CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS Ben G. Bareja

CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS Ben G. Bareja

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title

Page

INTRODUCTION

2

I. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS

3

II. DESCRIPTIVE CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS A. Crop Classifications According to Mode of Reproduction

5

B. Crop Classifications According to Mode of Pollination

5

C. Crop Classifications According to Life Span

5

D. Crop Classifications According to Growth Habit

6

E. Crop Classifications According to Leaf Retention

6

F. Crop Classifications According to Ecological Adaptation or Habitat

6

III. AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS A. Crop vs. Weed

8

B. Agronomic vs. Horticultural Crops

8

C. Agricultural Classifications Based on Primary Uses

10

D. Special Purpose Classifications of Crops

20

REFERENCES

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

23

1

INTRODUCTION

Plants can be classified according to the following criteria: (1) botanical, (2) descriptive, and (3) agricultural. Botanical classification is based on the morphological characteristics of plants as well as on their anatomy, physiology and DNA sequences. Descriptive classification is based on the environmental adaptation, growth habit and other observable features. In agriculture, plants can be broadly classified as either useful or unuseful. Those which are useful are called crops while those which are not useful are called weeds. A common, well-defined system of crop classification is important in crop science and agriculture. Grouping of plants following established systems will simplify plant collection initiatives, research, breeding and specialized development efforts. Having standardized botanical names will also facilitate efficient communication, dissemination and retrieval of scientific information. Additionally, the grouping of crops will indicate that these crops may have similar uses, adaptation, growth habits and methods of culture. Classifying crops by family is likewise important in intergeneric grafting as practiced with eggplant and tomato of the family Solanaceae, and bottle gourd and other cucurbits with watermelon and melon (Leonardi and Romano, 2004). In disease control and prevention, such classification is important due to commonality of some diseases as in potato and tomato. Both are affected by the fungal disease called late blight (Miles, undated). To students of crop science, a list of crops under the various agricultural classifications will be a useful reference in crop names and identification and as a review guide. To the farm manager himself, the same list will offer innumerable benefits in finding alternative crops for specific uses. Despite these advantages, however, classifications of crops in agriculture vary from place to place and from one country to another due to differences in the primary usage of certain crops, intensity of care, extent of cultivation and other criteria under consideration. The confusion due to the absence of a universal standard should be a major concern for those who are engaged in the dissemination of the basics of crop production. It is not uncommon to find crops having two or more classifications, used simultaneously, alternatively or sequentially. Peanut (groundnut) is a legume seed crop, being grown for the harvesting of mature seeds. Such classification especially applies from the point of view of the farmer. At the same time, it can be classified as an oil seed crop or industrial crop if the seeds are intended to be processed primarily into vegetable oil. Thirdly, it can fall under plantation crop if its cultivation is so extensive as to cover a large area and the operation is handled under intensive care for the foreign market. According to Lantican (2001), sweet potato and white potato are considered horticultural crops in the Philippines because these crops are grown under intensive care, but they are classified as agronomic crops in countries where their production is highly mechanized and under extensive or in large scale culture. For comparison and further clarification, major crop classifications as defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations are herein provided verbatim. In its report entitled “Crops Statistics - Concepts, Definitions and Classifications”, FAO (2010) Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

2

expressed its difficulty in the collection and presentation of statistical data due to differences in the “concepts, definitions, coverage and classifications” of crops which are grown in different countries. “These differences need to be settled to achieve the maximum possible degree of international comparability,” it added.

I. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS

The rules on the botanical classification of crop plants are laid down under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) and the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). However, like other international codes of nomenclature, the ICBN has no legal status and is dependent on the voluntary acceptance of its rules by authors, editors, and other users of plant names (Mcneill, et al., 2007). The ICBN was first formulated in 1935 by authorities in taxonomy but only after many years of debate to reconcile divergent rules, starting in 1867 in a congress that was held in Paris. In 1905, botanists in Europe convened in Vienna to create a code of botanical nomenclature. During this meeting it was decided that Carl Linnaeus' Species Plantarum, which was published in 1753, would serve as the starting point for priority of botanical names. In 1907, American botanists created a code of their own where they introduced type specimens and allowed tautonyms (identical genus and species names), now only allowed in zoology. Finally, the European and American codes were merged into one international code of botanical nomenclature in 1935 (Manktelow, undated). The ICBN is revised every 6 years, the last being called the Vienna Code. It was adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress in Vienna, Austria in July 2005, 100 years after the congress in the same place in 1905. The next congress will be in Melbourne, Australia, July 23-30, 2011. Salient provisions of the Code (Mcneill, et al., 2007) are summarized as follows: Art. 3.1- The principal ranks of taxa in descending sequence are: 1. kingdom (regnum) 2. division or phylum (division, phylum) 3. class (classis) 4. order (ordo) 5. family (familia) 6. genus (genus) 7. species (species) Art. 4.1 and 4.2- The secondary ranks in descending sequence are: tribe (tribus) between family and genus, section (section) and series (series) between genus and species, Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

3

and variety (varietas) and form (forma) below species. If a greater number of ranks of taxa is desired, the terms for these are made by adding the prefix ”sub-“ to the terms denoting the principal or secondary ranks. Art. 18.5 and 18.6- The following family names of long usage, although not consistent with the rule on “-aceae” termination, remains valid with the new ones (in parentheses) to be used as alternative names: 1. Compositae (Asteraceae; type, Aster L.) 2. Cruciferae (Brassicaceae; type, Brassica L.) 3. Gramineae (Poaceae; type, Poa L.) 4. Guttiferae (Clusiaceae; type Clusia L.) 5. Labiatae (Lamiaceae; type, Lamium L.) 6. Leguminosae (Fabaceae; type, Faba Mill. [=Vicia L.]) 7. Palmae (Arecaceae; type, Areca L.) 8. Umbelliferae (Apiaceae; type, Apium L.) Following hierarchical ranking, a synopsis of the plant categories (taxa), which serve as criteria of botanical classifications, is presented in tabular form. Each taxon is subdivided by the one below it. Taxon

Abbreviation

Ending (suffix)

Kingdom Subkingdom Division Subdivision Class Subclass Order Suborder Family

cl. subcl. ord. subord. fam.

Subfamily Tribe Subtribe Genus (pl. genera) Section Series Species Subspecies Variety Form

subfam. -oideae tr. -eae subtr. -inae, but not -virinae gen. any but not -virus sect. ser. sp. (singular), spp. (plural) subsp. var. f.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

-phyta -phytina -opsida -idae, but not -viridae -ales, but not -virales -ineae -acea

4

II. DESCRIPTIVE CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS

A. Crop Classifications According to Mode of Reproduction 1. Sexual- plants that develop from a seed or spore after undergoing union of male and female gametes. Examples: palms and ferns. 2. Asexual- plants which reproduce by any vegetative means without the union of the sexual gametes or by apomixis. Examples: red mombin (sineguelas), breadfruit, mangosteen.

B. Crop Classifications According to Mode of Pollination 1. Naturally self-pollinated crops- the predominant mode of pollination in these plants is self-pollination in which both pollen and embryo sac are produced in the same floral structure or in different flowers but within the same plant. Examples: rice, most pulses, okra, tobacco, tomato. 2. Naturally cross-pollinated crops- pollen transfer in these plants is from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower in a separate plant, although self-pollination may reach 5 percent or more. Examples: corn and many grasses, avocado, grape, mango, many plants with unisexual or imperfect flowers. 3. Both self- and cross-pollinated crops- these plants are largely self-pollinated but varying amounts of cross-pollination occur. Examples: cotton and sorghum.

C. Crop Classifications According to Life Span 1. Annual- a plant which live within a short period of time, for a few weeks or months, perpetuated by seed, and which die soon after producing seeds; a plant which germinate, grow, flower, produce seed, and die all in one season. Examples: rice, corn, cowpea, mungbean, squash. 2. Biennial- a plant which requires two growing seasons to complete its life cycle, the first for vegetative growth and accumulation of food reserves, and the second for the production of reproductive parts. It grows from a seed, produces flower and seed and then dies in two growing seasons. Examples: bulb onion, cabbage, carrot, celery, raddish. 3. Perennial- a plant that lives indefinitely, including all trees and shrubs and many herbaceous plants with underground stems (e.g. corm, rhizome, tuber) like banana and clumpforming grasses. Perennial plants continue growing and produce seeds year after year, either from a single plant or, in herbaceous plants, from succeeding regrowth.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

5

D. Crop Classifications According To Growth Habit 1. Herbs- succulent plants with self-supporting stems. Examples: aglaonema, banana, dumbcane, sugarcane, tomato. 2. Vines- herbaceous climbing or twining plants without self-supporting stems. Examples: charantia (ampalaya), cucumber, luffa (patola), pole sitao, yam. 3. Lianas- woody climbing or twining plants which depend on other plants for vertical support to climb up to the top of the canopy. These climbers often form bridges between the forest canopy (Wikipedia, 2010). Examples: Climbing bamboo, grape, Jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys), rattans, passion fruit. 4. Shrubs- small trees or tree-like plants, generally less than 5 meters in height but by other authorities it is restricted to small, erect, woody plants which produce several trunks from the base. Examples: Barbados cherry, pink jasmine (kamuning), Siam weed (hagonoy), santan, Lantana. 5. Trees- plants having erect and continuous growth with a large development of woody tissue, with a single distinct stem or trunk, reaching a height of 5 meters or more. Examples: durian, mango, molave (Vitex parviflora), narra (Pterocarpus indicus), tamarind.

E. Crop Classifications According to Leaf Retention 1. Evergreen- plants that maintain their leaves throughout the year. Abscissed leaves are continually replaced by new flushes. Examples: pines, banana, papaya, palms and most tropical plants. 2. Deciduous- plants which naturally shed off or lose leaves annually for extended periods. Natural leaf shedding is pronounced in deciduous trees of temperate regions. In the Philippines, defoliation occurs during summer months in Fire Tree (Delonix regia) and red mombin or siniguelas. Many other plants exhibit partial defoliation during drought periods.

F. Crop Classifications According to Ecological Adaptation or Habitat 1. Aquatic, hydrophyte or hydrophytic plant - a plant adapted to growing in water or waterlogged soil. It may grow entirely submerged, partly submerged or floating, or anchored to the ground in bogs, swamps, or beside the edges of ponds, lakes or streams. Examples: azolla, kangkong (Ipomea aquatica), bulrush (Cyperus spp.), lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), water lily (Nymphaea spp.), mangrove species. 2. Epiphyte or epiphytic plant- a plant that grows aboveground on another plant but is not parasitic, usually deriving only physical support from the host and obtaining nourishment from the air and other sources. Some have roots that take moisture and minerals leached from Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

6

the canopy of trees and others catch rain and debris in special hollow leaves. The most common epiphytes belong to the pineapple (bromyliad), orchid, and fern families; also called air plant or tree dweller. Where a plant, e.g. strangler fig (balete), initially grows as an epiphyte but later becomes rooted to the soil, it is especially called a hemiepiphyte. 3. Halophyte or halophytic plant- a plant that is able to grow in habitats excessively rich in salts or under saline conditions. Examples: nipa, talisay, bakawan (Rhizophora mucronata) and other mangrove species. Coconut, cashew and tamarind have varying levels of tolerance to saline conditions. 4. Lithophyte or lithophytic plant- a plant adapted to growing on rocks or in rocky terrain with little humus, absorbing nutrients from the atmosphere, rain, and decaying matter which accumulate on the rocks. Vanda, Ascocenda, Ascocentrum, and Trudelia orchids can be grown as lithophytes (McKinley, 2005). Dendrobium has also been grown in pots filled with gravel or stone. 5. Mesophyte or mesophitic plant-a terrestrial plant which is adapted to moderate conditions for growth, i.e. not too dry and not too wet (e.g. corn and most commercially-grown crops). 6. Parasite or parasitic plant- a plant which grows on another plant from which it takes part or all nourishment (e.g. Cassytha, Loranthaceae (mistletoe family), Rafflesia; Neottia and Corallorhiza orchids). 7. Saprophyte or saprophytic crop- grows on decaying organic matter and has no green tissue. This classification applies to the mushrooms, which are fungi. 8. Sciophyte or sciophytic plant- a plant that is adapted to low light intensity or shade, e.g. most ferns and mosses, black pepper, cacao, coffee, lanzones, mangosteen, hot pepper, gingers, and many orchids can tolerate or require shade. 9. Terrestrial or land plant- a plant which grows on land, rooting in the soil. It has aerial parts, collectively called shoot, and an underground part called root which absorbs most of its water and nutrient needs from the soil. Most agricultural crops are terrestrial and are further subclassified into various groups such as halophytes, mesophytes, sciophytes and xerophytes depending on climatic and special adaptations. 10. Xerophyte, xerophytic or xeric plant- a plant which is adapted to conditions with little or no water. Examples: adelfa, bromyliads, euphorbias, cacti and many succulents. Note: According to Went and The Editors of Life (1963), pygmy cedar (Peucepyllum) can live without soil water. It obtains its water need from the water vapor in the air alone, replenishing its supply during the night. They also noted that the caper plant (Capparis spinosa) of the Sahara seems to have the same ability. However, it is now known that caper has one of the deepest root systems among plants (Ozkahraman (1997), cited by Sakcali, et al., 2008). Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

7

Uncultivated caper plants are more often seen hanging, draped over soil and rocks but their vegetative canopy covers soil surfaces which helps to conserve soil water reserves (D’Urzo, et al., 1998).

III. AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

A. Crop vs. Weed 1. Crop. In agriculture, plants are classified as either crop or weed. A crop is any useful plant, or a plant which is grown for any purpose. It is utilized by man directly or indirectly, raw or processed. Direct utilization is exemplified by the use of cereal grains as staple while they are indirectly consumed by man when they are first fed to livestock for meat, or processed into sugar for human consumption . These plants are intentionally grown or managed for various uses such as for food, spices, sugar, drinks, fiber, clothing, beverages, medicines, oils, tannins, rubber, ornamentation, fuels, construction materials, soil improvement, organic farming, landscaping and many more. 2. Weed. Unlike crop, a weed is an unintended plant or any plant which grows where it is not wanted. It competes with the intended crop for space, soil water, nutrients and light or becomes a nuisance in any manner. Many have allelopathic effect on other plants, both crop and weed, by releasing harmful allelochemicals which are considered plant-produced herbicides. Such plants include Lantana and neem tree (Ferguson and Rathinasabapathi, 2003), hagonoy (Chromolaena odorata) (PCA, 2003) and yellow nutsedge (Culquhoun, 2006). Any plant can be a weed, depending on where it grows and how man is affected. Corn is a crop and commercially grown worldwide. But it may become a weed if it grows in a garden plot which is intended for the growing of leafy vegetables or any crop. A tree may also become a weed if it becomes invasive, prevents light penetration, and suppresses the growth of certain crops including pasture grasses.

B. Agronomic vs. Horticultural Crops On the basis of tradition, extent of cultivation and intensity of culture, agricultural crops are classified into two main divisions: agronomic and horticultural. 1. Agronomic crops are also called “field crops”. They are mostly annual herbaceous plants that are grown under extensive or large-scale culture. The usable products are usually in high dry matter form. By tradition, cereals, seed legumes, root and tuber crops, sugar crops, latex and rubber crops, pasture and forage crops, and fiber crops are classified under agronomic crops. Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

8

2. Horticultural crops have been referred to as “garden crops”. Included in this classification are those grown under any of the fields of horticulture such as olericulture or vegetable crops production, pomology or fruit crops production, and ornamental horticulture (floriculture and landscape horticulture), as well as spices and medicinal plants. Horticultural crops are annual and perennial plants which are grown under an intensive system of culture. Horticultural products are generally utilized with high moisture content and are therefore highly perishable. From Janick (1972), these crops can be defined as “intensively cultured plants directly used by man for food, for medicinal purposes, or for esthetic gratification”. Intensive culture means a large input of capital, labor and technology per unit area of land. However, there is no exact demarcation between agronomic and horticultural crops. No definite distinctions can be made of the different crops based on the area of cultivation and intensity of culture. The extent of cultivation varies from place to place and depends on such factors as the level of mechanization, adoption of technological advances, farm size, market stability and availability of capital. Changing market demands and prices may also cause shifts in the preferences of farmers and in the intensity of care to be adopted. Both agronomic and horticultural crops are further subclassified into specific groups according to the primary purpose of growing them or their intended major uses. Based on this criterion, a crop species may have different classifications. For example, corn (maize) is an agronomic crop if it is grown for its edible seeds which are harvested mature, or grown for silage; but it is horticultural if utilized primarily as vegetable as in the case of young corn and sweet corn. Another example is pineapple. Pineapple is generally classified as horticultural being commercially grown as a fruit crop but it becomes agronomic when the primary purpose of growing it is for the extraction of fiber which is used in making piña cloth. Papaya is a fruit crop but it can also be grown for vegetable or as a source of the industrial product papain. The basis of classification, therefore, should be “primary usage,” disregarding the other minor uses. A summary of the distinctions between agronomic and horticultural crops is further given in the following table from Janick (2005) for breeding purposes: Characteristic Ultimate consumers Appearance Taste Final product Market type Calories Vitamins and minerals Price per unit Total value per crop Variability of cvs Breeding objectives

Horticultural crops Human Important Critical/subjective Often consumed fresh in living state Choice (non-commodity) Low density High High Relatively low High Quality, appearance

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

Agronomic crops Typically animals Non-critical Non-critical Consumed processed or dried Commodity High density Low Low High Low High yield, yield stability

9

C. Agricultural Classifications Based on Primary Uses

1. Food Crops – plants grown primarily for the harvesting of any part which is used by man as food or processed into food product. This classification is a collective term for crops which are variously subclassified into smaller groups such as cereals, root and tuber crops, legume seed crops, sugar crops, beverage crops, fruit crops and vegetables.

2. Non-food Crops- plants grown for the production of non-food products such as fiber, fodder, alcohol, tobacco, industrial oil, rubber, gums and resins, drugs, etc. or for ornamentation. Included in this classification are fiber crops, pasture and forage crops, rubber crops, latex and gum crops, dye and tannin crops, biofuel crops, essential-oil crops, biocidal crops and most industrial crops.

3. Staple Crops- plants grown for the harvesting of parts which are used as staple food. A staple food is one that is regularly consumed in such quantities as to form the basis of a traditional diet and from which people obtain a major proportion of their energy and nutrient requirements. In the Philippines, the top staple crop is rice followed by corn. Cassava is also consumed as staple by some ethnic groups. Examples of other staple crops: wheat, banana and plantains, breadfruit, millet, white potato, sweet potato, yam.

4. Cereal or Grain Crops - annual, herbaceous plants belonging to the grass family Gramineae (Poaceae) and some graminoids which are grown for their seeds or grains. The grains are harvested mature and utilized primarily as staple or feed or processed into carbohydrate-rich products. The word “cereal” is derived from Ceres, the ancient Roman goddess of harvest. The grain of cereals is technically a type of single, dry, indehiscent fruit called caryopsis, which has a hard outer pericarp fused to the seed coat. The endosperm predominantly consists of starch. Examples: corn, millet, rice, sorghum, wheat. FAO (2010) definition: Cereals are annual plants, generally of the gramineous family, yielding grains used for food, feed, seed and industrial purposes, e.g., ethanol. They exclude legumes, such as pulses, but include rice, canary seed, buckwheat and triticale. It has been recommended that the denomination of "cereal crops" be limited to crops harvested for dry grain only, excluding, therefore, crops harvested green for forage, silage, grazing, etc.; and, in the case of maize, harvested green, also for food. Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

10

Note: According to researchers writing in the journal Science, perennial grain crops, which grow with less fertilizer, herbicide, fuel, and erosion than grains planted annually, could be available in two decades. The paper is a call to action as half the world's growing population lives off marginal land at risk of being degraded by annual grain production. The authors say research into perennial grains can be accelerated by putting more personnel, land and technology into breeding programs. Perennial grain research is underway in Argentina, Australia, China, India, Sweden and the United States (Washington State University, 2010).

5. Legume Seed Crops or Pulses- leguminous plants which produce edible, proteinrich seeds. The seeds are utilized in the mature, dry form as food or feed or processed into various products. However, protein quality is inferior compared to meat because methionine content is generally insufficient. Being leguminous, they are capable of fixing nitrogen from the air through symbiotic relation with Rhizobium bacteria. Examples: cowpea, mungbean, peanut, peas, pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). FAO (2010) definition: Pulses are annual leguminous crops yielding grains or seeds used for food, feed and sowing purposes. The denomination "pulses" should be limited to crops harvested for dry grain only, excluding, therefore, crops harvested green for forage, used for grazing or as green manure, and also crops harvested green for food (green beans, green peas, etc.), which are considered vegetables. They exclude those used mainly for extraction of oil, e.g., soybeans. Also excluded from this group should be those leguminous crops whose seeds are used exclusively for sowing purposes, such as alfalfa and clover.

6. Root and Tuber Crops or Tuberous Crops- plants with modified, swollen root or underground stem. These organs are rich sources of carbohydrate and are commonly used as staple, livestock feed, or as raw materials for industrial purposes, such as starch and alcohol production, or processed into various food products. Crops with modified roots are distinct from those having modified stems. Examples of modified roots are the tuberous and fleshy roots while the tuber and corm are examples of modified stems. A tuberous root is a thickened secondary root as in arrowroot, cassava, sweet potato and yam bean. A fleshy root is usually an enlarged primary root, as in carrot, ginseng (Panax spp.) and sugar beet. The upper portion on which secondary roots develop is hypocotyl or the first internode of the stem. In raddish, the fleshy root consist mainly of the hypocotyl. A tuber is an enlarged tip of an underground stem with leaves reduced to scales or scars subtending the auxillary buds, as in white potato and yam. The “eyes” represent buds in nodes, arranged in spiral pattern from base to the apical end of the tuber. Aerial tubers are called tubercle. A corm, as in gabi, elephant’s ear and tannia, is a short, solid, underground stem. The corms are usually flattened from top to bottom with numerous roots at the lower part, and a tuft of leaves on the upper. Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

11

These crops are capable of producing high yields. However, they generally contain low amount of protein, minerals and vitamins than cereal crops. FAO (2010) definition: Roots and tubers grow generally as annual crops and yield roots, tubers, rhizomes, corms and stems which are used largely for human food, either as such or in processed form, but also for animal feed. In certain countries, they are used to manufacture starch and alcohol.

7. Oil Seed Crops- plants grown for their seeds which are rich source of edible and industrial oil. The important oil seed crops in the world include soybeans, peanut, sunflower, oil palm, sesame and cotton. However, the leading crop in the Philippines is the coconut, followed far behind by oil palm. FAO (2010) definition: Temporary oil-bearing crops are usually called oilseeds. These are annual plants whose seeds are used mainly for extraction of culinary and industrial oils, excluding essential oils. As in the case of cereals and pulses, the denomination of "oilseed" should be limited to crops harvested for the dry seed only, excluding crops harvested green and used for food or feed, or used for grazing and green manure. The oil content of oilseeds varies widely from one to the other. It can be as low as 17 percent (soybeans) and as high as 50 percent (sesame seed). Both cotton seed and cotton lint (but not seed cotton) are considered by FAO to be primary crops and are classified in the oil crops and fibre crops groups. This is because seed cotton is a mixture of both food (seed) and non-food (fibre). Permanent oil-bearing crops are perennial plants whose seeds (kapok), fruits or mesocarp (olives) and nuts (coconuts) are used mainly for extraction of culinary or industrial oils and fats. Consequently, dessert or table nuts, such as walnuts, are excluded because although they are high in oil content, they are not used mainly for extraction of oil.

8. Sugar and Sweetener Crops - plants grown primarily for the production of sugar or other sweet-tasting products. Sugars, such as sucrose, glucose and fructose, are simple carbohydrates. Sucrose is the common table sugar. Glucose is also called dextrose and grape sugar while fructose is called levulose and fruit sugar. Other organic compounds with sweet taste are the mannitol (a colorless crystalline alcohol), stevioside (a complex mixture of diterpene glycosides) and monellin (a protein). These are derived from various parts of certain plants such as from stems, bulb and other underground organs, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, sap and resin (Hagelberg, 2003). Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

12

Examples: sugarcane, sugar beet (a temperate crop), sweet sorghum, Stevia, corn, sweet potato, cassava, rice, many palms. FAO (2010) definition: Sugar crops are those crops cultivated primarily for the manufacture of sugar, secondarily for the production of alcohol (food and non-food) and ethanol. There are two main sugar crops: sugar beets and sugar cane. Sugar cane is a perennial grass (replanted at certain intervals using pieces of the cane stalks); sugar beets is an annual crop, propagated by the seed of the flowers. In certain countries, sugar cane is eaten raw in significant quantities. Both sugar cane and sugar beets are used for feed. Sugar and syrups are also produced in North America from the sap of certain species of Maple trees, and, in a few countries, from maize and sorghum which are primarily cereal crops, except sweet sorghum when it is cultivated explicitly for making syrup.

9. Beverage Crops- plants which are sources of various drinks including fruit juices, tea, coffee, cocoa, toddy, beer and wine. They supply water which is essential to human nutrition. Some of these drinks also provide vitamins and minerals. Others have stimulating or relaxing effects. Examples: cacao, coconut, coffee, soursop, tea.

10. Rubber Crops- plants grown for the production of latex which is processed into the industrial product called rubber. Rubber is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer constructed of isoprene units. It has widespread uses, from household to industrial products, with the main bulk in the transportation sector. Examples: para rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), Castilla rubber (Castilla elastica), Ceara rubber (Manihot glaziovii), guayule (Parthenium argentatum), Lagos Silk Rubber (Funtumia elastica).

11. Latex and Gum Crops- plants grown for the collection of latex which is processed into chewing gum, inelastic rubber and other industrial products such as surgical tapes and dental supplies, insulation, splints, pipes, golf balls, waterproofing, adhesives, etc. Examples: chicle tree or chico (Manilkara zapota), gutta-percha (Palaquium spp.), balata (Manilkara bidentata), jelutong (Dyera costulata).

` 12. Dye and Tannin Crops- plants grown as sources of tannin and coloring substances. Tannin is an aromatic, phenolic substance which is obtained from barks and other plant organs and variously used in tanning, medicines, dyeing, ink manufacture, etc.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

13

Examples: anatto or achuete, Indian almond or talisay, indigo (Indigofera tinctoria), bakawan (Rhizophora and Bruguiera).

13. Fiber Crops- plants grown as sources of fiber, a strong, thread-like material used in making textiles, rope, twine and similar materials. The fiber is extracted from the bark, leaves, or other organs including the husk of coconut. Examples: abaca, jute, kenaf, maguey and ramie. FAO (2010) definition: Fibre crops are annual crops yielding vegetable fibres, mostly soft fibres, which are utilized by the textile industry to produce first thread and yarn, and, from these, innumerable fabrics or manufactures. The primary fibre crops are cotton, jute and flax.

14. Pasture and Forage Crops – plants grown or managed as vegetable feed for grazing animals. They are classified as either native or improved species, grasses or legumes, and may be fed fresh or dry or in processed form. Examples: carabao grass, paragrass, napier, ipil-ipil, renzoni. Soilage Crops- grasses grown, cut and directly fed to animals. Silage Crops- grasses grown, cut, fermented and preserved before being fed to animals. FAO (2010) definition: Fodder crops are those cultivated explicitly or primarily for feeding animals. By extension, natural grasslands and pastures, whether somewhat cultivated or not, also are included in this category. Fodder crops may be classified as temporary or as permanent crops; the former are cultivated and harvested like any other crop, the latter relate to land used permanently (five years or more) for herbaceous forage crops, either cultivated or growing wild (wild prairie or grazing land). They may include some areas of forest lands that are used for grazing. Temporary crops grow in artificial meadows which are normally used very intensively, with various cuttings per year. They contain three major groups of fodder: grasses, including cereals harvested green; legumes, including pulses harvested green; and root crops that are cultivated for fodder. All can be fed to animals as green feed; as hay, i.e. crops harvested dry or left to dry if harvested green; or as silage products. Silage or ensilage is a method of preservation of green fodder through fermentation to retard spoiling.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

14

15. Biofuel Crops- plants grown for the production of fuel that is used as additive or replacement for petroleum products. The main biofuels are bioethanol, an alcohol derived from fermented sugar or starch, and biodiesel from vegetable oils. Examples: sugarcane, cassava, corn, coconut, castor bean, Jatropha. Note: Researchers at the North Carolina State University have developed a more efficient technique for producing ethanol, butanol or other biofuels from woody plant parts such as the inedible corn stalks and switchgrass. The technique degrades the plant’s lignin and frees the carbohydrates. The carbohydrate thus becomes available for biofuel production (North Carolina State University, 2010).

16. Olericultural or Vegetable Crops – plants (except mushroom) grown for their succulent and edible parts such as the roots, stems, leaves, young tops, fruits or seeds for use in culinary preparations either fresh or preserved in the fresh state. They are nearly all rich in vitamins A and C with high amounts of dietary fiber. These crops are further classified into different groupings according to similarities in edible parts, growth habits, methods of culture and botanical family. Melons are generally included in this crop classification. FAO (2010) definition: Vegetables are plants cultivated both as field crops and garden crops, both in the open and under glass. Certain gramineous and leguminous plants which, if harvested for the dry grain, are classified among cereals and pulses, belong to this group as far as they are harvested green for the green grains and/or for the green pods (e.g., green maize, green peas, green beans, string beans, etc.). Moreover, only those vegetables which are cultivated principally for human consumption belong to this group. Consequently, vegetables grown principally for animal feed should be excluded, as should vegetables cultivated for seed. This group includes also melons and watermelons which some countries classify as fruit crops. As with all other vegetables, melons and watermelons are temporary crops, while fruit crops are permanent crops.

Vegetable Classifications Based on Edible Part: a. Leafy Vegetables- these crops are grown mainly for their leaves. They are rich in vitamins and minerals and they also look decorative. Examples: Malabar nightshade (alugbate), amaranth (kulitis), lettuce, jute (saluyot), (horse raddish tree) malunggay. b. Shoot Vegetables- plants grown primarily for their edible shoot, mainly the young, succulent stem. Examples: asparagus, bamboo, celery. Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

15

c. Pod and Seed Vegetables- Generally members of Leguminosae or Fabaceae family, these plants are grown for their young pods and seeds. Examples: snap bean, pole sitao, winged bean, okra, sweet corn. d. Root and Bulb Vegetables- plants grown for their swollen underground roots and stems. Examples: carrot, potato, onion, raddish, tannia e. Flower Vegetables- plants with edible flowers. Examples: horse raddish tree (malunggay), katuray (Sesbania grandiflora), squash, rose, sunflower f. Fruit Vegetables- grown for their fleshy, succulent fruits. Examples: ampalaya, eggplant, tomato, peppers, melons.

Vegetable Classifications by Family: a. Cole Crops or Crucifers- these vegetable crops belong to the Cruciferae or Brassicaceae (Mustard) family, with edible leaves or heads. Examples: cabbage, cauliflower, mustard, pechay, Chinese cabbage, raddish. b. Cucurbits- belong to the Cucurbitaceae (Gourd and Squash) family. They are grown mainly for their fruits but some have edible young shoots and flowers; also called Vine Crops. Examples: bottle gourd, charantia, cucumber, luffa, melons, squash. c. Legume Vegetables- members of the Leguminosae or Fabaceae (Bean) family. The seeds are rich in protein. Examples: bush sitao, katuray, kidney bean, lima bean, pea, pole sitao. d. Lilies- members of the Liliaceae (Lily) family. Examples: asparagus, garlic, onion. e. Solanaceous Crops- belong to the Solanaceae (Nightshade or Eggplant) family and, with the exception of white potato, are also called Fruit Vegetables. Examples: eggplant, tomato, peppers, white potato. f. Mushrooms- these are edible fungi belonging to the division Basidiomycota (club fungi). The edible part commonly consist of an upright stalk and an umbrellashaped cap. Examples: straw mushroom, Shiitake mushroom, puffball, termite mushroom, “kabuting-higante”.

17. Pomological or Fruit Crops and Nuts– plants grown primarily for their edible fruits or closely related structures which, as a rule, are consumed raw. Fruits borne on trees are called tree fruits, among which are the duhat, durian, jackfruit, mango, mangosteen and papaya. Fruits borne on low-growing plants such as shrubs, vines, lianas and some herbs are called small fruits (e.g. grape, passion fruit, pineapple, strawberry). Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

16

Fruits are often important sources of vitamin C, and many contain carotene. They are high in cellulose but usually has little fat or protein and little to no starch. A parcel of land that is planted to fruit crops is called an orchard. Nuts are grown for their fruits which are high in fat. The nut is a simple, dry, indehiscent fruit with a hard outer covering. Examples: cashew, macadamia, pili. FAO (2010) definition: Fruit crops are those yielding fruits and berries which generally are characterized by their sweet taste and their high content of organic acid and pectin. Apart from strawberries, all fruits and berries are permanent crops, mainly trees, bushes and shrubs, but also vines and palms. Fruits and berries are generally found in great numbers attached to the branches or stalks or trunks of the plants, in most cases singly, in other cases grouped in bunches and clusters (e.g. bananas and grapes). Commercial crops are cultivated in well ordered orchards and compact plantations, but significant quantities are also collected from scattered plants, either cultivated or growing spontaneously. Bananas, plantains, grapes, dates and carobs are considered fruit crops by FAO, while nuts, olives, coconuts, melons and water melons are not considered fruit crops. Nuts are tree crops yielding dry fruits or kernels. They are characterized by their woody shells or hard husks which are generally covered by a thick, fleshy/fibrous outer husk which is removed at harvesting time. The weight of the shells or husks ranges from as little as 20 percent for chestnuts to as much as 70 percent in the case of cashew nuts of the total weight of unshelled/unhusked nuts.

18. Spice Crops- plants grown for the production of aromatic materials or substances which are used as food flavoring or for other purposes because of their fragrance or preservative qualities. Spices are in solid or liquid forms. Examples: black pepper, garlic, ginger, hot pepper, onion, turmeric. FAO (2010) definition: Spices are plants which, in one or the other of their components (rhizome, bark, fruits, berries, seeds, etc.), contain strongly flavoured and aromatic substances, and for that reason are used mainly as condiments. Most of them are perennial. Spices are rich in essential oils which, in addition to be used in the food industry, are also used in cosmetic and medicinal preparations. The nutritive value of spices is insignificant, but their commercial value is high. A partial listing of some of the main spices includes peppers, pimento, vanilla, cinnamon, canella, cloves, nutmeg, mace and cardamons, ginger and anise, badian and fennel.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

17

19. Essential-oil Crops- plants grown for the extraction of essential oils which are volatile, aromatic substances for perfumery and other uses. Examples: citronella, eucalyptus, ilang-ilang, peppermint, sampagita.

20. Ornamental Crops – plants which are grown primarily for decoration or landscaping or to be appreciated because of their attractive flowers or foliage. They are further classified as cutflowers, cut foliage, turfgrasses, groundcovers, hedges, accents, specimen plants, avenue trees, screens, topiaries, fillers and others. Floricultural crops are valued for their attractive flowers, foliage ornamentals for their leaves. a. Lawn or Turf Grasses- grasses grown for aesthetic purpose in the landscape or for any outdoor recreational use. They are usually maintained at a low height. Examples: Bermuda grass, carabao grass, zoysiagrass, creeping bent grass, perennial rye grass. b. Cutflowers- plants grown for their attractive flowers with long shelf life. Examples: anthurium, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, orchids, rose. c. Cutfoliage- plants grown for their attractive foliage which are cut for floral decoration. Examples: ferns, fishtail palm, kamuning, Song of India, Song of Jamaica. d. Edge Crops- short statured plants grown to serve as barrier between the lawn and garden, to highlight gardens, or to create stand-alone gardens; also called border plants. Examples: mondo grass, dwarf cucharita, dwarf sansevieria. e. Groundcovers- low-lying, aesthetically appealing plants grown in the landscape primarily to suppress weed growth and to control, retard or prevent soil erosion by covering and binding loose, bare soil. It is oftenly used en masse to produce a carpeting effect. Examples: cucharita (Alternanthera versicolor) , Cuphea, travelling jew, creeping peanut, Vietnam rose. e. Hedges- plants grown at the edges of pathways or boundaries and continuously pruned to knee-high height or upper but below eye level. Examples: Duranta, hedge bamboo, Chinese holly, dwarf santan, papua. f. Accents- plants with showy features distinct from the rest of the other plants. It immediately attracts attention and becomes a focal item in the landscape garden and at the same time provides the contrast which gives attention to other plants. g. Specimens- plants having showy features, or with unique characteristics which make them pieces of conversation or botanical curiosity, or otherwise desired as collector’s item. They are ideally planted in isolation rather than massed with other plants, and easily become focal point in the landscape. Examples of potential specimens: queen of flowering trees (Amherstia nobilis), palms, Mussaenda ‘Doña Eva’.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

18

h. Screens- plants grown to serve as barrier against sun rays, to conceal certain parts of the landscape, or to obstruct view. Examples: Indian tree, shrubs, trellised vines. i. Shade crops- generally trees, shrubs, trellised vines and lianas which are grown mainly to provide shade singly or with supporting trellis. j. Avenue Trees- trees and shrubs grown, more or less equidistant, beside roads and streets. Palms are also used. Examples: acacia (raintree), katuray, narra, Norfolk Island pine, date palm.

21. Biocidal Crops- plants containing organic compounds with pesticidal or antimicrobial properties. The effective parts are either directly applied or seeped in water for foliar spray. Many have been commercially exploited by extracting the active ingredients. Examples: chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum cineriaefolium), kayos (Dioscorea hispida), lagtang, makabuhay (Tinospora crispa), tobacco, tubli (Derris elliptica), neem.

23. Industrial Crops – plants grown to provide materials for industrial processing and production of non-food products such as biofuel, sugar, rubber, starch, industrial oil, aromatic compounds, steroids, medicinal drugs, organic pestides, tannins and dye. This is a special classification based on the method of processing and the nature of the product (non-food) and not on the part of the plant which is harvested and used as raw material. Based on these criteria, both agronomic and horticultural crops can be classified as industrial crops. Corn (grain crop) and legume seed crops (e.g. soybean) can be classified as industrial if they are grown primarily for industrial processing to produce biofuel or industrial oil.

24. Plantation Crops – plants grown in large tracts of land under intensive culture, usually in a tropical or subtropical country, where products are sold in distant markets rather than for local consumption. This classification is based on the extensiveness of production, system of culture required, and market location. It requires plenty of labor and large investment of capital. Many of those who are engaged in the growing of plantation crops are corporate organizations and multinational companies like Dole Philippines and Del Monte. Any crop can be suited for growing in a plantation. Thus there are plantations which are devoted to fiber crops (cotton, abaca), trees (e.g. falcata, mahogany), bamboo (e.g. giant bamboo, thorny bamboo), industrial crops (e.g. sugarcane, coconut, palm oil, rubber), beverage crops (coffee, cacao, tea), fruit crops (e.g. banana, pineapple), nuts (e.g. cashew), vegetables (e.g. asparagus), spices (e.g. turmeric), aromatic crops (ilang-ilang, vanilla), and tobacco.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

19

D. Special-Purpose Classifications of Crops There are other groupings of agricultural crops or crop-epithets which are commonly used but cannot be appropriately placed under either agronomic or horticultural classification. These classifications do not consider the direct benefit of the crop to the ultimate consumer, nor to the extent of cultivation and the intensity of care required. These classifications are used to refer to plants having special advantages to the farmer himself in relation to his farming practices. 1. Main Crop- any crop which is intended by the grower to become his main source of revenue. 2. Nursery crop- a plant which is temporarily grown in the nursery and later planted in the field or garden or used for ornamental display when it reaches the proper age and size (e.g. most fruit crops and ornamental crops. 3. Intercrop- any crop which is planted simultaneously with or before the flowering season of the main crop in intercropping. 4. Filler Crop- any crop which is planted to fill a gap. In quincunx system of planting arrangement, the space at the center of four hills of a main crop is commonly intended for a filler crop which is of a different variety or species. 5. Relay Crop- the crop which is planted after the flowering period or harvest of the main crop in relay cropping. 6. Ratoon crop- the crop consisting of the regrowth from shoots retained on the plants after harvest or from cut stalks of the previous crop (e.g. pineapple, sorghum, sugarcane). 7. Cash crop- any short maturing crop which is grown to generate income while the main crop is still in its vegetative stage of growth; any crop grown to generate cash rather than for subsistence. 8. Catch crop- any short maturing plant that is grown simultaneously with, or between successive plantings of a main crop to utilize residual fertilizer and soil moisture. It is often used as a green manure or to provide supplemental livestock feed; also called emergency crop. 9. Nurse crop- any crop which is grown to provide shade and increase humidity for the benefit of the main crop during its seedling and early stages of growth. 10. Companion crop- any crop which is planted close to the main crop to complement the latter’s growth and production, or to maximize utilization of space because they do not compete. Examples: a. Black pepper is planted with live madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium) to serve as trellis.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

20

b. Lettuce acts as a living mulch to keep the soil moist while sunflowers to the south or west provide shade for the vegetable. c. Planting squash and onions will maximize production per unit area of land. These crops occupy different root zones, squash being deep rooted while onion is shallow rooted. 11. Cover crop- a crop grown mainly to control soil erosion, regulate soil temperature, control weeds and reduce evaporative losses. Leguminous vines such as improved pasture and forage crops are excellent cover crops. As legumes they can enrich the soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. 12. Green manure crop- a leguminous crop grown to be plowed under the soil to increase organic matter and serve as organic fertilizer. Mungbean (mungo) is ideal for this purpose. Seeds of mungbean are commonly broadcasted in a field of rice immediately after harvest and allowed to grow using residual water, thus also becoming a catch crop. In time for tillage in preparation for the next rice crop, the mungbean plants are plowed under and allowed to decompose. 13. Agroforest Crop – any crop which is suited under a cropping system consisting of mixed agricultural and forest crops. 14. Contour Hedgerow Crop- nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs which are grown along contour lines in sloping lands under the Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT). These crops are grown mainly to produce green manure and mulch, to serve as firebreak, to stabilize the soil and to control soil erosion. Examples: a. Madre de Cacao, kakawate (Gliricidia sepium) b. Giant Ipil-ipil (Leucaena latisiliqua) c. Acid Ipil-ipil (Leucaena diversifolia) d. Flemingia (Flemingia macrophylla) e. Renzoni (Desmodium renzonii) f. Red Powderpuff (Calliandra calothyrsus) g. Yellow Cassia (Senna spectabilis) 15. Trap crop or Decoy crop- plants grown to attract certain insect pests or parasites because they are favorite hosts. They act as decoys to lure pests away from the main crop. Also, they make pest control easier because the insects are concentrated on a few plants. Control measures will be concentrated to the infested plants including spraying of appropriate pesticides or these plants can be simply pulled out and destroyed together with the pests. Examples of trap crops and the insect pests that they attract: a. Basil (Ocimum basilicum)- green, loopy tomato caterpillar.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

21

b. Garlic (Allium sativum)- greenfly. c. Chive (Allium schoenoprasum)- greenfly and cutworms. d. Corn (Zea mays)- cotton bollworm. e. Marigold (Calendula officinalis)- caterpillars and cutworms. f. Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)- aphids. g. Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus)- loopy caterpillar. h. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)- cotton bollworm. 16. Insect pest repellant crop- plants grown along the borders and at strategic places in the farm to repel insect pests because of their strong aroma and anti-herbivory properties. Examples: a. Anise or Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum) b. Basil (Ocimum basilecum) c. Chive (Allium schoenoprasum) d. Garlic (Allium sativum) e. Marigold or Amarillo (Tagetes sp.) f. Marjoram (Origanum majorama) g. Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)h. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)i. Sesame (Sesamum indicum) j.Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 17. Natural enemies attractant crop- flowering plants grown at strategic places in the farm to attract natural enemies of insect pests. Examples: a. Dill (Anethum graveolens)- can be grown to attract spiders, lacewings and parasitic wasps which eat or parasitize caterpillars, beetles and aphids. b. Tagetes, Calendula and Nasturtiums- attract hoverflies whose larvae feed on aphids.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

22

REFERENCES Abbs, B. 2003. Choosing and Using Climbing Plants. Publishing. 96 p.

San Diego, California: Laurel Glen

Abellanosa, A.L. and H.M. Pava. 1987. An Introduction to Crop Science. CMU, Musuan, Bukidnon: Publications Office. 245 p. Allard, RW. 1960. Principles of Plant Breeding. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 485 p. Bagust, H. 2003. The Firefly Dictionary of Plant Names: Common & Botanical. Canada: Firefly Books Ltd. 440 p.

Ontario,

Bremness, L. 1988. The Complete Book of Herbs: A Practical Guide to Growing & Using Herbs. London: Dorling Kindersley Ltd. 288 p. Culquhoun, J.B. 2006. Allelopathy in weeds and crops: myths and facts. Proc. Of the 2006 Wisconsin Fertilizer, Aglime & Pest Management Conference. 45:318-320. Retrieved June 4, 2010 from http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2006/pap/Colquhoun2.pdf. Dorling Kindersley Ltd. (ed.). 1979. Success with House Plants. Pleasantville, NY: The Reader’s Digest Association, Inc. 480 p. D’Urzo, M.P., Alkire, B. and T. Aillo. 1998. Capers. New Crop Factsheet. Retrieved July 11, 2010 from http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/cropfactsheets/caper.html#Origin. Ferguson, J.J. and B. Rathinasabapathi. 2003. Allelopathy: how plants suppress other plants. University of Florida IFAS Extension Publication #HS944. Retrieved July 10, 2010 from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/hs186. Food and Agriculture Organization (FA0). 2010. Crops statistics – concepts, definitions and classifications. Retrieved May 29, 2010 from http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/methodology/methodology-systems/crops-statisticsconcepts-definitions-and-classifications/en/. Ge, S., Li, A, Lu, BR., Zhang, SZ. And DY. Hong. 2002. A phylogeny of the rice tribe Oryzeae (Poaceae) based on matK sequence data. American Journal of Botany. 89:1967- 1972. Retrieved July 6, 2010 from http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/89/12/1967. Hagelberg, G.B. 2003. Sugar crops and natural sweeteners. Food & Culture Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 18, 2010 from http://www.answers.com/topic/sugar-crops-and-naturalsweeteners. http://hrdc.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph/phil-organic/Technologies/techgen-pestmgt.pdf, accessed June 13, 2010. Janick, J. 2005. Horticultural Plant Breeding: Past Accomplishments, Future Directions. In: Proc. IS on Hort. in Asian-Pacific Region. (R. Drew, ed.). Acta Hort. 694. Retrieved May 30, 2010 from http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/acta694.pdf.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

23

Janick, J. 1972. Hortiultural Science. 2nd ed. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co. 586 p. Lantican, R.M. 2001. The Science and Practice of Crop Production. College, Los Baños, Laguna, Phils.: SEAMEO SEARCA and UPLB. 330 p. Leist, N. and A. Jonitz. 2009. Tools for seed identification species classification and nomenclature. ISTA Purity Sem. June 15, 2009, Zurich. Retrieved June 30, 2010 from https://www.seedtest.org/upload/cms/user/6ToolsforseedIdentification_NorbertKompatibi littsmodus.pdf. Leonardi, C. and D. Romano. 2004. Recent issues on vegetable grafting. Proc. XXVI IHC Transplant Production and Stand Establishment. Acta Hort. 631:163-174. Retrieved July 9, 2010 from www.ecoponics.de. Manktelow, M. (undated). History of taxonomy. Retrieved July 6, http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf.

2010

from

Mcneill, J., Barrie, F.R., Burdet, H.M., Demoulin. V., Hawksworth, D.L., Marhold, K., Nicolson, D.H., Prado, J., Silva, P.C., Skog, J.E., Wiersema, J.H. and N.J. Turland. (eds.) 2006. International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Vienna Code), adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress, Vienna, Austria, July 2005. (electronic version). Retrieved July 5, 2010 from http://ibot.sav.sk/icbn/main.htm. Merrill, E.D. 1912. A Flora of Manila. Manila, Phils.: Bureau of Printing. 491 p. McKinley, M. (ed.). 2005. Ortho Complete Guide to Orchids. Des Moines, IA: Meredith Books. 224 p. Miles, C.A. undated. Vegetable Crop Classification. Retrieved May 26, 2010 from http://skagit.wsu.edu/countrylivingexpo/images/veg_families.pdf. North Carolina State University. 2010. New technique improves efficiency of biofuel production. ScienceDaily. July 1, 2010. Retrieved July 4, 2010 from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/06/100630115143.htm. Peters, C.M. 1994. Sustainable harvest of non-timber plant resources in tropical moist forest: an edological primer. Retrieved June 13, 2010 from. http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/bcn/learning/primer/eng1.htm Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA). 2003. Information bulletin on biological control of ‘hagonoy’. Primer on Biological Control of Hagonoy (Chromolaena odorata). CPD Technoguide No. 8. Retrieved July 10, 2010 from http://www.bar.gov.ph/biofuelsinfo/downloads/hagonoy.pdf. Pisto, J. 1997. Cooking with Mushrooms: A Culinary Guide to Chef Pisto’s Favorite Fungi. Pacific Grove, CA: Pisto,s Kitchen. 137 p. Pittendrigh, S. and M. Davis. 1977. Lawns and Groundcovers. Sydney, Australia: Ure Smith. 80 p. Poehlman, J.M. 1977. Breeding Field Crops. Connecticut: AVI Publishing Co., Inc. 427 p. Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

24

Poincelot, R.P. 1980. Horticulture: Principles and Practical Applications. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 652 p. Priyadarshan, P.M. and P. de S. Goncalves. 2003. Hevea gene pool for breeding. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 50:11-114. Retrieved June 13 from http://www.iac.br/Centros/centro_cafe/seringueira/PubPDF/Hevea_gene_pool.pdf. Quimio, T.H. 1996. Fungi: Mycologists’ Delight. UPLB, College, Laguna, Phils.: The Museum of Natural History. 19 p. (booklet). Robinson, P. 2003. The Practical Rock & Water Garden. London: Hermes House. 256 p. Sakcali, M.S., Bahadir, H. and M. Ozturk. 2008. Eco-physiology of Capparis spinosa L.: a plant suitable for combating desertification. Pak. J. Bot. 40(4):1481-1486. Retrieved July 11, 2010 from http://www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/40%284%29/PJB40%284%291481.pdf. Sangalang, J.B. and E. C. Ros. (undated). Important Spices and Essential Oil Crops. UPLB, College, Laguna: Plantation Crops Division, Dept. of Horticulture. 79 p. Steiner, ML. 1986. Philippine Ornamental Plants. Las Piñas, Metro Manila: M&L Licudine Enterprises. 233. Washington State University. 2010. Agriculture's next revolution- perennial grain- within sight. ScienceDaily. June 27, 2010. Retrieved July 6, 2010 from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/06/100624144111.htm. Weldon Owen Pty. Ltd. 2003. The Essential Gardening Encyclopedia. San Francisco, CA: Fog City Press. 608 p. Went, F.W. and The Editors of Life. 1963. The Plants. New York: Time Inc. 194 p. Wikipedia. 2010. Liana. Retrieved July 10, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liana. Wikipedia. 2010. Orchidaceae. Retrieved July 10, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchidaceae. Wikipedia. 2010. Plant defense against herbivory. Retrieved March 17 , 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory. Verheij, E. W. M. and R.E. Coronel (eds.). 1992. Edible fruits and nuts. Plant Resources of South East Asia No. 2. Bogor, Indonesia: PROSEA. 447 p.

Copyright @ cropsreview.com All Rights Reserved

25