Climate Change

Climate change Climate change is change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather  of  weather patterns patterns when that change lasts for a n extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, tectonics , an  and dvolcanic eruptions. eruptions. Certain human activities have also been identified as significant causes of recent climate change, often referred to as "global warming" warming".[1] Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models. A climate record — extending deep into the Earth's past — has been assembled, and continues to be built up, based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles, cores removed from deep accumulations of ice,, floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial ice periglacialp processes, stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers, and records of past sea levels. More recent data are provided by the instrumental record. General circulation models, models, based on the thephysical sciences, sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make future projections, and link causes and effects in climate change. The most general definition of climate change is change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long periods of time, regardless of cause. cause. [2] Accordingly, fluctuations fluctuations over over periods shorter than than a few decades, such as El Niño, Niño, do not represent climate change. The term sometimes is used to refer specifically to climate change caused by human activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earth's natural processes .[3] In this sense, especially in the context of environmental of  environmental policy, policy, the term climate change has change has become synonymous with anthropogenic global warming. warming. Within scientific journals, global warming  refers  refers to surface temperature increases whileclimate while climate change includes change includes global warming and everything else that increasing greenhouse gas levels will affect. affect .[4]

 Aim  Ai ms an and d Ob Obje ject ctiv ive es  Aims and Objectives of the Project The aims and objectives of the Agrobiodiversity and Climate Change project are: 

To bring together information from rural communities, indigenous peoples and research workers on how they use agrobiodiversity to cope with climate change.

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To stimulate communication between agrobiodiversity researchers, users and maintainers.

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To identify tools and practices relevant to using agrobiodiversity for coping with climate change and making these widely available.

Ultimately, these will lead to the main goals of this project, which are: 

To provide a synthesis of available information, assess major knowledge gaps and i dentify research that will respond to the needs of farmers, communities and i ndigenous peoples, and

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To promote awareness of the vital role of agrobiodiversity in adapting to climate change among key audiences, including donors, development agents and the global biodiversity community.

The very most important thing about climate change However, since the 2009 Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, I have come to the conclusion that the very most important thing about climate change is neither what is likely nor what is unlikely to result from it. The very most important thing is this fact: that the problem of climate change can be solved without anyone making any sacrifice .[1] At Copenhagen, many nations came together and failed to reach an agreement. They were asked to make sacrifices, and they declined to do so. But no sacrifice is necessary. The nations might have been more amenable if they had understood that point. The fact no sacrifice is necessary is a consequence of elementary economics. Climate change is what economists call anexternality. Many of our activities cause greenhouse gases to be emitted. In deciding how many of these activities to engage in, people weigh the benefits they gain from them against the costs of engaging in them. But most of the costs of emitting greenhouse gases are not borne by the  people who emit them. Instead, they are distributed across the population of the world, through the damage the greenhouse gases do. When the costs of an activity are not fully borne by the person who decides to engage in it, that is an externality. Elementary economics tells us that externalities cause inefficiency. When an economist says that a situation is inefficient, she means it would be possible to make someone better off without making anyone else worse off. More precisely, there is some alternative state such that someone prefers the alternative to the existing state and no one prefers the existing state to the alternative. To adopt economists’ terminology, let us say this alternative is  Pareto superior   to the existing state. Moving to the Pareto superior state involves no sacrifice on anyone’s part. Because climate change is an externality, there is a Pareto superior state we could move to. It will involve emitting less greenhouse gas. Moreover, there is a Pareto superior state that is efficient , which means no other state is Pareto superior to it. If we get to a state like that, the inefficiency caused by the externality will have been eliminated, and no one will have made any sacrifices. The theory of externalities tells us that achieving a Pareto superior state will often require resources to  be transferred from some people to others. In the case of climate change, it is obvious in broad terms what sorts of transfer are required. We the current generation benefit from emitting greenhouse gases as we do at present. Suppose we change our policies and emit less of them. That by itself would make us worse off. But the theory tells us that resources could be transferred to us from the beneficiaries of our reduction in emissions, in such a way that no one ends up worse off. In the case of greenhouse gases, most of the beneficiaries are people who will live in the future. Therefore, resources will need to be transferred from future people to present people. That very most important thing about climate change is a matter of economics alone; it has little to do with moral philosophy. But now I come to the real question of this chapter. It arises because the science of climate change is so uncertain. We do not know how much the world will warm, and we do not know what effects the warming will have. Fortunately, we have a well-established account of how we should take uncertainty into account in our planning. It is called expected utility theory. Here is how expected utility theory works. Suppose you have several options to choose from. For instance, they might be alternative policies towards climate change. It is uncertain what outcome will

result from each option. Each may lead to various different possible outcomes, depending on how the uncertain world develops. Each possible outcome is good or bad to some degree. Each has a value, that is to say. We may also assign a value to each option  on the basis of the values of the various outcomes it may lead to. The value of an option is the weighted average of the values of its possible outcomes, where each outcome is weighted by its probability. This weighted average is called the expectation  of the value of the outcomes. That is not a strictly accurate description of expected utility theory. Strictly, the value assigned to an option is the expectation of something called the ‘utility’ of its possible outcomes, rather than the expectation of value. The utility of an outcome is not exactly its value, but its value adjusted in a way that is designed to take account of the badness of risk. The difference between value and utility is important, but for the purposes of this chapter it is safe to ignore it.

Causes On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the sun and the rate at which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium temperature and climate of Earth. This e nergy is distributed around the globe b y winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions. Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or "forcing mechanisms".[5] These include processes such as variations in solar radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, variations in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents and oceans, mountain-building and continental drift and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. There are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the climate system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings, while others respond more quickly. There are also key threshold factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change. Forcing mechanisms can be either "internal" or "external". Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the climate system itself (e.g., the thermohaline circulation). External forcing mechanisms can be either natural (e.g., changes in solar output) or anthropogenic (e.g., increased emissions of greenhouse gases). Whether the initial forcing mechanism is internal or external, the response of the climate system might be fast (e.g., a sudden cooling due to airborne volcanic ash reflecting sunlight), slow (e.g. thermal expansion of warming ocean water), or a combination (e.g., sudden loss of albedo in the arctic ocean as sea ice melts, followed by more gradual thermal expansion of the water). Therefore, the climate system can respond abruptly, but the full response to forcing mechanisms might not be fully developed for centuries o r even longer.

Internal forcing mechanisms Scientists generally define the five components of earth's climate system to include atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere (restricted to the surface soils, rocks, and sediments), and biosphere.[6] Natural changes in the climate system ("internal forcings") result in internal "climate variability".[7] Examples include the type and distribution of species, and changes in ocean currents. O c e a n v a r i ab i l i t y

The ocean is a fundamental part of the climate system, some changes in it occurring at longer timescales than in the atmosphere, massing hundreds of times more and having very high thermal inertia (such as the ocean depths still lagging today in temperature adjustment from the Little Ice Age).[clarification needed ][8] Short-term fluctuations (years to a few decades) such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, the North Atlantic oscillation, and the Arctic oscillation, represent climate variability rather than climate change. On longer time scales, alterations to ocean pr ocesses such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in

redistributing heat by carrying out a very slow and extremely deep movement of water and the long-term redistribution of heat in the world's oceans. Life

Life affects climate through its role in the carbon and water cycles and such mechanisms as albedo,evapotranspiration, cloud formation, and weathering.[9][10][11] Examples of how life may have affected past climate include: glaciation 2.3 billion years ago triggered by the evolution of oxygenicphotosynthesis,[12][13] glaciation 300 million years ago ushered in by long-term burial of decomposition-resistant detritus of vascular land plants (forming coal),[14][15] termination of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 55 million years ago b y flourishing marine phytoplankton,[16][17] reversal of global warming 49 million years ago by 800,000 years of arctic azolla blooms,[18][19] and global cooling over the past 40 million years driven by the expansion of grassgrazer ecosystems.[20][21]

External forcing mechanisms Plate tectonics

Main article: Plate tectonics Over the course of millions of years, the motion of tectonic plates reconfigures global land and ocean areas and generates topography. This can affect both global and local patterns of climate and atmosphere-ocean circulation.[52] The position of the continents determines the geometry o f the oceans and therefore influences patterns of ocean circulation. The locations of the seas are important in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the globe, and therefore, in determining global climate. A recent example of tectonic control on ocean circulation is the formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 5 million years ago, which shut off direct mixing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This strongly affected the ocean dynamics of what is now the Gulf Stream and may have led to Northern Hemisphere ice cover .[53][54] During the Carboniferous period, about 300 to 360 million years ago, plate tectonics may have triggered large-scale storage of carbon and increased glaciation.[55] Geologic evidence points to a "megamonsoonal" circulation pattern during the time of thesupercontinent Pangaea, and climate modeling suggests that the existence of the supercontinent was conducive to the establishment of monsoons . [56] The size of continents is also important. Because of the stabilizing effect of the oceans on temperature, yearly temperature variations are generally lower in coastal areas than they are inland. A larger supercontinent will therefore have more area in which climate is strongly seasonal than will several smaller continents or islands.

Physical evidence Evidence for climatic change is taken from a variety of sources that can be used to reconstruct past climates. Reasonably complete global records of surface temperature are available beginning from the mid-late 19th century. For earlier periods, most of the evidence is indirect —climatic changes are inferred from changes in proxies, indicators that reflect climate, such as vegetation, ice cores,[60]dendrochronology, sea level change, and glacial geology.

Temperature measurements and proxies The instrumental temperature record from surface stations was supplemented byradiosonde balloons, extensive atmospheric monitoring by the mid-20th century, and, from the 1970s on, with global satellite data as well. The 18O/16O ratio in calcite and ice core samples used to deduce ocean temperature in the distant past is an example of a temperature proxy method, as are other climate metrics noted in subsequent categories.

Historical and archaeological evidence Main article: Historical impacts of climate change Climate change in the recent past may be detected by corresponding changes in settlement and agricultural patterns.[61] Archaeologicalevidence, oral history and historical documents can offer insights into past changes in the climate. Climate change effects have been linked to the collapse of various civilizations. [61]

Glaciers Glaciers are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change . [62] Their size is determined by a mass balance between snow input and melt output. As temperatures warm, glaciers retreat unless snow precipitation increases to make up for the additional melt; the converse is also t rue. Glaciers grow and shrink due both to natural variability and external forcings. Variability in temperature, precipitation, and englacial and subglacial hydrology can strongly determine the evolution of a glacier in a particular season. Therefore, one must average over a decadal or longer time-scale and/or over a many individual glaciers to smooth out the local short-term variability and obtain a glacier history that is related to climate.  A world glacier inventory has been compiled since the 1970s, initially based mainly on aerial photographs and maps but now relying more on satellites. This compilation tracks more than 100,000 glaciers covering a total area of approximately 240,000 km2, and preliminary estimates indicate that the remaining ice cover i s around 4 45,000 km 2. The World Glacier Monitoring Service collects data annually on glacier retreat and glacier mass balance. From this data, glaciers worldwide have been found to be shrinking significantly, with strong glacier retreats in the 1940s, stable or growing conditions during the 1920s and 1970s, and again retreating from the mid-1980s to present.[63] The most significant climate processes since the middle to late Pliocene (approximately 3 million years ago) are the glacial and interglacial cycles. The present interglacial period (the Holocene) has lasted about 11,700 years.[64] Shaped by orbital variations, responses such as the rise and fall of continental ice sheets and significant sea-level changes helped create the climate. Other changes, including Heinrich events, Dansgaard –Oeschger events and the Younger Dryas, however, illustrate how glacial variations may also influence climate without the orbital forcing. Glaciers leave behind moraines that contain a wealth of material—including organic matter, quartz, and potassium that may be dated —recording the periods in which a glacier advanced and retreated. Similarly, by tephrochronological techniques, the lack of glacier cover can be identified by the presence of soil or volcanic tephra horizons whose date of deposit may also be ascertained.

Arctic sea ice loss The decline in Arctic sea ice, both in extent and thickness, over the last several decades is further evidence for rapid climate change.[65] Sea ice is frozen seawater that floats on the ocean surface. It covers millions of square miles in the polar regions, varying with the seasons. In the  Arctic, some sea ice remains year after year, whereas almost all Southern Ocean or Antarctic sea ice melts away and reforms annually. Satellite observations show that Arctic sea ice is now declining at a rate of 11.5 percent per decade, relative to the 1979 to 2000 average.[66]

Vegetation  A change in the type, distribution and coverage of vegetation may occur given a change in the climate. Some changes in climate may result in increased precipitation and warmth, resulting in improved plant growth and the subsequent sequestration of airborne CO 2. A gradual increase in warmth in a region will lead to earlier flowering and fruiting times, driving a change in the timing of life cycles of dependent organisms. Conversely, cold will cause plant

bio-cycles to lag.[67]Larger, faster or more radical changes, however, may result in vegetation stress, rapid plant loss and desertification in certain circumstances.[68][69] An example of this occurred during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse (CRC), an extinction event 300 million years ago. At this time vast rainforests covered the equatorial region of Europe and America. Climate change devastated these tropical rainforests, abruptly fragmenting the habitat into isolated 'islands' and causing the extinction of many plant and animal species.[68] Satellite data available in recent decades indicates that global terrestrial net pr imary production increased by 6% from 1982 to 1999, with the largest portion of that increase in tropical ecosystems, then decreased by 1% from 2000 to 2009.[70][71]

Conclusion

This final chapter has comprehensively reviewed the evidence for c ontemporary anthropogenic climate change. The changing composition of the atmosphere (involving both greenhouse gases and aerosols) was discussed and its potential influence on greenhouse forcing and climate change e xamined. Despite the lack of unequivocal attribution for the enhanced gree nhouse hypothesis, the evidence that mankind is changing the Earth's climate is beginning to mount. If climate model projections prove to be even moderately accurate, global temperatures by the end of the next century will be higher than at any time during the last 120,000 years (see chapter 5). With such unprecedented climate change, impacts to all part s of the climate system are likely to be substantial. Failure to introduce some form of g lobal greenhouse gas emission reduction strategy will merely extend the time frame of anthropogenic global warming that humanity may already be witnessing. Human-induced climate change has contributed to changing patterns of extreme weather across the globe, from longer and hotter heat waves to heavier rains. From a broad per spective, all weather events are now connected to climate change. While natural variability continues to play a key role in extreme weather, climate change has shifted the odds and changed the natural limits, making certain types of extreme weather more frequent and more intense. While our understanding of how climate change affects extreme weather is still developing, evidence suggests that extreme weather may be affected even more than anticipated. Extreme weather is on the rise, and the indications are that it will continue to increase, in both predictable and unpredictable ways.

Suggestions EASY THINGS YOU CAN DO TO HELP OUR CLIMATE: 1.

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TIP: Travel light. Walk or bike instead of driving a car. Cars and trucks run on fossil fuels, which release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In the United States, automobiles produce over 20 percent of total carbon emissions. Walk or bike and you'll save one pound of carbon for every mile you travel. TIP: Teleconference instead of flying. For office meetings, if you can t elephone or videoconference, you will save ti me, money, and carbon emissions. Airplanes pump carbon emissions high into the atmosphere, producing 12 percent of transportation sector emissions. TIP: See the light. Use compact fluorescent light bulbs. These energy-efficient bulbs help fight climate change because they reduce the amount of fossil fuels that utilities burn. You will

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save 100 pounds of carbon for each incandescent bulb that you replace with a compact fluorescent, over the life of the bulb. TIP: Recycle and use recycled products. Products made from recycled paper, glass, metal and plastic reduce carbon emissions because they use less energy to manufacture than products made from completely new materials. For instance, you?ll save two pounds of carbon for every 20 glass bottles that you recycle. Recycling paper also saves trees and lets them continue to reduce climate change naturally as they remain in the forest, where they remove carbon from the atmosphere. TIP: Inflate your tires. If you own a car, it will get better gas mileage when the tires are fully inflated, so it will burn less gas and emit less carbon. Check your automobile monthly to ensure that the tires are fully inflated. Follow this tip and save 300 pounds of carbon dioxide for every 10,000 miles you drive. TIP: Plant native trees. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the air and use it as their energy source, producing oxygen for us to breathe. A tree in the temperate zone found between the tropics and the polar circles can remove and store 700 to 7,000 pounds of carbon over its lifetime. A tree that shades a house can reduce the ene rgy required to run the air conditioner and save an additional 200 to 2,000 pounds of carbon over its lifetime. TIP: Turn down the heat. Heating and air conditioning draw more than half of the energy that a home uses in the United States. Turn down the heat or air conditioning when you leave the house or go to bed. You can easily install a programmable thermostat that can save up money and carbon. TIP: Buy renewable energy. Electricity generation produces 40 percent of carbon emissions from the United States. A growing number of utilities generate electricity from renewable energy sources with solar panels, windmills and other technologies. If your utility offers renewable energy, buy it. If not, send them a message asking for clean energy. TIP: Act globally, eat locally. If you shop at a supermarket, the food you buy may travel in a plane from the other side of the world, burning fossil fuels the entire trip. Shop at a local farmers markets and you will find fresh and healthy food, and help save our climate.

References 

IPCC AR4 WG1 (2007). Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, Z.; Marquis, M.; Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M.; and Miller, H.L., ed. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis . Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1 (pb: 978-0-521-70596-7).

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IPCC AR4 SYR (2007). Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R.K; and Reisinger, A., ed. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report . Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth  Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC. ISBN 92-9169122-4.

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IPCC TAR WG1 (2001). Houghton, J.T.; Ding, Y.; Griggs, D.J.; Noguer, M.; van der Linden, P.J.; Dai, X.; Maskell, K.; and Johnson, C.A., ed .Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80767-0 (pb: 0-521-01495-6).