Chitra Sutra

USES OF PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS IN TRADITIONAL INDIAN MURAL PAINTINGS' T. S. NAYAR, S. BINU, AND P. PUSHPANGADAN

Nayar, T. S., S. Binu, and P. Pushpangadan (Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram - 695 562, Kerala, India). USES OF PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS IN TRADITIONAL INDIAN MURAL PAINTINGS. Economic Botany 53(1):41-50, 1999. The genius of Indian paintings was first manifested in the Ajantan mural art which spanned a whole millennium from the second century B.C. to the eighth century A.D. This rich tradition, which continued up to the nineteenth century under the patronage of different dynasties in India, declined by the end of that century. But this cultural heritage has been kept alive by a few artists in Kerala who practice even today the methods and techniques of mural paintings similar to those practiced by the Ajantan mural painters. Plant materials and/or plant products used during different phases of a mural painting, from preparation of the base wall to the finishing touches of the creation are identified and processing and application detailed. Ajantan and post-Ajantan murals are reviewed and the materials, methods and techniques used in them are discussed. EMPLOI DES PLANTES ET DES PRODUITS VEGETAUX DANS LES PEINTURES MURALES TRADITIONNELLES EN INDE. Le genie des peintures indiennes se r'vela pour la premiere fois dans I'art Mural

d'Ajanta qui couvrit tout un milliaire, du deuxieme siecle avant J. C au huitieme siecle apres J. C. Cette tradition riche qui prolongea jusqu'au dix-neuvieme siecle sous le patronage des diffJrentes dynasties en Inde tomba en decadence vers la fin du dix-neuvie me siecle. Mais cet heritage culturel est encore vivant grace a 1'effort de quelques artistes au Kerala qui, menme aujourd'hui pratiquent les mithodes et techniques des peintures murales pareilles a celles exercees par les peintres Muraux d'Ajanta. Des matieres vegetales et/ou des produits vegetaux utilise's pendant les phases differentes de la realisation d 'un mural des la preparation du mur de base aux finissions de la creation sont identifies. Leurs traitement et opposition sont detailles. En outre, les muraux d'Ajanta et ceux de la periode suivante sont examines et des matieres methodes et techniques y utilisees sont discutees dans une certaine mesure.

Key Words: Ajantan,post-Ajantanand Keralamurals,pigments,plants and plant products, processing.

Primitiverock paintingsshowing outlinedhuman and animal figures and depicting scenes of hunting,dancing,and otherfeaturesof triballife are found in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh (Ghosh 1932, Lal 1950) and Kerala (Thampi 1976), India. These paintings are dated from 12000 B.P. to the tenth century A.D. (Mathpal 1984; Misra, Mathpal, and Nagar 1977). Artifacts found at Mohenjodaroand Harappahave traces of naturalpigments suggestive of the use of colors in pre-Aryan art (Ansari 1961). But Ajantanart, the traditionof which extends more than two millenniafrom the second centuryB.C.

to the present,representsthe floweringof Indian mural paintings. It is difficult to trace the preAjantan period to the pre-Aryan era or to the prehistoricperiod as there exist no remnantsof any muraltraditionto establishprobablelinks in between. The muraltraditionat Ajanta,spanning a whole millenniumlasting up to the eighth century, occupies the walls of 27 caves (near the village of Ajanta,centralMaharashtra,west central India) that extend in a semicircularpattern for nearly a kilometer. Ajantan murals narrateJataka stories which deal with the innumerableincarnationsof Buddha as bird, mammalor man and the last incari Received 3 December 1993; resubmitted;accepted nation as Siddhartha(see Ghosh 1967; Grun20 August 1998. wedel 1901; Lalit Kala Academy 1956; Mitra

Economic Botany 53(1) pp. 41-50. 1999

(? 1999 by The New York BotanicalGardenPress, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

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1983; Singh 1965.) The best of the cave paintings of Ajanta (Fig. 1A) have been placed between the second and the seventh centuries (Mitra 1981). Bagh is the other center of Buddhist paintings in India. There are nine caves at Bagh with murals (Marshall et al. 1927) and paleographers date them to the fifth or the sixth century. The regional murals have been studied and described by a number of scholars: Orissa murals (Gangoly 1955, Krishna Chaitanya 1976); Karnataka murals (Kramrisch 1936; Sivaramamurti 1959); Tamil Nadu murals (Govindaswami 1933; Ramachandran 1936, 1961; Sivaramamurti 1936; Jouveau-Dubreuil 1922; Krishna Chaitanya 1976); Maharashtra (Kramrisch 1937; Thompson 1926). Andhra Pradesh (Krishna Chaitanya 1976; Rao 1969; Sivaramamurti 1937); Kerala (Achan 1936, Chitra and Srinivasan 1940, Heston 1988, Krishna Chaitanya 1976, 1987; Poduval 1937; Shashibhooshan 1987; Tampy 1948, Venkatachalam 1940). The earliest of the Kerala murals (Fig. IB, C) were located by the side of a rock and a shrine at Thirunandikkara. After India's independence in 1947, government organizations patronized art and in this process, temple based mural tradition suffered. A revival of mural tradition in Kerala took place as major temples in Kerala came under the indirect control of the local government and their restoration and maintenance was supported by public funds. The Centre for Study of Mural Paintings, a school established by authorities of the wealthy Guruvayur temple in the Thrissur district of Kerala under the chief instructorship of Mammiyoor Krishnan Kutty Nair, father of the extant mural tradition in India, represents this revival phase. This school practices methods of mural paintings (Fig. IE, F, G) strictly adhering to the tradition followed by the sixteenth century muralists in Kerala and use only natural products derived from plants and one or two mineral earths. MATERIALS AND METHODS The three ancient Sanskrit texts viz. Vishnudharmottara of the sixth century (Kramrisch 1928; Sivaramamurti 1978), Abhilashitartha Chintamani of the twelfth century (Shamasastri 1926; Shrigondekar 1925, 1930) and Silparatna of the sixteenth century (Bhattacharya 1974; Raghavan 1933) agree to a large extent on four different logical sequences for the process of

completion of murals on the granite and laterite walls. They are (1) preparation of the ground (2) sketching of the outline (3) application of colors and (4) addition of decorative details. Plants and plant products used and processed for various purposes in the accomplishment of murals are described under these titles below. These Sanskrit texts discuss in detail the style, effectiveness of different colors, desirable combinations that could be brought out by mixing vanrous pigments and methodology of preparing the base for application of colors and for preparation of colors from different natural sources in general terms. Definite proportionate ratios of materials used are standardized through trial and error by local mural artists. The methods and techniques described here faithfully refer to those followed by the Mural School at Guruvayur. Local names of plants used are given in bracket after their family names. Description and critical evaluation of murals mentioned in the text (see introduction and discussion) are from three sources: some of the published works mentioned in the text, assessment made from reproductions (Lalit Kala Academy 1956; Singh 1965; UNESCO 1954) and studies carried out by the senior author on murals at actual sites in Kerala and Ravi Varma Art Gallery, Thiruvananthapuram (Nayar 1983). PREPARATION FOR MURALS BASE WALL Frescoes are painted on the surface of granite or laterite plastered with lime (calcium carbonate). Lime and sand are mixed in 1:2 ratio and the required quantity of water is poured into a pit made at the center so as to make the mixture become a semisolid mass. This is kept as such for one week. This paste is used for plastering the granite or laterite wall. One mature fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae) (Kadukka) (Fig. 2A) is crushed and boiled in one liter of water. This increases viscosity of the liquid. After cooling, it is used to dilute the lime while applying on the walls. Fruits of Terminalia chebula can be substituted by crushed mature stem of Cissus glauca Roxb. (Vitaceae) (Chunnambu Valli) (Fig. 2B). For 25 liters of water, a 45 cm long stem is enough. A second coat 2 mm thick is applied out with the lime and sand mixture thoroughly ground with fibers of Gossypium herbaceum L. (Malvaceae)

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re~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~w

Fig. 1. Indianmuralsfrom differentcenturies.A. Ajantanmural (5th century).B and C. Thirunandikkara murals,Kerala(8-9th century).D. Gajendramoksham mural,Kayamkulam,Kerala(19th century).E. Mammiyoortemplemural,Trissoor,Kerala(completedin October1992). F.Pigmentsandbrushes.G. A muralistworking at Mammiyoortemple.

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4~~~~~~~

i

L

AI

kvJ/

Fig. 2. Some plants used in murals. A. Fruits of Terminalia chebula. B. Cissus glauca. C. Sterculiafoetida. D. Pandanus odoratissimus. E. A twig of Indigofera tinctoria. F Aristida setacea. G. Gum exuding from the stem of Garcinia morella.

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(Panji)in the ratio of 4:1. This applicationgives brightnessand needed softness to the wall. Calcium carbonateis mixed with the "milk" from immaturefruits of Cocos nuciferaL. (Arecaceae) (Tengu)to obtain the concentrationand thickness of cow's milk. This mixtureis sieved throughcotton and used to-coat the wall for the thirdtime. If the milk of immaturefruitsis bitter, pure water is added to reduce its bitterness. Coating may be done at least 20-25 times, one layer across the other, after proper drying of each applicationand taking care that these 2025 coatings producea layer of plasterno thicker than a leaflet of Tamarindusindica L. (Caesalpiniaceae) (Puli). The wall will graduallyattain a bright white backgroundwhich also serves as the white pigment for murals. For coating the wall with this milky solution, a flat brush made by crushing a portion of the bark from Sterculia foetida L. (Sterculiaceae) (Tondi, Pottakkala)(Fig. 2C) is generally preferred. A brush made out of the leaves of Pandanus odoratissimus Roxb. (Pandanaceae) (Kai-

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with water to make juice. The juice is sieved through a piece of cotton and kept for a long enough time for the sediment to form. Supernatantliquid is decanted and sediment is dried to a powder which serves as the blue color. Green An exudate commercially known as 'gamboge' is obtained when an incision is made on the bark of Garcinia morella Desr. (Clusiaceae) (Eravikkara)(Fig. 2G), an indigenous tree species. It is odorless but slightly acidic. Gamboge is a resin containing 15 to 20% gum. When this is mixed with the powder preparedfrom leaves of Indigofera tinctoria the green color is obtained. Different intensities can be achieved by alteringthe ratio. Places where blue and green are to be painted will be washed 4 to 5 times with the juice of Citrus aurantium L. (Rutaceae) (Cheru naragam) diluted with water (now occasionally with copper sulfate solution) in order to reduce the effect of lime. Both the colors, especially the green, are otherwise prone to distortion.

ta) (Fig. 2D) may also serve as substitute,but it is of inferiorquality.Plants and plant partschoBlack sen to apply any substance on the wall should not have sap that reacts with lime and spoils the Cotton wicks saturatedwith the oil of Sesawhiteness of the wall. The wall thus preparedis mum indicumL. (Pedaliaceae)(Ellu) are burned ready for muralpainting. and an earthenpot is kept upside down over the flame. The lampblackthat sticks to the inside of SKETCHING OF OUTLINE the pot is scrapedand collected. This will form Outlines of the murals are sketched first with the black pigment. dung crayons and are then run over along the outerside with ocher-yellowand if requiredwith Basic Adhesive ochre-red (Fig. 1G). Ocher-yellow (FeO) and Gum obtained from the bark of Azadirachta ocher-red(Fe'O3) are still processed exactly as A. indica Juss. (Meliaceae) (Vepu)is used as the explained in Silparatna. "After ochres have basic adhesive. It is a clear, bright, amber-colbeen broughtfrom the river beds and hills, they ored material that blackens with age. This gum should be washed in pure water,pulverizedand then reducedto fine powder.The fine powder is is mixed with black and blue colors to make to be kept in a vessel full of water and the dirt these pigments stick to the base wall. The ratio will be deposited at the bottom. This process is of color powderto adhesiveis 6:1. However,for to be repeatedseveral times till the colors attain green color this is not requiredas gamboge will perfect purity. It is then besmeared on a new work itself as the adhesive. All the colors except earthen pot to dry" (rendering from Krishna black have to be applied several times to get the Chaitanya1976). It is only after many applica- desired effect of their pigments. Muralsin Kertions, deep intensity in yellow and red is ob- ala are paintedwith basic five colors: ochre-yeltained; likewise by properlymixing them, vari- low, ochre-red,blue, green and black and their desirablecombinations. ous shades of gold are achieved. Pigments are applied on the base wall with PREPARATION AND APPLICATION OF COLORS the help of brushespreparedfrom the long, soft Blue awns of Aristida setacea Retz. (Poaceae) (lyam Fresh leaves of Indigofera tinctoria L. (Fa- pullu, Kuntalipullu) (Fig. 2F). The panicles are baceae) (Neela amari) (Fig. 2E) are expressed collected and dipped in boiling waterfor 5 to 10

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minutes and then dried and stored. The trifurcated portionsare carefullyassembledby cutting the basal thickerportions off and then threaded togetherfor the requiredthickness. Tips are cut off when thick brushesare needed or retainedif requiredto sketch narrowlines. Stems of Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae) (Adakka,Kavungu)and

(Shangupushpam) and rhizomes of Maranta arundinaceaL. (Marantaceae)(Koova) are good substitutes. Yellow

Rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae) (Manjal) are crushed and the juice when dry produces a yellow powder. Roots of Bixa Bambusa arundinaceae Willd. (Bambusaceae) (Mula) are used as brushhandles.Brushesmade orellana L. (Bixaceae) (Kuppamanjal)can serve of Aristida setacea are still in vogue because as an excellent substitute. modern brushes are not as long-lasting since Red they always come in contact with the lime meThe heartwood of Caesalpinia sappan L. (Fadia. baceae) (Chappangu)is cut into small pieces, ADDITIONAL DECORATIVE DETAILS pounded and then boiled in water.This mixture When the paintingsare completed a thin coat is boiled to a concentrateand finally to a fine of resin from Pinus roxburghiiSarg. (Pinaceae) powder form. Heartwood of Pterocarpus san(Pyne) diluted with Sesamumindicumoil is ap- talinus L. (Fabaceae) (Raktachandanam)and plied over the murals,which providesthem with rhizome of Alpinia galanga Willd. (Zingiberabrightness and strength. Brushes made of fine ceae) are substitutesof equal status. These colors are mixed with the basic adheroots of Pandanus odoratissimus are generally sive, the gum obtainedfrom barkof Azadirachta used for this purpose. indica in the ratio of 6:1. This proportionis MURALS ON WOOD maintained because the film of color applied There was a "wood age" culturein Keralaat may otherwise separate from the woodwall. a time when wood was the chief componentof Blue, green and black pigments are preparedthe buildingsincludingfoundations,walls, androofs same way as describedbefore. of houses, palaces and temples. Predominance DISCUSSION of this traditioncan be tracedfrom the sixteenth century to the middle of this century. But this Information,often insufficientand sometimes culturedeclined with dwindlingof treeresources fragmentary,is available on methods and techin the region. Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. (Mora- niques used for Ajantan and post-Ajantanmuceae) (Ayini, Anjili) and Artocarpus hetero- rals. Art technologists have interpretedAjantan phyllus Lam. (Moraceae)(Plavu) were the com- murals as technically belonging to the category monest species used for this purpose.It may be "fresco secco" (Mitra 1981) where murals are appropriateto think that this culturegave rise to painted when the lime base on the wall is comthe development of indigenous techniques for pletely dry. In "fresco buono," colors are apdoing muralson wood. plied when the lime medium of the wall is parBecause the wooden wall is differentin struc- tially wet. It was observed that the granite surture and texture from the lime plasteredgranite face of the caves in Ajanta was plasteredwith or lateritewalls, sources and preparationof col- coarse lime presumablyobtainedfrom calcined ors used are also differentin certaincases. They shells mixed with straw, vegetable fibers, clay are detailed below. and powderedrock. Over this lime base was applied pure white lime a few millimeters thick. White From the structureof the layer,it was estimated Tuberousroots of Ipomoea digitata L. (Con- that the pure white lime layer was condensedby volvulaceae) (Palmutukku)are crushedin water. polishing it with trowels. Obviously, this layer The turbidliquid is passed througha fine cotton was allowed to dry before the colors were apcloth and the filtrate collected is allowed to plied (see Mitra 1983; Paramasivan1936; Rawevaporateundernormalconditions,preferablyin son 1961). Investigationson some post-Ajantan a shallow, wide mouthed-earthenpot. The resid- murals have proved that they were done as ual powder is used as the white base of color on "fresco secco" and Keralamurals,as explained wood. Roots of Clitoria ternatea L. (Fabaceae) earlier,evidently come underthis category. For

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the coarseness of the primary lime base, Ajantan mural artists used powdered rock and straw whereas in Kerala these materials are replaced by sand and cotton fibers. Cotton fibers impart gleaming whiteness to the surface and give better texture to the base. Application of calcium carbonate dissolved in the "milk" of immature coconuts on a primary lime base for attaining a still brighter whiteness might be an advanced version derived from the availability of better local resources. Murals at Khandagiri dated to the second century BC were executed on lime base. As far as the evidence goes, the murals of the ninth century Narthamalai temple and the tenth century Brihadiswara temple were painted on the surface of soft lime plaster. Art critics attribute the brightness of the white surface of the lime plaster to the powdered conch shell and mother of pearl added to the lime. Blue, orange, brown, green and purple are the most common colors used in Ajantan murals. White, pink, and gold are occasionally represented. Mineral earths containing ferric oxide, ferrous oxide and copper carbonate were used as sources of red, yellow and green colors. There is also evidence to establish that roots of Rubia cordifolia L.(Rubiaceae) and leaves of Indigofera tinctoria were used as sources for red and blue colors (see Rawson 1961). Colors expressed in Ajantan murals, it is evident, could be brought out from the above primary sources using them directly or mixing them in various combinations. Khandagiri murals are dominated by red, yellow and black colors. Red, yellow, off-white and white are the main colors used for the murals in the rock-shelter of Koenjhar which are traced from the fourth to the eighth century. Narthamalai and Brihadiswara murals are done prominently in red, yellow, black, brown, green and blue. Art technologists have proved that in these murals, red and yellow are from mineral earths containing ferric and ferrous oxides, green from green earth containing silicate of iron and blue from lapis lazuli, the stone consisting of calcite, and other minerals colored ultra-marine by lazurites with iron pyrites (Krishna Chaitanya 1976). Black color in the Khandagiri, Narthamalai and Brihadiswara murals is considered to be have been obtained from the pure black earth derived from the fertile deposits covering wide regions of central India and accessible to the mural artists contiguous to these regions. Burnt cotton generally considered as

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used in the murals of later periods as described in Silparatna of the sixteenth century is the source of black pigment in Keralamurals.Mineral earthshave been extensively used as sources for red and yellow colors in Indian murals since the Ajantandays. They are still in vogue in Kerala. It is interestingto note that Valladas et al. (1992) observed the use of ferric oxide for red pigments in the prehistoricpaintings at the Spanish caves of Altamira and Elcastillo and FrenchPyreneancaves of Niaux.

CONCLUSION All plants and minerals employed for mural paintings on lime-plasteredwalls are of indigenous origin as is the technology of processing. The substitution of Terminalia chebula with Cissus glauca, Sterculia foetida with Pandanus

odoratissimusand citrus juice with copper sulfate solution shows the inherentinterestof mural artists in expanding their sphere of knowledge by identifying new raw materials. Sap in the stems of Areca catechu and Bambusa arundi-

nacea does not react with lime and discolor the base and so their stems are used for brush handles. That the applicationof a thin coat of resin of Pinus roxburghiiover the murals is a later preservationtechnique can be concluded from the fact that the plant is not native to Keralaor to any of the ancient mural sites (Table 1) but to the Himalayanregion. It is worthyof mention that the botanical materialsused for murals on wood include, apart from indigenous species, naturalized species like Maranta arundinacea

and Bixa orellana indicative of the later origin of this techniquein Kerala.Otherplantsadopted as substitutesin the process of pigment preparation for murals on wood also corroboratethis point. Knowledge of this ancient system is at the verge of extinctionperhapswith the sole exception of the remnantsof this traditionkept barely alive in Kerala. This cultural heritage that has spannedtwo millennia since the second century B.C. may soon be lost in the countryof its origin because of the inroads of modernismwhich are sweeping the presentstyle, method and technology of artin Indiaunless bold steps are initiated for the revival of this ancient tradition.

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TABLE 1. IMPORTANTMURALSAND MURALSITESIN INDIA. Murals/Mural sites

Ajanta

State

Maharashtra

Period

Patronage/Dynasty

2nd centuryB.C. 8th centuryA.D.

Satavahana

Vakataka Chalukya

Khandageri

Orissa

2nd centuryB.C.

Sitabhinji(Koenjhar)

Orissa

4th-8th centuryA.D.

Bagh (Gwalior)

MadhyaPradesh

5th-6th centuryA.D.

Badami

Karnataka

6th centuryA.D.

Chalukya

Panamalai Kailasanatha(Kanchipuram) Tirumalaipuram (Tirunelvelly)

TamilNadu

7th centuryA.D.

Pallava

Tamil Nadu

7th-8th centuryA.D.

Pandya

Kailasanatha Lankeswara Indrasabha GanesaLena(Ellora)

Maharashtra

8th centuryA.D.

Thirunandikkara

8th centuryA.D.

Sittannavasal(Pudukottai)

Kerala(peresentlyin TamilNadu) TamilNadu

9th centuryA.D.

Pandya (in Pallavastyle)

Narthamalai(Tanjavur)

TamilNadu

9th centuryA.D.

Chola

Cheta Gupta

Rashtrakuta

Brihadiswara(Tanjavur)

TamilNadu

10th centuryA.D.

Chola

Jagannatha

Orissa

11, 12, 15th century

Ganga Surya

Pillalmari

AndhraPradesh

12th centuryA.D.

Kantaloor(Thiruvananthapuram)

Kerala

13th centuryA.D.

Pisharikkavu(Kozhikkode) Kaliampalli(Kozhikkode)

Kerala

14th centuryA.D.

Tirupparuthikunram

AndhraPradesh

14th centuryA.D.

Vijayanagar

Hampi

AndhraPradesh

15th centuryA.D.

Vijayanagar

Lepakshi (Anantapur) Anegundi Somapalle

Andhra Pradesh

16th century

Vijayanagar

Guruvayur

Kerala

16th centuryA.D.

Kerala

16th centuryA.D.

Mattanchery

Kerala

16th and 19th century A.D.

Udayanapuram

Kerala

17th centuryA.D.

Travancore

Pallimana(Vadakkanchery)

Kerala

17th centuryA.D.

Local chief-tan

A.D.

A.D.

Vijayanagar

Zamorin

Ettumanur Panayannarkavu Udayanapuram(Vaikom)

Travancore

Padmanabhapuram

Travancore Cochin

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NAYAR ET AL.: INDIAN MURAL PAINTINGS

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TABLE1. CONTINUED. State

sites Murals/Mural

Tanjavur Tiruvalanjali Tirupparuthikunram TiruvalurChidambaram Chengam

Period

Patronage/Dynasty

TamilNadu

17th centuryA.D.

Nayak

(ThiruvanPadmanabhaswami anthapuram)

Kerala

18th centuryA.D.

Travancore

(Trissur) Vadakkunatha

Kerala

18th centuryA.D.

Cochin

(Kottayam) Pundarikapuram

Kerala

18th centuryA.D.

(Kayamkulam) Krishnapuram

Kerala

19th centuryA.D.

Travancore

Kottakkal Balusseri(Kozhikkode)

Kerala

19th centuryA.D.

Local chief-tan

Nair's Hospital(Kollam)

Kerala

1992

Hospital authorities

MuseumHall (Thiruvananthapuram)

Kerala

1993

Government of Kerala

Mammiyoor(Guruvayur)

Kerala

1992 -continuing

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors express their gratitudeto Shri Mammiyoor KrishnanKuttyNair,fatherof the extant mural traditionin India and Chief Instructorto the Centrefor the Study of MuralPaintings,Guruvayurwho sharedwith us his vast knowledge and experience of the techniques and style of muralpaintings.He passed away l9th July 1994. We thank:Prof. M. G. Shashibhooshan,Department of Malayalam,University College, Thiruvananthapuramfor fruitful discussions; the Director,Museum and Zoo, Governmentof Kerala and the Curator,Ravi VarmaArt Gallery, Thiruvananthapuram for permission to photograph Thirunandikkaramurals; Shri T. Satyamurthy, formerly Director,Departmentof Archaeology, Governmentof Keralafor lending us two slides of Gajendramoksham;authorities of Mammiyoor Temple near Guruvayurfor permittingus to photographstages of muralpaintings in progress; and the instructorsand students of the Centrefor Study of MuralPaintings,Guruvayur. LITERATURE CITED Achan, P. A. 1936. Two scenes from the Ramayana paintingson the walls of the Mattancheripalace at Cochin. Journalof the Indian Society of Oriental Art 4:77-78.

Mammiyoor temple authorities

Ansari, Z. D. 1961. Evolution of pottery forms and fabricsin India. Marg 14:4-19. Bhattacharya, A. 1974. Citralaksana,a treatiseon Indian paintings.SaraswatLibrary,Calcutta. Chitra, V. R., and T. N. Srinivasan. 1940. Cochin murals,3 vols. Publishedby His Highness Maharajahof Cochin, Cochin. Gangoly, 0. C. 1955. Summary survey of Orissan paintings.Marg 8:47-56. Ghosh, A. 1967. Ajanta murals. Archaeologicalsurvey of India,New Delhi. Ghosh, M. 1932. Rock paintingsand otherantiquities of prehistoricand later times. Memoirsof the ArchaeologicalSurvey of India 24:14-19. Govindaswami, S. K. 1933. Cola paintings.Journal of the IndianSociety of OrientalArt 1:73-80. Grunwedel, A. 1901. Buddhistart in India. Bernard Quaritch,London. Heston, M. B. C. 1988. The palace murals at Padmanabhapuram:the politics of an image. Pages 115-131 in A pot-pourriof IndianArt. MargPublications, Bombay. Jouveau-Dubreuil, G. 1922. The Pallava paintings. HindustanReview, Pondichery.(Originallyprinted as a broadside with one illustration,Pudukottai, 1920). Kramrisch, S. 1928. The Vishnudharmottara, PartIII. CalcuttaUniversityPress, Culcutta. . 1936. Paintingsat Badami.Journalof the Indian Society of OrientalArt 4:57-61.

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