, the air column will go straight out as when blowing out a candle. The player may need to move the head joint up and down, raising and lowering the flute on the lip to find the best spot. Experimenting with very slight movements is necessary. There are two common approaches: 1. The upper lip is relaxed while the lips are held in an even position. Only enough pressure from the corners of the lips to smooth out the wrinkles in the lower lip is used. The lower lip will cover approximately one-fourth to one-third of the embouchure hole, and the column of air will be blown just inside the outer edge of the embouchure hole. 2. The upper lip should remain relaxed yet b bee firmly positioned against the upper teeth. This embouchure can be thought of as being long, straight, and thin, rather than round and open. Blow over the moist inner surface of the lower lip, such as by vocalizing “pee,”  with the corners of the mouth held firmly. While playing in the upper register, the student relaxes the lip and covers more of the hole.  With either ei ther approach, the lower register will require less of the embouchure hole covered and more of the air directed into the flute. The upper register requires the flutist to direct the air toward the outer edge of the embouchure hole and cover more of the embouchure hole with the lower lip. For the low register the mouth should be open about the width of the embouchure hole, narrower and more oval shape for the middle register, and a yet smaller oval for the upper register. The mouth aperture should not be round. Intonation should improve with these An embouchure changes. embouchure opening that is too wide for any an y register produces a coarse, breathy,

and inflexible tone. If the opening is too small, which seldom happens, the tone will be small and thin. Initially, the smaller the lip opening the better. It makes for more resistance to the airstream, enables production of a better tone, and helps avoid dizziness.

 

114

The Flute

Correcting the Embouchure If too little of the embouchure hole is covered, the tone will be breathy and require more air air.. If the lips are too tight and too far away from the hole, the air striking the sides of the aperture will cause extraneous vibration in the upper lip. The air column may not be focused, resulting in a thin tone  with poor poor intonati intonation. on. To To improve improve focus, focus, the the student student should should cover cover more more of the the embouchur embouchuree hole  with the lip lip and and attempt attempt to direct direct more air into the flute flute while not chang changing ing the the hand hand positio position. n. If too much of the embouchure hole is covered, the tone will be small and thin, there  will be a limited response, legato playing will be more difficult, dynamic range will be limited, and flexibility impaired. To correct this, the student should direct the airstream out across the hole (which may require pushing the jaw forward).  Variations in facial structure that affect the embouchure follow: 1. A relaxed or receding jaw results in a spread, unfocused unfocused tone. To To correct, the student  should bring the lower lip out or turn up the corners of the mouth. 2. A protruding jaw may produce a breathy tone or no tone at all. To To correct, roll the head  joint in more. 3. An overhanging upper lip may cause the mouth opening to be too wide and the lower lip to cover too much of the hole, letting lettin g air strike the sides of the embouchure. Use the same solution as for a receding jaw. 4. Thick lips will need to be compensated for by placing the flute higher onto the pink portion of the lower lip. 5. A slight dip in the center of the upper lip can be accommodated by keeping it raised and supported by by theplaying upper off teeth. Thethe student withofa the veryembouchure, pronounced however, dip may meet with some success center; aperture should be centered on the embouchure hole. Students with the infamous “cupid’s bow,” or “teardrop lip,” however, will more likely be successful on another instrument (see Figure (see Figure 11–6). 11–6).

INTONATION Flute players are notorious for their intonation problems. Because the instrument’s instrument’s range is in the upper register of  the grand staff (see  (see  Figure 11–7), 11–7), the wavelengths are shorter and pitch variations among players cause interference between the close sound waves. The points of interferinter ference occur two, three, or four times per second faster than for other instruments and are more easily heard. The result  is therefore considerably more annoying than when four tuba players play slightly out of tune. Generally, the flute has these intonation problems: the low register is flat, the middle register is in tune, and the upper register is sharp. Both middle and upper registers, however, change with the volume—flatter when soft and sharper  when loud. The flute flut e player deals with pitch p itch by applying two principles: prin ciples: (1) covering coverin g the embouchure hole or directing more of the air into the instrument, which lowers the pitch; and (2) uncovering the embouchure hole or blowing more air across the instrument, which raises the pitch. These two procedures are explained to students in a variety of ways, including “raising or lowering the head” (which can affect the airstream), directing the air “at the wall or at the floor” (keeping the head erect), and the most common, “rolling the flute in and out” (which usually results in poor hand position and should be avoided). The best is to encourage students to “direct the air to the floor or wall.”

Figure Fig ure 11–6 11–6 Spl Split it Vapo Vaporr Trail Trail Due Due  to Cupid’s Bow

Low (1st Octave)

Middle (2nd Octave)

High (3rd Octave)

Figure 11–7 The Three Three Registe Registers rs (or Octav Octaves) es) of the Flute Flute

 

The Flute   115

Figure 11–8 Intonation Intonation Characteri Characteristics stics of the Flute—Ar Flute—Arrows rows Indica Indicate te Pitch Tendenci Tendencies es (hash marks indicate degree of tendency)

Intonation with beginning players is related to the lack of proper air support. When more air is used, the note pops up to the next octave due to immature embouchure formation, not intonation. Proper air support in the low register is difficult until a student develops better control over the embouchure muscles. The flute tends to play flat in cold temperatures. The instrument should be thoroughly   warmed before tuning by gently blowing air into the instrument with all keys closed. The flute can cool down so quickly that flutists need to warm war m it by blowing warm air into it prior to making an entrance after long rests. The A or F without vibrato are good tuning notes, but one well-tuned well -tuned pitch does not ensure correct intonation on all notes. Particular tones on the th e flute have their own intonation problems,  as shown in Figure in Figure 11–8 11–8.. The biggest offender is the C in the staff and, to a slightly lesser extent, the C  above the staff. To bring the pitch down, add one to three right-hand fingers starting with D key and moving up toward the F key. To correct sharpness, the player must lower the jaw very  slightly to direct the air more into the embouchure hole. The F is usually tested after tuning, as it  is often flat. joint) If higher notes flatembouchure in relation tohole lower notes, theadjusting. cork (the stopper at the end of the head is too far sound from the and needs Flute players have a tendency to go flat at the ends of phrases and sustained notes because the breath support diminishes. To counteract the sagging pitch on diminuendos, players can direct the airstream up and protrude the jaw at the end of a note. The greatest flutists disagree about whether the flute goes sharp or flat as the volume increases. When other factors are held constant, an increase in volume raises the pitch, but seldom are all other factors held constant. The player usually tightens the embouchure when the  volume is increased to prevent the flute from skipping to the next octave higher, focusing focusing the airstream more directly into the flute and lowering the head to compensate for the increased  volume. As the air pressure builds, the pitch rises, and the player must blow more directly into the tone hole to compensate for the higher pitch. Some flutists drop the lower jaw rather than lowering the head. To keep forte playing from being sharp, the player needs to open or relax the throat, lips, or jaw. Blowing the air in an arc that follows the contour of the mouth and is aimed at the outer edge of the embouchure hole will help maintain an open throat and mouth. In cork, soft playing, the of lipsthe must bejoint, stretched to raisethe theintonation pitch. The at the end head determines within the flute itself. Most of today’s student-line instruments have replaced the cork with a synthetic material. The cork should not be tampered with once it is i s set, as moving it makes the pitch at both extremes harder to control. Adjustments are made only when necessary and then by a repairperson  who unscrews the crown cap and moves the cork to the proper position. The possibility of  adjustment is best kept a closely guarded secret from beginners and their parents. In summary, to lower pitch on the flute: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Direct the the airstrea airstream m more into the flute. flute. Cover more more of the embouchur embouchuree hole with the lower lip. Drop the lower lower jaw or lower tthe he head. Pull the corners of the mouth back and down slightly slightly.. Roll the flut flutee inwar inward. d. To raise pitch on the flute, do the opposite.

TONE QUALITY

 A good sound should always be the primary consideration of any performing musician— especially flute players, who play in the upper registers of bands and orchestras and are easily  heard. Good tone is dependent on (1) a good instrument; (2) proper breathing and air support; (3) good posture; and (4) correct embouchure formation. It also requires a solid

 

116

The Flute

mental concept of the sound desired, especially important for upper woodwind players as they are in larger sections and have difficulty hearing themselves in full ensemble rehearsals. Private teachers, recordings, concerts, master classes, and especially small chamber ensembles ensemble s  where the student can hear him or herself and focus on tone, intonation, and balance all help to develop a good tone.  A good flute tone is round and full-bodied, not thi thin, n, shrill, or breathy. As for all instruments, the tone should be well centered and focused, not spread. A “sweet” tone is not necessarily a good tone. It may be the result of covering too much of the th e embouchure hole with the lip or turning the flute in too far. Either of these habits limits the player’s development, for both make lip slurs difficult and produce a delay in attacks. The embouchure plays an important role in flute tone. It controls the size of the airstream—as small and focused as possible but more open in the lower register. One of the best ways to improve tone quality on all wind instruments is to practice playing long notes. Long tones are especially difficult for beginning flutists. The player’s ability to create resistance in order to use the air efficiently is a skill learned over a period of time. The B above the staff is one of the best notes for developing embouchure, and practicing long notes in the key of G centering on B is helpful. To develop richness and focus, the student  should strive to project the tone. One good exercise is to take a deep breath, using diaphragm support, and then exhale all of the air in eight beats. When working for projection of the tone, the player must avoid the windy-sounding tone that comes from relaxing relaxin g the cheeks and the corners of the mouth. The same embouchure and support are used for loud, driving tones as for softer tones, The greatest difference in tone quality between adjacent pitches on the flute is found between fourth-space and fourth-line D. E ismust a dark tone,the D isembouchure bright. For aso legato passage in which these notes occur inEsuccession, the player adjust the tones match.

 Vibrato  Vibrato is essential to musical playing on the flut flutee but it should not be used all the time. tim e. The flute sound is easily turned into a saccharine, overly sentimental one if vibrato is overdone. The flute can also have a pure, classical, crystal clear sound. The student should understand these opposites, learn how to produce both, and an d use each with discrimination. The great flute performer/pedagogue Marcel Moyse was one of many who compared flute vibrato to vocal  vibrato—both in the production of vibrato and in its use. Vibrato is used to enhance the tone and provide expression and melodic direction, not to mask intonation or poor tone quality. Diaphragm vibrato is preferred by most flutists. The teacher introducing vibrato to students for the first time will probably have the best results when the student practices a slow alternation of loud and soft. Diaphragm vibrato is developed by having the student vocalize “ha–ha–ha–ha,” gradually turning it into “a–a–a–a.” The speed of the alternations should be increased, use a metronome, until an even and real vibrato results. The slow vibrato should be practiced with a definite difference between the loud and soft; then as the speed increases the vibrato should become narrower until the flutist is able to produce fast and slow vibratos,  wide or narrow. The normal vibrato is about seven pulsations per second. Finally, the student should increase the pulsations in a way that follows the musical line—that is, not mechanical but changing speed with the phrasing. This stage is monitored to ensure that the vibrato is not (1) too fast when it should be slow or even stopped; (2) too slow and wide; or (3) moved too far up into the throat. In expressive performance the flute player, like the vocalist and violinist, uses a variety of speeds and pitch fluctuation as dictated by the music. Vibrato is mastered when the student uses it expressively with discretion.

TECHNIQUE: ARTICULATIONS AND FINGERINGS  Articulation for the flute player is similar to the tonguing technique used by brass players. The section on articulation in Chapter in Chapter 16, “Principles for Brass,” should be consulted, with “tee” substituted for “duh” or “doo.” The flute player has available a great variety of articulations including double-, triple-, and flutter-tonguing.

Tonguing is introduced by having the student vocalize “tee” while playing. The student  should sustain a tone, holding a pitch pi tch steady for as long as possible, then repeat repe at the tone while disrupting the steady airstream at a slow, regular pace. This is done by the tongue touching the spot on the roof of the mouth as for the syllable “tuh”; “pee,” “kee,” “lee,” and “gee” are

 

The Flute   117

useful syllables to demonstrate various degrees degree s of legato tonguing; the syllables “doo” or “loo” should be avoided because they adversely affect the student’s embouchure. The flute is the only woodwind on which it is easy to double- and triple-tongue without  faking. For multiple tonguing, special attention is given to the “second” and “third” syllables, practicing them individually as if single-tonguing. The flute player double-tongues by rocking the tongue inside the mouth, alternating tongue placement for each note between the syllables “tu-ku-tu-ku” to give a distinct definition to each note or the syllables “da-ga-da-ga” to obtain a more legato double-tongue. Triple-tonguing is achieved by rocking the tongue back across the roof of the mouth as though vocalizing: “ta-da-ga, ta-da-ga.” Flutists are also called upon to flutter-tongue on occasion: rolling the tip of the tongue on the roof of the mouth as a child may do when pretending to be a motorboat. Single- and multiple-tonguing should be practiced slowly and gradually increased in speed. Practices to be avoided are tonguing between the teeth and not retracting the tongue quickly enough. In learning staccato, players should not stop the note with the tongue; this creates a pitch change, leads to breathing breath ing problems, and makes it more difficult dif ficult to control the next attack. Fingerings for the flute have been divided into four class types by the number of fingers that move on either hand, and whether the direction of movement is the same or different.

Class

Movement

Example

1

Single finger moving, either hand

A to B

2

Finger(s) in both hands move in same direction

F to A  

3

Finger(s) in one hand move in opposite direction

E to F 

4

Finger(s) in both hands move in opposite d diirection

E to F  in 3rd 3rd oct octave ave

The idea is that when multiple fingering options are available; choose the one that is in the class 1 before 2; 2 before 3 and 4, etc.

 WHAT  WHA T TO PRACTICE Tone Tone quality is the most important aspect of per performance, formance, and intonation and tone quality go hand in hand. Long tones will be more like “short” tones in daily practice until the economical use of the air supply is learned. But still they should be practiced, listening to match tone quality on adjacent pitches; control of the air supply is facilitated by playing simple melodies.  When long tones are first introduced, they should be played in the middle register and gradually extended toward the th e upper and lower registers while w hile a steady, clear, clear, uniform sound is attempted in all three registers. Long tones played while crescendoing and decrescendoing follow as the player begins to develop control. Scales, including the chromatic scale, should be part of the daily routine, as should tonguing exercises at various tempos and in various styles. The three flute registers have dissimilar tonal characteristics, and even within one register the notes at the extreme ends have different timbres. Students should play a scale with the objective of not letting the “audience” know where the change in timbre takes place. Such a task is more difficult when playing arpeggios. Eventually larger and larger intervals are to be practiced. Flexibility studies should be included in every flute student’s daily routine. The control of airspeed and embouchure will promote flexibility. flexibil ity. Unlike brass players, the flutist intent on improving flexibility is also confronted with the task of changing the direction of the airstream and using the jaw to cover and uncover the embouchure hole. Harmonics can be sounded on a flute by fingering the fundamental and overblowing in a particular manner, namely by reducing the size of the oval-shaped aperture, increasing the air speed, and directing the airstream upward. Practicing harmonics is an excellent way for students to develop their embouchures so that they can change registers and play large inter vals. It also a lso helps iin n the high register and in teaching the player control of the decrescendo.

Harmonics on the flute follow the pattern shown in  Figure 11–9. If the player has difficulty obtaining harmonics, it is usually due to lips that are too stiff. Harmonics are usually flat when played without adjusting the embouchure, so the player must direct the air more across the embouchure hole while ascending and tighten the

 

118

The Flute

fundamental

Figure Figure 11 11–9 –9 Flute Flute Ha Harmon rmonics ics B Base ased d on Low C

embouchure. Harmonics can also be produced on the head joint alone—E above the staff  and A above that. Harmonics are notated in contemporar y music with a small circle above the note. The first four overtones above the fundamental are the most common flute harmonics.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE FLUTE The bore of the flute should be swabbed and dried frequently during and after each playing session so that dust does not accumulate in the damp interior. Some type of soft absorbent  cloth is fine for a swab cloth. Most flute cases are equipped with a cleaning stick that also serves as a tuning rod. The swab should be inserted through the eye of the cleaning rod and then wrapped around the rod to prevent metal from touching metal and to avoid scratching the inside of the flute. The foot joint should be swabbed first (as it collects the least moisture). moisture) . Next swab the body, then the head joint. When swabbing the head joint, care must also be taken to avoid poking the metal covering of the cork located inside. Do not use fuzzy materials to absorb moisture as the fuzz tends to fall off and accumulate under or stick to the pads. The exterior of the flute does not need elaborate care. In fact, silver polish on a metal flute may damage it; all the finish needs is to be wiped off after each playing session with a gentle, small-fibered cloth. Care should be exercised in wiping the head joint because excessive rubbing may dull the outer edge of the embouchure hole. Sticky pads cause a delayed delaye d response when a finger is lifted from a key. To To clean, the pad should be closed lightly over a clean coffee filter, which is then withdrawn with the pad closed.  A simple item it em of prevent preventive ive maintenance to teach flute players from their first day is to hold the instrument with the pads up when not playing, thus preventing moisture from collecting in the tone holes and being absorbed by the pads. The pivot screws should be oiled at least once every four months in ensure that they work properly. Occasionally these screws must be loosened using a jeweler’s screwdriver, oiled, then retightened. If the tenons become dirty and sticky, they can be cleaned with denatured alcohol. Protector rings for the end joints are frowned on for two reasons: (1) They make it more difficult  to keep the ends clean; and (2) they add wear with the frequent removing and replacing. In the days of wooden instruments and poorly constructed cases, protector rings were necessary  for the preservation of the cork on the ends, but today there is no longer a reason for them, and most companies no longer make them.

HEALTH ISSUES The flute is an awkward, and at times, uncomfortable instrument to hold. The linear set-up of  the instrument places the fingers in an abnormal position for the upper limbs, and problems  with holding the flute and manipulating its keys can impact the fingers, wrist, shoulder shoulder,, elbow elbow,, neck, and even the back. Small adjustments to the instrument help alleviate the pain. Most  flutists seem reluctant to make these changes perhaps bowing to history histor y or aesthetics, but they  can be helpful to beginning players as can key extensions, which place the fingers in a more natural playing position, alleviating some stress. (The most    common extensions that occur on the G, G , and C keys.) To alleviate stress in tthe he right thumb and han hand d caused by supporting the instrument, cork or a similar substance can be placed on the nearside of the flute to extend thumb

Figure Figure 11 11–10 –10 BoPep BoPep Right Right T Thum humbre brest st to Support Weight of Flute

placement backward. This places the right hand in a more comfortable position. Commercial devices such as the BoPep (Figure 11–10 11–10)) and Thumbalina are available. BoPep also makes a device for the left hand that helps to

 

The Flute   119

extend the instrument where it rests at the base of the left index finger. Others use a simple garden hose to do the same thing. Flutes with bent head joints and vertical/upright flutes are available to help place hands, arms, and fingers in a more natural position for playing.

TROUBLESHOOTING Equipment Sticky pads 

1. Moisture absorbed by pads. (If pad is not damaged, place coffee filter paper between pad and tone hole, press key, and gently pull paper out: repeat several times pulling the paper out in different directions.) 2. Bent rods. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) 3. Worn springs. (Have repaired by competent  repairperson.) 4. Pivot screw at end of rod through post needs oiling. (Use one drop.) Pads not seating correctly 

1. Leaking pads—usually discovered when lower register does not respond easily. (If pads are in good shape, readjustment of the adjusting screws may be necessary. Insertion of thin paper “washers” behind pad can be made by a repairperson. Possible bent rods to be repaired.) 2. Brittle or hardened pads. (Have replaced by  competent repairperson.) 3. Torn pads. (Have replaced by competent repairperson.) 4. Loose pads. (Reheat the glue; seal the pad with gentle pressure.) Tone Breathy 

 Airstream m not centered with embouchure hole. 1. Airstrea (Practice in front of a mirror to keep embouchure centered. If due to physical shape of  lip—such as a teardrop-shaped upper lip—move the embouchure hole off center to the left; many players switch to another instrument.) 2. Aperture in embouchure is too large or too round. (In upper register keep aperture small; in low registers keep embouchure flatter and slightly wider. w ider.)) 3. Not enough air support. (Breathe correctly  and let air flow, keeping constant pressure behind the airstream. Be careful not to overblow; however, keep airstream focused. 4. In upper register, too much of a smile-shaped

Fuzzy, hollow 

1. Flute turned out too far. (Correct alignment of  head joint or hand position.) 2. Misdirected airstream. (Blow air slightly more into the flute.)  Airstream m not fo focused cused or incorrect sshape hape of  3. Airstrea aperture in embouchure. (Aperture should be relatively flat and wide for lower notes and small and round for upper pitches. Physical shape of  lip can prohibit focused airstream—attempt to pull upper lip more firmly against teeth.) 4. If in low register, commonly due to too small an aperture. (Relax corners of mouth. Pull back and down on corners and attempt to raise center of upper lip.) 5. pads. of (Have replaced.) 6. Leaky Not enough embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint up to cover one-fourth to one-third of  the embouchure hole. Roll flute inward.) Thin, strident, shrill 

1. Too much tension in lip around embouchure hole. (Relax upper lip. Focus airstream.) 2. Playing on outer surface of lip. (Roll lips out to play more on the moist inner surfaces.) 3. Blowing too hard. (Blow easier yet maintain air pressure. Focus air more.)  Airstream eam not centered. (Roll fflute lute up and down down 4. Airstr to center embouchure hole with embouchure. Hold flute so that embouchure hole is parallel

 with lips. Cover more of the embouchur embouchuree hole, pull corners back and down more, roll flute in slightly—or a combination of these.) 5. In upper register—corners of lips too tense (i.e., too much of a smile embouchure). (Relax corners.) 6. Too much air blowing over and out of flute. (Blow more air into instrument.) 7. If in low register, aperture too small. (Attempt a  wider,, flatter embouchure.)  wider 8. With poor flexibility—not enough embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint  down, cover at least one-fourth of embouchure hole, but not more than one-third.) Stuffy 

1. Flute rolled in too far. (Roll out. Correct align-

embouchure. (Make more rounded.) 5. Too much embouchure hole covered. (Adjust  to cover one-fourth to one-third of the embouchure hole.)

ment of head joint.) 2. Too much of embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint up to cover one-fourth to one-third of the embouchure hole. Roll flute out.)

 

120

The Flute Weak 

1. Not enough air support. (Breathe correctly.) 2. Leaky pads. (Reseat or replace.) 3. Too much of embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint up.) Difficulty with the higher register 

1. Bring jaw forward and cover more of the embouchure hole with the lower lip in upper register. 2. Use faster, more focused airstream.  3. On sharp notes such as C direct air slightly  more downward into embouchure hole or try  arching tongue more toward roof of mouth. 4. Focus and direct air more toward outer edge of  embouchure hole with more rounded embouchure aperture. Difficulty with the lower register 

1. Lips too open. (Direct airstream more downward.) 2. Lips too tense. (Practice softly, relaxed on lowest pitches. Blow more air being careful not to

overblow.) Flexibility problems 

1. Too much of embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint up or roll flute out.)

e mbouchure ttoo oo large. (Co (Common mmon 2. Aperture of embouchure problem when playing in low register—keep aperture only as wide and large as necessary.) Pitch Flat 

 Airstream ream is direct directed ed too much into the flute. 1. Airst (Raise head or lower jaw slightly, blow more to ward outer outer edge edge of embouc embouchure hure ho hole.) le.) 2. Too much of embouchure hole is covered. (Raise head joint, roll flute out.) 3. To avoid going flat when descending into the first octave, uncover embouchure hole while directing more air into the embouchure hole. Sharp 

1. Airstream is directed too much toward the outer edge of the embouchure hole. (Lower head or jaw slightly, blow more into the embouchure hole.) 2. Not enough of the embouchure hole is covered. (Lower head joint, roll flute in.) 3. In lower register—pull the corners of the mouth back and down slightly.  4. A C is being played. (Lip down, fake it, or cough at the appropriate moment.)

 

The Flute   121

FLUTE Fingering Chart G# 1

2

3

1

2

3

C B

B

b

Tr1

C#

Tr2

D#

B Back

I

I

123, 123 C   B

123, 123 C , C B

I

I I 

I

12, D B

123 G , D B

I I

123, D B

I

12, D B 12,123

B

B

I

I

I

123, 1 D   B

I

1, D

123G , D B 123G , 123D

I

123, 12 D   B

I

1, D B

I

I

123, 123 D   B

I

1, 1 D B 1, D   Bb

I

I

123, 3 D B

I

123, 123 B

,D

I

 23, 123 B

I

I

1, D B 13, 12 D

I

I

B

23, D B 23,Tr1 D

I

I 

23, 2D B

 

123, 1 D B

I

  ,D

123, 1D

I

123, 12 D B

I

1, D

I

123, D   B

I

  23, 123D B

I

1, 1 D B 1, D

I

123, 3 D   B

I

23, 123C

B

B

I

I

123 G , 123 D B 23G  , Tr2 D B

I

I

I

12, 12 D B 12, 12 Tr2 D B

I

I

13, 1 D B 13, 1 C B

I

I

13, 3 D B 13, 123 B

I 

I I

23G , D

1,

123G  , 123C (T)

I

I

123, 123 C B 8a

I

123, D

I

  2, 1 D B

  , 1 Tr1 B 13, Tr1 23 B 13, Tr1 3 , 1 Tr2 Tr2

I I I I

I

123 G , 1 C 2 G, 1 C 2 G , 13 C

1 3, Tr 2 B 123 G , 1(D  )

I I

I I

2G , C , C 3, 1 2C B

I

  3, 1 2 C, C B 123, G , Tr1 3D B

I

I

 

122

The Flute

 WEB SITES National Flute Association  American Flute Guild Flute World Mark Shepard Flute Page Flute.com Flute History  Fingering Chart  Flute Information Larry Krantz Flute Pages The Flute Network

 www.nfaonline.org  www.nfaonline.org  www.americanfluteguild.com  www.americanfluteguild.com  www.fluteworld.com  www.markshep.com/flute  www.markshep.com/flute www.flute.com  www.flutehistory.com  www.flutehistory.com  www.wfg.woodwind.org/flute  www.wfg.woodwind.org/flute  www.fluteinfo.com  www.fluteinfo.com  www.larrykrantz.com  www.flutenet.com  www.flutenet.com

I

I

123 G , 1 Tr1, 3 D B 12, 2Tr2 3 G , Tr1 2 CC , B

I

I

2, 2 Tr2 123, 12 Tr2 12 G , Tr2 3 D

I

I

12

 

The Oboe 

T

he oboe has the most limited compass of any woodwind instrument and seems to resist  any effort to achieve a good tone. However, when mastered, its unique timbre and expressive possibilities are ample reward to the player. When played correctly, it can express humor, satire, calm, mystery, and despair, among many other qualities. Unfortunately, when played badly it can be downright unpleasant. For years there has been a controversy over whether beginners should start on oboe or play a year or two on another instrument before switching to oboe. A fourth grader is fully capable of beginning on the oboe if the music teacher is able to devote a bit of extra time and attention to the student; if not, there are advantages to starting on another woodwind instrument such as the clarinet. One reason beginning oboists have problems is that most class method books start on concert F, a note that promises immediate success on trumpet, low brass, clarinet, and saxophone but for the oboist is one of the most awkward fingerings used—a forked F. These method books generally progress through E , D, and C, all of which are difficult notes for the  young oboe player. player.

HISTORY The double-reed instruments are nearly as old as the flute. Their record of use and popularity is perhaps greater because their fuller tone gave them a wide adaptability. Instruments with a double-reed mouthpiece of cane date from 3700 BCE; an ancestor of the modern oboe is mentioned as early as 2000 BCE in the literature of Mesopotamia. The instrument, appearing in many shapes and forms, dominated the music of the ancient world for centuries. It had only three or four finger holes up to about 400 BCE. Collars and half stops were added until the player had to operate as many as fifteen holes. Various forms of oboes are to be found in all parts of the East. They were used by shepherds and by fakir snake charmers in the old Turkish Empire, in the harems of Baghdad, and in the temples of Cairo. Egyptian oboe players had the unique practice of breathing through the nose while they played, which enabled them to sustain a tone continuously. The ancestors of the oboe belonged to the Asian world until Europe began to be aware of Near Eastern civilization in the late Middle Ages. At about the thirteenth century the shawm , derived from the Arabian double-reed instruments called the zamr , was iintrodu ntroduced ced to to Europe by returning Crusaders. This instrument was called the bom-barde  by the French,  pommer by Germans. Its cousin was the krummhorn , on which the reed was encased and could not be placed in the mouth, but was set in motion by blowing into an opening in a way similar to the manner by which organ pipes are sounded. With W ith the exception of the krummhorn , these early instruments were played by taking the entire reed into the mouth, the lips resting against a metal disc. From the high Renaissance through the Baroque period, the oboe was increasingly important. It was a popular member of Elizabethan bands. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the the orchestra descant shawm  had and assumed form instrument of the early of modern oboe. It was introduced into by Lully, was athe favorite Handel, whose orchestra con-

tained 26 oboes, 46 first violins, and 47 second violins. Bach used the oboe d’amour for sprightly and plaintive effects; ef fects; he was particularly fond of it in combination with the solo voice. By the time of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, the oboe had become a standard part of the orchestra. 123

 

124

The Oboe

Today there is interest in performing early music (Renaissance and Baroque) authentically using excellent replicas of the hautbois (oboe). Although one might believe that simple “recorder” fingerings might suffice, performing is more complex, requiring extensive use of  alternate fingerings to play the required modes in tune.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT Let the buyer beware. The prospective automobile owner always kicks the tires and slams the doors in an involuntary admission that the requisite knowledge of engine quality is not present. An oboe is an expensive purchase (a probable minimum of $2000) that one hopes to keep for many years. Knowing what to look for is vital, because good oboes are not massproduced and one cannot always trust name brands.  As with any other musical instrument, i nstrument, the overall sound is the primar y guide for selecting an oboe, whether new or used. Oboes differ in tone quality, even those made by the best  manufacturers. Unless the instrumental music teacher is an accomplished oboe player, he or she may be unable to evaluate the potential of an instrument. A skilled oboe player should therefore be found to assist in selecting an oboe whether the buyer is a parent or the school. The conservatory system, based upon the innovations and improvements of Boehm, is almost universal, but many different models exist within it. The plateau system has covered tone holes (vented plates with pads). This system was initiated about 1906 by F. Lorée, one of  the most famous makers of oboes. The full conservatory oboe with forked F key, alternative F, and third octave key is a common professional instrument. Because there is such a great variance in oboes, a stable reed should be used when checking the overall pitch of the instrument, and each note should be checked with an electronic tuner. All notes throughout the registers of the instrument should respond freely, with a good tone quality and a full, resonant sound. Oboes come with either a semiautomatic key or two additional octave keys. With a semiautomatic key, the player must add the side octave key to all high notes beginning with A  above the staff. Both the oboe and the bassoon profit from the addition of extra keys. Of major importance for the oboe is the low B  key. An oboe without this key is not a good purchase. Though  school-grade music seldom requires the low B , it must be available when it does appear, and it improves the resonance of low B and C. The F resonance key, once considered optional, is a feature common on most beginnerto-professional–level oboes. It opens automatically when the forked fingering for F is used, eliminating the need for the E  key to be pressed with the right little finger. The standard order of importance for remaining optional keys might migh t be the following: the B–C  trill key, the  C–D trill, the left little finger F key, and the B –B trill key. ke y. Because a musical instrument is expensive to manufacture, ways are continually sought  to lower the cost. One of these ways is to substitute plastic for wood. Quality plastic oboes, costing $2000 to $4000, provide an adequate choice for a school oboe. Grenadilla Grenadi lla oboes cost twice that amount. Quality plastic English horns are also available but cheap plastic instruments are to be avoided. Experiments with inexpensive plastic oboes have met with varying levels of success, but have been mostly unsuccessful—the basic element of tone quality is lacking. The traditional oboe is made of grenadilla wood, and the quality of the wood is crucial to the quality  of the instrument. The instrument should be made of wood with the straightest grain possible. Secondhand instruments should be checked for cracks and for scoring inside the bore. The reed is almost as important as the instrument and is a favorite topic of conversation among teachers and players. Reeds appropriate for beginners are essential for initial success. They may be purchased from a music retailer, but few of these are considered good reeds by  the professional oboist. A better source for reeds is the professional who makes and sells them; these custom-made reeds are usually of good quality and the professional can make them for various levels of embouchure development. Reeds appropriate for beginners should have a relatively small opening and blow easily without changing pitch at different dynamic levels. More-advanced high school students should learn to make their own reeds; this skill should be considered an essential element of any oboe player’s instruction and development.

 ASSEMBLING THE OBOE The key mechanism of the oboe can be damaged when putting the instrument together or taking it apart, so care is encouraged. The oboe has four parts: the reed, the upper section, the lower section, and the bell. The beginner should learn to assemble it with careful move-

 

The Oboe   125

ments, not by wiggling or forcing, because (1) the tenons are thin and easily broken; (2) the cork can be compressed or loosened; (3) the ends of the tenons can become rounded from  wear; and (4) the keys can be easily bent. These The se four factors affect the snug fit necessary to prevent leakage of air around the joints and pads. The upper and lower joints are assembled by placing the left hand at the top of the upper joint and the right hand over the rings or pads between the lower joint and the bell section. The keys on the lower joint and bell sections are not depressed when assembling because  touching the F tone hole or C–D trill key raises the bridge key. The two joints are pushed together with a gentle turning motion aligning the bridge keys. The corks at the ends of the  joints (the tenons) may be slightly greased to make assembly assem bly easier. The reed is grasped at the cork by the thumb and first finger and inserted in the upper  joint by a slight downward push. If the reed is not pushed in all the way, way, an air pocket is created that affects intonation and tone. Grabbing the cane of the reed while inserting it will damage one or both blades or destroy the fit, causing air leaks. After the reed has been inserted, it  can be easily turned so that the blades line up with the rest of the instrument. One of the two blades will always be stronger than the other; as players gain experience they will notice that  the instrument plays better when one particular side of a reed is up. To identify that side each time, an ink mark can be placed on the cork.

HOLDING THE OBOE The oboe is held with the left hand on the upper joint and the right hand on the lower joint as shown in Figure in Figure 12–1. The 12–1. The fingers are slanted slightly  

  downward towardand theenabling bell to facilitate the use of the C and by the right little finger the left little finger to play theCGkeys , B, and B keys more easily. The right thumb points slightly upward. The fingers should be slightly arched, with the fleshy pad of each finger centered on the  tone hole. The little finger of the right hand rests lightly on the D key and the little finger of the left hand on the B key. The inside edge of the right  thumbnail is on the thumb rest. If the thumb is placed too far under the oboe, the right fingers will be cramped and unable to move rapidly. Hand position will vary somewhat according to the size of the hand, however. Freedom of finger movement and avoiding tension are the important considerations in thumb placement. The left thumb rests against the instrument at an angle of approximately 60 degrees (approaching 90 degrees for students with small hands) just below the octave key so that it can activate the octave key by a rolling motion (i.e., not by lifting it and placing it on the key). The

indexjoint finger of the left hand be on the first hole; the first of that finger rests should lightly on or over the tone second octave key. This position enables the index finger to do two things: (1) ( 1) roll back and forth to half hole; and (2) depress the second octave key   with the first joint of the finger finge r while keeping keepi ng the other finge fingers rs of  the left hand in place. The oboe should be brought to the erect head, not the head to the oboe. The instrument should be centered on the embouchure. Movements of the head, body, and instrument are not necessary when playing the instrument and can in fact detract from the playing. When the head is moved, the embouchure is changed and the position of  lips on the reed is altered, so control is lost, tone quality is distorted, and pitch and response are jeopardized.

The Angle of the Instrument The oboe is positioned directly in front of the player whether stand-

Figu Figure re 12 12–1 –1 Ha Hand nd Posi Positi tion on for the Oboe

ing or sitting (see (see Figure 12–2 12–2). ). The head is kept erect. The oboe is held between 30 and 45 degrees from the body as a general rule, but  should be adjusted to fit the student’s mouth cavity. It is supported primarily by the right thumb and steadied by the embouchure. Beginning students may try to copy clarinet positions, especially if the new oboists are former clarinetists, in which case the instrument will

Figure Figure 12–2 12–2 Sittin Sitting g Po Posit sition ion for Playing the Oboe

 

126

The Oboe

be held too low. Others may get into the habit of holding their head down, which is the same as holding the instrument too high.  As a general rule, the lower the instrument is held, the darker the tone; as the angle increases, the tone becomes brighter due to change of reed position in the mouth. The present  trend is toward a brighter oboe sound. If the head is held erect and the student sits or stands tall, the angle of approximately 30 to 45 degrees will produce a bright tone and allow for a fast, light tonguing action. When the oboe is lifted too high, the reed is pulled away from the lower lip cushion and the upper lip presses too tightly on the reed. The result is a drop in pitch, particularly in the upper register, and a bright, harsh tone. Holding the oboe down to produce a dark tone with a mysterious, haunting quality must not be carried to the extreme.  When the oboe is i s nearly parallel tto o the body, the upper lip is prevented preven ted from ser ving its normal function, the sound becomes not only onl y dark, but also hard, and the tone has a tendency to be sharp in all registers.

EMBOUCHURE Embouchure formation is easier to explain than to do, and much easier to do than to maintain. The focus should be on the relationship of the embouchure and the reed. 1. The player drops the jaw about a half inch and rrelaxes elaxes the lips. 2. With the mouth slightly slightly open, the reed is placed on the tongue, tongue, which can then guide guide the reed to the center of the lower lip. The top of the reed should be about halfway over the lip. 3. Roll the lower lip in while allowing the reed to follow the rolling motion into the oral cavity—students must experiment to determine exactly how much reed needs to be rolled in. 4. With the reed resting on the lower lip that that serves as a cushio cushion, n, form the vowel “ooo”  while keeping the lower lip and reed ree d in place. 5. Seal the lips around the reed with equal pressure from all directions. 6. The player player should feel that he or she is holding the reed in place with the sealed lips and not from pressure through “biting.” 7. At this point, with the reed sealed by the lips and pressure exerted from all directions, the student should attempt to lower the jaw as if to vocalize “ah.” 8. In this position, the oral cavity is fully open, open, the teeth are apart, and the only pressure on the reed is from the lips. If there is no response, gently press the reed blades together with the thumb and forefinger to change the size of the opening, or possibly soak the reed a bit  longer longer. Frequently Frequently, , a new reed isbut tootone stiff;quality beginners may try a softer reed in to obtain. an immediate response, and intonation will suffer. Asorder the embouchure becomes stronger and more developed the student should switch to stronger reeds. The correct oboe embouchure is formed by rolling both lips in slightly over the teeth to form a cushion above and below the reed. Extreme overbite or underbite can prevent the player from applying equal pressure to both blades of the reed. Lips should be in a vertical line, usually with more of the pink of the lower lip rolled in. The edge of the lower lip (where the pink meets the flesh) should be directly over the teeth. A thick lower lip appears to be an advantage, as it forms the cushion necessary  to avoid a nasal quality quality.. Figure 12–3 illustrates the lips rolled in and the alignment of the teeth. The facial muscles form a gentle pucker that exerts pressure on the reed from all Figure 12–3 sides. The corners of the mouth are pushed in toward the reed. A “smile” pucker or Oboe Embouchure: “crocodile face” should be avoided. A flat chin, although not as important as for the Teeth and Lips clarinet, usually accompanies an embouchure that surrounds the reed with even pressure. If the corners of the mouth are held firmly and forward toward the reed, the chin will re-

main flat. Air bulges may appear in the cheeks, caused by lack of muscular control—unequal tension between the muscles pulling to a pucker and those pulling to a smile. A fleshy upper lip may only give the appearance of an air pocket; if probing with the index finger disturbs the embouchure, there is, in fact, an air pocket. The correct oboe embouchure is shown in Fig Figure uress 12–4 and 12–5. nd 12–5.

 

The Oboe   127

Figure Figure 12–4 12–4 (side view)

Obo Oboe e Em Embouc bouchur hure e

Figure Figure 12–5 12–5

Oboe Oboe Embouch Embouchure ure

 With the beginning beginnin g student, one of these problems usually usual ly occurs: (1) too much of the lip is turned in; only enough lip needs to be rolled in to control the reed; (2) with a clarinettype embouchure, too little lip is turned in; (3) when the upper lip is short and less flexible, it  is often placed too far on the reed. The young oboist learns that the amount of reed inserted into the mouth depends on the tessitura of the music. A different lip cushion is required for each octave. The reed is placed farther in the mouth for the upper register and is moved out  slightly for lower tones. A second factor determining reed placement is the type of tone desired. A third is the lip and jaw formation. A fourth factor is the reed itself. Oboists must deal with a different kind of endurance challenge than do brass players. The oboist’s endurance problems result from the amount of air pressure in the mouth as so little air goes into the instrument. Thus the oboe player must gain a great deal of strength in the embouchure muscles before playing complete phrases or for long periods of time. The framework of the embouchure is formed by the teeth. The teeth te eth determine the size and shape of the embouchure and must be kept open so that the other elements of the embouchure function properly. There is no upward bite in the normal embouchure. The lower teeth and jaw drop away from the reed. Control is derived entirely from the lips.

Reed Placement Usually the reed is positioned in the mouth with about one-third to one-half of the cane covered by the lips. To check placement, the student should play second space A and slur down one step to G. If too much of the reed is in the mouth, the A will sound wild and quite sharp in relation to the G. Then experiment with less of the reed in the mouth until the two-note slur can be played with good intonation and consistent tone quality. If too little of the reed is in the mouth, which rarely occurs, the G will be flat.  When a bright, hard tone is desired, more reed is put in the mouth, with adjustments to keep the intonation correct. If the player puts too little reed in the mouth, the tone may be fuzzy and weak as well as flat. As the beginner’s control grows, the amount of reed placed into the mouth should change.

The Grip There is no biting in a good oboe embouchure, but the lips must be firm enough to control

the reed. The grip of the lips depends on the amount of reed in the mouth as well as the tessitura of the music. The firmness for the higher registers should not cause the throat to tighten. The student should start with a rather relaxed embouchure; it will soon tighten of its own accord. Regardless of the advancement of the player, too tight a grip on the reed will choke off the tone, cut off most of the lower overtones, or make the primary pitch sharp. The player

 

128

The Oboe

should always be able to feel the reed vibrating, even when playing in the upper range of the instrument where the greatest firmness is required. Conversely, if the player relaxes the lips too much on the low tones, the reed vibrates excessively and some of the overtones become stronger than the fundamental. The oboe requires different embouchures in different registers and for crescendos and decrescendos; these are opposite to those used by clarinet players. In playing crescendo passages many oboists allow their lips to roll out slightly, covering the teeth with somewhat less lip  while relaxing re laxing the embouchure. This action counteracts the sharpness accompanying an increase in volume.

The Jaw For most players, leaving the jaw alone is best. The lower jaw is normally pulled down and slightly back so the lower teeth drop away from the reed, thus forming the smile pucker pucker.. Probably the most common fault of the young oboe player is jutting out the lower jaw, perhaps to create some feeling of needed support from the lower lip. A player with a receding lower jaw  should hold the oboe at less than a 30-degree angle rather than push the jaw forward in an unnatural position.

INTONATION  Although professional orchestras tune to the principal oboist, the young oboist cannot be so confident of the pitch. An electronic tuner should be used use d to check individual pitches and ad just the overall tuning. If each and ever y pitch is in need of adjustment, it is i s time to get a better instrument, learn to make reeds, or switch to percussion. Intonation on the oboe is related to embouchure as well as to the position of the reed in the mouth. Specifically, sharp intonation is caused by the following: 1. An embouchure embouchure tha thatt is too tig tight  ht  2. Too Too much reed in the mouth (especially for the second octave) 3. Too stiff stiff a rreed eed 4. Holding the oboe at an angle of less than 30 degrees from the body  5. Too much of either either lip turned under The tone will be flat when the reverse errors occur. When a combination of faults occurs, intonation problems will be difficult to correct as there are so many variables to test. The ear is the key: students must learn to listen carefully and evaluate evaluat e their pitch in relation to that  of other players.  All intonation problems do not lie with the player. player. The instrument itself, no matter how  fine, is never perfectly in tune. Usually, the ring keys played with the right hand and the low  D , C, C , B, and B  keys of either hand should be tried trie d to see if they improve intonation int onation or enhance the resonance. Defects in the dimension of the bore may make the low tones unstable. The very high pitches are often sharp and the low register flat with notes interspersed in the upper register that also tend to be flat.  As a new n ew oboe is broken in, some of the keys will need adjusting to stabilize or correct  pitch and enhance finger dexterity. Most oboes, including student-line instruments, have at  least a dozen small set screws for regulating key height and the evenness of the mechanism. Because height and evenness of the keys affect intonation, pads must be adjusted. Until students learn to make these adjustments, the music teacher or a competent repairperson should do it. Although the oboe is tremendously difficult to play in tune if it is out of adjustment, having it in adjustment does not guarantee that it will play in tune. However, the oboe is by no means the most difficult instrument to play in tune, being considerably easier to control than, for example, the clarinet or flute. Pitch can be altered by  the reed itself and by the player’s approach to the reed. A higher arch to the tongue raises the pitch and a lower arch lowers it. The arch changes as one goes from a high to a low register— moving from a position for vocalizing “ee” to one for vocalizing “ah.” The temperature of the

instrument and the amount it is pulled at the joints also affect pitch. Figure 12–6 illustrates notes that generally tend to be out of tune on the oboe. If the pitch is unstable (some notes going sharp and others going flat within the same register), the player may not be blowing directly into the reed. To obtain consistent pitch, both blades of the reed must vibrate equally. The player should try tipping the head up and

 

The Oboe   129

Sharp

Flat

Figure 12–6 Intonation Intonation P Proble roblems ms of Sel Selected ected P Pitche itches s on the Oboe Oboe

down or slightly altering the angle at which the oboe is held while listening to the result.  When experimenting, the player playe r must play and listen throughout the entire range.  A problem known as “flat staccato” is not really a problem of intonation but rather of  poor timbre that makes the pitch sound flat. Flat staccato is caused by having too much reed in the mouth, which forces the tongue to curl into an incorrect position in order to reach the lip of the reed for tonguing. The same term is sometimes applied applie d to the poor tone quality that  results when the angle of the reed is too great and there is too little bottom lip on the reed. This situation also impairs the accuracy of the attack and the speed with which the player can tongue. In attempting to flatten the pitch, the oboist should not pull the reed from the upper  joint. If the reed is i s pulled out more than just the slightest amount, aan n air pocket will form, causing the instrument to lose response. A general unevenness of sound will result: low notes  will tend to become wild and some tones will be difficult to attack clearly and w will ill be fuzzy in quality.

TONE QUALITY  All perfor pe rfor mers sh should ould str strive ive for beauty b eauty o off tone, the oboe playe playerr among tthem. hem. A go good od oboe tone depends upon four things: (1) the player’s concept of tone; (2) breath control; (3) embouchure; and (4) a good reed. The typically coarse and uncontrolled tone of a beginner is due to too much air going through the reed. If the tone is dead and unresonant, there is insufficient pressure. The abdominal muscles must pressurize the air, and the embouchure must be firm enough to control this pressure; a balance of these forces creates an appealing tone.  A small tone, even when pleasant, is limited in dynamic variety and carrying power. The reasons for a small tone are biting the reed, too little reed in the mouth, not enough lip over the teeth, and holding the instrument too close to the body. A squawky tone results from the opposite set of factors. Sometimes a player becomes accustomed to a nasal tone and even strives to maintain it. Oboists must listen to their own playing and compare the tone with the sounds they would like to imitate. Harmonics are useful. The oboe harmonic is the second overtone, an octave and a fifth (a twelfth) above the fundamental; for example, if the player fingers low B , top-line F will sound. Harmonics are produced by overblowing and using either the first or second octave key—tightening the lips more and using more pressure than necessary for the fundamental tone. Using the low C key with these harmonics will help keep them in tune—harmonics are usually flat. There are two uses for harmonics, the more m ore common being to add tone color; the other is their use in quiet orchestral passages and for pianissimo notes. Oboe players almost always double on the English horn, and this doubling can interfere inte rfere  with their oboe tone. Too much concentrated practice on the English horn can make the oboe tone hard and less controlled because of the difference in the reeds of the two instruments. The playing of the two instruments, however, is nearly identical.

 Vibrato Oboe players in some countries disapprove of vibrato. They believe it destroys the character-

istic oboe sound and prevents the instrument from blending well. Most players, however, feel that vibrato enhances the sound by adding warmth and expressiveness to the tone. Diaphragm vibrato seems to be preferred. Throat and jaw vibrato tend to constrict and tighten muscles, producing a disappointing, artificial sound. Vibrato on oboe is probably not for beginners.

 

130

The Oboe

REEDS The world’s greatest oboist would sound like a child on a kazoo without a good reed. The quest for good reeds has forced oboists to make their own; learning to play the instrument includes learning to make a satisfactory reed. The teacher must make the reeds or purchase them for the beginning player. Purchasing reeds does save time, but all reeds need adjustment, even those guaranteed to play. Purchased oboe reeds are usually too stiff for normal playing; minor adjustments are necessary. Theand ideal reed iswith onelittle that effort. is fort. balanced. responds to louds andpitch, softs,tone highsquality, and lows, staccatos legatos ef On it It the player can control andand dynamic changes with a minimum of embouchure manipulation. “The reed should sound good  with no help, so that when there is help, it sounds sounds great.” great.”1 Every player should have multiple reeds ready to play. Clarinet and saxophone players rotate reeds, but this is not necessary for the oboist. One should not play on a reed until it is worn out, since the embouchure will compensate, forming bad habits, as the reed wears out. Players should have another reed ready and broken in, switching to a new reed as soon as signs of the reed’s final days are apparent—usually seen in a lack of response, instability of pitch, or difficulty in controlling the reed.

Selection of Cane If students desire to make their own reeds, the cane can be purchased by the pound in tubes bundled together, but starting with uncut cane requires more tools than does precut cane. Most student oboists should purchase cane that has already been split, gouged, and shaped.  When purchasing either cane or ready-made reeds, the appearance of the cane and its pliability are guides to its selection. A shiny golden color to a brownish color with spots indicates sufficient ripeness and curing. Avoid green cane. White cane may be good. Cane need not be spotted—this is not always an accurate indication of ripeness—but if too green it will not make a satisfactory reed. Pliability and porousness are also considerations. On a ready-made reed, pliability can be checked with the thumbnail; if the nail makes a noticeable mark, the cane is probably too soft. Cane that is hard to cut was harvested too late and is not pliable; cane that is too soft  flakes off while being gouged and scraped. The porousness of the cane can be tested by wetting the butt end. If it darkens to an orange arc, it is properly aged. If bubbles appear when one blows on the butt end, the reed is too porous.

Selection of a Reed Because the oboist is not likely to be able to play a commercial reed before purchasing it, the following points may serve well when selecting one: 1. The cane should match the staple so that the oval sides of the reed are flush with it and  without cracks on the sides. 2. Slivers of cane appearing at the sides of the reed may not be serious unless their removal  will leave a crack. 3. Reeds that have a feathered tip usually have faulty workmanship. The craftsman has feathered out a faulty stroke by scraping and sanding to make it appear acceptable. Reeds made with decisive, sure strokes are almost universally superior to those made by  short, choppy strokes. 4. Reeds made with thinner cane make good tone production easier. 5. The cane should fit snugly together past the staple and somewhat above the fishskin. The fishskin is immediately above the string wrapping and aids in preventing air leaks. The sides of the reed do not meet evenly at the tip, but should be slightly offset when the reed is dry; soaking will counteract the shape. 6. If the tips are flat and parallel rather than oval-shaped when dry, too much offset will occurreed when the reed is soaked. should meet when soaked. 7. The should be held up to The lightsides to determine thatfirmly the two sidesthe of reed eachisblade are

scraped symmetrically symmetrically and that the two blades are symmetrical with each other (see Figure 12–7). 1

Light, Jay (1983). The Oboe Reed Book: A Straight-Talking Guide to Making and Understanding Oboe  Reeds. Des Moines, IA: Drake University, p. 7.

 

The Oboe   131

65 mm 61 mm 50 mm tip

staple

thinnest part of tip 47 mm blend between heart and tip 70 mm heart spine

back

bark

Figure Figure 1 12–7 2–7 Illust Illustrat ration ion of an an Oboe R Reed eed

The general craftsmanship of the reed is important. These things indicate a good piece of work: Is the string even? Has it been bee n waxed? Is there a good invisible knot? Is the fishskin on at the correct spot and evenly applied? So many items can be so skillfully hidden that making one’s own reeds seems the only certain way to get a good product. On a commercial reed one cannot see how far onto the staple the cane was placed or  whether the winding extends too far beyond the end of the staple. The winding should end exactly with the end of the staple or at most one thread beyond it. (But  beauty is only skin deep; the best-looking reed may not play.) David Weber and Ferald Capps in The Reed Maker’s Manual  write,  write, “deciphering the sound sound [[of of the crow] is all that is needed to determine where and how to scrape the reed.” reed.”2 Thus, learning about the crow is important. To produce a crow, one inserts the moist reed well into the mouth, closes the lips up to the string, and blows a stream of air through it. The crow should respond immediately and sound a C (or close) in at least two octaves. All new students must experiment with the help of  Figure 12–8 their teacher as to how much reed is inserted in the mouth for the best, clearest, Cuts of Oboe Reeds and fullest crow crow.. Figure Figure 12–8 illustrates several cuts used by oboists. The more-advanced player may be able to judge the type of cut that he or she prefers, whether V-shaped, U-shaped, W-shaped, and so forth; these can easily be identified by the eye.

Care of Reeds

Store reeds in a reed case for protection and to insure proper drying. The narrow plastic cases that reeds come in make it hard to return the reed to the case without damaging the tip; furthermore, they do not allow the reed to dry and may cause it to become moldy unless small holes are punched through the plastic. Reeds become dirty during playing and then tend to play flat. Lipstick clogs the pores, dust and lint cling to the moist reed, small food particles from the mouth become lodged in the reed—all unnecessary damage to the reed. To remove these particles, a small piece of paper or pipe cleaner is placed between the blades from the top and gently pulled back and forth a couple of times, with care taken to avoid breaking the delicate tip of the reed. Rinsing one’s mouth at the water fountain before playing and avoiding lipstick and cookies during oboe practice and rehearsal are recommended.

 Adjustments While Playing Before starting to play a passage one must check the reed opening and adjust it if needed. The player can pinch the reed to obtain the best opening for playing, but a clumsy 

squeeze, with too much pressure or in the wrong place, may split the blades down the middle. If the reed is too stiff or is not responding, respondin g, the player may pinch the two pieces piece s of cane together, pinching close to the wrapping on the flat of the blades. This adjustment may  2

R o othwell, thwell, Evelyn (1982). Oboe Technique , 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, p. 61.

 

132

The Oboe

raise the pitch slightly. If the reed is soft and closing up, press at the sides where the two pieces join. This is usually only a quick fix, but soaking it longer may also help. Besides pinching, another way of getting the reed to open up is to put more reed into the mouth, down past the beginning of the winding, and alternate between sucking and blowing air through the reed. The fishskin can be tightened to better support the blades if the tip is still too closed.

Use of the Knife in Reed Adjustments

a. Staple

Professional oboists appear to be as opinionated and exacting with regard to the knife they  use (type, size, shape of blade handle, weight, material, and so on) as what to do with the knife. They do agree that the knife should be very sharp. Only a few of the most common adjustments are given here. Each oboist, upon reaching the stage of   being being able to adjust the reed, should possess three tools: a knife and mandrel (see Figure 12–9) along with a plaque. The scraping of the reed is done in three sections: the tip, the scrape, and the back, but never the spine. Common adjustments for intonation include these: If low C and D are out of  tune, open the reed by tightening the fishskin. This will involve inserting the plaque between the blades and scraping the tip of the reed to offset the stiffness coming from a tighter wrapping. If the general pitch is too flat, cut off some of the tip of the reed or trim it slightly on the sides to make it a bit narrower. If the reed is then too stiff, too sharp, or too dull in sound, scrape the tip. If some pitches are sharp, the scraped area should be lengthened or thinned at the cut; sometimes cutting the tiniest bit from the

corners helps flatten the pitch. If the player cannot “crow” a C, then the reed is unequally scraped or too thin or thick in the areas listed previously. (See Figure 12–7. 12–7.)) Comparing the pitch of second-line G with the one an octave higher is often used to test the intonation of a reed. The general r ule for altering the reed to adjust  b. Mandrel intonation is this: If the top note is sharp, more of the reed should be scraped; if the top note is flat, the tip of the reed should be cut off or the sides of the reed narrowed. Figure 12–9 Reed-Making  A reed that tha t plays sh sharp arp can be sc scraped raped more more,, or the cut (grattage (grattage)) or cut of th thee reed can ca n be Devices changed from a V-shape V-shape to a U-shape. For a reed that plays flat, filing the staple, not the tip, is preferable, but filing the staple should be a last resort. Sometimes “slipping” the reed— that is, moving the blades so that they do not coincide and are slightly offset—will help raise the pitch. Tone Tone quality, response, and intonation are af affected fected by the various cuts of the reed. If the tone is shrill, bright, and brassy, lengthen the heart by scraping at the bottom, accentuating a U-form over a V-form, and diminishing the width of the sides toward the opening. Shrillness may also be caused by the winding being too far up the reed. If the top tones are dull and thick, scrape the tip slightly, or sometimes only the very end of the tip. Narrowing the sides of  the reed will also brighten and harden the sound. If the low notes are difficult to play and are stuffy in sound, thin the bottom of the scrape, particularly at the sides, or else thin both sides of the scrape just below the tip of the reed. Poor response on low notes comes from too short  a lay or unevenness in the thickness of the blades. If the reed blows hard in the upper register, scrape more off the tip. If it blows hard in the lower register, scrape a little at the base near the bark. Whistling may result from unevenness in the thickness of the blades, too short a grattage, or a reed tip that is too thin or is too long for balance. When the reed seems to be causing uncertainty in attacks yet the cane itself  is good, there are probably bumps or unevennesses in the scrape. If a new reed seems hard to play, delay making adjustments until the reed is sufficiently  broken in and its opening has assumed its regular shape. New reeds and those not recently  used will have wide openings that may narrow with playing. If the opening remains too wide, go lightly over the spine of the scrape, and lengthen or thin the V at the bottom of the scrape. If the opening is too small, the reed is probably excessively thin or soft and will produce a loose, edgy, thin tone or else a bright, wild sound. The reed can be improved by scraping the

sides, with most of the scraping at the bottom of the th e scrape. In restoring the original length of  the lay after trimming the tip, be careful not to make the lay too long, because then the high notes will not respond. There is an optimum ratio for each reed; when correcting one fault, don’t create a worse problem.

 

The Oboe   133

TECHNIQUE: ARTICULATIONS AND FINGERINGS Good tonguing is inseparable from artistic playing. For the oboe, while the tone is being produced, the tip of the tongue touches the lower lip or rests on it slightly. To stop the tone, the tongue may stop both blades by touching the tip of the reed with the upper, flat part of the tongue, or stop the lower blade just under the tip of the reed with the very tip of the tongue. Both techniques are used by experts, but students find the second method easier. The oboist  has less success with “doo” tonguing than does the clarinetist. A “t” motion gives a sharper, cleaner attack. Double-tonguing on the oboe is seldom used. The “k” sound required in double-tonguing is not successful because it tends to produce a flat tone and a fuzzy, muddy attack. The oboe player should achieve a facile single-tongue and depend on it for fast passages. The reed or the instrument itself can be twisted slightly to the left, making it possible to tongue on the corner of the reed. This achieves a rapid, clean tonguing action. The horizontal approach should be mastered first. Finger dexterity is developed by practicing slowly, then speeding up. Coordinating tonguing with fingering is absolutely essential. The young player should begin tonguing on a five-note scale passage, concentrating on synchronization of fingers and tongue. Slow  practice will allow time to listen and think about what is happening. Evelyn Rothwell explains the importance of conscientious practice of technique and the music beyond technique: When you play . . . you may sacrifice—conscio sacrifice—consciously usly or unconsciously— unconsciously—certain certain details details for the effect  of the whole. For instance, if you are in an orchestra, other instruments are playing at the same  time as yourself and may cover up the imperfections in your own technique of which you may not  he aware. You may, even when playing quite by yourself, be too carried away by the musical pleas-  ures of what you are doing to listen critically enough to small technical faults, particularly to care-  less intonation. The purpose of real practice is to acquire complete coordination and control of the  muscles you need, by conscious and concentrated mental discipline. No slip or fault, however  slight, mu st st be  allowed  allowed to pass. Train your ears to observe imp imperfections, erfections, and use your brain to put  them right .3

Contemporary composers demand of the advanced oboist a range of expressive devices—a range above A3, special fingerings for micropitches (difficult or impossible with covered finger-hole instruments), double and triple tonguing (which is tricky on the oboe because of the reed and because the ululations occur farther back in the mouth with softer syllables), flutter-tonguing, and pitch-bending chords. Not only does one need a command of  alternate fingerings (especially (especial ly in the extreme upper register) but reeds with different scrapes and considerable embouchure flexibility.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE OBOE  A well-fitting well-fitti ng case is importan important. t. It protects the keys of the in instrument strument against damage and it  helps prevent extremes of heat and cold from damaging the wood. A vinyl (or fleece-lined nylon) case cover further protects against damage and sudden temperature changes. Always allow the outside of the wooden oboe to warm up before blowing through the instrument. Dirt is more harmful to an oboe than to other instruments because the small tone holes are easily clogged. The instrument should be swabbed after each playing. A swab of soft  silk is satisfactory for the bell and lower joint; for the upper joint a soft pheasant or turkey  feather could be used. The feather sometimes may dry out tone holes or vents but will at least  spread the moisture about, preventing buildup. The feather should first be washed with soap to get rid of natural oils. Many oboe players oil the bore to guard against splitting wood. However, most reputable manufacturers now guarantee their instruments against cracking, and preparation of  the wood in the factory includes soaking it in oil. If oiling the instrument seems desirable, a small amount of bore oil should suffice. Too much oil remaining in the bore adds to the

accumulation of dirt. The springs of the oboe should be oiled very lightly several times each  year with key oil, which is available with a needle n eedle applicator. 3

R o othwell, thwell, Evelyn (1982). Oboe Technique , 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, p. 61.

 

134

The Oboe

Moisture that collects in the smaller tone holes and the octave keys can be blown out as a temporary solution. A piece of coffee filter or cigarette paper placed between the tone hole and the key and pressed gently will absorb any remaining moisture. The tone holes should be cleaned regularly with a pin or with the quill of a feather. The pads and keys of the instrument should be checked frequently because pads leak and keys are easily bent. The keys should be wiped occasionally with a soft cloth. They should not be polished with silver cleaners because this may clog the mechanism and destroy the sil ver plating.

HEALTH ISSUES The primary health issue reported by oboists is not glaucoma, aneurisms, or brain damage from the built-up air pressure in the head as urban myths expound, but rather muscle strain in the right hand, which supports nearly the entire weight of the two-pound instrument. The confined position of the fingers, due to the small diameter of the instrument, can also lead to muscle strain. Oboists can experiment with a variety of available thumb rests and their positions, or adapt a thumb rest using softer materials made from foam or rubber (such as a pencil grip) to help alleviate or prevent pain and discomfort. A neck strap may also be used, but  could merely transfer the weight to the neck, creating tension there. A support system, Fhred, is available to relieve some weight. The system involves a brass telescoping pole that attaches to a ringed thumb rest at one end. The other end is i s rubber and rests between the player’s legs on a chair. It can be used when standing by fitting it in a small pouch held with a belt around the waist.

TROUBLESHOOTING Equipment Difficulty Difficult y in assembling 

1. Grease corks on joints, including reed cork if  necessary. Sticky pads 

1. Moisture in tone hole(s) or absorbed by pads. (If pad is not damaged, place tissue paper between key and tone hole and cover and hold gently for paper to absorb moisture; do not use

talcum powder powder.) .) 2. Bent rods—probably the bridge keys. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) 3. Worn springs. (Have repaired.) 4. Pivot screws at end of rods need oiling (one drop). (Occasionally screws may need to be loosened, oiled, then retightened.) Pads not seating correctly 

1. Leaking pads—usually discovered when the lower register does not respond easily. (If pads are in good condition, adjusting of the screws may be required; possible bent rods to be repaired by competent individual.) 2. Pads are damaged. (Replace or have replaced.)

forceful. Clean with a feather; bore may need oiling.) 2. On low notes—often with a tight throat and the first overtone trying to sound. (Relax throat, drop jaw, blow steady air without forcing.) 3. Too much reed in mouth. Tone Reedy, nasal, harsh, rough

1. Head down or oboe held too high. (With head erect hold oboe at a 15 to 30 degree angle.) 2. Biting on reed. (Drop jaw; lip down and blow  faster air to compensate; use firmer lips/embouchure to control reed.)

protr uding. (Correct (Cor rect embouchure, includ3. Jaw protruding. ing jaw.) 4. Reed too hard. (Try softer reed or scrape reed.) Pinched, small 

1. Oboe held too close to body. (With head erect hold oboe 30 to 45 degrees away from torso.) 2. Opening in reed too small—overall contour or sides too weak. (Trim end one millimeter at a time and scrape reed when necessary to re-

form the tip; keep lip pressure on sides of  reed.)

Gurgling sound 

collected ted in tone hole( hole(s) s) under pads 1. Water collec that usually remain closed. (Open appropriate key, blow water out of the hole and into the bore; blowing must be sudden and

3. Biting the reed. (Drop jaw; use more lip to control reed and use slightly faster air to compensate for pitch.)

 

The Oboe   135

4. Not enough reed in mouth. (Place more reed in mouth.) 5. Not enough lip over teeth for reed. (Check reed; use more lip over teeth—less red of lip showing.) 6. Not enough breath support.    7. First-space F is weak or breathy. (Play F  with G

1. Too much reed in mouth. 2. Bent bridge key to bell, pads not seating. (Try ry dropping jaw as 3. Biting reed with lower jaw. (T if lipping the note flat—increase airstream and firm up embouchure/lips.) 4. Oboe held too low. (With head erect, oboe

key down. If G key does not close, replace the G cork.)

should be 30 to 45 degrees from body; experiment for appropriate position.)



Unresponding, cold 

1. Reed too hard. (Adjust for free blowing or  wrong cut—scrape.) 2. Inappropriate reed cut. (Try different brand of  reed.) 3. Not enough air. (Blow more air after taking proper breath; use proper embouchure to hold the increased pressure.) Squawky 

1. Reed too stiff. (Player attempting to overblow; adjust reed or replace it with a softer one. Try playing softly or starting mf  with  with decrescendos.) 2. Too much reed in mouth. (Place less reed in mouth.) 3. Too much lip over teeth. (Place less lip over teeth.) 4. Reed too open. (Carefully close reed between thumb and first finger to reduce stiffness.) 5. Embouchure too loose. Trouble with control 

1. Oboe too high or too low. (With head erect, hold oboe at between a 30 and 45 degree angle from body.) 2. At pp  volume  volume levels—reed too stiff; biting bitin g reed; lips in wrong place for reed. 3. Jaw protruding. 4. Reed too soft. (Try harder reed or trim tip.) 5. Cheeks puffing. (Firm corners to keep chin and cheeks flat.) 6. Embouchure too loose. Trouble with flexibility 

1. Too much lip rolled over teeth. (Let some red show.) 2. Too much reed in mouth. 3. Practice overblowing to obtain harmonics; practice slowly moving from note to note in middle

of staff in which few fingers are used, gradually 

Squeaks 

Pitch sharp 

1. Embouchure too tight. (Use less lip over teeth, loosen embouchure, and/or drop jaw by trying to blow a pitch flat.) 2. Especially in second octave, too much of reed in mouth. (Pull reed out.) 3. Reed too stiff. (Scrape reed or try a softer replacement.) 4. Holding oboe at less than 30 degrees from body. 5. Too much bottom and/or top lip turned in. 6. A combination of items 1–5. 7. On individual notes—keys/pads may be rising too far. (Adjust adjusting screws to open keys properly.) 8. Scrape both sides of reed. Flat 

1. Embouchure too loose. (Firm up lips, especially corners; try more lip over teeth, that is, less red showing; blow faster airstream.) 2. Not enough reed in mouth. 3. Reed too soft. (Cut tip one millimeter at a time; scrape when necessary to reform tip.) 4. Head down or holding oboe too high. 5. Too much red showing on bottom and/or top lip. (Correct embouchure) 6. Combinations of items 1–5. 7. On individual notes—keys/pads not opening enough. (Adjust screws to allow for proper opening of pads.) 8. Tone holes or vent holes dirty. (Clean with feather or needle.) 9. Flat overall with reed inserted all the way. (Cut  1 millimeter at a time from reed, scrape tip  when necessary nece ssary to reform tip—repeat as needed; reed opening too large—press together  with fingers to slightly weaken the reed—soak longer—scrape shoulder of reed; file staple to

shorten.)

adding fingers as range increases. 4. Embouchure too loose.

 

136

The Oboe

OBOE Fingering Chart

1 1/2

OK 2 Y

2

OK 1

Z 3 8 D#

7B

G# Back

B B

1

C-D 2 F

C C# D#

 

3 6

1 2 3 B 1 2 3 C

1 2 3 B 1 2 3-6

1 2 3

1 2 3 D

1 2 3 B  1 2 3 C

1 2 3 B 1 2 3-6

1 2 3



1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3 C

1 2 3-6

1 2 3 C 

1 2 3-6 C 

1 2 3

1 2 3



1 2 3



1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3 D 

1 2 3



1 2

1 2 F

1

1

3 D 



1

3

 

The Oboe   137

OBOE Fingering Chart (Continued) 

1 23 G  



1

1

1

1

1

1

23

23

2

2

3 G

2

7B

1

1

 X 

1

X 1

1

4  

1 / 2 

1 / 2 

2 3

2 3 D 1 2 3

1 2 3



OK1 1 2 3

OK1 1 2 3

OK1 1 2 3

1 2

1 2

1

D 

F



OK2 1 OK2 1 2 2 X 1

3

(OK1) 1 2 3 B  1 2 3

D 

C

 



OK2 1 OK2 1

1

1

(OK1) 1 / 2  2

3 B   1 2 3 C

1

OK1 1 2 3 1

OK1 1 2 3 B 1 2 3

1

1 / 2

1

32

3

23

Z

1 2 3 C

1 2 3 C

1 2 3 C 

OK1 1 2 3 G 



1 2 3 D 

1 / 2 

2 3

2 3

OK1 1 / 2  2 3 B

OK2

 

3 C 

2 3



OK1 1 / 2  OK1 1 / 2 23

2

2 3 G

OK1 1 / 2  2



G -D -D  

    

C

OK1

OK1 1 / 2

1

3

OK2

3 1 2 F

OK1 1 OK1 1 / 2 3

 

G 

1

OK1 1 / 2 2

OK1 1 2

1

1 2 F C

2 3



C

OK1 1 OK1 1 / 2  OK1 1 / 2 OK1 1 / 2 3

3

3

1 C-D

1 2 3

1

OK1 1 / 2 2

Y 1

4

C

OK1 1 / 2  OK1 1 / 2  OK1 1 / 2  1 / 2  2 2 2 2 3 3 3 G -D -D G  -D  -D 4 4 2 2 3 3 D  D 

  

3 1 C-D C

1 / 2 

1 2 3

OK2 1 OK2 1 2 2 3

OK2

1

1

OK1 1 OK1 1 2 2 3 3

2 3



1 / 2

1

C

OK2 1

1

23



3

1

1 / 2

3

1

1

 

3 1

B 2 3

 

138

The Oboe

 

B

3 C

G



2 3



 

G  2 C

G -D -D   2

2 3 D 



2

 WEB SITE International Double Reed Society   www.idrs.org

13

 

The Clarinet 

HISTORY Single-reed instruments are known to have existed in Russia, Egypt, China and Greece as early  as 2700 BCE. These early instruments were the forerunners of the present-day clarinet and  were found in various forms including “double” and “triple” clarinets, which were instruments with parallel pipes that used fingers to cover the holes of each pipe at the same time. A  triple instrument dating from this period, the launedda , is used in Sardinia to the present day.  A clarinet-like instrument called the  jaleika  was  was found in Russia; it also dates from the preChristian era. The true forerunner of the present-day clarinet is a Greek single-tube instrument called the chalumeau . This instrument was never as popular as the double-reed shawm  due to problems of mouthpiece construction and aduring short, the incomplete that but was was hardstill to overblow. The chalumeau increased in popularity sixteenthscale century not favored by the more important composers. Its first real use occurred in two obscure operas written in 1710: Reiser’s Croesus  and Bononcini’s Turno Aririna. By this time, the chalumeau was already a thing of the past, for in 1690 Johann Christoff Denner had added two keys to create an instrument with a range of two octaves. By 1720, finger keys and the speaker key had been added. This clarinet, using a small reed, sounded a bit like an oboe. The clarinet remained a minor instrument and did not appear in scores until the early 1700s, followed by works by Telemann in the 1720s, Graupner 1754, Stamitz in 1765, and the Concerto   for Clarinet in A by Mozart in 1791. Muller added a key system syste m in 1810. The clarinet did not n ot become a modern instrument instrum ent until Klosé added the Boehm system in 1843 makin making g it possible to play in all keys. Numerous forms of the clarinet appeared in the nineteenth century with clarinets pitched in G and D, bass clarinets, the bathyphone (in E), and the basset horn—an alto clarinet pitched in F with a narrow bore and thin wall. Today the clarinet has four registers—the low chalumeau register, the middle or throattone regist  , the upper re register—called gister—called the it is loud brilliant, altissimo (seeer, (see erFigure 13–1). 13–1). Presently  Presently made inclarion five or because six different keys,and ranging fromand thethe small sopranino to the contrabass, the clarinet is one of the most useful instruments. Since the time of Mozart, composers have given the instrument a superior repertoire. The clarinet is the backbone of symphonic and concert bands. Ideally, the symphonic band has more B  soprano clarinets than any other single instrument. The clarinet is some what popular as a jazz instrument, as a classically oriented solo instrument, and as an essential element in the orchestra. Its range extends almost an octave higher and lower than that of an oboe, giving it one of the widest ranges of all the wind instruments.

Throat Tone

Clarion

Altissimo

Chalumeau



Figure Figure 1 13–1 3–1 The Four Four Regi Registe sters rs of the the B Clarinet (written pitches) 139

 

140

The Clarinet

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT Knowledge of the troublesome idiosyncrasies of an instrument is important to teach or play  it well. Clarinets are made of various materials, natural and synthetic; of these, grenadilla  wood is the favorite. favorit e. Several factors eenter nter into the ssuperiority uperiority of grena grenadilla dilla wood: it is eeasy asy to  work with; it is dense, which minimizes moisture absorption; and it is available in large enough quantities to keep it from being prohibitively expensive. The clarinet has been the most successful plastic instrument because the quantities sold have justified the research required to produce an adequate product. Manufacturers are now making plastic clarinets (especially the alto and bass) that approach the evenness of scale, intonation, and tone quality  of the wooden instrument. Straight-grained wood is always desirable. On older instruments it is important to check  whether the wood has dried out excessively or the posts have become loose. Small cracks are not serious if they have been repaired expertly; they can be pinned or banded so that intonation and response are not affected. affe cted. The appearance of more than one crack may indicate that  the wood was not originally aged and seasoned properly. The most important part of a clarinet to check is the joints; any chip in the joints will prevent a perfect seal, allowing air to leak and affecting the intonation. Some professional models (such as the Selmer Paris) have metal caps to reinforce tenon joints. Checking the interior of the barrel is essential because scratches and scorings affect intonation and tone. One should always play an instrument before making a decision about its adequacy— there is no other way to estimate intonation and tone quality. Every clarinet will respond somewhat differently. Pitch should be checked by playing and listening. The performer testing should play to determine intonation (with an electronic and the theninstrument scales to determine thatoctaves the intervals are in tune at various dynamic levels. Thetuner) merits of a new or used clarinet are judged on its tone quality, intonation, and response.  At a pitch of A=440, the barrel should be pulled about one-sixteenth of an inch at 68 to 72 degrees Fahrenheit. This fraction of an inch gives the player freedom to push the barrel in  when room temperatures and air density make a sharper pitch desirable. Because warmer rooms raise pitch at different rates for different instruments, the clarinetist needs to be able to match this sharpness when necessary. Sometimes clarinets cannot be adjusted to match the ensemble’s pitch. If a particular clarinet plays under the pitch A=440 with the barrel pulled one-sixteenth inch, a shorter barrel will be necessary. The quality of the keys should be considered. Keys should be made from good, forged nickel silver so they are not easily bent or broken. Bent keys are important on any woodwind, because a bent key may not open the proper distance, creating intonation problems. Bending the key back into place does not remedy the initial damage (or the intonation problem); it  simply makes location of the problem more difficult. clarinet is far from a perfect instrument, and many compromises have sary inThe its manufacture. The register key (not an octave key) and the speaker keybeen (for necesthird line B ) are the same. To correct the problems caused by this doubling up, it would be necessary to place the speaker key higher on the clarinet and reduce it in size (its present  placement results in clarinets having a flat fourth-line D and fourth-space E). Alto, bass, and  contrabass clarinets often have both keys, one the B and one the register key.    A single sin gle middle joint would aallow llow a better C and G because that tone hole could be placed lower, but the loss of the option of pulling at this joint for intonation purposes has pre vented this design from being adopted on better soprano instruments. instrum ents.

 ASSEMBLING THE CLARINET The various instruments of the clarinet family, ranging from the E  soprano to the contrabass, are constructed with similar parts. Precautions that apply to the assembly of one apply to all.  The B soprano clarinet has five parts: the mouthpiece (which holds the reed by means of a ligature), the barrel, the upper joint, the lower joint, and the bell. The parts fit together

tightly—the tenons, covered with cork, ensure a close fit. The pieces pie ces do not slide together easily but must be coaxed. The corks should be greased prior to attempting attempti ng the first assembly and should remain greased. They should never be assembled by wiggling. The left hand firmly holds the upper joint, with the fingers depressing the three rings over the tone holes to raise the bridge key. The right hand holds the lower joint with the thumb just below the thumb rest and the fingers grasping the joint without depressing any key 

 

The Clarinet   141

rings, though the keys activated by the pinky pin ky finger may be depressed gently in order to secure a better grip. The joints are coupled together using a slight twisting motion taking care not to bend the bridge key. A bent bridge key may prevent certain keys from closing, making some notes hard to play. Next, holding the two joints in the right hand with the right thumb against the thumb rest, the bell is twisted on the bottom joint with the left hand. Then the barrel is twisted on the top joint—the wider end of the barrel is connected to the upper joint. The manufacturer’s labels on the barrel, the upper joint, and the bell should be aligned. Finally, with the instrument still held carefully in the left hand, the mouthpiece is assembled so that the flat side, or table, is in line with the thumb rest and register key and the ligature is placed over the mouthpiece. The reed is slipped under the ligature rather than the ligature placed over the reed and mouthpiece. For beginners the ligature screws usually go on the same side of the mouthpiece as the reed (although Bonade and similar ligatures are reversed). The bottom screw should be tightened just enough to hold the reed firmly in place. The upper screw should be tightened only enough to prevent it from vibrating and causing an unpleasant buzzing sound. Stein advocates tightening the the top top screw and leaving the bottom one loose, for greater elasticity throughout the entire reed. ree d.1 Caution: If the ligature is screwed too tightly for too long or not loosened after playing, it may cause the mouthpiece to warp when the reed becomes soaked and expands. The type of ligature is important, as the object of the ligature is to pro vide maximum vibration of the reed and avoid a choked or buzzing tone quality. The use of   V  Velcro elcro or str string ing wound around the mouthpiece to hold the reed in place allows the re reed ed great  freedom to vibrate. For years David Pino has used a flat, cloth shoestring as a ligature. ligature.2 There are many satisfactory ligatures.  A ligature placed too high on the mouthpiece hinders reed vibration, encourages squeaks, and results in a stuffy tone. When the ligature is positioned too low, the reed has too much freedom to vibrate and the tone becomes harsh: placing the ligature slightly below the lines marked on the mouthpiece is a valid recommendation. The reed is placed so that it is centered on the mouthpiece and only a very slight “rim” of mouthpiece is visible when the tip of the reed is gently depressed. The mouthpiece cap should be a frequently used item.

HOLDING THE CLARINET Two guidelines that are important in establishing a good position for holding the clarinet are (1) the angle at which the instrument is held; and (2) the flexibility of the fingers and the hand position. The angle at which the clarinet is held should be established first because correct embouchure depends in part on it. The player’s posture should be erect whether sitting or standing (see Figure 13–2 for the correct posture when seated). Stiffness should be avoided. Neck, shoulders, and arms must stay relaxed with the head erect. Arms held too far out from the body can create tension in the neck and in the fingers. One of the first impulses of the beginner is to lower the head to meet the mouthpiece. Instead, the instr ument should be brought to the mouth, not the mouth to the instrument. Depending upon the embouchure formation, the clarinet should be held directly in i n front of the body at an angle of about  30 degrees from the body. Each student has different posture habits, h abits, different teeth formation and lip structure, and the sensible teacher considers these in determining the angle that fosters the best  embouchure. The student who rests the clarinet on one knee shifts the clar-

inet to one side and develops an improper embouchure and a rough tone. Some authorities feel that there is little harm in letting a beginner rest the bell on the knee if the student is tall enough.

Figure Figure 1 13–2 3–2 Sittin Sitting g Posit Position ion for for Playing the Clarinet

1

Stein, Keith (1958). The Art of Clarinet Playing. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard, p. 6.

2

Pino, David (1980). The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing . New York: Scribner’s, pp. 21–22.

 

142

The Clarinet

These clarinet teachers advocate this practice with the belief that this will keep the hands and fingers relaxed and prevent their being used to support the instrument. Resting the instrument on the knee, however, can indeed lead to a misaligned embouchure, the development  of the wrong facial muscles, poor breathing habits, and restricted finger dexterity. If the student finds the clarinet too heavy to hold without resting it on the knee, a neckstrap can be used or the student can be encouraged en couraged to practice for shorter lengths of time. Proper position may not initially feel comfortable or natural, but if the embouchure seems correct cor rect and the student is able to produce what promises to be a good tone, the studen studentt should be encouraged to adjust to the position. Head up, horn down. If the student’s head is lowered, or the instrument held too far out from the body, the lower jaw is positioned directly beneath the upper jaw when it should be farther down on the mouthpiece. When the lips are equidistant from the mouthpiece tip, the tone is less flexible and more uneven between registers, and the lower lip loses sensitivity. It is better to keep the lower lip about three-quarters of an inch from the tip of the reed and the upper lip about onehalf inch from the tip. This is facilitated by holding the instrument at the appropriate angle. This quarter-inch difference contributes to better tone, more flexibility, more consistency  throughout the entire range of the clarinet, and a more focused tone. One common rule is that the lower lip should be placed as far down as possible without squeaking. If the player has thin lips, the angle of the clarinet should be decreased. If the player has thick or full lips, holding the instrument out more than 30 degrees may improve the embouchure and tone quality, the position depending upon the jaw. A player with a protruding jaw  must hold the instrument at a greater angle from the body to compensate for increased pressure from the lower jaw. Generally, the smaller the angle at which the clarinet is held, the more shrill the tone. The tone mellows as the angle is increased. A completely dull sound is obtained, however, if the clarinet reaches a 90-degree angle, excluding the rare exceptions such as Benny  Goodman and Buddy DeFranco, whose sounds in this position can hardly be described as dull, but such a position is inappropriate for most players when playing music of a classical nature. Correct hand position is shown in Figure in  Figure 13–3. The thumb rest should lie between the nail and the first end joint of the right thumb. The right thumb is responsible for supporting the clarinet, with the left thumb and embouchure only helping to balance or steady it—the right-hand and left-hand fingers cover the holes without  gripping the instrument. If the player allows the thumb rest to slip farther back on the thumb, the right fingers curve excessively to fit over the keys,  which produces a tense wrist. The right thumb must be firm but should not  push the clarinet into the mouth. Deep teeth marks in the mouthpiece mouthpie ce indicate excessive right-thumb pressure. The right hand should slant slightly so the side keys are easily accessible to the middle of the index finger as the fingertip rests over the fourth tone hole. The left thumb rests over the register key at a 45-degree angle  without touching it, and the fingers of the left hand lie almost at right an gles with the clarinet. The left index finger is positioned over the G and A  keys. The slant necessary for the fingers to reach the auxiliary keys depends on the size and shape of the hands h ands and the length of the fingers. The tips of  the little fingers on both hands should rest on the tips of the F keys. For dexterity and coverage, the pads of the fingers, not the flat or tips of them, are used to cover the tone holes. The fingers should be slightly  curved in a natural, relaxed position so that the fleshy pad fits comfortably  Figu Fi gure re 13–3 13–3 Ha Hand nd Posi Positi tion on over the tone hole. Small air leaks caused by insufficient covering of the for the Clarinet tone holes can cause large changes in intonation and tone. Students should be encouraged to keep their fingers close to the keys and tone holes, especially the little fingers. The novice is apt to exaggerate each fingering motion and thereby slow technique. Some teachers suggest raising the th e fingers high in order to ensure their the ir synchronization, but this usually causes bad habits. From the beginning. students should use as

little finger movement as necessary. The problem of synchronizing fingers is more a matter of  paying close attention to the finger action than of exaggerating it.  Jazz clarinetists use alternate alter nate fingerings to alter pitches and an d shade the tone holes slightly to play micropitches, flat/sharp notes, but all clarinetists emphasize that one must learn to play correctly before experimenting with such special effects.

 

The Clarinet   143

EMBOUCHURE Clarinet embouchures vary a great deal: Some teachers prefer more bottom lip over the teeth; others prefer the corners of the mouth pulled downward, or out ward, or inward or simply tightened. The upper teeth should not bite into the mouthpiece or push down on it; the mouth should simply be closed and the teeth  vertically aligned. Blowing a fine stream of air or inhaling through the lips as if  pulling through a soda straw is a good way to describe the action. Many players glue a small piece of very thin vinyl to the top of the mouthpiece to prevent damage to it and to  to  limit the vibr vibrations ations felt by the teeth (known technically as the “heebie-jeebies”).. Figure 13–4 illustrates the lips and teeth. “heebie-jeebies”) The corners of the lips are held together so that there is a firm grip all around the mouthpiece. The student should not think of forming a huge smile. The chin and jaw should be kept as still as possible, because any movement of the  jaw tends to raise or or lower the pitch. The final embouchure adjustment is based on Figure 13–4 tone quality; the mouthpiece may be pulled or pushed into the mouth while experClarinet: Lips and imenting with more or less lip over the bottom teeth. Teeth. The pressure on the reed comes principally from the lips and corners of the mouth (Figures 13–5 and and 13–6).  13–6). In addition, the need for keeping the chin down has to be stressed often with the beginner beginne r, because the sensation is not natural. Practicing w with ith a mirror or with a parent watching can help to keep the chin pointed. Positioning the th e chin in the proper position is relatively easy, but it tends to return to its natural n atural position as soon as air pressure builds up. Unless the chin is held down and flat, intonation in the high register becomes difficult, register loses Advanced some of itsplayers carrying quality, andsothe cheeks tend to puff out, especiallythe inlower the lower register. need not be concerned about the pointed chin. With a well-developed embouchure the clarinet can be held down farther with most of  the support on the lower lip, the upper lip pulled downward with corners forward, encasing the mouthpiece to prevent air leakage and produce the desired tone.  When the player has developed a good em embouchure, bouchure, he or she should llearn earn to initial initially  ly  take any breath slowly and to try to avoid any disturbance of the embouchure. As the “hows” and “whys” of a proper embouchure are better understood, the student should be encouraged to breathe through the corners of the mouth while keeping the center of the lips on the mouthpiece. When the air is blown into just the mouthpiece, a tone approximating a high C or D will sound. Practicing on just the mouthpiece to obtain these pitches is fine although a room full of students eagerly practicing does contribute to noise pollution. There should be minimal change of embouchure for different registers and for wide skips. A good exercise is to practice harmonics. If the player finds high E, F, and G difficult to produce, the lower lip may not be low enough on the reed and the player should experiment   with putting more of the mouthpiece in the mouth. The corners of the mouth may need to be