Colonial Cities

Colonial Cities 2 marks Give any two features of colonial cities after 1850 in India. What was main economic activity of the people residing in the cities of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta prior to their urbanization? Fishing and weaving were the main economic activity of the people residing in the cities of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta prior to its urbanization. They were originally villages, which gradually emerged as important trading centres due to the economic activities of the East India Company. The East India Company agents settled in Madras in 1639 and in Calcutta in 1661. Why did the commercial centres such as Surat, Masulipatnam and Dhaka decline? From the mid-eighteenth century onwards, the commercial centers such as Surat, Masulipatnam and Dhaka started declining due to the shift in economic activities of the East India Company. As EEIC after its victory in the battle of Plassey in 1757 shifted the concentration of its economic activities to the colonial port cities such as Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay. These port cities also became the main centers of administration and political power. This development created number of opportunities to people who migrated to the cities. How did Bombay become the part of the British colonization in India? In 1534, the Portuguese captured the islands and established a trading centre (or 'factory') there. The Portuguese called the place Bom Bahia, meaning 'the good bay', which the English pronounced Bombay. In May 1662, King Charles II of England married Catherine of Braganza, whose family offered a large dowry (a gift made by the father of the bride to the groom). Part of this gift was the Portuguese territory of Bombay. The king has given the territory of Bombay to East India Company on an annual rent of 10 pounds. Why the British gave so much importance to the mapping of the regions? The colonial government saw mapping as an important tool to understand the landscape and know the topography. Maps helped them in better control over the region. Maps were prepared to plan the development of new towns and to develop commerce and consolidate power. When the first census was taken in India? What was the change introduced in 1881? The first all India census was taken in the year 1872. From the year 1881 the Census was made decennial. How were towns defined in opposition to the rural areas? Towns were often defined in contrast to rural areas. They represented economic activities and cultures. They were peopled with artisans, traders, administrators and rulers. Towns dominated over the rural population thriving on the surplus and taxes derived from agriculture. Towns and cities were often fortified by walls. Describe the towns of sixteenth and seventeenth century South India? Important towns in South India were Madurai and Kanchipuram. In these towns the primary focus was the temple and even though they were important commercial centers the religious festivals coincided with the fairs linking pilgrimage to trade.

When did the British got the political control over India and how? The British victory in the battle of Plassey in 1757 transformed their status from a mere trading company to a political power in India. Which were the European trading companies which set up base in the early Mughal era? The European trading companies that set up base in the early Mughal era were the Portuguese in Panaji in 1510, the Dutch in Masulipatnam in 1605, the British in Madras in 1639 and the French in Pondicherry (present-day Puducherry) in 1673. What were the main features of the social life in the new cities? • There was a marked contrast in the wealth and poverty in the new cities. • There was development in the transport system. • There was creation of public places like parks, theaters etc. • New social groups were formed • People were migrating from old cities to the new ones. Why did the British select Bombay, Madras and Calcutta as their principal place of settlement? • After the battle of Plassey, colonial port cities such as Bombay, Madras & Calcutta emerged as new economic capitals. • They became the centers of colonial administration and political power. 5 marks What were the political and social changes which took place in the eighteenth century? The political and social changes which took place in the eighteenth century were: • With the Mughal power going down, the towns associated with their rule also declined. Delhi and Agra lost their political authority. • Lucknow, Hyderabad, Poona, etc grew as important regional capitals. • Many craftsmen, traders, administrators migrated from the old towns to the new centers of importance. • New urban settlements were developed. How did the rich Indians establish themselves amongst the new colonial cities? With the formation of the colonial cities Indian merchants, artisans and other workers merchants started living outside the British forts. Political power and patronage shifted from Indian rulers to the merchants of the East India Company. Greater economic interaction between Indians who worked as interpreters, intermediary, traders and suppliers of goods provided them with an important place in the new colonial cities. On the edge of Forts, merchants and agents built palatial houses in European styles. These Indians bought up large tracts of land in city as future investment. Indian elite were quite happy to adopt the new European culture in hope that would help make them a part of the English culture and in term benefit, them further in their economic and administrative pursuits. Express your views on what do all buildings and architectural styles of a city tell us. Architecture reflects the aesthetic ideals prevalent at a time, and variations within those ideals. The buildings also express the vision of those who build them. Rulers everywhere seek to express their power through buildings. Architectural styles do not

only reflect prevalent tastes but they also mould tastes, popularize styles and shape the contours of culture. Many Indians came to regard European styles of architecture as symbols of modernity and civilization, and began adopting these styles, which they saw as modern and combined these with elements drawn from local traditions. From the late nineteenth century, we see efforts to define regional and national tastes that were different from the colonial ideal, therefore the styles changed and developed through wider processes of cultural conflicts. Write a short note on the economic activities in Bombay under the British rule. Bombay was the commercial capital of colonial India. Being the premier port on the western coast it was the centre of international trade. By the end of the 19th century, half the imports and exports of India passed through Bombay. Indian merchants and intermediaries supplied and participated with the East India Company in opium trade. This led to the growth of an Indian capitalist class including different communities. American Civil War led to an upsurge of demand for the Indian cotton. In 1869, the Suez Canal was opened and this further strengthened Bombay’s links with the world economy. The Bombay government and Indian merchants used this opportunity to declare Bombay Urbs Prima in Indis, a Latin phrase meaning the most important city of India. By late 19thcentury, merchants started investing in cotton mills and other works also. What was a Lottery Committee in context of town planning of Calcutta? The work of town planning was carried on by the Lottery Committee (1817) with the help of the government. The Lottery Committee was so named because funds for the improvement of city were still thought to be the responsibility of public and were raised through public lotteries. The Lottery Committee made a new map of the city to get a comprehensive picture of Calcutta. Among the Committee’s major activities was road building in the Indian part of the city, clearing the riverbank “encroachments”. In the drive to make the Indian area of Calcutta cleaner, the committee removed many huts and displaced the labouring poor, who were now pushed to the outskirts of Calcutta. Due to frequent fires, thatched huts were banned in 1836 and tiled roofs made mandatory. Write a note on Lord Wellesley contribution in the town planning of fort William. In 1798, Lord Wellesley became the Governor General. He built a massive palace, Government House, for himself in Calcutta, a building that was expected to convey the authority of the British. He became concerned about the condition of the Indian part of the city- the crowding, the excessive vegetation, the dirty tanks, the smells and poor drainage. These conditions worried the British because they believed at the time that poisonous gases from marshlands and pools of stagnant water were the cause of most diseases. Creating open places in the city was one way of making the city healthier. Wellesley set up various committees for the purpose. Many bazaars, ghats, burial grounds, and tanneries were cleared or removed. From then on, the notion of “public health” became an idea that was proclaimed in projects of town clearance and town planning. Describe the nature of pre-colonial cities. The nature of pre-colonial cities: Specific forms of economic activities distinguish towns from rural areas. In rural areas, people were engaged in cultivation, foraging in the forest and rearing animals. In the towns, people were traders, artisans, administrators and rulers. Towns dominated over and depended on the rural population,

thriving on the surplus and taxes derived from agriculture. Towns and cities were often fortified by wall in order to separate from the countryside or the rural areas. However, the nature of the separation between towns and the rural areas was fluid. Peasants travelled long distances on pilgrimage, passing through towns; they also flocked to towns during times of famine. Besides, there was a reverse flow of humans and goods from towns to villages. When towns were attacked, people often sought shelter in the countryside. Traders and pedlars took goods from the towns to sell in the villages, extending markets and creating new patterns of consumption. How was the economic life affected by the establishment of East India control in Madras? The economic life in colonial cities was affected by the fact that the new jobs were created with the demands of the new European rulers. Several different communities came and settled in Madras, performing a range of economic functions. The dubashes were the Indians who could speak– the local language and English, worked as agents and merchants, acted as intermediaries between Indian society and the British. They used their privileged position in government to acquire wealth. The Vellalars, a rural caste monopolized jobs with the Company. In the nineteenth century, educated Brahmins started competing for similar positions in the administration. Telugu Komatis were a powerful commercial group that controlled the grain trade in the city. Gujarati bankers had also been present since the eighteenth century. Paraiyars and Vanniyars formed the labouring poor. Wealthy Indians too started to live like the English. Many new suburbs were created from existing villages around the core of Madras. There was a gradual urbanisation of Madras. Write a short note on the establishment of Madras as an important colonial city. In the search for textiles British merchants reached the south-east coast. In 1639 they constructed a trading port in Madraspatam, this settlement was locally known as Chenapattanam. The company had purchased the right of settlement from the local Telugu lords, the Nayaks of Kalahasti who were eager to support trading activity in the region. The rivalry (1746-63) with the French East India Company led the British to fortify Madras and give their representatives increased political and administrative functions. With the defeat of the French in 1761, Madras became more secure and began to grow into an important commercial town. Madras was developed by incorporating innumerable surrounding villages and by creating opportunities and spaces for a variety of communities. Explain the impacts of development of colonial cities on the life of women and how did it affected the Indian society. With the rise of the colonial cities the western ideas spread which influenced the Indian cities and society. Cities offered new opportunities for women. Middle class women sought to express themselves through the medium of journals, autobiographies and books which were disliked by many people. They were afraid that this would change the traditional patriarchal norms. Conservatives feared that the education of women would turn the world upside down, and threaten the basis of the entire social order. Even reformers who supported women’s education saw women primarily as mothers and wives, and wanted them to remain within the enclosed spaces of the household. Women became more visible in public, as they entered new professions as domestic and factory workers, teachers and

theatre and film actresses. However, for a long time women who moved into public spaces remained the objects of social censure. Write a short note on the change in the social life of people that was brought about due to the development of the new colonial cities. Within the cities, new social groups were formed and the old identities and classes of people were no longer important. All classes of people were migrating to the big cities. There was an increasing demand for clerks, teachers, lawyers, doctors, engineers and accountants. As a result, the “middle classes” increases. They had access to new educational institutions such as schools, colleges and libraries. As educated people, they could put forward their opinions on society and government in newspapers, journals and public meetings. A new public sphere of debate and discussion emerged. Social customs, norms and practices came to be questioned with new view. Explain the socio-economic relevance of the Hill stations. The hill station though came into being because of the political necessities of the English administration it had its own social economic importance in the life of the 18th century. In the hill stations, the British and other Europeans sought to recreate settlements that were reminiscent of home. The social gatherings, tea parties, picnics, fetes, races and visits to the theatre became common features for hill stations. The introduction of the railways made hill stations more accessible to a wide range of people including Indians. Upper and middle class Indians such as lawyers, maharajas, and merchants were drawn to these hill stations because they afforded them a close proximity to the ruling British elite. Hill stations were important for the colonial economy. With the setting up of tea and coffee plantations in the adjoining areas, an influx of immigrant labour from the plains began. Explain the reason behind the development of Hill Stations. Hill stations were a distinctive feature of colonial urban development. The founding and settling of hill stations was initially connected with the needs of the British army. Hill stations became strategic places for billeting troops, guarding frontiers and launching campaigns against enemy rulers. The climate of the Indian hills was seen as an advantage, particularly since the British associated the hot weather with epidemics. The overwhelming presence of the army made these stations a new kind of cantonment in the hills. These hill stations were also developed as sanatoriums. Because of the cold climates, they became and attractive destination for the new rulers. It became a practice for Viceroys to move to hill stations during the summer months. In 1864 the Viceroy John Lawrence officially moved his council to Shimla, establishing the practice of shifting capitals during the hot season. Shimla also became the official residence of the commander-in-chief of the Indian army. Explain how introduction of Railways had an affect on the economic life of the towns. The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in the fortunes of towns. Economic activity gradually shifted away from traditional towns which were located along old routes and rivers. Every railway station became a collection depot for raw materials and a distribution point for imported goods. For instance, Mirzapur on the Ganges, which specialized in collecting cotton goods from the Deccan, declined when a railway link was made to Bombay with the expansion of the railway network, railway workshops and railway colonies were established. Railway towns like Jamalpur, Waltair and Bareilly developed. From the mid- nineteenth century the expanding network of railways linked these cities to the rest of the country. As a result the

surrounding areas became more closely linked to the port cities. Since raw material was transported to these cities for export and there was plentiful cheap labour available, it was convenient to set up modern factories there. Write a note explaining difference between a town and a village in the 18th century. Towns were often defined in opposition to rural areas. They came to represent specific forms of economic activities and cultures. In the countryside people's activities were cultivation, forestry or rearing animals. Towns by contrast were inhabited by artisans, traders, administrators and rulers. Towns dominated over the rural population, thriving on the surplus and taxes derived from agriculture. Towns and cities were often fortified by walls which symbolized their separation from the countryside. There was reverse flow of humans and goods from towns to villages and vice versa. Peasants travelled long distances on pilgrimage, passing through towns; they also flocked to towns during times of famine. When towns were attacked, people often sought shelter in the countryside. Traders and peddlers took goods from the towns to sell in the villages, extending markets and creating new patterns of consumption. Give some reasons for rise of new towns in the 18th century. In the eighteenth century political and commercial changes led to the decline of and old towns and new towns developed. The gradual decline of Mughal power led to the decline of towns associated with their rule. The Mughal capitals, Delhi and Agra, lost their political authority. The growth of new regional powers was reflected in the increasing importance of regional capitals - Lucknow, Hyderabad, Seringapatam, Poona, Nagpur, Baroda and Tanjore. Traders, administrators, artisans and others migrated from the old Mughal centres to these new capitals in search of work and patronage. Continuous warfare between the new kingdoms meant the mercenaries too found ready employment. Some local notables and official associated with Mughal rule in North India also used this opportunity to create new urban settlements named qasbah and ganj. The European commercial companies had set up base in different places early during the Mughal era. With the expansion of commercial activity, towns grew around these trading centres as well. What were the main features of a South Indian town? • In the towns of South India such as Madurai and Kanchipuram, the principal focus was the temple. • These towns were important commercial centres. Religious festivals often coincided with fares, linking pilgrimage with trade. • Generally, the ruler was the highest authority and the principal patron of religious institutions. • The relationship that he had with other groups and classes determined their place in society and in the town. Write a note on the new Indo-European style of architecture that is evident in the buildings of Bombay. • Towards the beginning of the twentieth century, a new hybrid architectural style developed with combination of the Indian and European style, which was called IndoSaracenic. • “Indo” was shorthand for Hindu and “Saracen” was a term European used to designate Muslim. • By integrating Indian and European style in public architecture, the British wanted to prove that they were legitimate rulers of India.

• The Gateway of India, built in the traditional Gujarati style to welcome King George V and Queen Mary to India in 1911, is the most famous example of this style. • The industrialist Jamsetji Tata built the Taj Mahal Hotel in a similar style. 8 marks Read this excerpt on Madras from the Imperial Gazetteer, 1908: … the better European residences are built in the midst of compounds which almost attain the dignity of parks; and rice-fields frequently wind in and out between these in almost rural fashion. Even in the most thickly peopled native quarters such as Black Town and Triplicane, there is little of the crowding found in many other towns … By which name did the British describe the places where the natives lived? The British described Indian settlements as Black towns. Describe any three characteristic features of the European settlements. The three features of European settlements were – • Built in the midst of the compounds. • Had parks around the residence. Open spaces were provided. • Broad roads were constructed and proper arrangement for the ventilation of the house was done. Describe any three features of the native towns. The three features of the Indian settlements were • Built on the outskirts of white settlements. • Unplanned and crowded settlements. • Narrow streets with least provisions for proper sanitation. This is how the famous poet Mirza Ghalib described, what the people of Delhi did when the British forces occupied the city in 1857: Smiting the enemy and driving him before them, the victors (i.e., the British) overran the city in all directions. All whom they found in the street they cut down … For two to three days every road in the city, from the Kashmiri Gate to Chandni Chowk, was a battlefield. Three gates – the Ajmeri, the Turcoman and the Delhi – were still held by the rebels … At the naked spectacle of this vengeful wrath and malevolent hatred, the colour fled from men’s faces and a vast concourse of men and women … took to precipitate flight through these three gates. Seeking the little villages and shrines outside the city, they drew breath to wait until such time as might favour their return. Why the British are described as malevolent by the poet? British, after reoccupying Delhi took to open massacre of the people to take the revenge of the rebellion of 1857. Due to the cruelties imposed by them on the people, they were described as malevolent by the poet. Why did the natives of Delhi evacuate the city? What did they hoped for? In order to save themselves from the atrocities of the British, the natives of Delhi evacuated the city. They resided in the villages, lying on the outskirts of the city in the hope that very soon the situation would improve and they could get back to their homes. Who was the leader of the revolt in Delhi?

Bahadur Shah Zafar was the leader of the revolt in Delhi. However, General Bakht Khan commanded the rebels. Mention the places of Delhi, where rebels had stronghold as described by the poet? Indian rebels had strong hold on the three gates• Delhi gate • Ajmeri gate • Turcoman gate. Escaping to the country side. (Page No. 3/8 Part III) This is how the famous poet Mirza Ghalib described what the people of Delhi did when the British forces occupied the city in 1857. Limiting the enemy and driving him before them, the vectors (i.e. the British) overran the city in all direction. All whom they found in street they cut down. For two to three days every road in the city from the Kashmiri gate to Chandni Chowk, was a battle field. Three gates, the Ajmeri, the Turocaman and the Delhi were still held by the rebels at the naked spectacle of this vengeful wrath and malevolent hatred the colour fled from men’s faces and a vast concourse of men and women…. took to precipitate flight through these three gates. Seeking the little villages and shrewdness outside the city, they drew breath to wait until such time as might favour their return. Who was Mirza Ghalib? Mirza Ghalib was a famous Urdu Poet of Delhi in 19th Century. What has been described by Ghalib about the people of Delhi when the British forces occupied the city in 1857? • The People of Delhi were driven by the vectors (i.e the British). Some rebels faced the British forces for two or three days. They kept under their control the gates of Delhi- the Ajmeri gate, the Turocaman gate and the Delhi gate. • All the naked spectacle of the vengeful wrath and malevolent hatred the colour fled from men’s face. • A vast concourse of men and women of Delhi took to percipate flight through different gates of the city. • Seeking the little villages and shrines outside the city, the people of Delhi drew breathe to wait until such time as might favour their return. Describe the Role of the ‘British forces, just after occupying the city? Smiting the Mughal forces, other rebellious troops and the people of Delhi the British troops occupied most parts of the city in last days of the meeting of 1857, the forces engaged themselves in overrunning the city in all direction. All whom they found in the street they cut down. For two or three days every road in the city from the Kashmiri Gate to Chandni Chowk was a battlefield, after three days most of the rebels were forced to send way to seek shelters in little villages and shrines. Write the names of all historical gates mention in the above passage?

By the early nineteenth century, the British felt that permanent and public rules had to be formulated for regulating all the aspects of social life. Even the construction of private buildings and public roads ought to conform to standardised rules that were clearly codified. In his Minute on Calcutta (1803) Wellesley wrote: It is a primary duty of Government to provide for the health, safety and convenience of the inhabitants of this great town, by establishing a comprehensive system for the improvement of roads, streets, public drains, and water courses, and by fixing permanent rules for the construction and distribution of the houses and public edifices, and for the regulation of nuisances of every description. Who was Wellesley? How has he contributed in the political ascendancy of East India Company? Lord Wellesley was the Governor General of the East India Company from 1798 to 1805. He introduced the subsidiary alliance system to make the EEIC the strongest and the dominant power in India. What were the responsibilities listed by Wellesley for the government and why? In his Minute on Calcutta (1803), Wellesley vested upon the government, the duty to provide for the health, safety and convenience of the inhabitants of Calcutta, by establishing a comprehensive system for the improvement of roads, streets, public drains and water courses. What was suggested by the Wellesley to permanently fixing the nuisances? According to Wellesley, the problems of sanitation and water supply could be addressed permanently by regulating the construction activities or by framing certain rules for regulating the construction of houses and their distribution in the city. Bombay was a colonial city developed to reflect the authority of the imperial power through monumental buildings. Express your views on the above. With the growth of their empire, the British became increasingly inclined to make cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras into impressive imperial capitals. It was as if the grandeur of the cities had to reflect the authority of imperial power. Way of releasing this imperial vision was through embellishing cities with monumental buildings. They were often meant to represent ideas such as imperial power, nationalism and religious glory. This is exemplified in the case of Bombay. Bombay was initially seven islands. As the population grew, the islands were joined to create more space and they gradually fused into one big city. Bombay’s economy grew, from the mid-nineteenth century and many new buildings were constructed at this time. These buildings reflected the culture and confidence of the rulers. The architectural style was usually European. This importation of European styles reflected the imperial vision in several ways. First, it expressed the British desire to create a familiar landscape in alien country, and thus to feel at home in the colony. Second, the British felt that European styles would best symbolize their superiority, authority and power. This, they thought that buildings that looked European would mark out the difference and distance between the colonial masters and their Indian subjects.

Initially, these buildings were at odds with the traditional Indian buildings. Gradually, Indians too got used to European architecture and made it their own .The British in turn adapted some Indian styles to suit their needs e.g. Bungalow used to reside officers. The name bungalow was derived from Bangla, a traditional thatched Bengali hut. Write a note on a North Indian town of 16th and 17th century. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the towns built by the Mughals were famous for their concentration of populations, their monumental buildings and their imperial grandeur and wealth. Agra, Delhi and Lahore were important centres of imperial administration and control. Mansabdars and jagirdars who were assigned territories in different parts of the empire usually maintained houses in these cities: residence in these centres of power was symbolic of the status and prestige of a noble. The presence of the emperor and noblemen in these centres meant that a wide variety of services had to be provided. Artisans produced exclusive handicrafts for the households of nobles. Grain from the countryside was brought into urban markets for the town dwellers and the army. The treasury was also located in the imperial capital. Thus the revenues of the kingdom flowed into the capital regularly. The emperor lived in a fortified palace and the town was enclosed by a wall, with entry and exit being regulated by different gates. Within these towns were gardens, mosques, temples, tombs, colleges, bazaars and caravan serais. The focus of the town was oriented towards the palace and the principal mosque. Write a note on the socio-economic condition in the towns of the 19th century. The way of living in the new towns was based on the fact that the political power and patronage had now shifted from Indian rulers to the new power holders of the East India Company. The new cities reflected the economic culture of the new rulers. The difference between the ruling English class and the ruled Indian masses was evident by the different sectors of the city both lived in. Indian who worked as interpreters, middlemen, traders and suppliers of goods also had an important place in these new cities. Economic activity near the river or the sea led to the development of docks and ghats. Along the shore were godowns, mercantile offices, insurance agencies for shipping, transport depots, banking establishments. Further Indians were the chief administrative officers of the company. Around the periphery of the cities European merchants and agents built palatial houses in European styles. Racially exclusive clubs, race courses and theatres were also built for the ruling elite. The rich Indian agents and middlemen built large traditional courtyard houses in the vicinity of the bazaars. They also built temples to establish their status in society. The labouring poor provided a variety of services to their European and Indian masters as cooks, palanquin bearers, and dock workers. They lived in makeshift huts in different parts of the city. For a long while the British were interested primarily in the cleanliness and hygiene of the British areas. But as epidemics of cholera and plague spread, killing thousands, colonial officials felt the need for more stringent measures of sanitation and public health. From the 1860s and 1870s, stringent administrative measures regarding sanitation were implemented and building activity in the Indian towns was regulated. Underground piped water supply and sewerage and drainage systems were also put in place around this time.Sanitary vigilance thus became another way of regulating Indian towns. 10 marks

Taking the example of Bombay (Mumbai) explain how imperial vision of the British was realized through town planning. Write a short note on the socio religious life in and around the fortified town of the Europeans in the 17th and 18th century. The Fort St. George became the nucleus of the White Town where most of the Europeans lived. Colour and religion determined who was allowed to live within the Fort. The company did not permit any marriages with Indians. Other than the English, the Dutch and Portuguese were allowed to stay here because they were European and Christian. The administrative and judicial systems also favoured the white population. Although the rulers were few in number yet the development of Madras followed the needs and convenience of the minority whites in the town. The Black Town developed outside the Fort. It was laid out in straight lines, a characteristic of colonial towns. It was, however, demolished in the mid -1700s and the area was cleared for a security zone around the Fort. A new Black Town developed further to the north. This housed weavers, artisans, middlemen and interpreters who played a vital role in the Company trade. The new Black Town resembled traditional Indian towns, with living quarters built around its own temple and bazaar, on the narrow lanes that criss-crossed the township, there were distinct caste- specific neighbourhoods. Chintadripet was an area meant for weavers. Washermanpet was a colony of dyers and bleachers of cloth. Royapuram was a settlement for Christian boatmen who worked for the Company. As the British consolidated their power, resident Europeans began to move out of the Fort. Wealthy Indians too started to live like the English. As a result many new suburbs were created from existing villages. The poor settled in villages that were close to their place of work. The gradual urbanisation of Madras meant that the areas between these villages were brought within the city. As a result Madras had a semi-rural air about it. How did prominent Indian merchants establish themselves in the colonial city? Prominent Indian merchant establish themselves in colonial city in different phases. They establish themselves in all the three metro colonial cities i.e., Madras (Chennai), Bombay (Mumbai) and Calcutta (Kolkata). First of all these Indian merchants tried to establish their relation of the agents of the company. As there all colonial cities were trade centre and administrative official. Therefore the Indian merchants could easily get establish their relation with the Europeans. There cities were having different types of comforts such as modern hotels, restaurant, lodging, boarding, transport facilities, roadways and shipping. Later on Bombay become a major trade centre of opium with China. Prominent Indian merchant played active role in collecting opium from different places of Rajasthan and Malwa. They use to bring opium on the back of horses, ponies, camels by road transport etc. They use to earn a lot of money as middle man between farmers and companies agents and officials. Not only East India Company but some of the government official and later or other European also participated in illegal trade of opium. The Indian prominent merchant becomes very rich. They constructed big building in all big cities of colonial period. As the industrial revolution in England started and expanded. These colonial cities became entry point for British manufacture goods and for the expert of Indian ram

materials (which was to be used in large scale industries and factories of England). The prominent Indian merchant also participated in there trade activities. The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in the fortunes of towns. Economic activity gradually shifted away from traditional towns which were located along old routes and rivers. Every railway station became a collection depot for raw materials and a distribution point for imported goods. For instance, Mirzapur on the Ganges, which specialized in collecting cotton goods from the Deccan, declined when a railway link was made to Bombay. With the expansion of the railway network, railway workshops and railways colonies were established Railways towns like Jamalpur, Waltair and Bareilly developed. The Indian merchants included the people of different communities and castes such as Parsi, Marwari, Konkani, Arbs, and Gujarati. Baniyas, Boras and Jews. Some of the members of this community invested money in modern big industry, shipping and Airlines also. They donated money for construction of inns, wells, tanks, temples, Mosque, Churches and other places of religion and worships. To what extent are census data useful in reconstruction patterns of urbanization in the colonial context? • Census data are very useful in reconstructing pattern of urbanization in the colonial context. • We knew that every colonial government believe in colour and racial discrimination. There census data provide us the total number of the people in this way these data are useful of know exact number of population as well as the total population of white and blacks. • After knowing the number and exact population of white and blacks. It becomes easier to prepare town, planning, design its formation, provision for future expansion, keeping in view living standards, needs and style of the whites as well as of the blacks. These data also tell us upto what extant total number of people or total population had been affected adversely by the fearful or deadly diseases. • Census data provide us complete information about total number of different communities, their language, their works and means of livelihood as well as about their caste and religion also. • The growth of cities was mentioned through regular head counts. By the mid nineteenth century several local censuses had been carried out in different regions. The first all-India census was attempted in 1872. Thereafter, from 1881, decimal (conducted every ten years) census become a regular feature. This collection of data is an invaluable source for studying urbanization in India. • When we look at these reports it appears that we have heard data to measure historical change. The endless pages of tables on disease and death, or the enumeration of people according their age, sex, caste and occupation, provide a vast mass of figures that creates an illusion of concreteness. Historians have however; found that the figures can be misleading. Before we use these figures we need to understand who collected the data, and why and how they were gathered. We also need to know what was measured and what was not.

Assess the impact of health and defence needs on town planning in Colonial Calcutta. In 1756, Sirajudula the Nawab of Bengal sacked the small fort which the British traders had built to house their goods. Consequently when Sirajudaula was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, the British built a new fort. Fort William could not be easily attacked. Around Fort William, a vast open space was left which came to be known as the Maidan or garer-math. This was done so there would be no obstructions to a straight time of fire from the Fort against an advancing enemy army. Soon the British began to move out of the Fort and build residences along the periphery of the Maidan. This was how the English Settlement in Calcutta started taking shape. The vast open space around the Fort became Calcutta’s first significant town planning measure. Lord Wellesley was concerned about the conditions that existed in the Indian part of the city the filth, overcrowding and the poor drainage. He wrote a minute (an administrative order) in 1803 on the need for town planning and set up various committees for this purpose. It was believed that creating open places in the city would make the city healthier. Consequently many bazaars, ghats, burial ground and tanneries were cleared or removed. After Wellesley’s departure, the Lottery Committee carried on with the work of Town Planning. In its drive to make the Indian areas cleaner, the committee cleared the river bank of encroachment and pushed the poor to the outskirts of Calcutta. The outbreak of cholera and plague epidemics in the 19th century gave a further impetus to town planning. The government believed that there was a direct link between living conditions and the spread of disease. Densely built up areas were regarded as in sanitary as it obstructed sunlight and circulation of air. Give an estimate of the status of urban centers in the centuries preceding the British Rule. What gave towns their character? Towns were often identified as different to rural areas. They characterized specific forms of economic activities and cultures. In the countryside, people manage to survive by cultivating land, hunting in the forest, or rearing animals. Towns by contrast were populated with artisans, traders, administrators, and rulers. Towns dominated over the rural population, thriving on the surplus and taxes derived from agriculture. Towns and cities were often fortified by walls, which symbolised their separation from the countryside. However, the separation between town and country was fluid. Peasants travelled long distances on pilgrimage, passing through towns; they also flocked to towns during times of famine. Besides, there was a reverse flow of humans and goods from towns to villages. When towns were attacked, people often sought shelter in the countryside. Traders and pedlars took goods from the towns to sell in the villages, extending markets and creating new patterns of expenditure. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the towns built by the Mughals were famous for their concentration of populations, their monumental buildings and their majestic grandeur and wealth. Agra, Delhi and Lahore were important centres of imperial administration and control.

Mansabdars and jagirdars who were assigned territories in different parts of the empire usually maintained houses in these cities: residence in these centres of power was symbolic of the status and prestige of a noble. The presence of the emperor and noblemen in these centres meant that a wide variety of services had to be provided. Artisans produced exclusive handicrafts for the households of nobles. Grain from the countryside was brought into urban markets for the town dwellers and the army. The treasury was also located in the imperial capital. Thus, the revenues of the kingdom flowed into the capital regularly. The emperor lived in a fortified palace and a wall, with entry and exit being regulated by different gates, enclosed the town. Within these towns were gardens, mosques, temples, tombs, colleges, bazaars, and caravanserais. The focus of the town was oriented towards the palace and the principal mosque. In the South India towns like Madurai and Kanchipuram, the principal focus was the temple. These towns were also important commercial centres. Religious festivals often overlapped with fairs, linking pilgrimage with trade. Generally, the ruler was the highest authority and the principal patron of religious institutions. The relationship that he had with other groups and classes determined their place in society and in the town. Medieval towns were places where everybody was expected to know their position in the social order dominated by the ruling elite. In North India, maintaining this order was the work of the imperial officer called the kotwal who oversaw the internal affairs and policing of the town. Write about the racial discrimination practiced by the British in Madras. How were the colonial cities different from their pre-colonial past? After the fortification, St George Fort became an important place for the European settlement. The Walls and bastions distinguished itself from other areas. Colour and religion determined who should live and who should not live in the Fort. British allowed other Europeans to settle in the Fort. The administrative and judicial system favoured only whites. Even though the Europeans were few in number, they were rulers and did everything for their own development. The Black Town developed outside the Fort. It was laid out in straight lines, which were characteristics of colonial towns. It was demolished in the mid19th centuryby the British for security reasons. Later a new Black Town developed in the north side of the Fort. In this Black Town stayed, Indian weaver, artisans, middlemen and interpreters who had commercial dealings with the East India Company. The Black Town in Madras resembled traditional Indian towns with living quarters built around its own temple and bazaar. The main feature of the Black town was the caste-based neighbourhoods. For example, Chintadripet was an area meant for weavers; Washermanpet was a colony of dyers and clothe washers and Royapuram area was meant for Christian boatmen who worked for the Company. Madras developed by incorporating numerous villages and by giving opportunities to many communities. Different communities came and settled in Madras. They performed a number of economic functions. For example, the dubashes, who spoke the local languages and English worked as agents and merchants and acted as intermediaries between Indian communities and the British. They acquired wealth using their influence with the British. They contributed for the charitable works such as temple construction in the Black Town. During the pre-colonial period, the towns were often defined as the opposition to rural areas. They came to represent specific forms of economic activities and cultures. In the

countryside people subsisted by cultivating land, foraging in the forest, or rearing the animals. Towns were peopled with artisans, traders, administrators and rulers. Towns dominated over the rural population, thriving on the surplus and taxes derived from agriculture. Towns and cities were often fortified by wall which symbolized their separation from the countryside. The separation between the towns and countryside was fluid. People used to travel long distance on pilgrimage, passing through town. Towns were also flocked during the times of famine, similarly when the towns were under attack people used to flee from towns to rural areas. Traders and pedlars took goods from the towns to sell in the villages to extend the market and to create a new pattern of consumption. The Mughal era towns were famous for their concentration of populations. They were also famous for the monumental buildings and their imperial grandeur and wealth. Agra, Delhi and Lahore were important centres of imperial administration and control. Residence in these centres of power was symbolic of the status and prestige of a noble as most of the nobles use to live in the towns and important cities. The treasury was also located in the imperial capital. Towns in the south India were famous for their temples. These towns were also important commercial centres. After the decline of Mughal Empire the regional power centres were developed in the Hyderabad, Pune, Baroda, Tanjore and Lucknow etc.