Color Theory!.pdf

Color Definitions How are colors classified? What is a saturated color? Here is an explanation of the chromatic circle and definitions of color terms such as you have never had before! Primary colors: Primary colors - red , yellow and blue - may not be created by mixing other colors. On the contrary, they are mixed with one another to produce other colors. In printing and plastic arts, magenta (a pinkish red), yellow and cyan (a blue) are used as primary colors because they are better suited to mixing, and yield better balanced secondary colors. A mixture of the three primary colors produces black. Secondary colors: They result from the mixing of two of the primary colors. Red (magenta) and yellow produce orange, yellow and blue (cyan) produce green while red and blue (cyan) produce violet. Intermediate colors: Mixing a primary and a secondary color produces an intermediate color such as orangeyellow. Complementary colors: Colors that are opposite one another in the chromatic circle are called complementary. For example, green (resulting from the mixing of the primary colors yellow and blue [cyan]) is complementary to red. Orange (a mixture of yellow and red [magenta]) is complementary to blue, while violet (a mixture of blue [cyan] and red [magenta] is complementary to yellow. Warm colors: Colors ranging between yellow to red-violet on the circle i.e. yellow, orange-yellow, red and redviolet. However, interaction between colors may cause a hue such as red-violet to appear warmer if it is placed next to a cold color, such as green, or colder if it is placed next to a warm color, such as orange. Cold colors: Colors ranging between blue-violet and yellow-green on the chromatic circle i.e. blue-violet, blue, blue-green, green, yellow-green. However, interaction between colors may cause a hue such as yellow-green to appear colder if it is placed next to a warm color, such as red, or warmer if it is placed next to a cold color, such as blue. Pale or clear colors: Hues containing more or less white. Dark colors: Hues containing more or less black. Saturated or bright colors: Pure hues containing, theoretically, no white, black, gray or complementary colors. However, this definition can be stretched to extend the range of complementary colors. For example, the range of saturated blues is not limited to pure blues. Blues containing white or black may still be considered saturated. On the other hand, orange containing black, even in small quantities, is considered unsaturated because it becomes brownish. Unsaturated or gray-tinted colors: Hues containing more or less gray, or of their complementary color. Theoreticians also use the expression "dull colors" to designate those colors. The expression does not carry a derogatory meaning.

Munsell Color Space

Harmony: In decoration, harmony refers to a combination of colors that is pleasing to the eye. The Voice of Color® has adopted definitions derived from the Munsell System of Color Notation. The Munsell System arranges colors in a three-dimensional space resembling a tree. The trunk (vertical axis) serves as a scale for neutral gray tones, black being at the bottom, white at the top. The horizontal axes, in variable lengths, represent a degree of saturation for each of the hues. The world renowned Munsell System describes each color according to three attributes: hue, value and chroma (saturation), terms that allow all those interested in color to speak the same language.

Chromatic Circle Hue: It is the quality that distinguishes one color from another. It is, for example, what differentiates blue from yellow.

Munsell Value Value: It refers to the position of a hue relative to the vertical gray scale. Value allows to qualify hues as pale or dark, or light and dark.

Munsell Chroma Chroma (saturation): It describes the horizontal spread between a hue of the same scale value as neutral gray. Chroma allows us to describe a color as saturated or unsaturated, or as bright or gray-tinted. Adding gray makes the hue less saturated or more unsaturated. A hue can also be modified with the addition of some of its complementary color.

The seven color contrasts: The seven color contrasts, as described by Johannes Itten (The Art of Color), form the basis of almost every color effect used in interior design. The Voice of Color® provides a brief explanation. To find out how to transpose those notions into decorating, visit the Playing with Space page of the About Color section. Pure color contrasts (hue) They result from the juxtaposition of saturated colors that are clearly different. These contrasts are peak when the three primary colors are juxtaposed to one another.

Light-dark contrasts (value) They are produced by the juxtaposition of a pale and dark color or of a clear and dark color. In a monochromatic palette, the use of such contrasts adds depth to the entire palette. In a palette made up of different colors, however, the absence of such contrasts, or the use of hues of equivalent lightness, help to link the different colors.

Warm-cold contrasts (temperature) They result from the juxtaposition of warm and cold colors, which makes warm hues appear warmer, and vice versa. This type of contrast, which helps balance color schemes, can be found in many of the Harmony Collection™ palettes. In AF-8, the yellow (warm) makes the greens look rather cold, whereas in AF-6, the blue (cold) makes them look warmer.

Complementary contrasts They refer to the juxtaposition of diametrically opposed colors on the chromatic circle. Such contrasts contribute to the fundamental and natural balance of chromatic composition.

Quality contrasts (saturation) They are the result of juxtaposing saturated and unsaturated colors, or bright and gray-tinted colors (to which gray or its complementary color was added). This contrast exists only if unsaturated colors are considerably dominant.

In this example, the red (232-7), relatively more luminous, contrasts with the other colors which are more attenuated.

Simultaneous contrasts They flow from the juxtaposition of two colors that are not exactly complementary. In such cases, colors seem to repel one another and vibrate as the eye tries to bring them closer to their precise complementary colors. The use of such contrasts makes chromatic compositions livelier and more interesting.

Quantity contrasts (proportion) They are the result of the juxtaposition of little and much, small and large. The surface devoted to each color influences their impact on compositions. Creating balanced compositions calls for more than devoting equal space to each color. The brightness and saturation of each hue must also be taken into account. The lighter a hue, the greater its impact and the lower its need for space. The more saturated or bright the color is, the more powerful is its effect.

Itten's Color Contrasts Johannes Itten was one of the first people to define and identify strategies for successful color combinations. Through his research he devised seven methodologies for coordinating colors utilizing the hue's contrasting properties. These contrasts add other variations with respect to the intensity of the respective hues; i.e. contrasts may be obtained due to light, moderate, or dark value.

The contrast of saturation (quality)

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and dark values and their relative saturation.

The contrast of light and dark (value)

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and dark values. This could be a monochromatic composition.

The contrast of extension (quantity)

Also known as the Contrast of Proportion. The contrast is formed by assigning proportional field sizes in relation to the visual weight of a color.

The contrast of complements

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of color wheel or perceptual opposites.

The contrast of hue (pure color)

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of different hues. The greater the distance between hues on a color wheel, the greater the contrast.

The contrast of warm and cool (temperature)

The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of hues considered 'warm' or 'cool.'

Simultaneous contrast

The contrast is formed when the boundaries between colors perceptually vibrate. Some interesting illusions are accomplished with this contrast.

Combining Colors Color combination is really the most important part of color theory and designing with colors, and also the hardest-- It always comes down to your personal judgement and how you look at colors. There are, however, some guidelines that can be used to make a color combination that is interesting and pleasing to the eye. How many colors? It is hard to give an exact answer to this question, but in general one can say that the risk of using too many colors is greater than the risk of using too few. Too many colors will make the page feel too busy and it usually makes it harder for the viewer to find the information he or she wants. It is also more tiring to the eyes. A page with too few colors, on the other hand, risks being seen as a bit boring, but this need not always be the case. One commonly used rule in these matters is to use three colors: >> Primary color: This is the main color of the page. It will occupy most of the area and set the tone for the design as a whole. >> Secondary color: This is the second color on the page, and it is usually there to "back up" the primary color. It is usually a color that is pretty close to the primary color.

>> Highlight color: This is a color that is used to emphasize certain parts of the page. It is usually a color which constrasts more with the primary and secondary colors, and as such, it should be used with moderation. It is common to use a complimentary or split-complimentary color for this (see below).

Color Wheel By now you should recognize the color wheel. If not, please read the section about Color Theory. As mentioned there, the color wheel is very useful when you want to combine colors in a way that is pleasing. Below I will demonstrate some of the most common ways to combine the colors in the color wheel.

Analog Colors The analog colors are those colors which lie on either side of any given color. Often these are color schemes found in nature. A site that makes use of analogous colors usually feels harmonious. The secondary color, as described above, can often be an analogous color.

Complementary Colors The complementary colors are the colors which are directly opposite from one another on the color wheel. Complementary colors are contrasting and stand out against each other. Often it is a good idea to use a complementary color as the hightlight color, as described above.

Split Complementary Colors Split complementary is a color and the analogous colors to its complement color. Using split complementary colors can give you a design with a high degree of contrast, yet still not as extreme as a real complementary color. It also results in greater harmony than the use of the direct complementary.

Triad Colors Triad colors are three hues equidistant on the color wheel. When you want a design that is colorful and yet balanced, a triad color scheme might be the way to go.

Other color combinations Besides the color combinations described above, which are based on the position of the colors on the color wheel, there are also a few other ways of combining colors.

Monotone Chromatic A monotone color scheme is just one single hue and its variations in terms of tints, shades and saturation. Using saturation and tint/shade variations of a color is always good. However, in most cases I would advise against using a fully monochromatic scheme, as there is a risk of monotony. Using it with pure white or black can be efficient, though.

Monotone Achromatic A monotone achromatic color scheme is a special instace of the monotone scheme which consists of only neutral colors ranging from black to white. A scheme like this can be efficient, but it can very easily look boring. Using an acromatic scheme with just one bright color for highlight can be very effectful.

Color Contrast Now that we know how different colors can be combined, we just need to introduce one more important aspect of color theory, and that is contrast. Simply put, contrast is the difference between two colors. On a web page, the amount of contrast required varies with different parts of the page. You usually want a high contrast between text and its background color. But too high contrast between design elementsmight give an unsettled and messy impression. Black and white create the highest contrast possible. Please visit our Color Contrast Analyzer page to see if the colors you want to use have enough contrast. Colors can contrast in hue, value and saturation, but there are many different types of contrasts that have been defined by color theorists throughout the years. Some of them are perhaps not directly applicable to web design, but let's look at a few of the most important.

Contrast of Hue Contrast of hue is what relates most directly to the color wheel combinations described above. The further away from each other two colors are, the higher the contrast. This means that the complementary color combination has the highest contrast, while the analogous combination has the lowest. For text, a contrast of hue alone is usually not enough to make the text as legible as wanted. In that case, you might want to combine contrast of hue with some other form of contrast.

Contrast of Value Contrast of value is very efficient in creating large contrasts. The biggest contrast of them all-- black and white-- can be said to be a contrast of value. In general, large differences in lightness are considered to be pleasant for the eye, but low contrasts of value can also be useful for more subtle differences-- for instance, in a background.

Contrast of Saturation Contrast of saturation is often best for design aspects that do not require a lot of emphasis. A set of colors with different saturations set against a grey background can be interpreted as transperancy. This is something that can be used to interesting effect.

Simultaneous Contrast This is a contrast effect that is created by our eyes' tendency to require a complementary color. You can get this effect by combining two bright colors that are not complementary, or by using a single bright color against a grey background. This gives a feeling of instability and tension and should be used with caution.

Combination of Contrasts While the contrasts above can be efficiently used one at the time, is is most common to use a combination of them-- especially for text where you need a high contrast. The top picture to the left shows blue and its split complementary color, orange. This is a combination that has a high contrast of hue. This gives a rather vibrant combination that can be tiring to the eyes. By changing the value and saturation as in the next picture you will get a combination which is much more pleasing to the eye, and more readable.

Colors and Text As mentioned above, using the right contrast is especially important for text. Using the wrong colors can decrease the readability drastically, and it will quickly tire the reader's eyes. Black text on a white background has the highest readability. Black and yellow is another combination which usually has a high readability, as do blue and white. Green text on red and red text on green are particularly hard for many people to read. A combination of red and blue creates a vibrating effect that can also make reading very

Color Basics, Introduction to Color Theory

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Art does not reproduce the visible; rather, it makes visible. — Paul Klee

Related Resources Be sure to visit Resources for bibliographical references and links to additional sites.

Color Basics Color is the perceptual characteristic of light described by a color name. Specifically, color is light, and light is composed of many colors—those we see are the colors of the visual spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Objects absorb certain wavelengths and reflect others back to the viewer. We perceive these wavelengths as color. A color is described in three ways: by its name, how pure or desaturated it is, and its value or lightness. Although pink, crimson, and brick are all variations of the color red, each hue is distinct and differentiated by its chroma, saturation, intensity, and value. Chroma, intensity, saturation and luminance/value are inter-related terms and have to do with the description of a color. Chroma: How pure a hue is in relation to gray Saturation: The degree of purity of a hue. Intensity: The brightness or dullness of a hue. One may lower the intensity by adding white or black. Luminance / Value: A measure of the amount of light reflected from a hue. Those hues with a high content of white have a higher luminance or value. Shade and tint are terms that refer to a variation of a hue. Shade: A hue produced by the addition of black. Tint: A hue produced by the addition of white.

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10/20/2010 11:30 AM

Color Systems - Subtractive & Additive Color

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Color deceives continuously. — Josef Albers

Color on the Web The Web brings a level of constraint regarding the use of color; not only is there a difference in monitor quality and resolution, but there are only 216 'browser safe colors.' This is thought of as a concern of the past as statistics reveal that 65% of computers browsing the Web today display 16,777,216 different colors, but handheld devices are still limited to 256 colors. Read more about Browser Statistics at: www.w3schools.com For more information, read "Death of the Web safe Color Palette?" at Webmonkey

Color Systems Available color systems are dependent on the medium with which a designer is working. When painting, an artist has a variety of paints to choose from, and mixed colors are achieved through the subtractive color method. When a designer is utilizing the computer to generate digital media, colors are achieved with the additive color method. Subtractive Color. When we mix colors using paint, or through the printing process, we are using the subtractive color method. Subtractive color mixing means that one begins with white and ends with black; as one adds color, the result gets darker and tends to black. The CMYK color system is the color system used for printing.

Those colors used in painting—an example of the subtractive color method.

Additive Color. If we are working on a computer, the colors we see on the screen are created with light using the additive color method. Additive color mixing begins with black and ends with white; as more color is added, the result is lighter and tends to white. The RGB colors are light primaries and colors are created with light.

Percentages of red, green, & blue light are used to generate color on a computer screen.

Working With Systems The Visible spectrum consists of billions of colors, a monitor can display millions, a high quality printer is only capable of producing thousands, and older computer systems may be limited to 216 cross-platform colors.

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Color Systems - Subtractive & Additive Color

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Reproducing color can be problematic with regard to printed, digital media, because what we see is not what is possible to get. Although a monitor may be able to display 'true color' (16,000,000 colors), millions of these colors are outside of the spectrum available to printers. Since digital designs are generated using the RGB color system, colors used in those designs must be part of the CMYK spectrum or they will not be reproduced with proper color rendering. Working within the CMYK color system, or choosing colors from Pantone© palettes insures proper color rendering.

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Color Wheel, Color Circle, & Color Relationships

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All colors are the friends of their neighbors and the lovers of their opposites. — Marc Chagall

For Further Review The color wheel is an invention credited to Sir Isaac Newton (1706). Read more about Newton's color circle at: Handprint.com Artists use a traditional color wheel based on the Red/Yellow/Blue model with secondary colors of orange, green and purple. Read more at: Wikipedia

Color Wheel A color wheel (also referred to as a color circle) is a visual representation of colors arranged according to their chromatic relationship. Begin a color wheel by positioning primary hues equidistant from one another, then create a bridge between primaries using secondary and tertiary colors.

These terms refer to color groups or types:

10/20/2010 11:31 AM

Color Complements, Perceptual Opposites, Analogous, & Complementar...

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Complementary colors make a strange pair. They are opposite, yet they require each other. They incite each other to maximum vividness when together; and annihilate each other when mixed. — Johannes Itten

Mixing Complements As stated by Johannes Itten, complementary colors annihilate each other when mixed to create dark neutrals:

Complementary Colors We look at a color wheel to understand the relationships between colors. Analogous colors are positioned in such a way as to mimic the process that occurs when blending hues. The colors that are positioned opposite one another are complementary colors.

To call those hues in direct opposition to each other "complements of each other" is appropriate. Complementary colors bring out the best in each other. When fully saturated complements are brought together, interesting effects are noticeable. This may be a desirable illusion, or a problem if creating visuals that are to be read. Note that

Vibrating Boundaries

may occur when opposing colors are brought together.

(Notice the illusion of highlighted edges and raised text.) Perceptual Opposites. We learn from the relationships displayed by a color wheel that every color has an opposite. Every color has both a color wheel opposite as well as a perceptual opposite. Without a color wheel, it is still possible to find the opposite of a color and this is due to a phenomenon of our eyes. Due to the physiological differences between individuals, everyone's perceptions do vary—the complements shown below are my own perceived opposites: source >> result

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Color Complements, Perceptual Opposites, Analogous, & Complementar...

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Learn more about perceptual opposites. Continue the tutorial and view: After Images

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Color Wheel, Color Circle, & Color Relationships

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Primary Colors: Colors at their basic essence; those colors that cannot be created by mixing others.

Secondary Colors: Those colors achieved by a mixture of two primaries.

Tertiary Colors: Those colors achieved by a mixture of primary and secondary hues.

Complementary Colors: Those colors located opposite each other on a color wheel.

Analogous Colors: Those colors located close together on a color wheel.

The color wheel can be divided into ranges that are visually active or passive. Active colors will appear to advance when placed against passive hues. Passive colors appear to recede when positioned against active hues.

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Color Wheel, Color Circle, & Color Relationships

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Advancing hues are most often thought to have less visual weight than the receding hues. Most often warm, saturated, light value hues are "active" and visually advance. Cool, low saturated, dark value hues are "passive" and visually recede. Tints or hues with a low saturation appear lighter than shades or highly saturated colors. Some colors remain visually neutral or indifferent. Color relationships may be displayed as a color wheel or a color triangle. The Painter's color triangle consists of colors we would often use in art class—those colors we learn about as children. The primary hues are red, blue and yellow.

The Printers' color triangle is the set of colors used in the printing process. The primaries are magenta, cyan, and yellow.

Nine-part harmonic triangle of Goethe begins with the printer's primaries; the secondaries formed are the painter's primaries; and the resulting tertiaries formed are dark neutrals.

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After Images, negative images, eyes fatigue, the rods & cones

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Who would believe that so small a space could contain all the images of the universe. — Leonardo da Vinci (referring to the eye.)

More about the Eye Visit the Exploratorium to learn more about After Images Bird in a Cage Learn more about Color Vision at HowStuffWorks.com Read more about the Eye at: BiologyMad.com and WebExhibits.org

After Images Color is light and colored objects absorb and reflect different wavelengths. Light & color are seen by the human eye because of the two types of photoreceptor cells - rods and cones - located in the retina of the eye. Rods are sensitive to light and dark; cones are sensitive to red, green & blue light and responsible for color vision. These photoreceptors convey the color of light to our brain. (Learn more about rods and cones, at BiologyMad.com) When our eyes are exposed to a hue for a prolonged period, the rods & cones become fatigued. You might notice this if you are reading something on colored paper, and then look away—you often see the inverse, or complement, of the image. This occurrence can be advantageous if you are seeking the opposite, or contrast, of a color. This may be dismaying to a viewer if presented with prolonged exposure to colored screens or reading materials. Every color has an opposite, and although individual's perceptions do vary, the range of after images seen is consistent. Take the After Image Test Stare at this image for at least 20 seconds. When finished, click on the image or the link below to proceed to the next page.

Learn more about perceptual opposites. Continue the tutorial and view: After Images

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10/20/2010 11:32 AM

Color Combinations, Monochromatic, Complementary, Analogous, Triad

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Color Combinations Color combinations may pass unnoticed when pleasing, yet offend dramatically when compositions seem to clash. One outcome we seek in the final form or composition, is a successful use of color. We determine whether or not we are successful by critically assessing the visual balance and harmony of the final composition—balance and harmony are achieved by the visual contrast that exists between color combinations. Planning a successful color combination begins with the investigation, and understanding, of color relationships. Using a color wheel and a template, the relationships between colors are easy to identify.

Monochromatic Relationship Colors that are shade or tint variations of the same hue.

Complementary Relationship Those colors across from each other on a color wheel.

Split-Complementary Relationship One hue plus two others equally spaced from its complement.

Double-Complementary Relationship Two complementary color sets; the distance between selected complementary pairs will effect the overall contrast of the final composition.

Analogous Relationship Those colors located adjacent to each other on a color wheel.

Triad Relationship Three hues equally positioned on a color wheel.

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Color & Contrast, simultaneous contrast, choosing colors

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Colors, like features, follow the changes of the emotions. — Pablo Picasso

Check Your Own Compositions See how your images appear to someone with a color deficit. Visit: Vischeck Note: They offer a free filter for use with PhotoShop.

Color & Contrast Every visual presentation involves figure-ground relationships. This relationship between a subject (or figure) and its surrounding field (ground) will evidence a level of contrast; the more an object contrasts with its surrounds, the more visible it becomes. When we create visuals that are intended to be read, offering the viewer enough contrast between the background (paper or screen) and the text is important. Text presentations ideally offer at least an 80% contrast between figure and ground. (Black text on a white background is ideal.) If there is not enough contrast between figure and ground, a viewer will squint to view the text, causing eye fatigue. Yellow text on a white background or blue text on a black background, are difficult to read due to the low level of contrast between figure and ground. An occurrence known as 'simultaneous contrast' (or chromostereopsis,) may happen when opposing colors are placed in close proximity to each other. Text may appear to vibrate, or cast a shadow. Eye strain and fatigue will result if a viewer focuses on a document displaying similar properties for an extended time period. Some color combinations, such as red text on a blue background, cause illusions when positioned together. Sensitivity to Colorblind Deficiencies. The Design of visual documents or signage without thought to the overall contrast level between figure and ground can be problematic for people with sight deficiencies. My first-hand experience with this occurred years ago when visiting a hospital with a friend who was colorblind. The hospital had creatively marked the floor with "road maps" to various areas like the lab, lobby, etc. Unfortunately, they used red and green lines and my friend could not distinguish between the colors. If a visual document uses color to relate important information, insure that no information is lost, or potentially misunderstood, when the color is not available. When choosing complementary colors, fully saturated colors will offer the highest level of contrast. Choosing from tints or shades within the hue family reduces the overall contrast of the composition.

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10/20/2010 11:33 AM

Johannes Itten's Color Contrasts

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Colour is life; for a world without colours appears to us as dead. — Johannes Itten

Itten & other Color Mentors Bauhaus Museum on Itten Johannes Itten by Froebel Web Johannes Itten at the artists.org The Bauhaus by Chris Snider Albers at the artists.org

Itten's Color Contrasts Johannes Itten was one of the first people to define and identify strategies for successful color combinations. Through his research he devised seven methodologies for coordinating colors utilizing the hue's contrasting properties. These contrasts add other variations with respect to the intensity of the respective hues; i.e. contrasts may be obtained due to light, moderate, or dark value. The contrast of saturation The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and dark values and their relative saturation.

The contrast of light and dark The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of light and dark values. This could be a monochromatic composition.

The contrast of extension Also known as the Contrast of Proportion. The contrast is formed by assigning proportional field sizes in relation to the visual weight of a color.

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Johannes Itten's Color Contrasts

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The contrast of complements The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of color wheel or perceptual opposites.

Simultaneous contrast The contrast is formed when the boundaries between colors perceptually vibrate. Some interesting illusions are accomplished with this contrast.

The contrast of hue The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of different hues. The greater the distance between hues on a color wheel, the greater the contrast.

The contrast of warm and cool The contrast is formed by the juxtaposition of hues considered 'warm' or 'cool.'

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10/20/2010 11:33 AM

Color Proportion & Intensity

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The relation of color and the relation of proportion are both based on the relation of position. — Piet Mondrian

Masters of color & proportion Yaacov Agam Masterworks Fineart Google Images: Yaacov Agam Wassily Kandinsky Google images: Wassily Kandinsky Henri Matisse Google Images: Henri Matisse Piet Mondrian Google Images: Piet Mondrian Pablo Picasso Google images: Pablo Picasso

Architects: Luis Barragán Google Images: Luis Barragán Ricardo Legorreta Google Images: Ricardo Legorreta

Proportion & Intensity When colors are juxtaposed, our eyes perceive a visual mix. This mix will differ depending on the proportions of allocated areas. The color with the largest proportional area is the dominant color (the ground). Smaller areas are subdominant colors. Accent colors are those with a small relative area, but offer a contrast because of a variation in hue, intensity, or saturation (the figure). Placing small areas of light color on a dark background, or a small area of dark on a light background will create an accent. If large areas of a light hue are used, the whole area will appear light; conversely, if large areas of dark values are used, the whole area appears dark. Alternating color by intensity rather than proportion will also change the perceived visual mix of color.

Dominant color Sub-dominant colors Accent

Dominant color Sub-dominant colors Accent

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Color Proportion & Intensity

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Dominant color Sub-dominant colors Accent

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Dominant color Sub-dominant colors Accent

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Contrast & Dominance

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Simple colours can affect the intimate feelings with all the more force because they are simple. — Henri Matisse

Contrast & Dominance When creating a composition—either something freeform, or a more text based layout, a determination for the final impact of the whole presentation needs to be identified. Is your intent to craft a vibrant, attention grabbing ad, or a presentation with a low, or more moderate level of contrast? These decisions concern what is known as the dominant elements of the design. The dominant element may be classified as either "contrast dominant" or "value dominant." Designs that evidence contrast dominance or value dominance are then sub-divided into low, moderate, and high contrast, or light, medium, and dark value categories. The choice of colors will enhance or minimize the overall impact. It is easiest to understand the difference between dominant elements in the following compositions from a distance, or by squinting your eyes a bit. If the proximity between the neighboring hues is less apparent when you squint, the overall composition a displays lower contrast level; if the overall composition appears light, it has a light value. Conversely, if distinctions between hues are very apparent, the contrast is high, and if the overall composition appears dark, the value level is dark. Understanding how the relationships between the colors of a chosen palette will affect the final outcome of an overall composition is integral to mastering the use of color. Examples of Contrast Dominance In the examples below, the overall contrast level of a composition changes with the range of luminosity between chosen hues.

Low contrast Low contrast compositions use colors within a narrow range of luminosity or brightness levels.

Moderate contrast moderate contrast compositions use colors within a moderate range of luminosity or brightness levels.

High contrast High contrast compositions colors range from very light (high-luminosity) to very dark (low luminosity).

Examples of Value Dominance In the examples below, the overall value of each composition changes with the incorporated hues' relative saturation.

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Contrast & Dominance

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Light value A composition made up of tints, displays an overall light value.

Medium value A medium value composition is made up of a balance between tints, saturated hues, and shades.

Dark value A dark value composition displays mostly shades.

Continue tutorial, view: Shades & Tints

©1998-2009 Janet Lynn Ford This work is licensed under a Creative Commons License.

10/20/2010 11:34 AM

Color Shade and Tints

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Blue is the only color which maintains its own character in all its tones. Take blue in all its nuances, from the darkest to the lightest — it will always stay blue. — Raoul Dufy

Images Used in Examples While enrolled in a color class at the U of MN, our professor, Marian Ortolf-Bagley, encouraged us to use abstract images so as to focus on the color within the composition rather than a subject. Our task began with a contour drawing of a tree. From there we 'poured' complementary colors into the voids, and then removed any linear elements. Contour drawing of tree

Colors poured into voids (mouse over image)

Cropped for exercises

10/20/2010 11:34 AM

Color Shade and Tints

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Color Shade and Tints Using a color wheel divided into various shades and tints is one method of identifying possible options for color schemes. The split complementary relationship shown in this example presents many possible combinations. By varying the saturation and experimenting with shades and tints within the hue relationship, you can achieve quite a variety of palette options. (Click on the wheel at the left to view a larger image.)

Moderately-high contrast, medium value, composition using fully saturated hues.

High contrast, medium value, composition using shades, tints & various saturation levels.

Moderately-low contrast, medium-light value, using tints & various saturation levels.

Moderate contrast, medium value, using shades, tints & various saturation levels.

Moderately-low contrast, medium-dark value, using shades & various saturation levels.

Low contrast, medium value, using shades, tints & various saturation levels.

Moderately-high contrast, medium value, using shades, tints & various saturation levels.

High contrast, light value, using shades, tints & various saturation levels.

10/20/2010 11:34 AM

Color Studies

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Color and I are one. — Paul Klee

Recommended reading from Amazon.com Notan: The light-dark principle of design - Dorr Bothwell

The Art of Color - Johannes Itten

Review more books about color theory!

Color Studies Colors of a complementary relationship. Colors of a complementary relationship assigned equal proportion.

Colors reassigned with proportions allocated to dominant and subdominant areas.

Color intensity and proportion modified. Using tints and shades of the original colors results in a moderate level of contrast and medium value.

Colors applied to composition.

Color intensity and proportion modified - the whole area displays a moderately-high contrast and medium value.

Colors applied to composition.

10/20/2010 11:35 AM

Color Studies

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Colors of a triad relationship. Colors of a triad relationship assigned equal proportion.

Colors reassigned with proportions allocated to dominant, subdominant, and accent areas.

Color intensity and saturation modified - the whole area displays a moderately-high contrast level.

Colors applied to composition.

Color intensity and saturation modified - the whole area displays a moderately low contrast level.

Colors applied to composition.

Color intensity and saturation modified - the whole area displays a medium/dark value.

Colors applied to composition.

Color intensity and saturation modified - the whole area displays a light value,

Colors applied to composition.

10/20/2010 11:35 AM

9 CHAPTER CONTENTS

OPTICAL EFFECTS

A room painted in a light color will seem larger than that same room painted in a dark color. This is because light colors tend to recede while dark colors advance. Warm colors seem closer while cool colors seem farther away. A long narrow room will seem more in proportion if its far wall is dark and its side walls are light. A room with a low ceiling painted white will seem higher than a ceiling painted dark.

INTRODUCTION HISTORY COLOR AND EMOTION COLOR PREFERENCES COLOR AND LIGHT OPTICAL EFFECTS BASIC COLOR THEORY COLOR SCHEMES A P P LY I N G C O L O R I N FA C I L I T I E S

Colors are often said to be warm or cool in temperature and thus all colors are classified in one of these two families that create strong and different impressions.

Warm Colors vs. Cool Colors

Warm colors such as red, orange, and yellow, are associated with sun and fire, and therefore create a sensation that a space is several degrees warmer than actuality. Warm colors appear to advance toward its viewer as well as excite and cause a sense of aggression. Cool colors such as blue, violet and green, are associated with air, sky and water, and thus, are naturally cool and soothing. Cool colors tend to recede in a space and can create feelings of passiveness and calmness. Note that there can be cool shades of red and warm shades of blue that are determined by mixtures of hues. In addition, the quality of warmth and coolness in a color may be altered by its neighboring hues. For example, when a warm hue is in contrast with a cool hue, the warm hue appears warmer and the cool hue appears cooler. The rule of Simultaneous Contrast is the effect of one hue upon another. Whenever two different hues come into direct contact, the contrast intensifies their differences. The greatest contrast occurs with complementary colors. For example, red seems brightest next to green, as green seems brightest when seen with red. There is an effect with closely related colors, for example, a yellowgreen surrounded by green appears yellowish, but surrounded by yellow, the yellow-green seems more noticeably green.

Simultaneous Contrast

The contrast can be in value or intensity as well as in hue. A gray-blue looks brighter when placed against a gray background; however, the same gray-blue neutralizes when placed against a bright blue background. These are just a few examples of the tricks colors play and why it can be difficult applying color.

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9 BASIC COLOR THEORY

Successful color selection in interior design is a combination of experience, schooling and talent. Developing the ability to properly apply color begins with studying the basic principles of color theory. The Three Dimensions of Color

The properties of color are based on three dimensions; hue, value and intensity. Hue is the name of a color, such as red, blue and yellow.

COLOR

SHADE

Value is the lightness or darkness of a color that indicates the quantity of light reflected. TINT

Intensity is the saturation or strength of a color determined by the quality of light reflected from it. A vivid color is of high intensity; a dull or muted color, of low intensity.

TONE BLACK

WHITE G R AY

Hues are defined and organized by the color wheel which is made up of the following twelve colors, each at their full intensity:

Hue and the Color Wheel

Primary Colors: Red, Yellow, Blue Secondary Colors: Orange, Green, Violet Tertiary Colors: Red-orange, Orange-yellow, Yellow-green Green-blue, Blue-violet, Violet-red

The Color Wheel 7

9 The primary colors are red, blue, and yellow. When the three primaries are mixed in pairs, or all together in equal or unequal amounts, all possible colors can be produced Secondary colors are created by combining two primary colors: Red + Yellow = Orange Red + Blue = Violet Blue + Yellow = Green

Primary Colors Value

Secondary Colors

Value is the relative lightness or darkness of a color that is determined by the amount of black or white present in a color. A “tint” is created when white is added to lighten a color. This also gives a color a high value. A “shade” is created when black is added to darken a color. This also gives a color a low value.

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9 The value of color is graded on the gray value scale with white as the highest value, black as the lowest value, and several tints and shades of gray in between. If a black and white photograph were taken of a room full of colors, their equal values could be compared with the gray value scale. Note: Black and white printers and black and white copiers do not give the same effect as black and white photography.

White

High light

Yellow

Yellow-Orange

Light

Yellow-Green

Orange

Low Light

Green

Red-Orange

Medium

Blue-Green

Red

High dark

Blue

Red-Violet

Dark

Blue-Violet

Violet

Low dark

Black Color Value Scale Intensity, or the saturation of color, is determined by the amount of gray added to a color. The “pure” color of red will have a strong intensity while a muted color of red will have a low intensity.

Intensity

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9 Color Relationships

The successful use of color is dependent upon a clear understanding of color relationships. A single color retains a certain character, but adding other colors to its surrounding may change its characteristics. Colors may be closely related or in contrast. The greatest contrast occurs with complementary colors, two colors that appear directly opposite each other on the color wheel. For example, red and green are complementary colors just as violet and yellow, and blue and orange are complementary colors.

Complementary Colors (extreme contrast) Split Complementary Colors A split complementary system involves a color with two colors on either side of its complement. This results in a variation that has less contrast because of the short interval between colors on the color wheel.

Split Complementary Colors 10

9 There is less contrast when three colors are spaced equally apart on the color wheel and used together. The first group is called the primary triad which consists of red, yellow and blue. This triad provides the most striking contrast.

Primary Triad (vibrant contrast) The secondary triad, composed of orange, green and violet, has the same interval between hues, yet gives a softer contrast.

Secondary Triad (soft contrast)

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9 Analogous colors appear next to each other on the color wheel, and because they have the shortest interval between them, they have the most harmonious relationship.

Analogous Colors (Close relationships) The Munsell System

Our fascination with color has resulted in the development of a number of color systems. The most widely used system for identifying color was developed in the early 1900’s by the American artist, Albert Munsell. Munsell’s system shows the relationships between color, tints and shades. The system was used to give names to the many varieties of hues that result from mixing different colors with each other or mixed with the neutral colors black and white. In 1943, American industry adopted the Munsell system as its standard for naming colors. The United States Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C. also adopted this system.

Munsell Color Wheel

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9 The Munsell system has five basic colors: red, yellow, green, blue and purple (violet). Intermediate colors are created by the mixture of any two of the basic colors that are adjacent on the color wheel. For example, the mixture of red and yellow is the intermediate color red-yellow. Other intermediate hues include green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue, and red-purple. Munsell devised a three-dimensional color system that classifies the variations of colors according to the qualities of hue, value, and intensity. Each hue is indicated by the notation found on the inner circle of the color wheel – R for red, Y for yellow, G for green, B for blue, and P for purple. The intermediate or tertiary colors are described with two letters such as RP for red-purple. The value number of a color follows the hue designation. For example, YG/7 is a yellow-green with a value matching step 7 of the gray scale. The intensity number comes last; thus, YG/7/4 indicates a yellow-green hue at a value of 7 and intensity of 4. COLOR SCHEMES

There are several color schemes; some simple while others are very complex. |As expected, the more complex a color scheme the more skill is required to achieve a successful design. The concept of harmony lies behind the development of each color scheme. Neutral (monotone) Color Schemes A neutral or monotone color scheme consists of various tints and shades of a neutral color such as black, white, gray, beige, tan or taupe. A neutral scheme is easily composed by selecting a neutral then building upon several values of that neutral. This scheme is often used as a backdrop for a striking accent color or for non-competing backgrounds when an important element is displayed, such as artwork. Neutral color schemes can become monotonous if not accented properly; however, a successful scheme can be considered sophisticated, elegant, and refined. They are used when a soft but formal space is desired, such as a hotel, bank or museum. Neutrals

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9 Monochromatic Color Schemes The monochromatic color scheme consists of one chosen hue with several values and intensities of that hue used to create depth and interest. Spaces with a single color can look dramatic, but this scheme my create monotony. The monochromatic color scheme works well in spaces where we don’t spend a great deal of time, for example, a private hotel suite or an upscale retail store.

Monochromatic Color Scheme Analogous Color Schemes Using colors that are adjacent on the color wheel have close relationships and create analogous color schemes. Blue-green, blue, and blue-violet make up an analogous scheme. This scheme easily creates harmony, is usually vibrant, and works well in spaces that encourage high energy such as daycare centers and sports facilities.

Analogous Color Scheme Complementary Color Schemes Colors that are located across from each other on the color wheel are complementary and thus make up a complementary color scheme. For example, red and green, yellow and purple, and blue and orange are complements. Complements have the greatest intensity when seen together and can be extremely pleasing. When designed correctly, the scheme brings feelings of energy and cheerfulness. However, it can be difficult to succeed at this scheme for it can become too bright or garish if the colors are not properly balanced. Fast food restaurants often use complementary color schemes. The result is an interior that exudes high energy, but also does not make the customer too comfortable. The effect is that many are attracted, but at the same time there is the high turnover necessary to achieve profit.

Complementary Color Schemes

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9 Split Complementary Color Schemes The split complementary color scheme consists of one hue with the two hues adjacent to its complement. The two adjacent hues are harmonious while the complement adds a vibrant contrast. When used together, the palettes of yellow-green, red, and blue-green, will create a split complementary color scheme.

Yellow-Green

Red

Blue-Green

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9 Triad Color Scheme The triad color scheme incorporates three hues that are equally spaced on the color wheel. The most common triad scheme is used with the primary colors red, yellow and blue in energetic spaces such as schools, sports arenas, and movie theaters. Varying the values of triad hues can create a sophisticated look, but this is difficult to master without creating harshness and confusion within a space. Tetrad Color Schemes The tetrad color scheme incorporates four hues that are equally spaced on the color wheel. Vivid tones give a lively feeling, while muted tones bring a subtler mood. Tetrad color schemes are rare and difficult to produce since they often create harsh and confusing spaces.

Child Development Center Hanscom Air Force Base, Massachusetts

A P P LY I N G C O L O R I N FA C I L I T I E S

The basics of incorporating color apply to every type of interior space. Yet, many variables interact with color (e.g., location, the size of the space, and natural and artificial lighting). The Federal Standard 595B color fandeck may be used as a reference when selecting colors. The fandeck may be ordered from the General Services Administration (GSA) catalogue, stock #7690-01-162-2210. The following generalizations are suggested for each space type. Offices – General The objective for designing an office is to create an environment that promotes productivity for the many users who work long hours. Color plays an important role in stimulating productivity without creating distraction. Bright warm colors work best in areas where physical tasks take place, and calmer, cooler colors work best where visual and mental tasks are performed. Livelier colors should be applied in limited areas with related quiet tones in larger spaces. In multi-floor or large offices, each floor or department can possess an identifying color tonality, with strong colors in lobbies, corridors, and entrance points, while related softer hues are used in the general office areas.

Gossick Leadership Center Renovation Arnold Air Force Base, Tennessee

• Desks and work surfaces – light toned neutral desks and work surfaces are good choices since neutrals are not distracting, and their low brightness contrast (glare) minimizes eye fatigue. Light gray, tan, beige, taupe and ivory are soft colors that work well and have a light reflectance of approximately 30%. • Flooring – medium to light toned floor surfaces are suggested to reduce brightness contrast between the floor color and tasks or work surfaces. The light reflectance range should be 20% – 50%. The color of soil in a given geographical region plays a part in the color selection of flooring so as to camouflage soil. Typical Office 16

9 • Walls and panels – a light reflectance range of 40% - 60% is suggested for walls and panels. An accent wall, in a soft hue, can be added for interest and to relieve monotony. Deep colors may be used behind a desk, or in frontal view, but should not be used on a window wall due to the high contrast. • Ceilings – bright ceilings of white are functional for good light reflectance. • Corridors – bright, bold, and contrasting colors may be added to corridors for visual stimulation.

Building 32 Rehabilitation Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio

• Doors – various colors for doors can be used anywhere. • Private offices and conference rooms – variations of colors may be used in private offices and conference rooms. Avoid use of dark colors in spaces with low light levels. However, dark hues, when balanced with lighter hues, complement spaces that have an abundance of natural and artificial light.

Air Mobility Command Design Center Scott Air Force Base, Illinois Industrial Plants Color is important in the industrial setting to reduce fatigue, annoyance, and to promote efficiency and safety. Certain colors in these settings also reduce absenteeism, and improve labor morale. Colors may offset problem areas, for example, the use of cool blues and greens are desirable in a space with excessive heat. Conversely, reds and oranges warm a cold space or can compensate for the lack of natural light. Incorporating soft hues, especially tints of green, may calm noisy spaces. • General surfaces – brightness contrasts are to be considered; glossy surfaces that produce glare should be avoided. • Walls – colors should be in light hues; however, a tinted accent hue with a reflectance of 25% - 40% may be used on an end wall to reduce monotony and lessen eye fatigue. • Upper walls – should have a light reflectance between 50% - 70%. • Ceilings – white should be used on ceilings to provide maximum light reflectance.

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9 • Colors and safety – various colors have been adopted for safety purposes in industrial settings. Green is the choice color for machinery and equipment. Yellow marks potential hazard areas while red indicates fire-safety equipment, containers of dangerous materials, and control switches and buttons on machinery. Blue indicates electrical controls and repair areas, and white indicates trash containers, drinking fountains, and food-service locations. Black striping indicates traffic areas, aisles, and stairways. Schools Studies have shown that the proper use of color in schools plays an important role in the performance of students. This is especially true in the early years of children. A warm brighter, color scheme not only offers positive affects on the academics of students, but their behavior as well. One of the most important interior elements in schools is illumination. A goal of effectively controlling illumination with color is to keep eyestrain and glare to a minimum. The way to accomplish this is to keep the brightness ratios somewhat consistent. Child Development Center United States Air Force Academy, Colorado

Walls, floors, furniture and equipment - these areas should be painted in mild color schemes with a 50-60% light reflectance. A stronger color painted end wall can add interest. Gray or green chalkboards can seem less drab when surrounded by contrasting colors. • Ceilings – white or off-white ceilings should be installed for maximum light reflectance. • Auditorium – several hues of warm tones are suggested, including tints of green. • Shops, and art rooms – light hues are appropriate and work well in these spaces.

Air Force Senior Commissioned Officer Academy Gunter Annex, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

• Gymnasium – luminous tones work well in gyms, while colors that reflect flattering light, such as coral, work best in locker and dressing rooms. • School facilities such as libraries, offices and teachers lounges, should be designed with subdued tones. • Corridors and stairways – bolder colors may be used to offer stimulation in these transition spaces.

Health and Wellness Center Elgin Air Force Base, Florida 18

9 Hotels A hotel design should present a welcome, pleasant experience for its guests. The climate and customs of the region can add to the characteristics of the chosen color schemes and style. For example, brightly colored tiles and fabrics combined with white walls may suggest a tropical location. • Lobby and lounge – the front lobby and reception desk can accept strong use of color that creates lasting impressions. Warm colors in lobbies and lounges provide comfort for people who will occupy these spaces for long periods. Dark woods and marbles suggest solidity and tradition, whereas bright saturated colors imply a casual and playful atmosphere. • Guestrooms – colors may vary, as suggested above, to reflect climate and region. However, the chosen color scheme should promote comfort and relaxation. • Corridors - a lively color scheme is suggested for the corridors, incorporating a dark color at one end to give interest when walking down a long hallway. Medical and Healthcare Facilities The interest of the patient is the primary concern when designing medical and healthcare facilities. Research studies suggest that the environmental ambience plays a significant role in the rate of patient recovery. Visual contact with the out-of-doors, natural materials such as wood, and warm colors contribute to a faster rate of recovery. Warmer colors in hospital rooms flatter users’ skin tones when reflected in mirrors. Cooler colors offer a calming ambience and are appropriate for intensive care units. Bluish-green is a standard for operating rooms because it provides visual relief of personnel from the red tones of blood and tissue. Cooler colors, which calm, are appropriate for examination rooms, while warmer tones are used in areas such as dermatology and obstetrics. However, color should be restrained to avoid the possibility of environmental color reflection interfering with patient diagnosis.

Area Dental Lab Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado

Food Service Many studies have been provided by the food service industry regarding color and the physiological responses to food and its atmosphere. For example, the color red was found to stimulate the appetite. In general, warm tones are comforting in restaurant settings. Colors to avoid include black, dark gray, cold gray, strong tones of blue and violet, and yellow-green. Iditarod Dining Facility Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska

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9 The style of each food service area should be taken into consideration when applying color. Fast food establishments and cafeterias incorporate bright colors to promote a faster pace. Fine restaurants and traditional eating establishments are typically designed in subdued colors to promote leisurely dining. In each case, the color of floor coverings should be selected to conceal soiling. The color scheme should be versatile with bright lighting at lunchtime and softer lighting at dinner. Traditional associations of color are appropriate when serving various styles of cuisine. Mexican, Indian and Spanish foods are associated with bright cheerful colors, Greek with blue and white, and Italian with red, green and white. Colors of table settings should complement the food to be served. Care must be taken so that the space does not become a cliché.

Air Force Senior Commissioned Officer Academy Gunter Annex, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

Supermarkets apply bright colors in various areas; however, white is preferred in the dairy section, and lighter blues and blue greens are used at the meat counter to complement red meats. Colorful cans and other merchandise are nicely displayed when seen against a neutral background. Retail Outlets Retail outlets display their merchandise in the most attractive setting to achieve high sales volumes. Color has a strong impact on consumer reactions to products including impulse buying. The general rule of thumb is to use bright colors in low cost, rapid turnover shops, and more subtle sophisticated color schemes in higher priced and leisure shops. Discount stores often use bright colors to stimulate customers; however, a low-end rack outlet may use white walls and gray floors to give the effect of a discount image. Men’s clothing shops tend to have natural wood and brown tones to promote a club-like atmosphere. Women’s shops usually retain soft, warm tones, possibly pastels. Bright colors used with metallic, white, black, or gray, tend to promote electronics and other high tech products. Avoid strong color on display backdrops and shelves that may distract from the merchandise. Light grays and tans are good choices. Expensive jewelry and small gift items sparkle against conservative colors.

BXTRA Open Air Mall Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii

CONCLUSION

Along with man’s sensitivity to time and space is sensitivity to color. Color can affect perception of size just as it can affect mood. It is important to wisely and carefully incorporate color into all interior projects using it to heighten awareness of the appearance and mood of space.

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2DIS / Parsons Ian Hughes

Defining Color: Hue, Value, Saturation In the first part of the semester, we will attempt to isolate each of the defining attributes of color–hue, value, saturation–in order to see how each operates. You will be responsible for knowing and demonstrating an understanding of each of these attributes. You will have the opportunity to apply what we’ve learned during the rest of the semester.

HUE Defining Hue • The identity of a color as it relates specifically to the spectrum. The generic names of spectral colors are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. If we want to identify a color by its hue, we look for its specific relationship to the spectrum of pure colors refracted through a prism. We ask, "is it red or red-orange...is it blue, or is it more violet?" The words “color” and “hue” are not synonymous. Hue is a specific attribute of color. Reddish brown, for example, is the color brown with a red hue. Black is a color with no hue. The hue of a given color is altered only when mixed with another hue.

Organizing Hue The spectral hues are often organized along a 360º circle, called a hue circle. Yellow is at the top (0º), and violet is at the bottom (180º). Most hue circles have at least 6 parts: 3 primaries and 3 secondaries. The colors in between are called intermediary colors. PRIMARY Colors that cannot be broken down into other colors and are the building blocks for all other colors. SECONDARY The middle mixtures of two primary colors. ANALOGOUS The colors that are next to each other on the spectrum or hue circle. COMPLEMENTARY Colors that are opposite,as defined by the afterimage of any given color. When mixing pigments or inks, the secondary color of two primaries produces the complement of the third primary (for example, red and yellow make orange, which is the complement of blue.) Complementary relationships are crucial to the understanding of color harmony. TERTIARY The mixture of two complements. Also called neutral color. 1

Temperature: Warm Vs Cold Temperature is an attribute of color related to hue. Generally speaking, colors that gravitate towards the red-yellow half of the circle are considered warm, and colors that gravitate towards the green blue are considered cool. This is mostly by psychological association (i.e., fire = redyellow=warm, ice =bluish=cool).

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Mixing Color: Additive vs. Subtractive Mixing colored light and mixing colored pigments yield two very different, indeed opposite, results. An understanding of why this happens is important to understanding how we perceive color and how color interacts with our environment. MIXING LIGHT:ADDITIVE Natural light is a mixture of all the hues in the spectrum, naturally! As easily demonstrated with a prism (or a rainbow), the spectrum can be broken down to reveal its component colors, which are actually electromagnetic waves of different lengths. Our eyes and brain are designed to interpret these different wavelengths as different colors. Because of how our eyes are designed, the colors of the spectrum can be further reduced to three primary colors: red, blue and green. All the other colors of the spectrum result from what happens when these colors are combined in our eyes and brain as follows: Primaries:

R, G , B

Secondaries: Y (R+G) , Cyan (G+B) , Magenta (R+B)

If a single color is extracted from the spectrum, the leftover light waves combine to produce its complement. Similarly, if more than one color is broken out of the spectrum, the resulting combinations produce complementary pairs. Complementary pairs combine to produce white light. This phenomenon establishes the organizing principle of complementary colors. Whenever colored light is mixed, the resulting color is always lighter than the parent colors, because light is being added. This is why mixing light waves is called additive. No absorption is taking place. If all the colored light waves of the spectrum are brought back together, the result is white light, which to our eyes appears colorless. Black is the absence of light. MIXING COLORANTS: SUBTRACTIVE The exact opposite happens when we mix colorants like paint or ink. All the colors of the spectrum combine to produce black (or dark grey). That’s because light rays are being absorbed, or subtracted. Light waves that are not absorbed are reflected back to our eyes and perceived as color. A surface appears red, for example, because only the red light waves are reflecting back; all the other colored light waves are being absorbed. Our experience of color is most often a result of subtractive mixing. Notice that the true primaries of subtractive mixing (C, M, Y) derive from the true secondaries of additive mixing.

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VALUE Defining Value (synonyms: luminance, brightness) •The lightness or darkness of a color. Black, white, and gray are colors of pure value and have no hue.

Assessing Value Value can actually be measured as a percentage of reflected light from 100% (white, total reflectance) to 0% (black, total absorption). A true middle gray is literally 50/50 (i.e., 50% reflectance, 50% absorption.) In the visual arts we are concerned with perception and not so concerned with physical measurements of reflected light (except perhaps when setting up for a staged photograph.) Accordingly, we use visual comparison within a given context to determine if a color is lighter or darker than its neighbor: ! If two colors of analogous hue share an edge, you can tell they are close in value if the edge is soft and far apart in value if the edge is hard. ! If two colors of opposite hue share an edge, you can tell they are close in value if the edge “vibrates” or shimmers and far apart in value if the edge is hard.

Relative Value A color’s value can also be assessed by its specific relationship to the value scale (the range of grays from white to black, also known as the gray scale.) This is known as its relative value. All colors, including pure hues, have a relative value. A pure yellow is close to white in its reflectance. Pure red and green are closer to middle gray. Keep in mind that a color’s value, or reflectance, is also influenced by surface textures.

Manipulating Value Doing one of the following alters the value of a color, but not its hue: ! Tinting (adding white) Ex: if red is tinted with white, the result is a pink of the same hue (red). ! Shading (adding black) Ex: if red is shaded with black, the result is a brown of the same hue (red). Value is not altered if a color is mixed with another color or gray of the same value.

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The Importance of Value When discussing the problem of color in the context of inventing Cubist collage, Georges Braque said, “[Picassos and I] arrived at cleanly dissociating color from form and at seeing its independence in relation to form, because that was the main concern: color acts simultaneously with form, but has nothing to do with it.”1 What did Braque mean exactly? In a sense, Braque is talking about the difference between hue and value. Understanding this distinction can add enormously to our understanding of color. The perception and representation of form is entirely dependent on value, or the contrast of light and dark, not hue. If we subtract the perception of hue from our world, we would still perceive form. On the other hand, if the world suddenly converted to pure hue, we would be in big trouble! What Picasso and Braque knew from experience has since been corroborated by science. Recent research has shown that the part of our brain that responds to light/dark is several inches away from the part of our brain that responds to hue. The value sensitive portion of our brain is literally color-blind.2 Our ability to perceive depth, spatial relationships, threedimensionality and volume (form), as well as movement or stasis, derives from the part of our brain that responds exclusively to differences in value without regard to hue. All mammals perceive luminance, however only primates evolved with the ability to perceive the colors of the spectrum between infrared and ultraviolet. Before our eyes and brain have fully developed in infancy, we see only light and dark. In the weeks following birth, our brains develop the ability to perceive hue. Once our brains have fully developed, hue continues to play a secondary role to value in how we perceive the world around us. If you are a visually sensitive individual, you may already know this intuitively. The observed world is experienced mostly as infinite gradations of light and dark accented by equally subtle modulations of hue. In other words, our primary visual experience is of value, not hue. Within the last century, mechanical reproduction and color processing have added significant bursts of saturated color to our perceptual world. The more time we spend gazing at printed and electronic media, the more this becomes the norm. But this is a recent phenomenon, the implications of which are interesting to ponder. The psychological and emotional components of hue cannot be understated and go way beyond mere perception. If we imagine life without hue—as a black and white movie, for example—we can appreciate how important and inextricably linked the perception of hue is to our experience of the world. As long as we are in the presence of light, we are constantly under the influence of hue, even though we may not even be aware of it. Hue is like the spice that makes the visual “food” we need for survival worth eating.

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Christine Poggi, In Defiance of Painting, Yale University Press, p. 15 Margaret Livingstone, Vision and Art: The Biology of Seeing, Abrams, pp. 37-38

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SATURATION Defining Saturation (Synonyms: Chroma, Intensity) • The purity of a color. 100% saturation is defined as the absence of white, black, or gray; 0% saturation is the absence of hue. Neutral colors are by definition low saturation, or low chroma, and can be either achromatic (i.e., having no hue, as in the gray scale), or chromatic (i.e. having hue, as in tertiary colors).

Assessing Saturation As with the other attributes of color, saturation is relative and therefore a matter of comparison. If comparing ten different reds, for example, the reddest red is the most saturated.

Manipulating Saturation Adding white, black, or gray to color results in reduced chromatic intensity, or reduced saturation. The same result occurs when mixing complements together.

Intensity vs. Brightness Saturation can be the most difficult of color’s attributes to agree on. Picking the reddest red out of a line-up sounds easy enough, and often it is, but what happens if white is added to make a bright pink that appears more chromatically intense than the original? By definition, adding white makes a color less saturated, so what gives? Even more confusing is when a violet or green pigment in its most saturated form (right out of the tube) is so dark that you can’t really perceive its hue until you add white. So which of the two colors has more chroma, the one that looks almost black or the one with white in it? It can be hard to separate brightness and intensity. When white is added to a dark color, it becomes brighter, which is technically specific to value. When hue is added to a color (providing it is not a complement), it becomes more intense, which is technically specific to saturation. The variables of different colorants can create anomalies of color so that a brighter, less saturated color can appear more intense, even if that sometimes amounts to a contradiction in terms. Suffice it to say that color by its very nature cannot be defined like words in a dictionary. After all, it is literally a matter of perception.

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Basic color schemes - Introduction to Color Theory With colors you can set a mood, attract attention, or make a statement. You can use color to energize, or to cool down. By selecting the right color scheme, you can create an ambiance of elegance, w armth or tranquility, or you can convey an image of playful youthfulness. Color can be your most powerful design element if you learn to use it effectively.

Content The Color Wheel Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Colors Warm and cool colors Tints, Shades, and Tones Color Harmonies - basic techniques for creating color schemes - Complementary

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- Analogous - Triadic - Split-Complementary

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- Rectangle (tetradic) - Square

Colors affect us in numerous ways, both mentally and physically. A strong red color has been shown to raise the blood pressure, while a blue color has a calming effect. Being able to use colors consciously and harmoniously can help you create spectacular results.

The Color Wheel

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The color wheel or color circle is the basic tool for combining colors. The first circular color diagram was designed by Sir Isaac Newton in 1666. The color wheel is designed so that virtually any colors you pick from it will look good together. Over the years, many variations of the basic design have been made, but the most common version is a wheel of 12 colors based on the RYB (or artistic) color model. Traditionally, there are a number of color combinations that are considered especially pleasing. These are called color harmonies or color chords and they consist of two or more colors with a fixed relation in the color wheel. ColorImpact is designed to dynamically create a color wheel to match your base color.

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Colors In the RYB (or subtractive) color model, the primary colors are red, yellow and blue. The three secondary colors (green, orange and purple) are created by mixing two primary colors. Another six tertiary colors are created by mixing primary and secondary colors.

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The above illustration shows the color circle with the primary, secondary and tertiary colors. Click on the labels to turn the colors on / off.

Warm and cool colors The color circle can be divided into warm and cool colors. Warm colors are vivid and energetic, and tend to advance in space. Cool colors give an impression of calm, and create a soothing impression. White, black and gray are considered to be neutral.

Tints, Shades, and Tones These terms are often used incorrectly, although they describe fairly simple color concepts. If a color is made lighter by adding white, the result is called a tint. If black is added, the darker version is called a shade. And if gray is added, the result is a different tone. Tints - adding white to a pure hue:

Shades - adding black to a pure hue:

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Tones - adding gray to a pure hue:

Color Harmonies - basic techniques for creating color schemes Below are shown the basic color chords based on the color wheel.

Complementary color scheme Colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel are considered to be complementary colors (example: red and green). The high contrast of complementary colors creates a vibrant look especially when used at full saturation. This color scheme must be managed well so it is not jarring. Complementary color schemes are tricky to use in large doses, but work well when you want something to stand out. Complementary colors are really bad for text.

Analogous color scheme Analogous color schemes use colors that are next to each other on the color wheel. They usually match well and create serene and comfortable designs. Analogous color schemes are often found in nature and are harmonious and pleasing to the eye. Make sure you have enough contrast when choosing an analogous color scheme. Choose one color to dominate, a second to support. The third color is used (along with black, white or gray) as an accent.

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Triadic color scheme A triadic color scheme uses colors that are evenly spaced around the color wheel. Triadic color schemes tend to be quite vibrant, even if you use pale or unsaturated versions of your hues. To use a triadic harmony successfully, the colors should be carefully balanced - let one color dominate and use the two others for accent.

Split-Complementary color scheme The split-complementary color scheme is a variation of the complementary color scheme. In addition to the base color, it uses the two colors adjacent to its complement. This color scheme has the same strong visual contrast as the complementary color scheme, but has less tension. The split-complimentary color scheme is often a good choice for beginners, because it is difficult to mess up.

Rectangle (tetradic) color scheme The rectangle or tetradic color scheme uses four colors arranged into two complementary pairs. This rich color scheme offers plenty of possibilities for variation. Tetradic color schemes works best if you let one color be dominant. You should also pay attention to the balance between warm and cool colors in your design.

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Square color scheme The square color scheme is similar to the rectangle, but with all four colors spaced evenly around the color circle. Square color schemes works best if you let one color be dominant. You should also pay attention to the balance between warm and cool colors in your design.

Copyright © 2000 - 2009 Tiger Color color schemes made easy

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How do we perceive color? | ColoRotate

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How do we perceive color?

Overview

What is color?

How do we perceive color?

Color Models

As humans, our color vision influences everything from our art and poetry to the colors we paint our homes and the clothing we choose to buy. Yet, we rarely question the mechanics of our color perception — or what we may not be able to see. We perceive color when the different wavelengths composing white light are selectively interfered with by matter (absorbed, reflected, refracted, scattered, or diffracted) on their way to our eyes, or when a non-white distribution of light has been emitted.

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Visible light is merely a small part of the full electromagnetic spectrum, which extends from cosmic rays at the highest energies down through the middle range (gamma rays, X- rays, the ultraviolet, the visible, the infrared, and radio waves) all the way to induction-heating and electric-power-transmission frequencies at the lowest energies.

Dive into color

Note that this is the energy per quantum (photon if in the visible range) but not the

Explore the causes of color, as well as

total energy; the latter is a function of the intensity in a beam.

color vision and art, at the WebExhibits museum. LEARN MORE

We can detect the range of light spectrum from about 400 nanometers (violet) to about 700 nanometers (red). We perceive this range of light wavelengths as a smoothly varying rainbow of colors, otherwise known as the visual spectrum.

What Happens in the Eye? The eye is often compared to a camera. But it might be more appropriate to compare it to a TV camera that is self-focusing, has a self-cleaning lens, and has its images processed by a computer with millions of CPUs. Light from an external object is refracted as it moves through the cornea, and then moves on to the pupil, which is

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controlled by the iris. The light is again refracted by the lens, which projects an upside-down image on the retina, or the rear, inner surface of the eyeball. There, it is absorbed by pigments in light-sensitive cells, called rods and cones. These photoreceptors convert light (photons) into electro-chemical signals, which are then processed by neural circuits in the retina and transmitted to the brain. There are approximately 6 million cones in our retina, and they are sensitive to a wide range of brightness. The three different types of cones are sensitive to short, medium and long wavelengths, respectively. Cones are active at high light levels and allow us to see color and fine detail directly in front of us. They can adapt to widely varying colors and illumination levels, but don’t work well in low light. Our retina’s 125 million rods are used only in dim light, and are monochromatic, so they don’t perceive color — only black and white. Rods account for our peripheral night vision, but don’t enable us to see well when we’re looking straight ahead.

The retina consists of a very thin layer of nerve cells and contains two

The three types of nerve cells that detect bright light

types of photoreceptors, rods and cones. Ganglions are also located in

span the "short," "medium," and "long" wavelength

the retina. This graph shows the sensitivity of the different cones to

ranges.

varying wavelengths.

Retinal ganglion cells calculate color But the cones in our eyes are just the beginning of the color story. Ganglions are a type of neuron located in the retina that receive signals via various intermediate cells from the cones and rods. They are the cells that transmit information to the brain. Why all the fuss?

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The ganglion cells add and subtract signals from many cones. For example, by comparing the response of the middle-wavelength and long-wavelength cones, a ganglion cell determines the amount of green-or-red. The result of these steps for color vision is a signal that is sent to the brain. There are three signals, corresponding to the three color attributes. These are: The amount of green-or-red the amount of blue-or-yellow; and the brightness. Using ColoRotate, you can view colors in these three dimensions.

Working in 3D makes colors blossom. Color’s 3D nature makes it difficult to accurately assess color on a flat paper or screen. With ColoRotate, you aren’t limited to moving colors around a flat color circle. Instead, you can explore all kinds of clusters and color arrangements. It’s fun, and it will give you new ideas for fresh and inviting color harmonies and color palettes. ColoRotate also allows you to define colors using slider controls for most color theories.

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Color Models | ColoRotate

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Color Models

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Color Models

Learn more

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Color Models | ColoRotate

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Topics Color Models

RGB

CMYK

LAB

HSV

HSL

NCS

21st century color theory For centuries, artists and philosophers have theorized that color is three-dimensional. Contemporary neuroscientists have confirmed this theory, finding that our sensation of color comes from nerve cells that send messages to the brain about: The brightness of color Greenness vs. redness Blueness vs. yellowness When colors are dark or light, we perceive less variation in their vividness. We see the maximum range of color saturation for middle-toned colors. This is why many color

Philipp Otto Runge’s color

models, including ColoRotate, taper the top and bottom colors and are wide in the

sphere (Farbenkugel), 1810.

middle, forming a sphere or bicone.

The sphere is shown from the outside, and in cross-

Color Models

sections.

In color theory, color models mathematically describe how colors may be represented. A color space is one where the components of the color model are precisely defined, allowing viewers to know exactly how each color looks. Physical representations of the color space started with the two-dimensional color wheel that allowed you to see hue (red, blue, green, etc.) and brightness for the various colors. Later, the concept of color solids emerged. Color solids are threedimensional representations of the color space. In addition to the hue and brightness in the two-dimensional model, a color solid also shows the degrees of saturation for a particular hue. Most color solids are in the shape of a sphere, but that is largely a matter of convenience. Color solids can be any shape. ColoRotate is a color solid based on the HSL color model, and is designed to make it easy for even a layperson to navigate the color space. BACK TO TOPICS

RGB In the mid-19th century, Thomas Young and Hermann Helmholtz proposed a theory of trichromatic color vision that became the basis for the RGB (red-green-blue) color model. This is an additive color model, in which the three colors of light are added together to produce various colors. The intensity of the light is determines the color perceived. With no intensity, each of the three colors is perceived as black, while full intensity leads to a perception of white. Differing intensities produce the hue of a color, while the difference between the most and least intense of the colors make the resulting color more or less saturated. Electronics displays use the RGB model, which means that the colors are not absolute, but rather dependent upon the sensitivities and settings of

RGB uses additive color mixing that produces secondary colors where two

individual devices. Cathode ray tube, LCD, plasma, and LED displays all use

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the RGB model.

colors overlap, while equal intensities of all three colors produce white

The 24-bit RGB model is also used to encode color in computing, where each color’s value is specified by the intensity of red, green, and blue, respectively. In web page design, there are 216 so-called “web-safe” RGB colors represented by hexidecimal values. Today, RGB remains the color model and standard for HTML programming, but the prevalence of 24-bit displays allows most users to see 16.7 million colors of HTML RGB code. BACK TO TOPICS

CMYK Unlike RGB, which is an additive color model, CMYK is a subtractive color model. Typically used in printing, CMYK assumes that the background is white, and thus subtracts the assumed brightness of the white background from four colors: cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (called “key”). Black is used because the combination of the three primary colors (CMY) doesn’t produce a fully saturated black. CMYK can produce the whole spectrum of visible colors thanks to the process of half-toning, whereby each color is assigned a saturation level and miniscule dots of each of the three colors are printed in tiny patterns so that the human eye perceives a certain color. Like RGB, CMYK is device-dependent. There’s no straightforward formula to convert CMYK color to RGB colors or vice versa, so conversion is typically dependent upon color management systems. ColoRotate easily converts one system to the other.

"Still Life with Crystal Bowl," Roy Lichtenstein, 1973 BACK TO TOPICS

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In this three-dimensional model, the L stands for the lightness of the color, with 0 producing black and 100 producing a diffuse white. The “a” is the redness vs. greenness, while the “b” is the

LAB Designed to approximate human vision, Lab color theory is built upon the Munsell color system, the 1948 Hunter color space, and the 1976 CIE color space. Unlike RGB and CMYK, Lab is not device-dependent.

yellowness vs. blueness

Today, software applications use CIELAB or CIELAB D50. In this three-dimensional model, the L stands for the lightness of the color, with 0 producing black and 100 producing a diffuse white. The “a” is the redness vs. greenness, while the “b” is the yellowness vs. blueness. BACK TO TOPICS

HSV First described by Alvy Ray Smith in 1978, HSV seeks to depict relationships between colors, and improve upon the RGB color model. Standing for hue, saturation, and value, HSV depicts three-dimensional color. If you think about HSV as a wheel of cheese, the center axis goes from white at the top to black at the bottom, with other neutral colors in between. The angle from the axis depicts the hue, the distance from the axis depicts saturation, and the distance along the axis depicts value. BACK TO TOPICS

The angle from the axis depicts the hue, the distance from the axis depicts saturation, and the distance along the axis depicts value

HSL Like HSV, HSL was described by Alvy Ray Smith and is a 3D representation of color. HSL stands for hue, saturation, and lightness. The HSL color model has distinct advantages over the HSV model, in that the saturation and lightness components span the entire range of values. Based on the HSL color model, ColoRotate contains all the hues at different levels of saturation along its horizontal plane and with variant intensity along its vertical plane. For example, by using the “Hue” mode, you can position colors on opposite

In the bicone or diamond of the HSL structure, all the visible colors can be seen. These are the three dimensions in which our brain analyzes the colors we

edges of the diamond to correspond to complementary colors. Or you can arrange the colors so their hues are triangularly positioned relative to each other for a triadic color scheme. And, by using three dimensions when you edit colors or palettes of colors, you can intuitively understand which colors are similar, and which are more contrasting.

see. The first dimension is brightness (a

On the horizontal equatorial plane, pure saturated hues are along the

vertical slice). The hue is comprised of

equatorial perimeter. Similar to traditional color wheel and color sphere representations, contrasting hues are located opposite each other. As you

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the second and third dimensions

move towards the center of the color disc (on the same plane) the color

(corresponding to round slices through

saturation decreases toward the center, where all the colors merge into a

the diamond).

single gray. Moving vertically along this center, the color gradually becomes lighter towards the top (ending in white), and darker towards the bottom

(ending in black). The hues vary in intensity and saturation as you moves vertically up or down, or inwards in the diamond. Any given hue can be varied in saturation by moving inwards or intensity (tint) by moving vertically up or down. BACK TO TOPICS

NCS Based on the color vision theories of Ewald Hering, the Natural Color System is a color opponency system based on six colors that cannot be used to describe one another: white, black, red, yellow, green, and blue. Unlike the additive RGB system or the subtractive CMYK system, which are based on reactions of the eye’s color-receptive cones, NCS colors are processed in the retina’s ganglion cells. NCS colors have three values: darkness, saturation, and hue.

NCS colors have three values: darkness, saturation, and

The hue is defined as a percentage between two of the

hue. The hue is defined as a percentage between two of the following colors: red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS

following colors: red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS color

color system is expressed as the percentage of darkness,

percentage of saturation, and the percentages of two of the

the percentage of saturation, and the percentages of two

opponent colors

system is expressed as the percentage of darkness, the

of the opponent colors. BACK TO TOPICS

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A Guide To Color

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http://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_c/C-316.html New Mexico State University

A Guide To Color Guide C - 3 16

Susan Wright, Extension Consumer Education and Health Specialist College of Agriculture, Consumer and Environmental Sciences New Mexico State University This publication is scheduled to be updated and reissued 4/06. Color is one of the most important stimuli in the world. It affects our moods and personal characteristics. We speak of blue Mondays, being in the pink, seeing red, and everything coming up rosy. Webster defines color as the sensation resulting from stimulating the eye's retina with light waves of certain lengths. Those sensations have been given names such as red, green and purple.

Color communicates. It tells others about you. What determines your choice of colors in your clothing? In your home? In your office? In your car? Your selection of color is influenced by age, personality, experiences, the occasion, the effect of light , size, texture and a variety of other factors.

Some people have misconceptions about color. They may feel certain colors should never be used together,

certain colors are always unflattering or certain colors indicate a person's character. These ideas will limit their enjoyment of color and can cause them a great deal of frustration in life. To get a better understanding of color, look at nature. Consider these facts: S The prettiest gardens have a wide variety of reds, oranges, pinks, violets, purples and yellows all mixed together.

S There are un-numbered shades of greens in a forest, in the desert and in the ocean. S The sky can change its blue from moment to moment, and what begins as blue becomes pink and violet or orange and crimson as the sun sets. S Even the soil boasts a variety of colors, from whitest white to coal black, with numerous colors in between. Color makes life interesting. To use color effectively, you must understand some basic color facts. There are three dimensions of color: S Hue is another word for color. It usually indicates a modification of basic color. Red is a color; orange is a reddish hue.

S Value refers to the lightness and darkness of a color. A light color is a tint. For example, pink is a tint of red. A dark color is called a shade. Forest green is a shade of green. S Intensity refers to the brightness or dullness of a color such as a bright yellow or a dull yellow.

QUALITIES OF COLOR Hue A widely accepted theory of color is based on the idea that all colors or hues are derived from the three

primary colors-red, yellow and blue. All other colors or hues come from mixtures of these primary colors.

Thinking about colors around you and where they might be placed on a color wheel will help you see color relationships.

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Pri m ary colors: red, yellow and blue Second ary colors: green, orange and purple Inter m e d iate colors: yellow-orange, red-orange, red-purple, blue-green and yellow-green Gray: combination of all pigments Further mixing of neighboring colors produces many other colors and color gradations. Mixed colors can be

considered as relatives because they have common ancestors. You will note that any mixed color fits into the color wheel, according to the amount of yellow, red or blue it contains.

There are three neutrals; black, white and gray are not true colors or hues. They are achromatic colors. Black

results from the complete absorption of light rays. White is a reflection of all the rays that produce color. Gray is an imperfect absorption of the light rays or a mixture of black and white.

Value Value, the second dimension of color, describes the lightness or darkness of a color. You have a choice within each color family from light to dark colors.

Colors follow a natural order. In a rainbow, yellow is the lightest color. Yellow-red or orange is somewhat darker. The blues and purples are darkest of all. We can say that warm colors are lighter than cool colors in their natural order from light to dark.

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Intensity The thirds characteristic of color is intensity. Intensity is the dimension of color that tells the brightness or dullness, its strength or its weakness. Intensity describes the distance of the color from gray on the color wheel.

Colors in the outer circle of the color chart are full intensity because they are as bright as each color can be. As colors go down in brightness, toward neutral gray or no color, they are said to be dulled or low intensity.

It is easy to see the difference between vivid red and dull maroon, or between bright orange and dull brown or beige. It is sometimes more difficult to recognize that a dusty pink is duller than a clear, fresh pink.

Warm or Cool Colors Colors are considered warm if they contain enough yellow or yellow-red. They are considered cool if they contain a noticeable quantity of blue.

There are warm and cool versions in each color family. Purple-red or bluish-red is the cool version of red. Aqua is an example of a warm version of a cool color because some yellow had to be mixed with the predominately blue color.

In summary, the three qualities of color are hue, value and intensity. There can be both light and dark colors in a bright or vivid group of colors, and light and dark colors in a dull or subdued group of colors.

TIPS FOR COMBINING HUES, VALUES AND INTENSITIES Comb ine Warm and Cool Colors Contrasting colors make each other seem more intense when used together. Warm colors make cool ones seem cooler, and cool colors make warm ones seem warmer.

The duller a color becomes, however, the less power it has to make its compliment look brighter. A dull color is more likely to emphasize, through repetition, other colors related to it. For example, a camel coat (orange

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hue) would emphasize blond hair and creamy skin more that it would blue eyes (complementary color).

Usually, unequal amounts of warm and cool colors are most pleasing because the color combination will create a unified idea of either warmness or coolness.

Comb ine Light and Dark Colors Some contrast of light and dark is needed in a color scheme. Try combinations using only light colors, then try combinations using only dark colors. Some variation in value is needed for interest.

Strong light and dark contrasts are the most striking. For example, light cream with dark brown is more striking than dark tan with medium brown.

Make pleasing combinations by keeping the natural color in mind and combining a lighter warm color with a darker cool color.

Comb ine Bright and Dull Colors Colors go together well when the quality of brightness is nearly the same. Brighter color combinations look cheerful, and duller ones soft and restful. Some of the dull color combinations may appear even somber or drab.

A small amount of bright color used with subdued color can improve a color scheme. Combine a bright accent color with a dull-colored costume. If too much bright color is used, dull colors look even duller.

STANDARD COLOR HARMONIES Color combinations can be contrasting or related, according to their placement on the color wheel. Contrasting colors are those that lie some distance apart on the color wheel. Related color are those that lie

side by side, or near one another on the color wheel. Standard color harmonies are outlined below, but many other variations are possible.

Related Harmonies Related color harmonies are those in which the colors are similar. They include the one-hue (monochromatic) harmony and the analogous harmony.

Monochrome (one - hue) S Simplest scheme

S Uses differences in value and intensity (such as pink, red and rose together) S Texture contrasts help

S Beware of tiresome, boring effect

Analogous (neighbors) S Shows one color running throughout the entire group of colors S Uses different values and intensities S Quiet, restful effect

S Warm and cool related schemes possible

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Contrasting Harmonies Contrasting harmonies are classified as complementary, double complementary, split complementary and

triad. Combinations of opposite colors on the color wheel are more difficult to use than those of neighboring colors. Special care must be taken when using contrasting harmonies in clothing. However, when done properly, they are richer than related harmonies, and more satisfying to the eyes.

Comp lementary S Two colors opposite each other on the color wheel S Reddish hues are hardest to handle

S One of the complements used should be dull, light or dark, or in small amount

>

Sp lit Complementary S Combines a primary color with colors on either side of its complement

S Cannot start with a secondary color because its complement, a primary, cannot be split S Adjust amounts of different values and intensities

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Double Complementary S Two directly adjacent colors and their complements used together

S Pick only one hue to be outstanding and used in largest account (dulled) S Vary intensities and values of other hues, as well as amounts

Triad S Richest harmony if well-used

S Equilateral triangles create triads such as Red, Blue, Yellow; Green, Orange, purple; Yellow-Purple, Blue-Green, Red-Purple; AND Yellow-Green, Blue-Purple, Red- Orange.

New Mexico State University is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer and educator. NMSU and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating.

Reprinted April 2001 Electronic Distribution July 2001 Copyright 2005 NMSU Board of Regents

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handprint : painting in neutrals

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painting in neutrals The aim of this section is to get you to recognize grays, mix them reliably with paints, and use them effectively in design.

neutrals in context

technique neutrals in context near neutrals and color design seeing color value

Let's start by putting near neutral colors in context. The defining feature of near neutrals is their chroma or saturation — they don't have any. Well, almost. Think of chroma as the balance between hue and value. Pure neutral tones contain no information at all about hue: they are achromatic or colorless, and vary only in lightness or value. Strongly chromatic colors are so intense that the color sensation frequently obscures the color value, which weakens the clarity of the value structure.

seeing hue bias mixing complementary paints the material qualities of paint

Saturation or chroma is a measure of the balance between the conflicting visual sensations of value and hue. Which means your basic consideration, when thinking about color saturation, is how to strike the balance between value and hue. What is value good for? As the dominant visual information our vision extracts from light, value is essential to show the spatial form of physical objects in the world represented by the painting. Value expresses the direction and intensity of light, the purity of the air, the volume, shape and spacing of objects. Lights and darks are able to do this because they neither clash nor harmonize with actual reds, yellows, greens, blues and violets. Value stands behind color as an independent dimension. In fact, the traditional grisaille oil painting method turns this fact into a method: it blocks out the picture in tones of gray, then animates distinct surfaces with transparent

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glazes of color. In contrast, hue functions primarily to show the quality of light and the inner composition of objects in the world — their molecular or crystal structure, fine grained surface texture, translucency, refractive qualities, and so on. Value signals that the orange and lemon both have shiny, textured skins; color signals their inner taste. A red and a brown apple have the same value, but we see (almost with our gut) that the brown apple won't be good to eat. The problem for artists is that intense hues make it difficult to see values accurately: value shows spatial form, using saturated colors has the effect of hue shows the composition weakening the value structure of a painting of (making the relative value of colors more light and material objects difficult to see). There is a deep design reason why modern artworks that emphasize expressive extremes of color also suppress the value and perspective cues of space, and why the older style of paintings emphasized chiaroscuro and landscape depth within a limited chromatic range. Chroma or saturation is not merely the balance between two academic colormaking attributes, but the boundary between two very different design approaches to the visual richness of the world. This "black or blue" distinction is not neat, for three reasons. First, hue and value are linked in familiar ways: pine trees are green but also dark, lemons are yellow but also light. Second, our expectation under normal daylight is to see lighted surfaces as warm hues and dark surfaces or shadows as cool hues; hue seems aligned with the warm/cool color contrast. Finally, surfaces shift from primarily hue to primarily value depending on the illumination: in dim lighting all colors become varied shades of near gray, and in extremely bright lighting colors appear bleached or denatured. The key to using dull or unsaturated passages of color is that dull colors can accent both value and hue. Because they are much closer to a pure gray than intense hues, near neutrals are easier to read as part of the value

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structure; they combine with pure values. Because they still contain hue information, they accent or contrast with pure hues. They increase each colormaking attribute, but through harmonious or antagonistic means. This last effect, the antagonistic relationship between dull and intense hues, can be controlled by choosing near neutrals that are analogous or complementary hues to the saturated hues near them. The effects of simultaneous complementary contrast will cause saturated hues to appear more distinct but sometimes less resonant than they will against an achromatic background. Placing the same hues near to analogous near neutrals acts to diffuse their color power over the entire near neutral area. These points will become clearer in the examples below, and once you actually experiment with near neutrals in visual design. The point is that near neutrals are important, no matter what your style of painting. Using these dull mixtures effectively means coming to grips with the three value painting challenges — seeing neutrals accurately as values, mixing them as hues accurately, and effectively using their combined value and hue in visual design.

near neutrals and color design Let's start with the use of near neutrals in color design. This is the way the subject is normally approached, and basic design effects provide a good context for other problems, such as seeing the hue bias of a near neutral accurately. Students are commonly taught the importance of simultaneous complementary contrast in color design. However, important effects also arise from simultaneous analogous contrast, in which the background color is not the complementary hue of the saturated color, but the same or similar hue. Some visual examples will illustrate the main

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points. Again: the visual impact of color samples on a light transmitting computer monitor will not be the same as the visual effect of light reflecting paints on paper. Treat these examples as illustrative. First we consider saturated color samples from the twelve tertiary points of the visual color wheel, displayed against a constant achromatic mid value background (example 1). Because the lightness of highest chroma color varies by hue, so the central colors are not of equal lightness and chroma, though each hue is shown at the highest lightness that retains the maximum saturation. (In all the examples in this section, the central colors are arranged vertically as visual complementary pairs.)

1. saturated colors with achromatic mid valued background central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies by hue); background is a pure mid valued neutral (saturation = 0%, L = 55)

Nothing surprising here. The gray backgrounds seem to vary slightly, because of the complementary color shifts produced by the intense hues (as explained in the section on complementary color contrast). The saturated colors all appear very lively, and many seem to stand in front of the gray background (with the possible exception of the purple and red blues, which are darker in value than the gray). Now, let's try to fire up the central colors by changing the background grays to a complementary near neutral color (example 2). Again, the background is darker valued than all the central colors except for the purple (top left) and blue violet (bottom right).

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2. saturated colors with complementary near neutral background central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies by hue); background is a complementary near neutral (saturation = 15%, L = 55)

Your mileage may vary, but I don't see a tremendous difference in the quality of the saturated central color patches (compare examples 1 and 2). If anything, the "advancing" effect of the bright colors is accented (now even the purple and blue violet seem to stand in front of their backgrounds), and this enhanced color contrast seems to be the chief design impact: complementary contrast separates colors in a pattern. The background colors have been altered in the same direction that a simultaneous complementary contrast would shift them, so we have slightly intensified the color contrast without altering its character. Now let's use the same central patches and backgrounds as before, but flip the background colors vertically, so that each saturated hue is now seen against an analogous near neutral — that is, its own hue but at lower saturation (example 3).

3. saturated colors with analogous near neutral background central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies by hue); background is an analogous near neutral (saturation=15%, L = 55)

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The difference in the color effect is striking (compare examples 2 and 3). Now the saturated hue seems to expand or diffuse into the dull background, uniting with it in a quality of shared glow or influence, but not a chromatic quality so much as a unity of mood or light. The metaphor of light seems justified by the significant apparent shifts in value and color temperature that occur in some background colors — the warm color backgrounds in particular — and the apparent chroma increase in the backgrounds, producing an illusion of greater hue differences from one background to the next. Yet the sense of color harmony seems greater across the example as a whole. If you compare the dull backgrounds in the previous two figures (backgrounds that are exactly the same, just placed around different saturated colors), you will see that the effect on the dull colors is very noticeable. In effect, analogous dull colors act as color resonators, vibrating in harmony with their more intense color neighbors and gaining in apparent saturation as a result. These backgrounds were set to a constant mid value, which makes them darker than all but two of the central saturated squares. What happens when the dull background colors are generally light valued and often lighter than the saturated central colors (example 4)?

4. saturated colors with complementary light valued background central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies by hue); background is complementary near neutral (saturation=15%, L = 80)

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In this example the backgrounds are lighter valued than all the saturated colors except yellow (top right), and the greens and blue greens (bottom left 4 samples). Here the results are mixed. For the very light valued greens and blue greens, the background is of a very similar value but not lighter, so the difference in chroma between the background and central square is interpreted as an increase in luminosity, and the central colors appear brighter. For the central squares that are darker valued than their backgrounds, the simultaneous lightness contrast causes them to appear even darker, and this darkening has an apparent effect on the chroma as well, making the colors appear duller. As a result, the dark warm hues function less effectively as color accents, and the light cool hues more effectively, when placed within light valued complementary contrasts. Now let's flip the backgrounds again (example 5). The yellow, greens and blue green are still lighter valued than their backgrounds.

5. saturated colors with analogous light valued background central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies by hue); background is analogous near neutral (saturation=15%, L = 80)

Now all the saturated colors are slightly enhanced, and the backgrounds are brightened even more: the whole array appears more luminous, and every color (central squares and backgrounds alike) has a richer, warmer presence. This is especially apparent in the darker central colors, where the strong lightness contrast is softened by the analogous hue relationship.

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The comparisons so far indicate that lightness and chroma contrasts have different effects, depending on hue. The lightness contrast is negligible for the saturated green and blue green hues, but very strong for the saturated warm hues and reddish blue. Red and red orange (top row, center two squares) appear especially affected. I said earlier that this is because the lightness of the maximum saturated color varies from one hue to the next. We can explore this relationship further by making the background color the same lightness as the central square, with the background either a complementary hue (example 6) or an analogous hue (example 7).

6. saturated colors with complementary near neutral background of equal value central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies by hue); background is complementary near neutral (saturation=15%, lightness equal to central square)

7. saturated colors with analogous background of equal value central colors at maximum saturation (lightness varies by hue); background is complementary near neutral (saturation=15%, lightness equal to central square)

Comparison of these examples with each other suggests that the chroma and hue shifts for both saturated and near neutral colors have

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been minimized. This reduced contrast is also apparent when these examples are compared to earlier examples with dark backgrounds of identical lightness (examples 1-3). (To compare with earlier examples, open this page in side by side browser windows, and align the examples you want to compare in each window.) In other words, simultaneous color contrasts are minimized in colors of equal lightness. Of course, part of this contrast reduction is due to the greater variation in lightness across the whole array of colors: central colors are "merged" with their backgrounds to accentuate the lightness differences across the backgrounds. But we notice too that complementary color contrasts do not produce any significant hue shifts in the central squares, and analogous backgrounds have lost almost all their resonance (indeed, the yellow green at lower left seems to disappear into its analogous background). Lacking any value contrast to start with, color vision is not stimulated to accent the contrasts on hue or chroma. Finally, we can minimize the differences between central squares and backgrounds on both value and chroma to see how hue contrasts work for "average" (moderately saturated, mid valued) color samples. Here are the color examples again, with complementary color backgrounds (example 8) and with analogous color backgrounds (example 9).

8. moderately saturated colors with complementary near neutral background central colors of equal saturation and lightness (saturation = 50% lightness of 60); background is complementary near neutral (saturation=15%, lightness of 55)

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9. moderately saturated colors with analogous near neutral background central colors of equal saturation and lightness (saturation = 50% lightness of 60); background is complementary near neutral (saturation=15%, lightness of 55)

Several things seem to be happening at once. First, the relationship between lightness and chroma across different hues means that once we fix the lightness of the central squares to a single value, some hues will appear lighter or darker than others based on chroma differences alone. Thus, the hues that have the highest chroma at mid to low values (blue violet, far right in bottom row, or red and orange, middle of top row) appear relatively bright, but the hues that have the highest chroma at high values (yellow, far right of top row, and greens, middle and left of bottom row) have their chroma reduced by the darker value and appear relatively dull. These are not color shifts due to contrast effects, but are inherent to the chroma/lightness relationship of each hue, and are inescapable when we try to compare effects across different hues. That said, the complementary color contrast causes all the moderately saturated color swatches to appear relatively more distinct. By comparison, the yellow, green and blue green central squares are almost lost against their analogous color backgrounds, although all hues are more "merged" with their analogous backgrounds, as they are so similar in value. Once again, complementary color contrast serves primarily not to enhance individual hues, as "color theory" likes to put it, but to clarify visual textures or patterns among moderately saturated and dull colors.

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Third, because the value contrasts have been minimized, the chroma and hue shifts are reduced as well. Even so, the near neutral backgrounds seem to receive a larger hue and value shift from the contrast than the moderately saturated colors. In general, colors with higher chroma induce shifts rather than receive them. This effect seems to hold true, even when the most saturated colors are only moderately high in chroma. Many more examples could be added to demonstrate the interactions or mutual effects among hue, value and chroma. At this point it will be most useful for you to repeat these effects, using either colored construction or origami papers, or squares painted with watercolors. The most important design principles we can take away from the present examples include the following: • The size of color shifts depends primarily on the value contrast between color areas. Value acts as the determinant of other shifts: where value contrasts are large, hue and chroma differences are muted; where value contrasts are small, chroma shifts are accented. (For discussion of the relative power of value, chroma and hue in simultaneous color contrasts, see the section on simultaneous color contrasts.) • Light valued backgrounds are more powerful than dark valued backgrounds. In general, when there is already a strong chroma contrast between two color areas, a light colored near neutral area is interpreted by color vision as if it were information about the illuminant, and this "illuminant" color affects nearby saturated colors in the same way colored lighting would (enhancing analogous hues, and neutralizing complementary hues). The chroma enhancing effect of analogous, light valued backgrounds is greatest for mid to light valued saturated colors; dark valued saturated colors will appear darker and duller, as if they were interpreted as shadows rather than the illumninant. • Lightness or chroma contrasts vary by

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hue. We found that light valued near neutral backgrounds produced the strongest effect of enhanced luminosity in the saturated hues that were also light valued — yellow, greens and blue greens. Dark valued near neutrals produce a similar effect for dark valued saturated hues. Roughly, when value differences are very small, chroma differences enhance apparent chroma; when value differences are very large, chroma differences affect apparent value. • Analogous and complementary contrasts have different effects. Complementary color contrasts serve to separate unrelated color areas in patterns or complex visual textures, especially when all colors are moderately saturated. Analogous color contrasts serve to unite unrelated color areas and reinforce their common hue by an apparent increase in saturation, especially when the lighter valued colors are unsaturated. • Analogous relations are more powerful than complementary relations. The analogous, light valued near neutral backgrounds combine with the saturated colors to suggest a colored illuminant, strongly enhancing the sense of color richness and color unity. • Near neutrals show greater apparent shifts. All other things equal, the near neutral background shows a larger color shift induced by the saturated color than the saturated color shows a shift caused by the near neutral background. This shift is greater for analogous than complementary colors, and is greater for lighter valued colors. As I've already suggested, these general principles are less effective than actual experience with color mixing. It turns out this is also true when we look at an even simpler problem: recognizing color values accurately.

seeing color value There are two challenges to seeing near neutral colors accurately:

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identifying the color value (on a value scale), which we'll look at now; and identifying the hue bias in dull or near neutral color, discussed in the next section. Our natural tendency is to take a one problem/one solution approach to life, but the problem of recognizing color values is not an easy one to solve. A standard trick is to "squint" or narrow your eyelids when looking at a landscape or still life, which supposedly helps you to see the values more clearly. In a way it does, because it reduces the overall luminosity of the visual field, which in turn lowers the apparent chroma of all the colors — and colors lower in chroma are easier to read as pure values. Another trick is to carry three slide frames fitted with red, green and blue filters or colored cellophane. Each transparency will cause the hues similar to it to appear at their natural values, and all other hues to appear darker and closer to gray. The green filter is especially effective, since it is neither warm nor cool, and so cancels out the effects of color temperature. Using all the filters, one after another, will help you to separate color values from the effects of hue and chroma. All these tricks are more useful in analyzing the actual values of the motif or subject you are painting. I feel the best approach for learning the value of color mixtures is to use the artist's value wheel to select a triad of similarly valued paints (green gold, orange and turquoise for light valued paints, quinacridone carmine, phthalo green BS and cobalt blue deep for dark valued paints, etc.), and mix color circles of similar value. The illustration shows four of these triad circles, and below them the same images in a pure gray scale.

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color circles made of similar valued triads This approach has one great merit: it helps you to learn the standard value for each hue you use, without guesswork. The artist's color wheel is based on spectrophotometric color measurements of paint pigments across several different brands of watercolors, so the values assigned to pigments are highly reliable. No guesswork is involved. An added benefit is that, with minor variations, the mixtures of any equal valued colors you chose for a color circle will have the same value as the pure pigments. You also learn the characteristic value of a range of color mixtures — green gold with turquoise, carmine with phthalo green. The final aid is, of course, the value scale. Some painters suggest you make such a scale yourself, through successive layers of dark or black paint. I strongly recommend you buy a standard photographer's gray scale (for example as manufactured by Kodak), sold in any good camera store or photographic supply store. The merit is that these gray samples are accurate, and have a dull glossy finish that appears relatively constant across a wide range of illumination. To use the gray scale, simply hold it alongside the color area you want to evaluate; you can also use a paper punch to put small holes along the inner edge of each gray swatch, and look at the color through these holes (this eliminates the visually confusing effects of contrast colors near the area you want to evaluate). What do these various tricks or tools amount

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to? Nothing more than patient, trial and error learning. Some artists are naturally endowed with a light sensitive eye. For the rest of us, seeing values accurately is a very complex visual skill that requires long and patient practice. The advantage of using the artist's color wheel, or colored filters, is that you apply a consistent method to many different color samples (in paints or the real world). They key to relatively painless learning is to create these consistent methods and use them in many different situations.

seeing hue bias Finding the hue bias in a dull or near neutral color is another subtle problem in color perception. The problem is made more difficult because it is hard to find near neutral color samples with which to train one's color eye. The near neutral color samples in this section are meant to be illustrative only. I recommend that you buy an inexpensive color atlas, such as the The New Munsell Student Color Set or the Process Color Manual, to assist you in recognizing and distinguishing among greens, reds, yellows or blues that are very close to gray. One approach to hue discrimination might be to start with the saturated color circle, with its complete color range, and look at color samples of decreasing chroma or saturation at constant value, to see what a dull blue or a dull red looks like.

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a palette of near neutrals (CIELAB L = 65) We first notice that the different hues are harder to distinguish as near neutrals than as saturated colors. The hue gradations seem to melt away as the samples shift toward lower chroma. The hue fading effect varies by hue: the turquoise and greenish blue samples appear bright around a chroma of 35, while the samples of yellow or yellowish green appear dull. At different lightness values than the CIELAB L of 65 chosen for this example, other colors would appear more intense at a chroma of 35. So the hue fading depends both on the hue and the value we are considering. With those basic cautions in mind, let's start with a pure achromatic hue and work outwards. This is closer to the actual situation you face when painting, which is identifying a near neutral hue without a strong hue near it to aid in recognition.

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the circle of grays The circle of grays starts with a pure achromatic sample of lightness 50. It is surrounded on four sides by samples at a chroma of 4, then at a chroma of 7 at lightnesses of 50 and 80. The color samples around the circumference identify the hue along each "spoke" of the circle. Working outwards in this way, it's obvious that our color categories have broken down: we can't distinguish among these grays with the same precision that we can distinguish among the colors in the outer circle. We need to learn a new hue circle, an near neutral hue circle, as our framework for identifying near neutral colors. Part of the problem is that we must have new color terms to talk about the differences among the grays. The hue terms we use for the saturated colors just don't apply. There is a very obvious difference between the red violet and blue violet, but the corresponding grays look pretty much the same. What should we call this dull color? To find an answer, try to divide the grays in the

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outer or middle circle into groups of similar grays. How many groups do you come up with? How sure of the groups are you? There are little or no differences among the samples of chroma 4. Differences might become apparent, through color contrast effects, if these samples were placed next to more intense color samples. At chroma 7, there does seem to be a difference between "warm" colors (magenta through yellow) which appear as a dull brown, and "cool" colors (green through blue) which all seem to be a dull green. At a lighter value (L=80), this contrast is more obvious, and the violets (red violet to blue violet) seem also to form a distinct grouping. These groups seem roughly to correspond to the three additive primaries of scarlet, green and blue violet. It seems that color vision cannot achieve a reliable hue recognition because the outputs from the R, G and B cones are so nearly equal; but it can at least recognize which of the three cones is responding most strongly. The hue separation becomes clearer at lighter values, because at this value all the cones are much more active, so the slight differences between them become magnified.

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the circle of grays (hue symbols omitted) If we look at samples with a chroma of 14, the hue differences are distinct for each hue at a lightness of 90, and are more distinct at a lightness of 50. The warm colors and green blues/blue greens still seem to form two large clusters, but the hue transitions from orange to green and from blue to magenta are more distinct. Increasing the chroma further unfolds hue differences at darker and darker values — depending on which hue we are looking at. These comparisons suggest the following method for identifying the hue of near neutral colors, whether in mixed paints or in the surfaces of the real world: 1. Warm or cool? As we've seen, this is the most robust color judgment, even in near neutral colors. If you cannot make this basic distinction, then the color is either a true neutral, or it is a very dull green or violet. With paints, lightening the color mixture with white paint or water can assist in color identification, as this brings the luminosity up the point where reliable hue differences appear even at very low chroma. On natural surfaces, look at the surface area that is most strongly illuminated. (If the reflected light is dazzling, look at areas that are illuminated indirectly.) 2. Closest anchor. Proceed to narrow down the location of the color by choosing between the widest possible hue alternatives. If it is a warm color, ask yourself if it is closer to yellow or magenta; if a cool color, whether it is closer to turquoise or blue violet. Then continue dividing the color alternatives by halves: if you decide it is closer to yellow, then ask whether it is closer to yellow or orange; if orange, whether closer to orange or deep yellow? Stop when the hue choice seems arbitrary or uncertain. 3. Saturation. You've located the hue; the difficulty in making that judgment gives you a sense for the color's chroma or intensity. Try to

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imagine a gray and the purest imaginary hue of the same value, and locate the color in your imagination between these two extremes. 4. Adjacent color. Once you have made as specific a hue recognition as possible, consider the contrast effects induced by adjacent colors. A greenish gray next to a magenta will appear less saturated and darker than it would appear in isolation; the same gray next to a blue green will appear more saturated and lighter. Hue shifts will also be present. 5. Value. You identify the value of the hue last of all, because the apparent value of colors varies by hue, and you may need to adjust for this mentally when determining your color mixture. 6. Range of Values. The last step to consider the place of the color value in the overall value structure of the image. This is also related to the visual environment in which you are trying to make the color judgment. Is the lighting strong, or weak? Are your eyes somewhat blinded by light, or is the surface darkly shaded? In dim light you may want to make values lighter than they seem; in bright light you may want to paint the colors less saturated than you would normally. (Some of these issues are explained at the page on light in the world, and at the page on value design.) I emphasize again that learning to recognize and then mix near neutral hues is a slow process. It goes hand in hand with your color mixing skills, your knowledge of the effects of light and color contrast on color judgments, and your experience in making paintings.

mixing complementary paints Any three paints that define a mixing triangle which encloses the center or neutral point of the color wheel can create a perfect gray if mixed in the right proportions. There are also many combinations of two paints that can mix a neutral or gray tone. These are subtractive complementary

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colors, or mixing complements. These color combinations are both convenient (two paints are easier to work with than three) and effective (two paints can often mix a darker neutral than three). Most artists memorize the important combinations as part of their color mixing lore. I learned over my first few years of teaching myself to paint that much of the currently available information about mixing complements in watercolor paints is inaccurate or incomplete. Sometimes the errors are trivial and sometimes they are large. Because your mixing intuitions depend on your knowledge of mixing complements, I will go into this topic in depth. (Is there any other way?) I approached this problem methodically, and an explanation of my test methods, with a complete listing of test results, are provided on this page. The image at right, which shows the mixing complementary tests for ultramarine blue (PB29), shows the gist. Each line connects the measured color locations of ultramarine blue mixed with every warm pigment between cadmium yellow deep and cadmium scarlet. Any mixture that passes within the light gray circle has a minimum chroma of 5 or less, which is to most viewers indistinguishable from a "pure" gray; any mixture that passes within the dark gray circle has a chroma of 2 or less and really is a pure gray. (At least, watercolors marketed as white, gray or black have a chroma within that range.) Three lines fall within this circle: raw umber, quinacridone gold, and benzimidazolone orange.

near neutral mixing lines for ultramarine blue

The chart below shows all the mixing complements between warm and cool watercolor pigments (from ultramarine violet BS to chromium oxide green). (Again, this page presents the same information as a table. I've organized the table around the blue and green pigments, because there are fewer of them.)

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the watercolorist's mixing complements pigments that make "pure gray" mixtures are joined by dark lines, "near gray" mixtures by light lines; see this page for the same information in tabular form

Before you panic: this diagram is meant to make a single point. If the hue relationships between mixing complementary colors were consistent, then the lines connecting them would not cross each other. As cool hues become greener, their mixing complements should become bluer, so lines between them would stay roughly parallel all the way down

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the chart. This is obviously not the case! The real problem here is the ugly mess called subtractive color mixing, which has some memorable peculiarities: • Nearly all the mixing complements for blues and blue greens are limited to the warm colors from carmine to deep yellow. That is, most mixing complements lie around the warm/cool color contrast, which is really the "mother of complementaries." This is emphasized by the way the mixing lines tend to slant toward the red orange center of the warm color range (around burnt sienna). • With few exceptions (yellow ochre and other dull deep yellows), yellow has no role as a mixing complement. This is because yellow reflects both "red" and "green" light, and it is extremely difficult to get a reddish blue or blue violet color that can exactly cancel out both parts of the spectrum equally. Is Stephen Quiller incorrect to say that ultramarine violet and lemon yellow make a pure gray mixture? Yes. The bluish shade of ultramarine violet (PV15) he recommends (made by M. Graham or Blockx) produces a cadaverous near gray with any yellow hue — lemon yellow through deep yellow. But these mixtures are actually a greenish gray, not a true gray. They appear gray, however, because we tend to choose a cool color as a "true" gray. I used a spectrophotometer to measure my test mixtures; Quiller used his eyes. • The warm hue mixing complements for most blue or green pigments cover a large hue span. This means that paint mixing cannot identify unique complementary colors for any blue or green. Take phthalo green BS (PG7) for example: you can get a dead on dark gray by mixing it with pyrrole scarlet (PR255) or with perylene maroon (PR179). So is the "true" complementary color for phthalo green a bright scarlet or a dull carmine? (Quiller pairs phthalo green BS with quinacridone rose PV19, which produces a violet mixture with a minimum chroma of around 12.)

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• Some of the mixing complements contradict color wheel logic. Compare, for example, the mixing complements of prussian blue (PB27) and phthalo turquoise (PB16). The perfect mixing complement for prussian blue is venetian red (PR101), and the best complement for phthalo turquoise is perinone orange (PO43). But phthalo turquoise is much closer to green than prussian blue, and perinone orange is also closer to green than venetian red: as the blue hue moves counterclockwise around the color wheel, the complementary color moves clockwise! You just can't get that to make sense on a color wheel. The truth is that you can't show mixing complements as a color wheel. No matter how you tug and pluck, you can't unravel the mess created by the substance uncertainty of real paints. The only way to cut through the knot is to work with the color relationships defined by additive color mixing, as I've done with my artist's color wheel, and learn the mixing complementary relationships by rote for the paints actually on your palette. Paints you don't use you don't have to know about.

the material qualities of paint I've carried the color mixing exercise to an unartistic extreme. But I urge you to verify the results, at least for paints on your palette, for a very different reason. Mixing up your own complementary paint combinations is a splendid way to learn the subtle material attributes of the pigments and paints you use. A really unfortunate (and unintended) outcome of learning "color theory" is the prejudice that paints are "colors" only. This is very much like thinking of flowers as "colors." Skillful gardeners and flower artists, when they plan garden beds or flower arrangements, also think of the size and shape of the plants, the shape and spread of blossoms, the arc and twist of stems, and the pattern and sheen of

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leaves. As a painter, you need to understand the physical, handling and appearance attributes of each paint or pigment you use, not just its "color." Choosing paints to create harmonious visual effects other than color is one of the hallmarks of an accomplished watercolor artist. The benefit of near neutral mixtures is that color is eliminated almost entirely, so paint value and texture is all there is to look at. Paints that you thought of as "blue" or "dark" now impress you with textures and surfaces all their own. You can see clearly the subtle harmonies or difficulties created by mixing different types of pigments. Here is a summary of some of the notes I made while testing neutral mixtures: • Mixtures of two synthetic organic pigments — a phthalocyanine with a pyrrole, for example — give the strongest, cleanest, most homogenous grays. These mixtures can produce extremely even color areas and exceptionally dark grays (in some cases even darker than ivory or carbon black), with the drawback that they make visually boring and somewhat dull surfaces across large areas. • Mixtures of the cool phthalocyanines with a warm iron oxide (earth) pigment are generally very smooth, with a slight granularity that lends the finished color a velvety visual texture. (As always, you must apply the color decisively and not fuss with it as it dries; this dulls the surface and produces "mud.") Mixtures with red iron oxide (venetian red, light red, indian red) must be fairly diluted, however, because those earth pigments are thick and opaque, which can cause a dense mixture to streak when brushed on. • Burnt sienna (PBr7) and venetian red (PR101) are the two workhorse pigments for neutralizing colors, but a dark raw umber (PBr7) is also often useful for reddish blue paints. • The very pure gray that results from venetian red with iron (prussian) blue (PB27) is

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"Homer's gray." It was used with special grace by Winslow Homer to capture the dark stormy gray skies of Cullercoats and Bermuda. • Mixtures of phthalocyanine blue or green with cadmium pigments can be very confusing to work with. The finer cadmium particles have a tendency to float on the surface of the mixture, which confuses your perception of the color; you have to look through this surface to the color of the inner solution as you brush it out against the white palette. Make test swatches to confirm the dried color appearance before applying to the painting. • Mixtures of cobalt blue or cobalt turquoise with an iron oxide (earth) or synthetic organic pigment (the quinacridones in particular) are especially beautiful. (The exception is cerulean blue, which turns out unusually dull when mixed with the earth pigments.) Cobalt pigment particles are just large enough to create a distinct stippled or speckled texture to the dried color, which causes the separate pigments to appear as two interlaced colors rather than a single homogenous hue. This color contrast is especially intense with a scarlet and turquoise, or magenta and green paint, and is strongest in middle grays (moderately diluted mixtures). • The gray that results from ultramarine blue (PB29) and burnt sienna is one of the most evocative and texturally interesting grays. It is slightly biased toward red, which gives it a fundamental warmth even in its most neutral tone, and the textural effects that result from the wet in wet application of the two pigments, which have a strong tendency to separate in juicy washes, can be startlingly lovely. • Grays are especially hard to mix because the margin of error is limited in all directions. In most mixtures it does not really matter if your finished color is slightly off hue from the color you wanted; the color still takes on its desired role. But a gray that varies in any direction from the exact color you want to mix is no longer a gray, and may even shift temperature from warm to cool. This problem arises

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because of the drying shifts of the complementary pair: a mixture that looks spot on when wet will often dry with a hue bias. It's best to paint a test swatch of any gray mixture — and let it dry for at least 10 minutes — to be sure of the finished color. Drying shifts arise in various ways: with dark blue pigments — ultramarine blue, indanthrone blue and phthalo blue — because they have very large drying shifts in lightness and saturation; with cobalt pigments, because they lose tinting strength in a mixture as they dry. An exception is dioxazine violet with sap green: both paints individually have large drying shifts, but the size and direction of the shifts tend to cancel each other out, leaving the finished neutral color pretty much as you mixed it. As these comments suggest, mixing near neutral colors present slightly different mixing problems than you encounter when mixing more saturated colors at the outer edges of the color wheel. But these problems can help you learn the essential nature of the paints and pigments more clearly.

Last revised 11.12.2007 • © 2007 Bruce MacEvoy

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