Child Development Laura e Berk PDF

 

CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 7/e © 2006

Laura Laur a E. Berk, Illinoi Illinois s State State University University

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“My City Priyanka Anandjiwala Age 13, India ” 

This portrayal of life in a complex urban environment captures a diversity of sensations and impressions related to history, commerce, transportation, resources, and culture. As the multiplicity of theories reviewed in this chapter reveal, a similarly complex blend of genetic, family, school, community, and societal forces influence child development. Reprinted with permission from the International Museum of Children’s Art, Oslo, Norway.

 

1 History, Theory,

The Field of Child Development Domains of Development of Development 

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Periods

Basic Issues

and Applied Directions

Continuous or Discontinuous Development? One Course of  Development or Many? Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture?  A  Balanced Point of View Biology and  

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Environment: Resilient Children

Historical Foundations Medieval Times  The Reformation Philosophies of the Enlightenment Darwin: Forefather of Scientific Child Study Scientific Beginnings From 

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Not long ago, I left my Midwestern home to live for a year near the small city in northern northe rn California California where where I spent spent my childhoo childhood. d. One morning, morning, I visited visited the neighborhood where I grew up—a place I had not seen since I was 12 years old. I stood at the entrance to my old schoolyard. schoolyard. Buildin Buildings gs and grounds that had looked large to me as a child now seemed strangely small. I peered through the window of my first-grade first-grade classroom. classroom. The desks were were no longer longer arranged arranged in rows rows but grouped in intimate intimate clusters clusters.. Computer Computerss rested rested against the far far wall, near where where I once sat. I walked my old old route home from from school, the distance distance shrunken shrunken by my  longer stride. stride. I stopped in front front of my best friend friend Kathryn’s Kathryn’s house, house, where we we once drew sidewalk pictures, crossed the street to play kick ball, and produced plays in the garage. In place of the small shop where where I had purchased penny penny candy stood stood a childcare center center,, filled with the voices and vigorous vigorous activity of toddlers and preschoolers. preschoolers. As I walked, I reflected on early experiences experiences that contributed to who I am and what I am like today—weekends helping my father in his downtown clothing shop, the year my my mother studied to become a high school teacher teacher,, moments of  companionship and rivalry with my sister sister and brother, brother, Sunday outings to museums and the seashore seashore,, and visits visits to my grandmother’ grandmother’ss house, wher wheree I became someone extra special. As I passed the the homes of my childhood childhood friends, friends, I thought of what I knew about about their prese present nt lives. lives. Kath Kathryn, ryn, star pupil pupil and and president president of our sixth-grade sixth-grade class class— — today a succe successful ssful corporat corporatee lawyer lawyer and mother mother of two. Shy Shy,, withdra withdrawn wn Phil, cru-

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Research to Practice: Social Change and  the Popular Literature on Parenting

Mid-Twentieth-Century Mid-T wentieth-Century Theories  The Psychoanalytic Perspective Behaviorism and Social Learning  Theory Piaget’s CognitiveDevelopmental Theory 

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Recent Theoretical Perspectives Information Processing Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology  Vygotsky’  Vygotsky’ss Sociocultural Theory Ecological Systems Theory New Directions: Development as a Dynamic System 

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Cultural Influences: !Kung Infancy:  Acquiring Culture

Comparing Child Development Theories Applied Directions: Child Development and Social Policy Culture and Public Policies Contributions of Child Development Research Looking Toward the 

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elly tease teased d because because of his cleft cleft lip—no lip—now w owner owner of a thriving thriving chain chain of hard hardware ware stores stor es and member of the city council. council. Jul Julio, io, immigra immigrant nt from Mexico Mexico who joined joined our class in third third grade—today director of an elementary school bilingual education program and single parent of an adopted Central American boy. boy. And finally, finally, my next-door next-door neighbor Rick, who picked fights at recess, struggled with reading, repeated repe ated fourth fourth grade, droppe dropped d out of high school, school, and (so I heard) heard) moved moved from from one job to another over the following 10 years. As you begin this this course in child child development, development, perhap perhapss you, too, are wonderwondering about some of the same questions that that crossed my mind during that nostalgic neighborhood walk:  In what ways are are children children’s ’s home, home, school, and neighborhood neighborhood experiences experiences the same today as they were in generations past, and in what ways are are they different?  How is the infant’s infant’s and young child’s child’s perception of the world the same as the adult’s, and how is it it different? 

 Social Issues: Welfare Reform, Future Poverty, and Child Development

What determines the features that humans have in common and those that make each of us unique—phys unique—physicall icallyy, mental mentally ly,, and behaviorally behaviorally??

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How did Julio, transplanted to a new culture at 8 years years of age, master its language and cuscustoms and succeed in its society, society, yet remain strongly identified with his ethnic community?  Wh Whyy do some of us, like Kathryn Kathryn and Rick, Rick, retai retain n the same styles styles of respo responding nding that that charcharacterized acter ized us as chil children, dren, wher whereas eas others, like Phil, Phil, chan change ge in essential ways? ways?  How does does cultural cultural change—emp change—employe loyed d mothers, mothers, chil child d care, divo divorce rce,, small smaller er families, families, and new technologies—affect children’s children’s characteristics and skills? These are central questions addressed by child development, a field devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception conception through adolescence. Child development is part of a larger larger disciplin disciplinee known as as developmental psychology, or or,, in its interdisci interdisciplina plinary  ry  sense, human sense,  human development, which includes all changes we experience throughout the lifespan. Great diversity diversity characterizes the interests and concerns concerns of investigators who study child development. But all have a common goal: to describe and identify those those factors that influence the consistencies consistencies and changes in young people during the first two decades of life. 

∞ Child development

involves such vast changes that researchers divide it into age periods. Members of this large family of the Republic of Congo, West Africa, represent each of those periods: toddlerhood (far left), early childhood (center, unhappy about having his picture taken), middle childhood (standing, center, and standing, far right), adolescence (sitting, right), and emerging adulthood (far left). (c) Uwe Ommer/ Families/Taschen ed.

The Field of Child Development Look again at the questions just listed, and you will see that they are not just of scientific interest.. Eac est Each h is of applied, of applied, or practical, practical, importan importance ce as well. well. In fact, fact, scien scientific tific curiosity curiosity is just just one factor that has led child child development to become the exciting exciting field of study it is today. today. Research about development has also been stimulated by social pressures pressures to better the lives lives of children. For example, example, the beginning beginning of public education education in the the early part of the twentieth twentieth century century led to a demand for knowledge knowledge about what what and how to teach childr children en of differ different ent ages. ages. Ped Pediaiatricians’ interest in improving improving children’s children’s health health required an understanding understanding of physical growth growth and nutrition. The social service profession’s profession’s desire to treat children’s children’s anxieties and behavior problems required information information about personality and social development. And parents have have continually asked for advice about child-rearing practices and experiences that would promote the well-being well-being of their child. child. Our large storehouse of information about child child development is is interdisciplinary. It has grown through through the combined combined efforts efforts of people from from many fields. fields. Becaus Becausee of the need for solusolutions to to everyday everyday problems concerning children, researcher researcherss from from psychology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology, and neuroscience neuroscience have have joined forces with professionals from education, family studies studies,, medici medicine, ne, public healt health, h, and social social service, to name name just just a few few.. The field field of chil child d developmen development, t, as it it exists exis ts today today, is a monument monument to to the contribut contributions ions of these many disciplin disciplines. es. Its body of knowl knowledge edge is not just scientifiscientifically important but relevant and useful.

Domains of Development To make the the vast, vast, inte interdis rdiscipl ciplinary inary study study of huma human n conconstancy and change change more orderly orderly and convenien convenient, t, development often is divided into three broad domains: physical, domains: physical, cognitive, and emotional and social. Refer to Figure 1.1 for a descripti desc ription on and illu illustrat stration ion of each each.. In this book, we will largely consider the domains of development in the order order  just mentioned. Yet we must keep in mind that they are not really distinct. Instead, they combine in an integrated, holistic fashion fashion to yield the living, living, gro growing wing child. child. Furt Furthermo hermore, re, each domain influences influences and is influenced by the others. For example, in Chapter Chapter 4, you will see that new motor capacities,, such as reach ties reaching, ing, sitt sitting, ing, cra crawlin wling, g, and walkin walkingg (physi(physical),, con cal) contribut tributee gre greatly atly to infa infants nts’’ under understan standing ding of thei theirr surroundings (cognitive) (cognitive).. When babies think think and act more competen comp etently tly,, adult adultss stimulate stimulate them more with games, games, language, and expressions expressions of delight at the the child’s child’s new achieveachieve-

 

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PhysicalinDevelopment Changes body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, and physical health

Emotional and Social Development Changes in emotional communication, self-understanding, knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior

Cognitive Development Changes in intellectual abilities, including attention, memory, academic and everyday knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity, and language

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ments (emotional ments (emotional and and social). social). Thes Thesee enriched enriched experien experiences ces,, in turn, prom promote ote all aspect aspectss of  development. You will encounter instances instances of the interwoven nature of all domains on almost every every page of thi thiss book book.. Als Also, o, look for the Ask Yourself featur of major secti sections. ons. Wi Within thin it, I Yourself  featuree at the end of have included Review  questions, which help you recall recall and think about information you have have Review questions,  just Apply questions, questions, which encourage you tochildren; apply your your knowledge to controversial controversial issuesread; issue s and Apply  problems faced by faced parents, teachers, teac hers, and child ren; questions, ions, which help help Connect quest Connect   you form a coherent, coherent, unified picture of child development; and Reflect  questions, ons, which invite Reflect questi  you to reflect on your own development and that of people you know well. The questions are designed to deepen your understanding and inspire new insights.

Periods of Development Besides distinguishing and then integrating the three three domains, another dilemma arises in discussin cus singg develop developmen ment: t: ho how w to divide divide the flow flow of tim timee into sensi sensible ble,, man manage ageabl ablee parts. parts. Researchers Research ers usually segment child development into the following following five periods. Each brings new capacities and social expectations that serve as important transitions in major theories: 1. The prenatal period: from conception to birth. This 9-month period is the most rapid time of chang change, e, during which which a one-celled one-celled organism organism is transformed transformed into a human baby with remarkable capacities for adjusting to life in the surrounding world. 2. Infancy and toddlerhood: from birth to 2 years. This period brings dramatic changes in the body and brain that that support the emergen emergence ce of a wide array of motor motor,, perc perceptual eptual,, and intelintellectuall capaciti lectua capacities; es; the beginn beginnings ings of langua language; ge; and first intima intimate te ties ties to others. others. Infan Infancy  cy 

Figure 1.1

Major domains of development. The three domains are not really distinct. Rather, they overlap and interact.

 

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spans the first year; toddlerhood spans the second, during which children children take their first independent steps, marking a shift to greater autonomy. autonomy. 3. Early childhood: from 2 to 6 years. The body becomes longer longer and leaner, leaner, motor skills are are refined, and children children become more self-controlled self-controlled and self-sufficient. Make-believe play  blossoms blosso ms and supports all aspects of psyc psychologic hological al development. development. Thought and language language expand expan d at an astounding pace, pace, a sense of morality becomes becomes evident, evident, and children children establish establish ties with peers. 4. Middle childhood: from 6 to 11 years. Children learn about the wider world and master m aster new  responsibilities that increasingly increasingly resemble those they will perform as adults. Improved athletic abilities, participation in organized organized games with rules, more logical thought processes, mastery maste ry of basic literac literacyy skills, skills, and advance advancess in self-unde self-understand rstanding, ing, morality morality,, and friendfriendship are are hallmarks hallmarks of this period. period. 5. Adolescence: from 11 to 18 years. This period initiates the transition to adulthood. Puberty  leads to an adult-size body and sexual maturity. maturity. Thought becomes abstract and idealistic, and schooling becomes increasingly directed toward preparation for higher education and the world of work. Young people begin to establish establish autonomy from the family and define personal values and goals. For many contemporary contemporary youths, especi especially ally those in industrialized industrialized nations, the transition to adult roles has became increasingl increasinglyy prolonged, result resulting ing in a new period of develop development ment called emerging adulthood, which spans ages 18 to 25. Although emerging adults have moved beyond adolescence, adolesc ence, they have not yet fully assumed adult roles. roles. Inste Instead, ad, they intensify intensify their exploration exploration of options in love, love, caree career, r, and personal personal values prior prior to making enduring enduring commitments commitments.. Because the period of emergin emergingg adulthood surfaced surfaced only during the past past few decades, resear researchers chers have have  just begun to to study it (Arnett, (Arnett, 2000; 2003) 2003).. Very likely, likely, it is your  is your peri period od of dev develop elopment ment.. In later later chapte cha pters, rs, we will touch touch on miles mileston tones es of emer emergin gingg adulthood adulthood,, whi which ch build build on adolescen adolescentt attainments. attainme nts. To find out more about this period, consul consultt the mini-chapter mini-chapter entitled entitled Emerging Adulthood, Adulth ood, availa available ble as a suppleme supplement nt to this text. With this introduction in mind, let’ let’ss turn to some basic issues that have have captivated, puzzled, and sparked debate among child development development theorists. Then our discussion will trace the emergence of the field and survey major theories.

Basic Issues Research on child development is a relatively recent endeavor. endeavor. It did not begin until unt il the late nineteenth and early twentieth twentieth centuries. centuries. Nev Neverthele ertheless, ss, ideas about how children children grow and change have existed existed for centuries. centuries. As these speculations combined with research, research, they inspired the construction of theories  of  theories of of dev develo elopme pment. nt. A theory  theory is is an orderly orderly,, inte integrated grated set set of state statements ments that that descri des cribes bes,, exp explai lains, ns, and predi predicts cts behavi behavior or.. For examp example, le, a good theory theory of inf infant ant–ca –care regiv giver er attachment would (1) describe  the behavior behaviorss of babies aroun around d 6 to 8 months of age as they  seek the the affection affection and and comfort comfort of a familiar familiar adult, adult, (2) explain  how and why infants develop explain how this strong desire to bond with a caregiver, caregiver, and (3) predict  (3) predict the the consequenc consequences es of this emotional emotional bond for future relationships. Theories are vital tools for two reasons. First, they provide organizing frameworks for our observations observa tions of chil children dren.. In other other word words, s, they guide and give meaning to see. Secon Second, d, meaning to what we see. theories that are verified by research research often serve as a sound basis for practical action. Once a theory helps us understand  development, we are in a much better position to know how to  the welfare and treatment of children. improve the improve  As we will see see later, later, theori theories es are influen influenced ced by cultural cultural values values and belief belief syste systems ms of their times. But theories differ in one important way from mere opinion opinion and belief: A theory’s concontinued existence depends on scientific verification. In other words, words, all theories must be tested using a fair set of research procedures procedures agreed on by by the scientific community. community. (W (Wee will consider research strategies in Chapter 2.) The field of child development contains many many theories with very different ideas about what children children are like and how they change. change. The study of child development development provides no ulti-

 

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Figure 1.2

Is development continuous or discontinuous? (a) Some theorists believe that development is a smooth, continuous process. Children gradually add more of the same types of skills. (b) Other theorists think that development takes place  o o  od  t h o  d u l t  A 

 

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(a) Continuous Development

Infancy

Adulthood

(b) Discontinuous Development

mate truth because because invest investigato igators rs do not always always agree on the meaning meaning of what they see. see. In addition, additi on, child children ren are complex complex beings beings;; they change change phys physicall icallyy, cogni cognitiv tively ely,, emotion emotionally ally,, and socially.. As yet, no single theory has been able to incorporate socially incorporate and explain all these aspects. However,, the existence of many theories helps advance knowledge as researchers However researchers continually  try to support, contra contradict, dict, and integrate integrate these these different different points points of view view.. Although there are many theories, almost all take a stand on three three basic issues: issues: (1) Is the coursee of devel cours development opment continu continuous ous or discontinuo discontinuous? us? (2) Does one course course of devel development opment characterize all children, or are there many possible courses? (3) Are Are genetic or environmental factors more important in influencing influencing development? Let’s Let’s look look closely at each of these issues.

Continuous or Discontinuous Development? Development? Recently, the mother of 20-month-old Angelo reported Recently, reported to me with amazement that her young young son had pushed a toy car across the living room floor while making a motorlike sound, “Brmmmm, “Brmmm m, brmmmm,” for the first first time. Whe When n he hit a nearby nearby wall with a bang, bang, Angel Angelo o let go of the car, car, exc exclaime laimed, d, “C’as “C’ash, h,”” and laughed laughed heartily heartily.. “How come Angelo Angelo can pretend, but he couldn’t couldn’t a few months ago?” queried his mother. mother. “And I wonder what ‘Brrmmmm, brmmmm’ and ‘Crash!’ mean to Angelo? Angelo? Is his understanding of motorlike sounds and collision similar to mine?” mine?” Angelo’ss mother has raised a puzzling issue about development: How can we best describe Angelo’ the differences differences in capacities and behavior between small infants, young children, children, adolescents, and adults? As Figure 1.2 1.2 illustrates, major theories recognize two possibilities. possibilities. One view holds that infants and preschoolers respond to the world in much the same way  as adults do. The difference between the immature and mature being is simply simply one of amount  of  amount  or complexity. For example, little Angelo’s Angelo’s thinking might be just as logical and well organized as our own. Perhaps (as his mother reports) he can can sort objects into simple categories, recognize whether he has more of one kind than another, another, and remember where he left his favorite favorite toy at child care the week before. Angelo’ Angelo’ss only limitation may be that he cannot perform these skillss with as much information skill information and precision precision as we can. If this is so, then Angelo Angelo’’s development is continuous continuous—a —a process process that that consists consists of gradual gradually ly adding adding more of the same types types of  skills that were there to begin with. Accordingg to a second Accordin second view, Angelo’ Angelo’ss thoughts, emotions, and behavior differ considerably  from fr om those those of of adul adults. ts. If so so,, the then n his his develo developme pment nt is discontinuous discontinuous—a —a process in which new  ways of understanding and responding responding to the world emerge at specific times. From this perperspective, Angelo is not yet able to organize organize objects or remember and interpret experiences experiences as

in discontinuous stages. Children change rapi rapidly dly as they step up to a new level of development and then change very little for a while. With each step, the child interprets and responds to the world in a qualitatively different way.

 

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∞ Will this 15-month-old’s

tantrums extend into a lifelong pattern of difficult behavior? Theorists emphasizing stability— that she will remain hard to manage—typically stress the importance of heredity. Others regard stability as due to early experiences—the way the mother handles her child’s emotional outbursts. Still others believe that change is possible if new experiences support it. © Laura Dwight Photography

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we do. do. Ins Instea tead, d, he will will move move thr through ough a serie seriess of dev develo elopmen pmental tal step steps, s, eac each h of whi which ch has has unique features features,, until he reaches reaches the highest highest level of funct functioning ioning.. Theories that accept the discontinuous perspective regard development as taking place in —qualitative changes changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific peristages—qualitative stages ods of devel development. opment. In stage stage theories theories,, devel development opment is much much like like climbing climbing a staircas staircase, e, with each step step corresponding to a more mature, reorganized way of functioning. The stage concept also assumes that children undergo periods of rapid transformation as they step up from one stage to the next, followed by plateaus plateaus during which they stand solidly within a stage. In other words, change is fairly fairly sudden rather than gradual and ongoing. Does development actually occur in a neat, orderly sequence sequence of stages? For For now, now, let’ let’ss note that this is a very ambitious assumption that has faced significant challenges. We will review  some influential stage theories later in this chapter.

One Course of Development or Many? Stage theorists assume that children children everywhere follow follow the same sequence of development. For example, example, in the domain domain of cogni cognition, tion, a stage theorist theorist might might try to identify identify the common common biological and environmental factors that lead children to represent their world through language and make-believe play in early childhood, childhood, to think more logically and systematically in middle childhood, and to reason abstractly in adolescence. adolescence. At the same time, the field of child development is becoming increasingly increasingly aware that that children grow up in distinct contexts, or unique combinations combinations of genetic and environmental environmental circumstances cumsta nces that that can result result in differen differentt paths of chan change. ge. For example, example, a shy child child who fears social encounters develops in very different different contexts from from those of a sociable agemate who readily seeks outencounter other people (Kagan, 2003). (Kagan, non-Western non-W estern village societies experiences in theirChildren families in and communities that differ sharply from from those of children in large Western Western cities. These different circumstances result in markedly different cognitive capacities, capaci ties, socia sociall skills, skills, and feelings feelings about about the self self and others others (Rogoff, (Rogoff, 2003;; Shw 2003 Shweder eder et al., al., 1998 1998). ). As you will see, contemporary theorists regard the contexts contexts that shape development as many-layered many-layered and complex. On the personal side, these include heredity and and biological makeup. makeup. On the environmental environmental side, they include include immedia immediate te settings settings,, such as as home, home, chil child-car d-caree center center,, school, and neighborhood, as well as circumstances circumstances more remote from from children’s children ’s everyday lives—community lives—community resources, resources, societal values and priorities, prioriti es, and historical historical time time period. Final Finally ly,, a special special interest interest in culture has led child development researchers to be more conscious than ever before before of diversity in development.

Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? In addition to describing describing the course course of devel development opment,, each theory theory takes a stand on a major question about its underlying underlying causes: Are genetic or environmental factors more important? This is the age-old nature– nurture controversy controversy.. By nature, we mean inborn biological givens— the hereditary information we receive from our parents at the moment m oment of con conce cepti ption. on. By nurture, we mean the complex forces forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth. Although all theories grant at least some role to both nature and nurture, nurtur e, they vary in emphas emphasis. is. For exampl example, e, cons consider ider the followi following ng questions: Is the older child’s child’s ability to think in more complex ways largely large ly the result result of an inborn inborn timetable timetable of growth growth?? Or is it primarily  primarily  influenced by stimulation from parents and teachers? Do children acquire language because they are genetically predisposed to do so or

 

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because parents intensively teach them from an early age? And what accounts for the vast individual differences among children—in height, weight, physical coordination, intelligence, personality, and social skills? Is nature or nurture nurture more responsible? A theory’s position on the roles of nature and nurture affects how it explains individual individual differences. Some theorists theorists emphasize stability —that —that children who are high or low in a characteristic (such as verbal ability, anxiety, or sociability) will remain so at later ages. ages. These theorists typically stress the importance of  heredity. If they regard regard environ environment ment as important, important, they usually point to early experiences as establishing a lifelong lifelong pattern of beha behavior vior.. Po Powerfu werfull experiences  as establishing negative events events in the first few years, years, they argue, cannot be fully overcome overcome by later later,, more positive iti ve ones ones (Bowlby (Bowlby,, 198 1980; 0; Joh Johnso nson, n, 200 2000; 0; Sr Sroufe oufe,, Ege Egelan land, d, & Kreutze Kreutzerr, 199 1990). 0). Oth Other er theorist theoristss are more optimistic. They believe that change  is possible and likely if new experiences support change is it (Green (Greenspan span & Shanker Shanker,, 2004 2004;; Mast Masten en & Ree Reed, d, 2002 2002;; Nels Nelson, on, 2002 2002). ). Throughout this book, you will see that investigat investigators ors disagree, often sharply, sharply, on the question of stability of  stability or change. The answers answers they they provide provide are of great practica practicall significan significance. ce. If you believe that development is largely largely due to nature, then providing experiences experiences aimed at promoting change change would would seem seem to be of littl littlee value. If, on the other other hand, hand, you are are convince convinced d of the supreme supre me importance importance of early experienc experience, e, then you would would intervene intervene as soon as possible, offering high-quality stimulation and support to ensure that children develop at their best. Finally Finally,, if you think that environment environment is profoundly influential throughout development, you would provide assistance assistance any time children or adolescents face difficulties, believing that, with the help of favorable life circumstances, they can recover recover from early negative events.

A Balanced Point of View So far, far, we have have discu discussed ssed the basic basic issue issuess of chil child d developme development nt in terms of extre extremes— mes— solutions on one side side or the other. other. As we trace the the unfolding of the field in the rest of this chapter,, you will see that ter that the positions positions of many theorists theorists have have softened softened.. Conte Contemporary mporary ones, ones, especially,, recogniz cially recognizee the merits of both sides. Some theorists believe that both continuous continuous and and discontinuous changes changes occur. occur. And some acknowledge that development can have both universal features and features features unique to the individual and his or her contexts. Furthermore, an increasing number of investigat investigators ors regard heredity heredity and environment as inseparably interwoven, interwoven, each affecting the potential of the other to modify the child’s child’s traits and capacities (Huttenlocher, (Huttenlocher, 2002;; Reis 2002 Reiss, s, 2003 2003;; Rutt Rutter er,, 2002 2002). ). We will discuss discuss these new new ideas about nature nature and nurture nurture in Chapter 3. Finally, as you will see later later in this book, the relative relative impact of early and later later experiences experiences varies greatly from from one domain of development to another and even (as the Biology and Environment box on pages 10–11 indicates) indicates) across individuals! Because of the complex network of factor factorss contributing contributing to human change change and the challeng challengee of isola isolating ting the effects effects of  each, many theoretical theoretical viewpoints have gathered research research support. Although debate continues, this circumstance circumstance has also sparked more balanced visions of child development.

 Askk Yo  As Your urse self   lf  

 

 

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REVIEW

Why are there many theories of child development? Cite three basic issues on which almost all theories take a stand.

APPLY

A school counselor advises a parent, “Don’t worry about your teenager’s argumentative behavior. It shows that she understands the world differently than she did as a young child.” What stance is the counselor taking on the issue of continuous or discontinuous development? Explain.

CONNECT

Provide an example of how one domain of development (physical, cognitive, or emotional/social) can affect development in another domain.

REFL ECT

Cite an aspect of your development that differs from a parent’s or grandparent’s when he or she was  your age. How might contexts explain this difference?

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Resilient Children

 John and his h is best friend Gary grew up in a

Coatsworth, 1998). Why did Gary “beat

are protective factors. They increase the

run-down, crime-ridden inner-city neighborhood. By age 10, each had experienced years of family conflict followed by parental divorce. Reared for the rest of childhood and adolescence adolescenc e in mother-headed households,  John and Gary rarely rarely saw their their fathers. Both Both dropped out of high school and were in and out of trouble with the police. Then John and Gary’s paths diverged. By age 30, John had fathered two children with women he never married, had spent time in prison, was unemployed, and drank  alcohol heavily. In contrast, Gary had returned to finish high school, studied auto mechanics at a communit community y college, and became manager of a gas station and repair shop. Married with two children, he had saved his earnings and bought a home. He was happy, healthy, and well adapted to life. A wealth of evidence shows that environmental risks risk s—poverty, negative family interactions, parental divorce, job loss, mental illness, and drug abuse abuse— —predispose children to future problems (Masten &

the odds” and come through unscathed? New evidence on resilience—the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development—is receiving increasing attention because investigators investigators want to find ways to protect young people from the damaging effects of stressful life conditions (Masten & Powell, 2003). This inter interest est has been inspired by several long-term studies on the relationship of life stressors in childhood to competence and adjustment in adolescence and adulthood (Fergusson (Fergusson & Horwood, 2003; Garmezy, 1993; Masten et al., 1995; Werner & Smith, 1992). In each study, some individuals were shielded from negative outcomes, whereas others had lasting problems. Four broad factors seemed to offer protection from the damaging effects of stressful life events.

chances that a child will have rewarding experiences in school and in the community that offset the impact of a stressful home life. Temperament is particularly powerful. Children with easy-going, sociable dispositions have an optimistic outlook on life and a special capacity to adapt to change—qualities that elicit positive responses from others. In contrast, emotionally reactive, irritable, and impulsive children often tax the patience of  people around them (Masten & Reed, 2002; Masten et al., 1999). For example, both John and Gary moved several times during their childhoods. Each time, John became anxious and angry. Gary looked forward to making new friends and exploring a new neighborhood.

A Warm Parental Relationship Personal Characteristics of Children A child’s child’s biologically endowed characteristics can reduce exposure to risk or lead to experiences that compensate for early stressful events. High intelligence and socially valued talents (in music or athletics, for example)

A close relationship with at least one parent who provides warmth, appropriately high expectations, monitoring of the child’ chi ld’ss activities, and an organized home environment fosters resilience. But note that this factor (as well as the next one) is not inde-

Historical Foundations Contemporary theories Contemporary theories of chil child d development development are the result result of cent centuries uries of chan change ge in Weste Western rn cultural values, philosophical thinking about children, children, and scientific scientific progress. progress. To understand the field as it exists today, we must return to its beginnings—to influences that long preceded scientific child study. study. We will see that early ideas about children linger as important forces in current theory and research.

Medieval Times Historical artifacts and writings show that childhood childhood was regarded as a separate period of life as early as medieval Europe—the sixth through the fifteenth centuries. Medieval painters often depicted children children as childlike—dressed in loose, comfortable gowns while playing games and looking up to adults. Written texts contained terms that distinguished distinguished children under age 7 or 8 from other people and that recognized even young teenagers as not fully  mature (Lett, 1997). Archeological digs have have unearthed small bowls and eating utensils, toys, dolls, and other objects, which reveal reveal that adults were sensitive to to children’s children’s physical limitations and psychological needs.

 

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pendent of children’s personal characteristics. Children who are relaxed, socially responsive, and able to deal with change are easier to rear and more likely to enjoy positive relationships with parents and other people. At the same time, some chil-

Community Resources and Opportunities

dren may develop more attractive dispositions as a result of parental warmth and attention (Conger & Conger, 2002).

well-being. In addition, opportunities to participate in community life help older children and adolescents overcome overcome adversity. Extracurricular activities at school, religious youth groups, scouting, and other organizations teach important social skills, such as cooperation, leadership, and contributing to others’’ welfare. As a result, participants others gain in self-esteem, responsibility, responsibility, and community communit y commitment. As a high school student, Gary volunteered for Habitat for Humanity, a nonprofit organization that builds affordable housing in low-income low- income neighborhoods. Community involvement i nvolvement offered Gary additional opportunities to form meaningful relationships and develop new competencies, which further strengthened his resilience (Seccombe, (Seccombe, 2002). Research on resilience highlights the complex connections between heredity and environment. Armed with positive characteristics, which stem from innate endowment, favorable rearing experiences, or both, children and adolescents take action to reduce stressful situations.

Social Support Outside the Immediate Family The most consistent asset of resilient children is a strong bond to a competent, caring adult, who need not be a parent. A grandparent, aunt, uncle, or teacher who forms a special relationship with the child can promote resilience (Masten & Reed, 2002). Gary received support in adolescence from his grandfather, who listened to Gary’s Gary’s concerns and helped him solve problems. In addition, Gary’s Gary’s grandfather had a stable marriage and work life and handled stressors skillfully. Consequently, he served as a model of effective coping. Associations with rule-abiding peers who value school achievement are also linked to resilience. But children who have positive relationships with adults are far more likely to establish these supportive peer ties.

Community supports—good schools, convenient and affordable health care and social services, libraries, and recreation centers— centers —foster both bo th parents’ and a nd children’ children’ss

Nevertheless, when many risks pile up, they are increasingly difficult to overcome (Quyen et al., a l., 1998). 1998). Therefore, interventions must reduce risks and enhance relationships at home, in school, and in the community that inoculate children against the negative effects of risk. This means attending to both the person and the environment—strengthening children’s capacities as well as reducing hazardous experiences.

 This girl’s special relationship with her

grandfather provides the social support she needs to cope with stress and solve problems constructively. A warm tie with a person outside the immediate family can promote resilience. © Alan Hicks/ Getty Images/ Stone

theh,fourteenth fourteent century century, manuals manua offering advi advice ce of chil child care, includinclu ding By health, healt feedin fee ding, g, hclo clothi thing, ng,, gam games, es, ls and participati partici pation onon inmany familyaspects family life, had becd become ome com common mon (Alexandre-Bidon & Lett, 1997). Laws recognized recognized that children children needed protection protection from people who might mistreat them. And courts exercised leniency leniency with lawbreaking youths because of their tender tender years years (Hanaw (Hanawalt, alt, 1993 1993). ). In sum, sum, in medieval medieval times, if not before, before, clear awar awareness eness exis existed ted of chil children dren as vulnerabl vulnerablee beingss and of chil being childhood dhood as a disti distinct nct developmenta developmentall period. Rel Religious igious writings, writings, howe however ver,, contained contradictory beliefs about children’s children’s basic nature. Sometimes infants were portrayed as possessed by the devil and in in need of purification through exorcism exorcism and baptism. At other times, they were were characterized characterized as innocent innocent and close close to angels (Hanawal (Hanawalt, t, 2003 2003). ). Both ideas foreshadowed views of childhood in succeeding centuries.

The Reformation In the sixteenth sixteenth century century,, a revised image image of chil childhood dhood sprang sprang from the Puritan Puritan belief in original sin. Accor According ding to Puritan Puritan doctrine, children were were born evil and stubborn and had to be civilized (Shahar, (Shahar, 1990). Harsh, restrictive child-rearing practices were were recommended recommended to tame the depraved child. Children were were dressed in stiff, uncomfortable clothing that held them in adultlike postures, and disobedient students were were routinely beaten beaten by their schoolmasters.

 

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Although punitiveness was the prevailing child-rearing philosophy, love and affection for their children prevented many Puritan parents from exercising extremely repressive measures (Moran & Vinovskis, Vinov skis, 1986). As the Puritans Puritans emigrated emigrated from England England to America, they  brought brou ght the belief belief that child child rearing rearing was one of thei theirr most important obligations.Although obligations. Although they continued to regard the child’s child’s soul as tainted by original original sin, they tried to encourage their sons and daughters to use reason so they could separate right from wrong (Clarke-Stewart, 1998). The Puritans were the first to devise special reading materials for children that instructed them in religious and moral ideals. As they trained their children in in self-reliance and self-control, Puritan parents parents gradually adopted a moderate balance between severity and permissiveness permissiveness (Pollock, (Pollock, 1987).

Philosophies of the Enlightenmen Enlightenmentt The seventeenth-century Enlightenment brought new philosophies of reas reason on and and emphasiz emphasized ed ideals ideals of human dignity and respect. Conceptions of childhood were were more more humane than those of cen centuries turies past. writings of John Locke (1632 (1632–1704 –1704), ), a JOHN LOCKE The writings leading leadi ng British philosoph philosopher er,, serve served d as the forerunner forerunner of a twentieth-century perspective that we will discuss shortly: behavior

∞

As far back as medieval times, adults regarded childhood as a distinct developmental period and were sensitive to children’s needs. In this fourteenthcentury image painted in a book of songs, children play a lively game of Blind Man’s Bluff in a garden, dressed in loose, comfortable gowns. © The Art Archive/Biblioth Archive/Bibliothèque èque Universitaire de Mèdecine, Montpellier/Dagli Montpellier/Da gli Orti

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ism. Lock viewed viewed the child child as a tabula rasa. Translated from Latin, this means means a “blank “blank slate. slate.” Acc Accordin ordingg to this idea, idea, chil children dren are, are, to begin with, with, nothi nothing ng at all, and all kinds of exper experienc iences es can shape their their characte characters. rs. Locke (1690/ (1690/1892 1892)) described described parents as rational tutors who can mold the child child in any way way they wish, through careful instruction, instru ction, effec effective tive example, example, and rewards rewards for good behavior. behavior. He was ahead of his time in recommending child-rearing child-rearing practices that present-day present-day research supports. For example, Locke suggested that parents reward children not with money or sweets but with praise and approval. He also opposed physical physical punishment: “The child repeatedly repeatedly beaten in school cannot look upon books bo oks and teachers without experiencing fear and anger.” anger.” Locke’ Locke’ss philosophy  led to a change from harshness toward children to kindness and compassion. Look carefully at Locke’s Locke’s ideas, and you will see that he regarded development development as continuous ; adultl adultlike ike behaviors behaviors are gradually gradually built up through through the warm, cons consiste istent nt teachings teachings of parents. Furthe Furthermore rmore,, his view of the child child as a tabula rasa meant meant that he champion championed ed nurture — the power power of the environ environment ment to shape shape the child. child. And his faith faith in nurture nurture suggests suggests the possibility of many of  many courses courses of develop development  ment and and of change of  change at later ages due ages due to new experiences. Finally,, Locke’ Finally Locke’ss philosophy characterizes children as doing little to influence their own destiny,, which is written tiny written on “blank “blank slates slates”” by others. others. This vision vision of a passive passive child has been been discarded. All contemporary theories view children as active, purposeful beings who make sense of their world and and contribute substantially to to their own development. development. JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU In the eighteenth century, French philosopher Jean-Jacque Jean-Jacquess Rousseau (1712–1778) introduced a new new view of childhood. Children, Rousseau (1762/1955) claimed, are not blank slates and empty containers containers to be filled by adult instruction. Instead, they are noble savages, naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and with an innate plan for orderly, orderly, healt healthy hy growth. growth. Unl Unlike ike Locke, Locke, Rous Rousseau seau thought childre children’ n’ss built-in moral sense and unique unique ways of think thinking ing and feeling feeling would only be harmed harmed by adult training. training. His was a child-centered philosophy in which adults should be receptive to the child’s needs at each of four stages stages:: infan infancy cy,, chil childhood, dhood, late chil childhood, dhood, and adoles adolescenc cence. e. Rousseau’s Rousseau ’s philosophy includes two influential concepts. concepts. The first is the concept of  stage, 

 

which we discussed earlier. earlier. The second is the concept concept of  maturation,  maturation, which refers to a geneticallyy determined, icall determined, natura naturally lly unfoldin unfoldingg course course of growt growth. h. In contrast contrast to Locke, Locke, Rouss Rousseau eau saw  saw  children as determining their their own destinies. And he took a different stand on basic develop-

 

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mental issues. He saw saw development as a discon process that follows a single, discontinuou tinuous, s, stagewis stagewise  e process unified course mapped course mapped out by nature.

Darwin: Forefather of Scientific Child Study A century after Rousseau, British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) (1809–1882) joined an expedition to distant parts parts of the world, world, wher wheree he observed infinite infinite variation variation among among plant and animal species. speci es. He also also saw that within within a species, species, no two individual individualss are exactly exactly alike. alike. From these these observations, he constructed his famous theory of evolutio evolution. n. The theory emphasized two related principles: natural selection and selection  and survival of the fittes fittest. t. Darwin explained that certain certain species survive in particular parts of the world because they  havee characteris hav characteristics tics that fit with, or are adapted adapted to, their surroundin surroundings. gs. Other species species die off  because they are not as well suited suited to their environments. environments. Individuals within a species who best meet the survival requirements requirements of the environment live long enough to reproduce and pass their more beneficial beneficial characteristics to to future generations. Darwin’ Darwin’ss emphasis on the adaptive value of physical characteristics characteristics and behavior eventually found its way way into important twentieth-century twentieth-century theories (Cairns, 1998). During his explorations, Darwin discovered that the early prenatal prenatal growth of many species is strikingly similar. Other scientists concluded from Darwin’s Darwin’s observation that the development of the human child follows the same general plan as the the evolution of the human species. Although Althou gh this belief even eventually tually proved proved inaccura inaccurate, te, efforts to chart parallels parallels between between child child growth and human evolution prompted researchers researchers to make careful careful observations of all aspects of chil children dren’s ’s behavior behavior.. Out of these first first attempts attempts to document an idea idea about development, development, scientific child study was born.

Scientific Beginnings

Research on child development evolved quickly during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. centuries. Early observations of children were soon followed by improved improved methods and theories. Each advance contributed to the firm foundation on which the field rests today. today. THE BABY BIOGRAPHIES Imagin Imaginee yourself yourself as a forerunner forerunner in the field of chil child d development, confronted with studying children children for the first time. How might you go about this challenging task? Scientists of the late nineteenth and early early twentieth centuries did what most of us would probab probably ly do—they do—they selected selected a child child of their own own or of a close relati relative. ve. Then, beginning in early infancy, infancy, they jotted down day-by-day descriptions and impressions impressions of the child’s child’s behavior. By the 1890s, these baby biographies were being published regularly regularly.. In the following excerpt excerpt from one, the author reflects reflects on the birth of her young niece: 

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Its fir first st act act is is a cry cry,, not of wrat wrath, h, . . . nor a shout shout of joy joy,, . . . but a snuff snufflin ling, g, and the then n a long long,, thin tear tearless less á—á, with the the timbre timbre of a Scotch Scotch bagpip bagpipe, e, pure purely ly automa automatic, tic, but of disc discomomfort. Wi With th this this monoto monotonous nous and dismal dismal cry cry,, with its its red, red, shri shrivel veled, ed, parboi parboiled led skin skin . . ., it is not strange strange that, that, if the mother mother . . . has not come come to love love her child child before before birth, birth, ther theree is a brief  interval occasionally dangerous to the child before the maternal instinct is fully aroused. It cannot be denied that this unflattering unflattering description description is fair enough, and our baby was no handsomerr than the rest handsome rest of her kind. kind. . . . Yet she did not lack admirers admirers.. I have have never never noticed noticed that women women (even those who are are not mothers) mothers) mind mind a few little little aesthetic aesthetic defects, defects, . . . with so many counterba counterbalancin lancingg charms in the little little warm,soft, warm, soft, living thing. (Shinn (Shinn,, 1900 1900,, pp. 20–21 20–21)) Can you tell from this passage why the baby biographies have sometimes been upheld as examples examp les of ho how w not  to study children? These first investigators tended to be emotionally  invested inve sted in the infants they observed, and they seldom seldom began with a clear idea idea of what they  wanted to find out. Not surprisingly, surprisingly, many of their records records were eventually eventually discarded discarded as biased. Nevertheless, the baby biographies were a step in the right direction. Two nineteenthnineteenthcentury cent ury theorists, theorists, Darwin (1877) (1877) and German biologist Willia William m Preyer (1882/18 (1882/1888), 88), contributed to these early records of children children’s ’s behavior behavior.. Preyer Preyer,, especially especially,, set high standards for making observation observations, s, reco recordin rdingg what he saw immediately immediately and checking the accuracy accuracy of his notes against against those those of a second second observer observer (Cairns, (Cairns, 1998 1998). ). These are are the same standard standardss that

 

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today’s researc today’s researchers hers use when when observing childr children. en. As a result of the biographers biographers’’ pione pioneering ering efforts,, the child efforts child became a common focus of scien scientific tific researc research. h. Stanley ley Hall Hall (184 (1844–1 4–1924 924), ), one of the most most influe influentia ntiall THE NORMATIVE PERIOD G. Stan American psychologi psychologists sts of the early twentieth twentieth century, century, is generally generally regarded as the founder of the child study movement movement (Hogan, (Hogan, 2003). Inspir Inspired ed by Darwin’s Darwin’s work, Hall and his well-known well-known student, Arnold Gesell Gesell (1880–196 (1880–1961), 1), develop developed ed theories based based on evolutionary evolutionary ideas. ideas. These early  early  leaders regarded child development as a maturational process —a —a genetically determined series of  events that that unfolds automaticall automaticallyy, much like like a blooming flower flower (Gesell, (Gesell, 1933; Hall, 1904) 1904).. Hall and Gesell are remembered less for their one-sided theories than for their intensive efforts to describe describe all aspects aspects of chil child d development. development. This launched launched the normative approach, in which which measures measures of of behav behavior ior are are taken taken on large large numbers numbers of indivi individuals, duals, and age-rel age-related ated averages are computed to represent typical development. Using this procedure, procedure, Hall constructed elaborate questionnaires questionnaires asking children of different ages almost everything they  could tell about themse themselve lves—int s—interes erests, ts, fears fears,, imagin imaginary ary playmates, dream dreams, s, friend friendships ships,, everyday knowledge knowledge,, and more (White, (White, 1992 1992). ). And through through careful careful observations observations and interview interviewss with parents, Gesell obtained detailed normative information on infants’ and young children’ children’ss motor achievements, social behaviors, and personality characteristics. Gesell was also among the first to make knowledge about child development meaningful to parents pare nts by informi informing ng them them of what to expec expectt at each age. age. If, as he believe believed, d, the timetab timetable le of  development is the product of millions of years of evolution, then children children are naturally naturally knowlknowledgeable edge able about thei theirr needs. needs. His child child-rea -rearing ring advi advice, ce, in the the tradition tradition of Rous Rousseau seau,, rec recomommended sensitivity to children children’s ’s cues (Thelen & Adolph, Adolph, 1992). Along with Benjamin Spock’s Spock’s famous Baby and Child Care, Gesell’ Gesell’ss books became a central part of a rapidly expanding child child 

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development literature for parents (see the From Research to Practice box on page 15). THE MENTAL TESTING MOVEMENT While Hall and Gesell were developing their theories and methods in the United States, French psychologist Alfred Alfred Binet (1857–1911) was also taking a normative approach to child child development, but for a different reason. reason. In the early  1900s, Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon were were asked by Paris school officials to find a way to identify children with learning problems who needed to be placed in special classes. The first successful successful intellig intelligence ence test, test, which they construct constructed ed for this purpose, grew out of  practical educational concerns. Binet’ss effort was unique in that he began with a well-developed theory. In contrast to earBinet’ lier views, views, whic which h reduced reduced intelligenc intelligencee to simple elements elements of reac reaction tion time and sensitivity sensitivity to physical physical stimuli, stimuli, Binet captured captured the complexity complexity of chil children dren’s ’s thinking. thinking. He defined defined intelligencee as good judgment, planni genc planning, ng, and critical critical reflection reflection (Sternber (Sternbergg & Jarvin, 2003 2003). ). Then he selected test items appropriate for each age that directly measured these abilities. 

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Inersity. 1916,Since Binet’s Binet’ s test adapted for has use been with known English-speaking children atIntelligence  children Stanford Univ University. then, thewas English version as the Stanford-Binet successfully predict school achievement, achievement, the Binet Scale. Besides providing a score that could successfully test sparked tremendous interest interest in individual differences differences in development. Comparisons of  the intelligen intelligence ce test scores scores of chil children dren who vary in gender, gender, ethni ethnicity city,, birth order, order, family backbackground, and other characteristics became a major focus of research. Intelligence tests also rose quickly to the forefront of the nature–nurture controversy controversy.. JAMES MARK BALDWIN: EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIST A final important figure, figure, ove overlook rlooked ed in the hist history ory of chil child d development development for decades, is American American psycholpsychologist James Mark Baldwin (1861–1934), (1861–1934), who carried out his innovative work work in both Canada and the United States. Both a theorist and a keen observer of children children’s ’s behavior, Baldwin’ Baldwin’ss (1897) rich interpretations of development are experiencing a revival today. today. He believed believed that children’s children ’s understanding understanding of their physical and social worlds worlds develops through a sequence of  stages, beginning with the simplest behavior patterns of the newborn infant and concluding with the adult’s adult’s capacity to think abstractly and reflective reflectively ly (Cairns, 1992, 1998). Yet Baldwin regarded neither the child nor the environment environment as in control of development. Instead, Inste ad, he granted granted nature and nurture nurture equal importance. importance. Childr Children, en, he argued, activ actively ely revise revise 

 

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Social Change and the Popular Literature on Parenting

Almost all parents—especially new ones—

argue that parents are all-powerful, others

feel a need for sound advice on how to rear their children. To meet this need, experts have long been communicating with the general public through a wide variety of  popular books and magazines. Prior to the 1970s, publications emphasized the central role of mothers in healthy child development. In the 1980s, fathers were encouraged to share in the full range of child-rearing responsibilities as research revealed that they influence all aspects of psychologic psychological al development. Around that time, information about nonparental child care appeared. Experts reassured employed mothers that their babies did not require their continuous presence presenc e and offered advice on how to select good child care (Young, 1990). From the midmid -1990s to the present, an increasing number of books responded to concerns over the consequences of social change for parents parents’’ and children children’’s well-being. well -being. More working parents complained of overly demanding lives and reported spending less time with their children in joint mealtimes, conversations, and leisure activities (Hofferth & Sandberg, 1999). At the same time, many parents reported worrisome changes in their children, including reduced engagement in school and increases in emotional and

grant supremacy to children’s biological makeup. In the face of these incompatible messages, many parents come to doubt their own importance and retreat from involvement with their children. Berk  argues that in view of the many factors in American society that threaten children’s development, parenting today not only matters, but matters more than ever. In a similar vein, James Garbarino and Claire Bedard (2001), in Parents under Siege, address youth antagonism and violence, including the recent spate of heinous crimes resulting in family and school maimings and murders. Because multiple factors— including an impulsive, explosive temperament; unfavorable school experiences; and antisocial peer inf luences luences— —contribute to these tragedies, parents are not to blame for them. But, Garbarino and Bedard emphasize, parents nevertheless bear considerable responsibility. They often are unaware of  everyday experiences that lead their youngster down the path to violence. In terms of solutions, most experts writing for parents affirm the need for greater adult involvement in children’s lives. Berk  (2001a) shows how essential cognitive, moral, and social capacities emerge from

behavior problems (Vandivere, Gallagher, & Moore, 2004). And in one nationally representative survey of American parents, more than half judged the job that they were doing in rearing their children as “fair” or “poor.” Many of these respondents believed that parents of previous generations had done better (Public Agenda, 2002). Few felt that they knew what to do to rear their children effectively. In Awakening Children’s Minds, Laura Berk (2001a) points out that parents’ efforts to rear competent, competent, well-adjusted well- adjusted children are complicated complicat ed by both unfavorable cultural influences (such as scarcity of high-quality child care and harmful media messages) and a contradictory parenting-advice literature. Whereas some parenting manuals

parent–child communication communication in such seemingly mundane pursuits as a bedtime story, a homework assignment, or a family dinner. Garbarino and Bedard (2001) make a case for “empowered parenting,” in which parents consider their youngster’s strengths and limitations while closely monitoring and, when necessary,, intervening in the social environnecessary ment. They also admonish parents to provide a “moral compass of character” by insisting that children meet standards for personal achievement and caring for others. And in The Ten Basic Principles of Good Parenting, Laurence Steinberg (2004) aims to restore in parents a philosophy of good child rearing by outlining ten research-based parenting strategies that help children become kind, secure, and competent. These include: be loving,

 Experts writing for contemporary par-

ents often emphasize the importance of increased adult involvement in children’s lives. Much research shows that parents, while not all-powerful, profoundly influence their children’s development. (c) Nancy Sheehan/ Index Stock

 

establish rules and set limits, treat your child with respect, and fost foster er independence by helping your child think through decisions. Yet increasingly, popular advice has underscored that parents cannot do the job alone; they need the help of a caring community and society. As you study child development, read one or more popular books on parenting and evaluate their advice on the basis of what you have learned. How is the growing agreement of  experts with the African proverb, “It takes a village to raise a child, child,”” consistent with the focus of current theories on contexts for development, described later in this chapter?

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their ways ways of thinki thinking ng about the world, world, but they also learn learn through habit, habit, or by copying copying others’ behaviors. As development proceeds, the child and her social surroundings influence each other,, formin other formingg an inse inseparable parable,, inte interwov rwoven en network. Consider these ideas, and you will see why Baldwin (1895) (1895) argued that heredity and environment ronme nt should not be viewed viewed as distinct, distinct, opposin opposingg forces. forces. Inste Instead, ad, he claimed, claimed, most human characteristics are are “due to to both causes working working together” (p. 77). As we turn now to an overview of modern theories theories of chil child d development, development, you will find find Baldwin’ Baldwin’ss ideas repres represented ented in in several, especially the more recent recent ones.

 Askk Yo  As Your urse self   lf  

 

WWW

REVIEW

Imagine a debate between John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau on the nature–nurture controversy. Summarize the argument each historical figure is likely to present.

CONNECT

What do the ideas of Rousseau, Darwin, and Hall have in common?

REFL ECT

Find out if your parents read Gesell, Spock, or other parenting advice books when you were growing up. What questions about child rearing most concerned them? Do you think today’s parents have concerns that differ from those of your parents? Explain.

Mid-Twentieth-Century Mid-T wentieth-Century Theories In the mid-twentieth century, century, the field of child development expanded into a legitimate discipline. Specialized research centers centers and professional societies devoted devoted to the scientific study  of children were were founded. A leader among these these is the Society for Research Research in Child Development, establ established ished in 1933 1933 to promote promote interdisci interdisciplina plinary ry research, research, disse disseminati mination on of inform informaation, and applicati applications ons of rese research arch findin findings. gs. The society’ society’ss inaugural inaugural membershi membership p of 425 grew  grew  rapidly.. Today rapidly oday,, appro approximat ximately ely 5,500 5,500 rese research archers, ers, applie applied d professi professionals, onals, and student studentss from from more than 50 countries are members. As child development development attracted increasing increasing interest, interest, a variety of mid-twentieth mid-twentieth-century -century theories emerged, each of which continues continues to to have followers today today.. In these theories, theories, the European European concern with the child’s inner thoughts and feelings contrasts sharply with the focus of  American academic psychology on scientific precision precision and concrete, observable behavior. behavior.

The Psychoanalytic Perspective By the 1930s and 1940s, parents increasingly sought help from professionals to deal with children suffering from from emotional stress and behavior behavior problems. The earlier normative normative movement had answered the question, What are children children like? But now another problem had to be addressed: How and why do children become become the way they are? To To treat psychological problems, psychiatrists and social workers workers turned to an emerging approach to personality personality development that emphasized the unique history of each child. child. According to the psychoanalytic perspective, children move move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. The way these conflicts are resolved resolved determines the person’ person’ss ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety. Although many individuals contributed to the psychoanalytic psychoanalytic perspective, two have have been especia especially lly influent influential: ial: Sigmun Sigmund d Freud, Freud, founde founderr of the psychoan psychoanalytic alytic movemovement, and Erik Erikson. Erikson. (1856–1939), a Viennese Viennese physician, physician, saw patients in his pracFREUD’S THEORY Freud (1856–1939), ticee with a varie tic variety ty of nerv nervous ous sympto symptoms, ms, suc such h as halluc hallucina inatio tions, ns, fea fears, rs, and paral paralyse yses, s, tha thatt appeared to have have no physical physical basis. Seeking a cure for these troubled adults, Freud found that 

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their symptoms could be relieved by having having patients talk freely about painful events events of their childhoods. Working with these remembrances, Freud examined the unconscious unconscious motivations of his patients patients and construc constructed ted his his psychosexual theory. It emphasized that how parents

 

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HISTORY, THEORY, AND APPLIED DIRECTIONS

FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

Psycho Psyc hose sexu xual al Stage

Approx Appr oxim imat atee Age

Ora rall

Bir irth th–1 –1 ye year ar

The ne new w ego ego di dire rect ctss th the bab babyy’s su suck ckin ing g act actiivi viti ties es to towa ward rd br brea easst or or bo bott ttlle. If ora orall nee needs ds ar aree not not met appropriately, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing in childhood and overeating and smoking later in life.

Anal

1–3 ye years

Young to toddlers an and pre presschoolers en enjoy ho holding an and re releasing ur urine an and fe feces. To Toilet tr training becomes a major issue between parent and child. If parents insist that children be trained before they are ready or make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and disorder.

Pha hallli licc

3–6 3– 6 yea years rs

Id im impu pullse sess tra tran nsf sfer er to th thee gen genit ital alss, and and th thee chi chilld fin find ds ple pleas asur uree in in gen genit ital al st stiimu mullat atio ion. n. Fr Freu eud d’s Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise, and young children feel a sexual desire for the other-sex parent. To avoid punishment, they give up this desire and, instead, adopt the same-sex parent’s characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed. The relations between id, ego, and superego established at this time determine the individual’s basic personality.

Late La tenc ncyy

6–11 6– 11 ye year arss

Sexual Sexu al in inst stin inct ctss die die do down wn,, and and th thee sup super ereg ego o dev devel elop opss fur furth ther er.. The The ch chil ild d acq acqui uire ress new new so soci cial al va valu lues es from adults outside the family and from play with same-sex peers.

Geni Ge nita tall

Adol Ad oles esce cenc ncee

Pubert Pube rtyy cau cause sess the the se sexu xual al imp impul ulse sess of th thee pha phall llic ic st stag agee to re reap appe pear ar.. If If dev devel elop opme ment nt ha hass bee been n successful during earlier stages, it leads to mature sexuality, marriage, and the birth and rearing of children.

Description

manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development. Three Parts Parts of the Personality Personality.. In Freud’ Freud’ss theory, theory, three parts of the personal personality—id, ity—id, ego ego,, and superego—become superego—become integrated during five five stages, summarized in Table 1.1. The id, the largest large st portion portion of of the mind, mind, is the the source source of of basic biologi biological cal needs and desire desires. s. The ego, the conscious cons cious,, ration rational al part of perso personality nality,, emerg emerges es in early infancy infancy to redirect the id’s id’s impulses so they are discharged discharged in acceptabl acceptablee ways. For example, example, aided by the ego, the hungry baby of  a few months of age stops crying when he sees his mother warm a bottle or unfasten her clothing for breastfeeding. And the more competent preschooler preschooler goes into the kitchen kitchen and gets a snack on her own. Between Betwe en 3 and and 6 years years of age, the superego, or conscience, conscience, develops from interactions interactions with parents, parent s, who insist that children children conform conform to the values of society society.. Now the ego faces faces the increasincreasingly complex complex task of reco reconcil nciling ing the demands demands of the id, the external external world, world, and conscie conscience nce Ø

(Freud, 1923/1974). example, the ego ismay tempted tempted gratify id impulse by hitting a playmate to get anFor attractive toywhen toy, , the superego warn to that suchan behavior is wrong. The ego must decide which of the two forces (id or superego) superego) will win this inner struggle or work  out a compromise, such as asking for a turn with the toy. toy. According to Freud, the relations established between the id, ego, and superego during the preschool preschool years determine determine the individual’s individual’s basic personality. Psychosexual Development. Freud (1938/1973) believed that that during childhood, sexual impulses shift their focus from the oral to the anal to the genital regions regions of the body. In each stage, parents walk a fine line between permitting too too much or too little gratification of their child’ chil d’ss basic needs. needs. If paren parents ts strike an appropria appropriate te balance, balance, then childre children n grow into into welladjusted adults with the capacity for mature sexual behavior behavior,, investment in family life, life, and rearing reari ng of the next generati generation. on. Freud’ss psychosexual theory highlighted Freud’ highlighted the importance of family relationships and early experiences for children children’s ’s development. But Freud’s Freud’s perspective perspective was eventually eventually criticized. First, the Ø

theory overemp overemphasiz hasized ed the influence influence of sexua sexuall feelings in development development.. Seco Second, nd, becau because se it was based on the the problems of sexually repressed, repressed, well-to-do adults, it did not apply in cultures cultures differdiffering from nineteenth-century Victorian Victorian society. society. Finally Finally,, Freud had not studied children directly. directly.

 

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18 TABLE 1.2

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www.ablongman.com/berk (c) Olive Pierce/ Black Star

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES, WITH CORRESPONDING PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES INDICATED

Psychosocial Stage

Period of Development

Basic trus Basic trustt ver versus sus mistrust (Oral)

Birth– Bir th–11 yea yearr

From war From warm, m, res respon ponsiv sivee car care, e, inf infant antss gai gain n a sen sense se of tru trust, st, or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs when infants have to wait too long for comfort and are handled harshly.

Autono Auto nomy my ve vers rsus us shame and doubt (Anal)

1–3 1– 3 ye years ars

Using Usin g ne new w me ment ntal al an and d mo moto torr sk skilills ls,, ch chilildr dren en wa want nt to ch choo oose se an and d decide for themselves. Autonomy is fostered when parents permit reasonable free choice and do not force or shame the child.

Description

Erik Erikson

Initiativ Initia tivee ver versus sus gui guilt lt (Phallic)

3–6 yea years rs

Through Throug h mak make-b e-beli elieve eve pla play, y, chi childr ldren en exp experi erimen mentt wit with h the kin kind d of per person son the theyy can become. Initiative—a sense of ambition and responsibility—develops when parents support their child’s new sense of purpose. The danger is that parents will demand too much self-control, which leads to overcontrol, meaning too much guilt.

Industry Indust ry ver versus sus inferiority (Latency)

6–111 yea 6–1 years rs

At sch school ool,, chi childr ldren en dev develo elop p the cap capaci acity ty to wor workk and coo cooper perate ate wit with h oth others ers.. Inf Inferi eriori ority ty develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence.

Identity versus ident Identity identity ity confusion (G (Genital)

Adolescenc Adole scencee

The adole adolescent scent tries to answe answerr the quest question, ion, Who am I, and what is my place in society? Se Self-chosen va values an and vo vocational go goals le lead to to a lasting pe personal id identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.

Intimacy versus isolation

Emerging adulthood

Young people work on establishing intimate ties to others. Because of earlier disappointments, so some in individuals ca cannot fo form cl close re relationships an and re remain is isolated.

Generativ Genera tivity ity ver versus sus stagnation

Adulth Adu lthood ood

Generativ Genera tivity ity mea means ns giv giving ing to the nex nextt gen generat eration ion thr throug ough h chi child ld rea rearin ring, g, car caring ing for other people, or productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment.

Inte In tegr grit ityy ve vers rsus us de desp spai airr

Old Ol d ag agee

In th this is fi fina nall st stag age, e, in indi divi vidu dual alss re refl flec ectt on on the the ki kind nd of pe pers rson on th they ey ha have ve be been en.. Int Integ egri rity ty results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened. Old people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death.

Freud’ss followers took what was useful from his theory  ERIKSON’S THEORY Several of Freud’ and improved improved on his vision. vision. The most important important of these neo-Fre neo-Freudians udians for the the field of chil child d development is Erik Erikson (1902–1994). Although Erikson (1950) accepted accepted Freud’s Freud’s basic psychosexual framework, he expanded the picture picture of devel development opment at each stage. stage. In his psychosocial theory theor y, Erikson emphasized that the ego does not just mediate between id impulses and superego demands. It is also a positive force in development. development. At each stage, the ego acquires acquires attitudes and skills that make the indiindividual vidu al an active, active, con contrib tributi uting ng member member of soc society iety.. A basic psych psychosoc osocial ial confl conflict ict,, whi which ch is resolved along a continuum continuum from positive to negative, negative, determines whether healthy or maladaptive outcomes occur at each stage. As Table Table 1.2 shows, Erikson’ Erikson’ss first five stages parallel Freud’ Freu d’ss stages, but Erikson added added three adult stages. stages. He was one of the first to recogni recognize ze the lifespan lifes pan nature of devel development opment.. Finally,, unlike Freud, Finally Freud, Erikson pointed out that normal development must be understood understood in relation to to each culture’s culture’s life situation. For example, in the 1940s, 1940s, he observed that Yurok  Indians India ns of the northwest northwest coast coast of the United United States States deprive deprived d babies of breas breastfeedi tfeeding ng for the first 10 days after birth and instead fed them a thin soup from a small shell. At age 6 months, infants were were abruptly weaned—if weaned—if necessary, by having the mother leave for a few days. These experiences, experienc es, from our cultural vantage point, seem cruel. But Erikson explained explained that the Yurok  lived in a world in which salmon fill the river just once a year, a circumstance that requires the 

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development of considerable self-restraint for survival. In this way way,, he showed showed that child rearrearing can be understood only by making reference to the competencies valued and needed by  the child’s society.

 

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HISTORY, THEORY, AND APPLIED DIRECTIONS

CONTRIBUTIONS AND LIMITA LIMITATIONS TIONS OF THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE A special strength of the psychoanalytic perspective is its emphasis on the individual’s individual’s unique life history history as worthy worthy of study and and understandin understandingg (Emde, 1992 1992). ). Consi Consisten stentt with this view, view, psychoanalytic theorists accept the clinical, or case study, study, method method,, which synthesizes information from from a variety variety of sourc sources es into into a detailed detailed picture picture of the personal personality ity of a single single child. child. (W (Wee will discuss this method further in Chapter 2.) Psychoanalytic theory has also inspired a wealth wea lth of of re resea searc rch h on man manyy aspect aspectss of emot emotion ional al and and social social deve develop lopmen ment, t, inc includ luding ing infant–car infan t–caregiv egiver er attach attachment, ment, aggre aggression, ssion, sibli sibling ng rela relationsh tionships, ips, chil child-rear d-rearing ing practi practices, ces, morality,, gende ity genderr roles, and adolescent adolescent identity. identity. Despite its extensive extensive contributions, the psychoanalytic perspective perspective is no longer in in the mainstream of child development research research (Cairns, 1998). Psychoanal Psychoanalytic ytic theorists may have become isolated from the rest of the field because they were were so strongly committed committed to indepth study study of each child child that they failed failed to consider consider other other methods. methods. In addition, addition, many psypsychoanalytic ideas, such as psychosexual psychosexual stages and ego ego functioning, are so vague that they are difficult diffic ult or impossible to test empirically empirically (Thomas, 2000 2000;; Westen & Gabbard, Gabbard, 1999 1999). ). 

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Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory As psychoanalytic theory gained in prominence, prominence, the child study was also influenced influenced by a very  different differ ent perspective. perspective. Acc Accordin ordingg to behaviorism, directly observable events—stimuli and responses—are the appropriate focus of study study.. North American behaviorism began with the work of psychologist John Watson Watson (1878–1958) in the early twentieth century. century. Watson wanted to create an objective objective science of psychology and rejected the psychoanalytic psychoanalytic concern with the unseen unsee n workings workings of the mind (Horowi (Horowitz, tz, 1992 1992). ). 

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TRADITIONAL BEHAVIORISM Watson was inspired by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s Pavlo v’s studies of animal learning. Pavlo Pavlovv knew that dogs release saliva saliva as an innate innate reflex  when they are given food. But he noticed that his dogs were salivating before they tasted any  food—when they saw saw the trainer who usually fed them. The dogs, Pavlo Pavlovv reasoned, must have learned to associate a neutral stimulus (the trainer) with another stimulus (food) that produces a reflexiv reflexivee response response (salivation). (salivation). As a result of this association association,, the neutral stimulus stimulus by  itselff could bring itsel bring about a response response resembling resembling the reflex. reflex. Eager to test this this idea, Pa Pavlov vlov successfully taught dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by pairing it with the presentation presentation of  food. He had discovered discovered classical conditioning. Watson wanted to find out if classical conditioning conditioning could be applied to children’s children’s behavior. behavior. In a historic historic experiment, experiment, he taught Albert, Albert, an 11-month-old 11-month-old infant, infant, to fear a neutral neutral stimulus—a soft white rat—by presenting it it several times with a sharp, loud sound, which naturally  scared the baby. Little Albert, who at first had reached out eagerly to touch the furry rat, began to cry and turn his head head away when when he caught caught sight of it (Watson (Watson & Raynor Raynor,, 1920 1920). ). In fact, Albert’s fear was so intense that researchers researchers eventually questioned the ethics of studies like this one. Consistent with Locke’s Locke’s tabula rasa, Watson concluded that environment environment is the supreme force in development. Adults can mold children’ children’ss behavior, behavior, he thought, by carefully carefully controlling stimulus– stimulus–respo response nse association associations. s. And development development is a continuous continuous process, process, with the number and strength of these associations increasing increasing with age. B. F. Skinn Skinner er (1904–199 (1904–1990), 0), anothe anotherr noted American American psychologi psychologist, st, is responsible responsible for operant  conditioning theory. Accor According ding to Skinner, Skinner, the frequency of a child’s child’s behavior can be increased increased by  following it with a wide variety of reinforcers, of reinforcers, such as as food,drink, food, drink,prais praise, e, a friendly friendly smile, smile, or a new  toy.. A behavior can also toy also be decreased through  punis as withdrawal withdrawal of of privi privileges leges,,  punishment hment,, such as parental pare ntal disappro disapproval, val, or being sent sent to one’s one’s room. As a result of Skinn Skinner’ er’ss work, operan operantt conditioning became a broadly applied learning principle in child psychology. We will consider these conditioning principles further when we explore the infant’s learning capacities in Chapter 4. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Psyc Psychologists hologists quickly became interested in whether behaviorism might explain the development of children children’s ’s social behavior better than the less precise 

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concepts of psychoanalytic theory. theory. This sparked the emergence emergence of approaches that built on the principles princ iples of condi conditioni tioning, ng, offeri offering ng expanded expanded views of how children children and adults adults acquire acquire new  responses.

 

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∞ Social learning theory

recognizes that children acquire many skills through modeling. By observing and imitating her mother’s behavior, this Vietnamese preschooler is becoming a skilled user of chopsticks. © Margot Granitsas/The Image Works

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Several kinds of   of   social learning theory  eme emerge rged. d. The most influential, influent ial, devised by Canadian-born psychol psychologist ogist Albert Bandura, Bandu ra, emphas emphasized ized modeling, otherwise known as imitation  imitation or or powerful rful sourc sourcee of devel development opment.. The observational learning, as a powe baby who claps her hands after her mother does so, the child who angrily hits a playmate in the same way that he has been punished at home, and the teenager who wears wears the same clothes and hairhairstyle as her friends at school are all displaying observational learning. By the 1950s, 1950s, social learning theory had become a major force in child development research. Bandura’ss work continues to influence much research on chilBandura’ dren’s dren ’s social social developme development. nt. How However ever,, like the the field of chil child d development as a whole, today his theory stresses stresses the importance of  children’s ability to cognition, or thinking. Bandura has shown that children’s listen, remember, and abstract general general rules from complex complex sets of  observed behaviors affects their imitation and learning. learning. In fact, Bandura’ Bandur a’ss most recent recent revision of his theory (1992, (1992, 2001 2001)) places such strong emphasis on how children think about themselves and other people that he calls it a social-cognitive  social-cognitive rather rather than a social learning approach. According Accor ding to Bandura’s Bandura’s revised view, children gradually become more selective selective in what they imitate. From watching others engage in self-praise and self-blame and through through feedback  about the worth worth of their own own actions, actions, child children ren develop develop personal  personal standards for standards  for behavior and a sense of of self-ef self-efficacy  ficacy —the —the belief that their own abilities and characteristics will help them succeed. These cogni cognitions tions guide resp responses onses in particula particularr situation situationss (Bandura, (Bandura, 1999 1999,, 2001 2001). ). For exampl example, imagine a”parent whons who often remarks, remarks, “I’mtence, glade,Iand glad keptwho worki working ng on that task, task, even thoughe,it imagin was hard, hared,” who explains explai the value of persis persistenc encour encourages ages it by sayin saying, g, “I know you you can do a good job on that homework!” homework!” Soon the child child starts to to view herself herself as hardworking and high achieving achieving and selects people with these characteristics as models. In this way, way, as children children acquire acquire attitudes, values values,, and conviction convictionss about themselves, themselves, they control control their own learning and behavior. CONTRIBUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF BEHAVIORISM AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Behaviorism and social learning theory have had a major impact on practices with children. Behavior children. Behavior modification consists of procedures that combine conditioning conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable undesirable behaviors and increase increase desirable responses. It has been used to relieve relieve a wide range of serious developmental problems, problems, such as persistent persistent aggression, language langu age delays delays,, and extrem extremee fears fears (Pierc (Piercee & Epling, Epling, 1995 1995;; Wolpe & Plaud Plaud,, 1997 1997). ). It is also effective effect ive in dealing with common, common, everyd everyday ay difficulties difficulties,, incl including uding poor time management; management; unwanted habits, such as nail biting and thumb sucking; sucking; disruptive behavior; behavior; and anxiety over over such recurrent events as test taking and dental treatments. treatments. In one study, study, researchers reduced 4- and 5-year-olds’ unruliness in a preschool classroom classroom by reinforcing them with tokens (which they could exchange for candy) when they behaved appropriately and punishing them by taking away tokens tokens when they screamed, threw objects, attacked other children, or refused to comply with a teacher’s teacher’s request (Conyers (Conyers et et al., 2004). In another investigation, children children’s ’s anxious reactions during dental visits declined after an adult gave them small toys for answering questions about a story she read read to them while the dentist worked (Stark et al., 1989). Because the children children could not listen to the story and cry at the same time, their resistance subsided. Nevertheless, many theorists believe that behaviorism and social learning theory do not provide a complete account account of development. They argue that these approaches approaches offer too too narrow a view of importan importantt environmental environmental influenc influences, es, which extend extend beyond immediate immediate reinreinforcement, punishment, and modeled behaviors to children children’s ’s rich physical and social worlds. In addition, behaviorism and social learning theory have been criticized criticized for neglecting chilchil

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dren’s contributions to their own development. In emphasizing cognition, dren’s cognition, Bandura is unique among theorists whose work grew out of the behaviorist tradition in granting children children an active role in their own learning.

 

CHAPTER 1 TABLE

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1.3

21

HISTORY, THEORY, AND APPLIED DIRECTIONS © Bettmann/ CORBIS

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Stage

Period of Development

Sensor Sen sorimo imotor tor

Birth– Bir th–2 2 years years

Description Infantss “thin Infant “think” k” by by actin acting g on the wor world ld wit with h their their eye eyes, s, ears ears,, hands hands,, and and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects in and taking them out of containers.

Preo Pr eope pera rati tion onal al 2– 2–77 yea years rs

Presch Pres choo ooll chi child ldre ren n use use sy symb mbol olss to to rep repre rese sent nt th thei eirr ear earlilier er se sens nsor orim imot otor or discoveries. Development of language and make-believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of the two remaining stages.

Concrete Concre te operational

7–111 yea 7–1 years rs

Children’ Childr en’ss rea reason soning ing bec become omess log logica ical.l. Sch School ool-ag -agee chi childr ldren en und unders erstan tand d that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its appearance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. However, thinking falls short of adult intelligence. It is not yet abstract.

Formal operational

11 years and older

The capacity for abstraction permits adolescents to reason with symbols that do not refer to objects in the real world, as in advanced mathematics. They can also think of all possible outcomes in a scientific problem, not just the most obvious ones.

Jean Piaget

Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory If one individual has influenced influenced the contemporary contemporary field of child development development more than than any  other,, it is Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). other (1896–1980). North American investigat investigators ors had been aware of Piaget’ Piaget’ss work since 1930. 1930. Howev However er,, they did not grant it much attention until the 1960s, mainly because Piaget’ Piaget’ss ideas and methods of studying children children were very very much at odds with behaviorism, behaviorism, which dominated North American psychology during the the middle of the twentieth century (Zigler (Zigler & Gilman, Gilman, 1998). Piaget did not believe believe that children children’s ’s learning depends on reinforcers, such as rewards rewards from adults. According to his cognitive-developmental theory, children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world. PIAGET’S STAGES Piaget’ Piaget’ss view of development was was greatly influenced influenced by his early  early  training in biology. biology. Central to his theory is the biological concept of adaptation  of adaptation (Pia (Piaget, get, 1971 1971). ). Just as structures structures of the body are adapted adapted to fit with the environme environment, nt, so structures of the mind develop to better fit with, or represent, represent, the external external world. world. In infancy infancy and early childhood, childhood, Piaget claimed, children children’s ’s understanding understanding is different from adults’. For example, he believed that  young babies do not realize that an object hidden from view—a favorite toy or even the mother—continues mother—cont inues to exist.He exist. He also concluded concluded that preschoolers’ preschoolers’thinking thinking is full of faulty logic. For example, childre children n younger than age 7 commonly commonly say that the amount of milk or lemonade changes when it is poured into into a differently shaped container container.. Acc According ording to Piaget, childre children n eventually revise these incorrect ideas in their ongoing efforts to achieve an equilibrium, or balance, between internal structures structures and information they encounter in their everyday worlds. In Piaget’s Piaget’s theory, as the brain develops and children’s children’s experiexperiences expand, expand, they move through four broad stages, stages, each charactercharacterized by qualitativ qualitatively ely distinct distinct ways of thinkin thinking. g. Table 1.3 provides provides a brieff des brie descrip cription tion of Pia Piaget get’s ’s stage stages. s. In the sensorimotor stage, cognitive development begins with the baby’s baby’s use of the senses and movements to explore the world. world. These action patterns patterns evolve evolve into the symbolic but illogical illogical thinking thinking of the preschooler preschooler in the preope the preoperarational stage. Then cognition is transformed into the more organized, 

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logical reasoning reasoning of the school-age school-age child in the concrete operational  stage. Fina Finally lly,, in the formal the  formal operational operational stage, thought becomes the complex, comple x, abstract reasoning reasoning system system of the adolescent adolescent and adult.

 

∞ In Piaget’s preopera-

tional stage, preschool children represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries with symbols. Language and makebelieve play develop rapidly. These 4-year-olds create an imaginative play scene with dress-up clothes and the assistance of a cooperative family pet. © Tom McCarthy/ImageState

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PIAGET’S METHODS OF STUDY Piaget devised special methods for investigating how how children think. In the early  part of his career career,, he carefully carefully observed observed his three three infant chilchildren and presented presented them with everyday problems, such as an attractive attract ive object that could be grasped, grasped, mouthe mouthed, d, kicke kicked, d, or searched sear ched for. for. From their their responses, responses, Piage Piagett derived his ideas ideas about cognitive changes changes during the first 2 years. years. In studying childhood and adolescent thought, Piaget took advantage advantage of  children’s children ’s ability to describe their thinking. thinking. He adapted the clinical clini cal method of psyc psychoanal hoanalysis, ysis, condu conducting cting open-e open-ended nded clinical interviews in interviews  in which a child’s initial response to a task  served as the basis for the next question Piaget would ask. We will look more closely at this technique in Chapter 2. 

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CONTRIBUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF PIAGET’S THEORY Piaget’s cognitive-developmental perspective convinced the field that children are active learners whose minds consist consist of rich structures of knowledge. Besides investigating children children’s ’s understanding of the physical physical world, world, Piage Piagett explored explored their reasoning reasoning about about the social world. world. His stages stages have sparke spa rked d a wea wealth lth of res resear earch ch on childr children en’’s concepti conceptions ons of the themse mselv lves, es, othe otherr people, people, and human relationships. relationships. Practicall Practicallyy speaking, Piaget’ Piaget’ss theory encouraged encouraged the development development of educational philosophies and programs that emphasize discovery learning and direct contact with the environment. Despite Piaget’s Piaget’s overwhelming contributions, his theory has been challenged. Research indi

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∞ In Piaget’s concrete

operational stage, schoolage children think in an organized, logical fashion about concrete objects. This 6-year-old girl and 7-year-old boy understand that the amount of milk remains the same after being poured into a differently shaped container, even though its appearance changes. © Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

cates that6 Piaget under underestimat estimated ed theare competenci competencies es that of infants and down preschoolers. preschoolers. We will in Chapter that when young children given tasks are scaled in difficulty and see made relevant releva nt to their everyday everyday experiences, experiences, their understandi understanding ng appears closer closer to that of the older child and adult than Piaget assumed. This discovery has led many many researchers to to conclude that the maturity of children’ children’ss thinking may depend on their familiarity with the task presented and the complexity complexity of knowledge sampled. sampled. Furthermore, many studies show that children children’s ’s performance on Piagetian problems can be improved with training—findings that call into question Piaget’s assumption that discovery learning rather than adult teaching is the best way to foster development develop ment (Caracci (Caracciolo, olo, Moder Moderato, ato, & Perini, Perini, 1988 1988;; Klahr & Nigam, Nigam, 2004 2004). ). Finall Finallyy, critics point out that Piaget’s stagewise account pays insufficient attention to social and cultural influences— and the resulting wide variation in thinking that exists among children of the same age. Today, the field of child development is is divided over its loyalty to Piaget’ Piaget’ss ideas. Those who continue to find merit in Piaget’s approach accept a modified view—one in which changes in the quality of children children’s ’s thinking take place more gradually than Piaget believed (Case, 1998; Demetri Dem etriou ou et al., al., 200 2002; 2; Fis Fische cherr & Bidell, Bidell, 199 1998). 8). Oth Others ers have have turned turned to an appro approach ach that that emphasizes continuous gains in children’ children’ss cognition: information processing. And still others have been drawn to theories that focus on the role of children children’s ’s social and and cultural contexts. We take up these approaches in the next section.

 Askk Yo  As Your urse self   lf  

 

 

WWW

REVIEW

Cite similarities and differences between Freud’s and Erikson’s views of development.

REVIEW

What aspect of behaviorism made it attractive to critics of the psychoanalytic perspective? How does Piaget’s theory respond to a major limitation of behaviorism?

APPLY

A 4-year-old becomes frightened of the dark and refuses to go to sleep at night. How would a psychoanalyst and a behaviorist differ in their views of how this problem developed?

CONNECT

Although social learning theory focuses on social development and Piaget’s theory on cognitive development, each has enhanced our understanding of other domains. Mention an additional domain addressed by each theory.

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HISTORY, THEORY, AND APPLIED DIRECTIONS

Recent Theoretical Perspectives New ways of understanding children are constantly emerging—questioning, building on, and enhancing enhan cing the discover discoveries ies of earli earlier er theories. theories. Today oday,, a burst of fres fresh h approaches approaches and research research emphases is broadening our understanding understanding of children children’s ’s development. development.

Information Processin Processing g During the 1970s, 1970s, researchers turned to the field of cognitive psychology psychology for ways ways to understand the developmen developmentt of chil children dren’s ’s thinking. thinking. The design of digita digitall computers computers that use mathematically solve problems suggested psychologists that the human mind might also specified be viewedsteps as a to symbol-manipulating systemtothrough which information flows—a perspective called information processing  (Klah (Klahrr & MacW MacWhinne hinneyy, 1998 1998). ). From the time information is presented to the senses at input  input until until it emerges as a behavioral response at out put, informa information tion is actively coded, coded, transf transformed, ormed, and organized. organized. Information-processing researchers researchers often use flowcharts to map the precise steps individuals use to solve problems problems and complete tasks, much like the plans devised by programmers to get computers to perform a series of “mental operations.” operations.” Let’s look at an example to clarify the usefulness usefulness of this approach. approach. In a study of chil children dren’s ’s problem problem solving, solving, a researcher researcher proprovided a pile of blocks varying varying in size, shape, and weight weight and asked 5- to 9-year-ol 9-year-olds ds to build a bridge across a “river” “river” (painted on a floor mat) that was too wide w ide for any single block to span (Thornton, 1999). Figure 1.3 1.3 shows one solution to the problem: Two plank-like blocks span the water, water, each held in place by by the counterweight counterweight of heavy blocks on the bridge’s bridge’s towers. Whereas many many children age 7 and older built successful bridges, only one 5-year-old did. Careful tracking of her efforts revealed that she repeatedly tried unsuccessful strategies, such as pushing two planks together and pressing down on their ends to hold them in place. But eventually even tually,, her experimentati experimentation on triggered triggered the idea of using the blocks as counterweight counterweights. s. Her mistaken procedures procedures helped her understand why why the counterweight approach approach worked. The findings show how a child’s child’s actions within a task can facilitate problem solving. This child had no prior understanding of counterweight and balance. Yet she arrived arrived at just as effective a solution as older children, who came with considerable task-relevant knowledge. knowledge. A variety of informa information-p tion-proce rocessing ssing models models exist. exist. Some, like the one just just considered, considered, track  children’s children ’s mastery of one or a few tasks. Others describe the human cognitive system as a whole (Atkins (Atkinson on & Shiffrin, Shiffrin, 1968 1968;; Lockhart & Craik, Craik, 1990 1990). ). These general general models models are used used as guides for asking questions about broad age age changes in children children’s ’s thinking. thinking. For example, does a child’s ability to search the environment for information needed to solve a problem become more organized and “planful” “planful” with age? What strategies do younger and older children use to remember new information, and how do those strategies affect children’s children’s recall? The information-processing approach is also being used to clarify the processing processing of social information. For example, example, flowcharts exist that track the steps children children use to solve solve social

∏

Figure 1.3

Information-processing flowchart showing the steps that a 5-year-old used to solve a bridgebuilding problem. Her task was to use blocks varying in size, shape, and weight, some of which were planklike, to construct a bridge across a  “river”  “rive r” (painted (painted on on a floor floor mat) too wide for any single block to span. The child discovered how to counterweight and balance the bridge. The arrows reveal that even after building a successful counterweight, she returned to earlier, unsuccessful strategies, which seemed to help her understand why the counterweight terw eight approach worked. w orked. (Adapted from Thornton, 1999.)

 

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problems (such as how to enter an ongoing o ngoing play group) and acquire gender-linked gender-linked preferences and beha behavior viorss (Crick (Crick & Dodge, Dodge, 199 1994; 4; Lib Liben en & Bigler Bigler,, 200 2002). 2). If we can can identi identify fy how how social social problem solving and gender stereotyping arise in childhood, then we can design interventions that promote more favorable social development. Like Piaget’s Piaget’s theory, the information-processing approach views children as actively making sense of their experiences and as modifying their own thinking in in response to environenvironmental demands demands (Halford, (Halford, 2002; Klahr & MacW MacWhinney hinney,, 1998). But unlike unlike Piaget’s Piaget’s theory, there are no stages stages of devel development opment.. Rathe Ratherr, the thought thought processes processes studied— studied—perc perception eption,, atten attention, tion, memory memo ry,, cat catego egoriza rizatio tion n of inf informa ormatio tion, n, pla planni nning, ng, pr probl oblem em solving, solving, and compre comprehen hensio sion n of  written and spoken prose—are regarded as similar at all ages but b ut present to a lesser or greater extent. exte nt. Ther Therefore efore,, the view view of devel development opment is one of cont continuou inuouss change. change. A great strength strength of the information-proces information-processing sing approach approach is its commitment to careful, careful, rigorous research research methods. methods. Because it it has provided provided precise precise accounts accounts of how children children of differen differentt ages engage in many aspects aspects of thinking, its findings have have led to teaching teaching interventions interventions that help children solve solve problems in more advance advanced d ways (Geary (Geary,, 1994; Siegler Siegler,, 1998). But information information proprocessing has fallen short in some respects. Although good at analyzing thinking into its components, it has difficulty putting putting them back together into into a comprehensive comprehensive theory. theory. In addition, aspects of  cognition that that are not linear and and logical, such as imagination imagination and creativity, creativity, are all but ignored ignored by this approach approach (Lutz & Sternberg, Sternberg, 1999). Furthermor Furthermore, e, much information-proc information-processing essing research research has been conducted conducted in laboratories rather than real-life real-life situations. situations. Rece Recently ntly,, inv investigator estigatorss have addressed this concern concern by focusing focusing on more realistic materials materials and activities. Today oday,, they study  children’ childr en’ss conversations, conversations, stories, memory for everyday events, and academic problem solving. An advantage of having many theories is that they encourage encourage one another to attend to previously neglected dimensions of children children’s ’s lives. A unique feature feature of the final four four perspectives perspectives we will isvironmental a focus on contexts  contexts for for development—the way childrenThe children’s ’s biological makeup binesdiscuss with environmental en circumstances circumstances to affect pathways pathways of change. first of these viewscomemphasizes that the development of many capacities is influenced influenced by our long evolutionary history. ∞ Konrad Lorenz was one

of the founders of ethology and a keen observer of animal behavior. He developed the concept of imprinting. Here, young geese that were separated from their mother and placed in the company of Lorenz during an early, critical period show that they have imprinted on him. Theythrough follow him as he swims the water, a response that promotes survival. © Nina Leen/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Developmental Psychology Ethology  is concerne Ethology is concerned d with the adaptive, adaptive, or survival, survival, valu valuee of beha behavior vior and its evoluti evolutionary  onary  history hist ory (Dews (Dewsbury bury,, 199 1992; 2; Hin Hinde, de, 198 1989). 9). Its root rootss can can be be trace traced d to the work of Darwin Darwin.. Two European zoologists, zoologists, Konrad Lorenz Lorenz (1952) and Niko Tinbergen Tinbergen (1973), laid its modern foundations. Watching diverse animal species species in their natural natural habitats, habitats, Lorenz and Tinbergen observed behavior behavior patterns patterns that promote promote survival. survival. The best known known of these is imprinting, the early following behavior behavior of certain baby birds that ensures ensures that the young will stay close to the mother and be fed and protected from danger. danger. Imprinting takes place during an early, early, restricte restricted d period perio d of deve developme lopment. nt. If the mothe motherr goose goose is is not pres present ent durin duringg this this time, time, but an an object object resembling her in important features features is, young goslings may imprint on it instead. Observations of imprinting led led to a major concept concept in child child development: the critical period. It refers to a limited time during which the child is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately appropriately stimulating environment. environment. Many  researchers have conducted studies to find out whether complex cognitive and social behaviors must be learned during certain certain periods. periods. For example, example, if childre children n are deprived of adequate food or physical and social stimulation during their early years, will their intelligence intelligence be impaired? If  language is not mastered during early childhood, is the child’s capacity to acquire it reduced? In later chapters, chapters, we will discover discover that the term sensitive period applies period  applies better to human development than than the strict strict notion notion of a critical critical period period (Born (B ornst stei ein, n, 19 1989 89). ). A sensitive period is a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsiv sive e to environ envi ronment mental infl uences . Ho Howev wever boundaries boundarie s are less well walellinfluen defin defined edces. than thos those eer,,ofits a criticall period. Develo critica Development pment can occur occur later later,, but it is harder to induce.

 

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Inspired by observations observations of imprinting, British psychoanalyst psychoanalyst John John Bowlby (1969) (1969) applied ethological theory to the understanding understanding of the human infant–caregive infant–caregiverr relationship. relationship. He argued that infant smiling, smiling, babbling, grasping, and crying are built-in built-in social signals signals that encourage encourage the caregiver caregiv er to approach, care for, and interact interact with the baby. baby. By keeping keeping the the parent parent near, near, these behaviors help help ensure ensure that the infant infant will be fed, protected from from danger, danger, and provided with stimulation and affection necessary for healthy healthy growth. The development development of attachment in human infants is a lengthy process that leads the baby to form a deep affectionate tie with the caregiv car egiver er (van den den Boom, 200 2002). 2). It is far more more complex complex than imprint imprinting ing in baby baby birds. birds. In Chapter 10, we will consider how infant, infant, caregiv caregiver, er,and and family context context contribute to attachment and will examine the the impact of attachment on later later development. development. Observations by ethologists have shown that many many aspects of children children’s ’s social social behavior, including incl uding emotional emotional expression expressions, s, aggre aggression ssion,, cooper cooperation, ation, and social play play,, rese resemble mble those of  our primate relatives. relatives. Recently Recently,, researchers have extended this effort in a new area of research called evolutionary called  evolutionary developmental psychology. psychology. It seeks to understand the adaptive value of  species-wide speci es-wide cognitiv cognitive, e, emotion emotional, al, and social competenci competencies es as those competencies competencies change change with age. Evolutionary developmental psychologists ask such such questions as, What role role does the newborn’ss visual preference for facelike stimuli play in survival? Does it support older infants’ newborn’ capacity to distinguish familiar caregivers from unfamiliar people? Why do children play in sex-segregated groups? What do they learn from such play that might lead to adult gendertyped behaviors, such as male dominance and female investment investment in caregiving? As these examples examples suggest, evoluti evolutionary onary psychologists psychologists are not just concerned concerned with the geneticc and biological geneti biological roots of develop development. ment. They recognize recognize that the extende extended d childhood childhood of  humans resulted from the need to master an increasingly complex social and technological environment, ronmen t, so they are also interest interested ed in how children children learn (Blasi (Blasi & Bjorklund, Bjorklund, 2003) 2003).. And they  realize that today’s today’ s lifestyles so radically from evolutionary ancestors that viocertain evolved behaviors (suchdiffer as life-threatening risk those takingofinour adolescents and male-to-male lence)) are no longer adaptive (Bjorklund lence (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, Pellegrini, 2000, 2002 2002). ). By clarifying the origins and development develo pment of such behaviors, behaviors, evolut evolutionary ionary developmental developmental psychology psychology may help spark more effective interventions. In sum, the interests interests of evol evolutiona utionary ry psychologists psychologists are broad. broad. They want to understand understand the entire organism –environment system. The next contextual perspective we will discuss, organism– Vygotsky’s Vyg otsky’s sociocultural theory, theory, serves as an excellent excellent complement to the evolutionary viewpoint because it highlights the social and cultural dimensions of children children’s ’s experiences. experiences.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory In recent recent decades, decades, the field field of child development has seen a dramatic increase in studies studies addressingg the cultural context of children addressin children’s ’s lives. lives. Inv Investigations estigations that make comparisons across cultures, and between ethnic ethnic groups within cultures, cultures, provide insight insight into whether whether developdevelopmental pathways pathways apply to all children or are limited to particular environmental environmental conditions. As a result, cross-cul cross-cultural tural and multicultural multicultural research research helps untangle untangle the contributions contributions of biological and enviro environmen nmental tal factors factors to the timing, timing, orde orderr of appea appearanc rance, e, and divers diversity ity of chi childre ldren’ n’ss behaviors (Greenfie (Greenfield, ld, 1994). In the past, researchers focused focused on broad cultural differences in development—for example, whether children in one culture culture are more advanced in motor development development or do better on intellectual tasks than children children in another culture. culture. However However,, this approach can lead us to to conclude incorrectly that one culture is superior in enhancing enhancing development, whereas another is deficient. In addition, it does not help us understand understand the precise precise experiences experiences that contribute contribute to cultural differences in children’s behavior. Today, more research is examining the relationship of culturally of  culturally specific practices to practices to development. The contributions of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) (1896–1934) have played a major role in this trend. Vyg Vygotsky’s otsky’s (1934/1987) perspective perspective is called sociocultural theory. It focuses on how culture —the —the values, beliefs, customs, and skills skills of a social social group—is group—is transmitted to the the next generation. According to Vygotsky Vygotsky,, social interaction —in —in particular, particular, cooperativ cooperativee dialogues between children more knowledgeable of up society—is necessary for children childr en to acquire the ways and ways of thinking and behavingmembers that make a community’s community’ s culture (Rowe (Rowe & Wertsch, 2002). Vygotsky believed believed that as adults and more-expert peers help children children master culturally meaningful activities, activities, the communication between them becomes becomes part of children children’s ’s

 

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∞ Vygotsky, pictured here with his daughter,

believed that many cognitive processes and skills are socially transferred from more knowledgeable members of society to children. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory helps us understand the wide variation in cognitive competencies from culture to culture. Courtesy of James V. Wertsch, Washington University in St. Louis

∞ Through the guidance of

her grandmother, a Navajo girl learns to use a vertical weaving loom. According to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, social interaction between children and more knowledgeable member able memberss of their culture leads to ways of thinking and behaving essential for success in that culture. © Paul Conklin/Photo Conklin/Photoedit edit

THEORY AND RESEARCH IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

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thinking. As children thinking. children internalize internalize the features features of these dialogues, dialogues, they use the language within them to guide their own thought and actions and to acquire new skills skills (Berk, 2003 2003). ). The young young child instructin instructingg herself while working working a puzzle or preparing a table for dinner has started to produce the same kind of guidi guiding ng comments comments that an adult adult previously previously used to help her her master important tasks. Vygotsky’ss theory has been especially influential in the study of chilVygotsky’ dren’ss cognition. Vyg dren’ Vygotsky otsky agreed with Piaget that children children are active, active, constructive beings. But unlike Piaget, who emphasized children children’s ’s independent efforts to make sense sense of their world, world, Vygots ygotsky ky viewed cognitive cognitive developdevelopment as a socially mediated process —as —as dependent on the assistance that adults and more-expert peers provide as children tackle new challenges. In Vyg Vygotsky’s otsky’s theory, children undergo certain stagewise changes. changes. For example, exampl e, when they they acquire acquire language, language, their ability ability to participate participate in in dialogues with with others others is greatly greatly enhanc enhanced, ed, and mastery mastery of cultur culturally ally valued valued competencies surges forward.When forward. When children children enter school, school, they spend much time discussing discussing language, language, liter literacy acy,, and other academic concepts—e concepts—experixperiences that encourage them to reflect on their own thinking (Kozulin, (Kozulin, 2003). As a result, they gain dramatically in reasoning and and problem solving. At the same time, Vygotsky stressed stressed that dialogues with experts lead to continuous changes in cognition that vary greatly from culture to culture. Consistent with this view, view, a major finding of cross-cultural research research is that cultures select different different tasks for children’s children’s learning learning (Rogoff & Chavajay, Chavajay, 1995). Social interaction surrounding those tasks leads to competencies competencies

essential tialseen for success succes s in a particular cultu Fore example, exampl e, in industria nations, teac nations, teachers hers essen can be can helping helping people people learn toculture. learn readre. read, , driv drive a car, car, or useindustrialized a computer complized uter.. Among the Zinacanteco Zinacanteco Indians Indians of southern Mexico, Mexico, adult experts guide young girls as they  master complicat complicated ed weaving technique techniquess (Greenfield, (Greenfield, May Maynard, nard, & Childs, 2000 2000). ). In Brazil and other developing nations, child candy sellers with little or no schooling schooling develop sophisticated mathematical abilities as the result of buying candy from wholesalers, pricing it in collaboration with adults and experienced peers, and bargaining with customers on city streets (Saxe, 1988). And as the research reported in the Cultural Influences box on the following page indicates, adults encourage culturally valued skills in children at a remarkably remarkably early age. Vygotsky’ ygotsky’ss theory, and the research research stimulated by it, reve reveal al that children in every culture culture develop unique strengths.At strengths. At the same time, Vyg Vygotsky’s otsky’s emphasis on culture and social experience experience led him to neglect the biological biological side of develop development. ment. Although he recognized recognized the importance importance of heredi heredity ty and brain growth, growth, he said little little about their their role in in cognitive cognitive change. change. Furthermo Furthermore, re, Vygotsky’ss focus on social transmission of knowledge meant that he placed less emphasis than Vygotsky’ other theorists theorists on children’s children’s capacity capacity to shape their own development. Follo Followers wers of Vygotsky  stress that children actively participate in the conversations and social activities a ctivities from which their development springs. From these joint experiences, they not only acquire culturally valued practices but also also modify and transform transform those practices practices (Rogoff, (Rogoff, 1998, 2003). Contemp Contemporary orary sociocultural theorists grant the individual and society balanced, mutually influential roles.

Ecological Systems Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner is responsible for an approach that has moved to the forefront forefront of the field because because it offers the most differentiated differentiated and complete account account of contex contex-tual influences on children’s development.  Ecological systems theory  views the child as developing within a complex system of relat relationsh ionships ips affecte affected d by multiple multiple levels of the surrounding environment. Since the child’s child’s biologically influenced dispositions join with environmenta mental l forces to moldhis developme development, nt, asBron Bronfenbr fenbrenne ennerr recently characterized perspective a bioecological  model (Bronfenbrenner model  (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, Evans, 2000).

 

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!Kung Infancy: Acquiring Culture

Interactions between caregivers and infants take different forms in different cultures. Through those interactions, adults start to transmit their society’s society’s values and a nd skills skill s to the next generation, channeling the course of future development. Focusing on a culture very different from our own, researchers studied how caregivers respond to infants’ play with objects among the !Kung, a hunting-and-gathering society living in the desert regions of Botswana, Africa (Bakeman et al., 1990). Daily foraging missions take small numbers of adults several miles from the campground, but most obtain enough food to contribute contribute to group survival by working only 3 out of every 7

possessions. This message is conveyed to !Kung children at a very early age. Between 6 and 12 months, grandmothers start to train babies in the importance of  exchanging objects by guiding them in handing beads to relatives. The child’s first words generally include i (“Here, take this”) and na (“Give it to me”). In !Kung society, no toys are made for infants. Instead, natural objects, such as twigs, grass, stones, and nutshells, are always available, along with cooking implements. However, adults do not n ot encourage babies to play with these objects. In fact, adults are unlikely to interact with infants while they are exploring objects independ-

days. A mobile way of life also prevents the !Kung from collecting many possessions that require extensive care and maintenance. Adults have many free hours to relax around the campfire, and they spend it in intense social contact with one another and with children (Draper & Cashdan, 1988). In this culture of intimate social bonds and minimal property, objects are valued as things to be shared, not as personal

ently. But when a baby offers an object to another person, adults become highly responsive, encouraging and vocalizing much more than at other times. Thus, the !Kung cultural emphasis on the interpersonal rather than physical aspects of existence is reflected in how adults interact with the very youngest members of their community. When you next have a chance, observe the conditions under which parents in your

 !Kung children grow up in a hunting-

and-gathering society in which possessions are a burden rather than an asset. From an early age, children experience warm social contact with adults and are taught the importance of sharing. © Irven Devore/Anthro-Photo Devore/Anthro-Photo

own society respond to infants’ involvement with objects. How is parental responsiveness linked to cultural values? How does it compare with findings on the !Kung?

Bronfenbrenner envisions the environment environment as a series of nested structures that includes includes but extends beyond home, school, and neighborhood settings in which children spend their everyday lives lives (see Figure 1.4 on page 28). Each layer of the environment is is viewed as having a powerful impact on development. THE MICROSYSTEM The innermost level of the environment is the microsystem, which consists of activities and interaction patterns in the child’ child’ss immediate surroundings. surroundings. Bronfenbrenner emphasizes that to understand child child development at this level, we must keep in mind that all relationships are bidirectional. That is, adults affect children’ children’ss behavior, behavior, but children’s children’s biologically and socially influenced characteristics—their characteristics—their physical physical attributes, personalities, and capacities—also capacities—also affect adults’ behavior. For example, example, a friendly, friendly, attentive child is is likely likely to evoke positive and patient reactions reactions from parents, whereas an irritable or distractible youngster is is more likely likely to to be a target target of pare parental ntal impatienc impatience, e, restri restriction ction,, and punishmen punishment. t. Whe When n these reciprocal interactions interactions occur often over time, they have an enduring impact on development (Collins (Collins et al., al., 2000 2000;; Crock Crockenberg enberg & Leerkes, Leerkes, 2003 2003a). a). 

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Atythe time, parties  —the —other other individuals ine,the microsystem—affect the ed. quality  of an any twosame two-pe -perso rson n relat rethird lation ionshi ship. p. If they y are ar e support supportiv ive, then the n inter interact action ion is is enhanc enhanced. For example, when parents parents encourage one another in their child-rearing roles, each engages in

 

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Figure 1.4

Structure of the environment in ecological systems theory. The microsystem concerns relations between the child and the immediate environment; the mesosystem, connections among immediate settings; the exosystem, social settings that affect but do not contain the child; and the macrosystem, the values, laws, customs, and resources of the culture that affect activities activities and interactions at all inner layers. The chronosystem (not pictured) is not a specific context. Instead, it refers to the dynamic, everchanging nature of the person’s environment.

Laws

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Extended family

 

Individual

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Customs Neighborhood play area

 

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Community health services

MACROSYSTEM ∞ Family–neighborhood

connections, at the level of the mesosystem in ecological systems theory, enhance development. A young girl proudly carries the Canadian flag in the Chinese New Year parade in the Chinatown district of Vancouver, British Columbia. The event fosters self-confidence, cooperation, and identification with her community and culture. © Annie Griffiths Belt/Corbis

more effective effective parenting. In contrast, when a marriage is tense and hostile, parents often interfere with one another’s another’s child-rearing efforts, are less responsive responsive to children’s children’s needs, and criticize, ciz e, exp expre ress ss anger anger,, and punis punish h (Cox, (Cox, Pa Paley ley,, & Harter Harter,, 200 2001; 1; Mc McHal Halee et al., al., 200 2002). 2). Sim Simila ilarly rly,, children chil dren can affect affect their parents parents’’ rela relationsh tionship ip in powerful powerful ways. For example, example, as Chapter 14 will reveal, divorce is often associated with lasting emotional problems. Yet research reveals that long before the marital breakup, breakup, some children were were impulsive and defiant. defiant. These behaviors may may have have contribute contributed d to, as well as been caused caused by by, their paren parents’ ts’ marital proble problems ms (Hetheringt (Heth erington on & Stanley-H Stanley-Hagan, agan, 1999 1999;; Shaw Shaw,, Win Winslow slow,, & Flanagan, Flanagan, 1999 1999). ). second level of Bron Bronfenbr fenbrenner enner’s ’s model, model, the mesoTHE MESOSYSTEM The second system, encompasses connections between microsystems, such as home, school, neighborhood, and child-care child-care center. center. For example,a example, a child’s child’s academic progress progress depends not  just on activities that take place in classrooms. It is also promoted by parent involveinvolvement in school life and the extent to which academic learning is carried over into the home (Epstein & Sanders, 2002). Similarly Similarly,, parent–child interaction interaction at home is likely  to affect caregiver–child caregiver–child interaction in the child-care setting, and vice versa. Each relationship is more likely likely to support development when there are are links, in the form of  visits and cooperative exchanges of information, between home and child care. Family–neighborhood connections are especially important for economically disadvantaged children. children. Affluent families are not not as dependent on their immediate surroundings for social support, education, and leisure leisure pursuits. They can afford to reach beyond the streets near their their homes, transporting their children to to lessons and entertainment tainm ent and, if nec necessary essary,, to better-qu better-quality ality schools schools in distant distant parts of the community  community  (Elliott et al., 1996). In low-income low-income neighborhoods, after-school programs that provide families famil ies with child child care care and offer childr children en art, music music,, sports, scout scouting, ing, and other spespe

  

cial experiences linked to improved school performance psychological ment in middle middlearechil childhood dhood (Posner (P osner & Vandell, Vandel l, 1994 1994;; Vand andell andel l & Posner Posner,, adjust1999). 1999 ). Neighborhood organizations, such as religious youth groups and special-interest special-interest clubs, contribute to favorable favorable development in adolescence, adolescence, including self-confidence, self-confidence, school

 

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achievement, achievem ent, educa educational tional aspirati aspirations, ons, and responsibl responsiblee social behavior behavior (Gonzale (Gonzaless et al., 1996 1996;; Kerestes Kere stes & Youniss, Youniss, 2003). The exosystem  exosystem is made up of social settings settings that do not contain chilchilTHE EXOSYSTEM The dren but nevertheless affect their experiences in immediate settings. These can be formal organizations, ization s, such as parents’ parents’ workplac workplaces, es, their religious religious institutions institutions,, and health and welfare welfare services services in the community. community. For example, flexible work schedules schedules and paid leave for childbirth and child illness are ways that work settings can help parents rear children children and, indirectly, enhance development. Exosyst Exosystem em supports can also be informal, informal, such as parents parents’’ social networks—friends networks—friends and extended-family extended-f amily members who provide advice, companionsh companionship, ip, and even financial financial assistance. 

  

Research confirms the negative negative impact of a breakdown in exosystem activities. Families who are socially isolated because they have few personal or community-based ties or who are affected by  unemployment show show increased rates of conflict and child child abuse (Emery & Laumann-Billings, 1998). THE MACROSYSTEM The outermost outermost level of Bronfen Bronfenbrenne brenner’s r’s model, the macrosystem, consist con sistss of cult cultural ural valu values, es, law laws, s, cust customs, oms, and resour resources ces.. The priori priority ty that that the macr macrosys osystem tem gives to children’ children’ss needs affects the support they receive receive at inner levels of the environment. environment. For example, in countries that require high-quality high-quality standards for child care and workplace benefits for employed parents, childre children n are more likely to have favorable favorable experiences in their immediate settings. As you will see in greater greater detail later in this this chapter and in other parts of this book, such programs are far less available in the United States than in Canada and other industrialized nations nations (Children (Children’s ’s Defense Fund, 2004; Kamerman, 2000). 



  

  

According Accor ding Bronfenbrenner Bronfenbrenner, , the environment is not AN EVER-CHANGING SYSTEM a static force that affects children force children in a uniform way.to way. Instead, it is ever-changing. ever-changing. Important life events, even ts, such as as the birth birth of a sibling, sibling, the beginnin beginningg of schoo school, l, or parents parents’’ div divorce orce,, modify existexisting relationships between children children and their environment, environment, producing new conditions that affect devel development. opment. In addition, addition, the timing timing of envi environme ronmental ntal change change affects affects its impact. impact. The arrival of a new sibling has very very different consequences for a homebound toddler than for a school-age child with many relationships and activities beyond the family. Bronfenbrenner refers to the temporal dimension of his model as the chronosystem (the prefix chrono - means “time” “time”). ). Change Changess in life events can be imposed imposed on the child, as in the examples just given. Alternatively Alternatively,, they can arise from within the child, since as children get older they select, select, modify modify,, and create create many of their own settings settings and experienc experiences. es. How they do so depends on their physical, physical, intellectual, and personality characteristics characteristics and their environenvironmental opportunit opportunities. ies. Ther Therefore efore,, in ecological ecological systems systems theory, theory, devel development opment is neither neither concontrolled by environmental circumstances circumstances nor driven by inner dispositions. dispositions. Instead, children are both products and producers of their environments, environments, so both children and the environment form a network of inter interdepen dependent dent effects. effects. Noti Notice ce how our discussion discussion of resi resilien lientt children children on page 10 illustrates this idea. We will see many more examples throughout this book.

New Directions: Development as a Dynamic System Today, researchers recognize recognize both consistency and variability in child development and want to do a better better job of expla explainin iningg variation. variation. Conse Consequent quently ly,, a new wave wave of theori theorists sts has adopted adopted a  dynamic systems perspective. Acc Accordi ording ng to this view, view, the child’ child’ss mind, body body,, and physical physical and social worlds form an integrated system that guides guides mastery mastery of of new skills. skills. The system system is growth to physical physical dynamic, or constantly in motion. A change in any part of it—from brain growth and social surroundings—disrupts surroundings—disrupts the current organism–environment relationship. relationship. When this happens, the child actively actively reorganizes her behavior so that the components components of the system work together together again but in a more complex, complex, effec effective tive way way (Fischer (Fischer & Bidel Bidell, l, 1998 1998;; Spenc Spencer er & Schöner Schön er,, 2003 2003;; Thele Thelen n & Smith, 1998 1998). ). Researchers adopting a dynamic systems perspective try to find out just how children attain new levels of organization studying theirdbehavior while tive theytoy in transition (Thelen & Corbetta, Corbett a, 2002 2002). ). For example, exampby le, when presented presente with an attrac attractive toare y, how does a 3-month-old 3-month-ol d baby who shows many, many, varied movements discover how to reach reach for it? On hearing a new  word, how does a 2-year-old 2-year-old figure out the category of objects or events to which it refers?

 

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Dynamic systems theorists acknowledge that a common human genetic heritage and basic regularities in children’s physical and social social worlds yield certain universal, universal, broad outliness of devel line development opment.. But biological biological makeup, makeup, every everyday day tasks, tasks, and the people people who support childre children n in mastery of those tasks vary greatly, greatly, leading to wide individual differences differences in specific skills. Even when children children master the same skills, such suc h as wal walkin king, g, tal talkin king, g, or addi adding ng and and subtr subtract acting ing,, the they  y  often do so in unique ways. And because children build comcompetencies by engaging in real activities in real contexts, dif-

∞ Although these children are

about the same age, they vary widely in competencies. The dynamic systems perspective aims to explain this variation by examining how the child’s mind, body, and physical and social worlds form an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills. © Michael Newman/PhotoEdit

Ø

ferent skills vary in maturity within the same child. From this perspective, development cannot be characterized as a single line of of chan change. ge. As Figure Figure 1.5 1.5 shows, shows, it is more more like like a web web of  fiberss branching fiber branching out in many many directions, directions, each of whic which h represents a different skill area that may undergo continuous and stagewise transformations (Fischer & Bidell, 1998). The dynamic systems view has been inspired by other scientific disciplines, disciplines, especially biology biology and physics. physics. In addition, it draws on information-processing and contextual theories—evolutionary developmental psychology chol ogy,, soci sociocult ocultural ural theory theory,, and ecologi ecological cal syste systems ms theory theory.. At presen present, t, dyna dynamic mic syste systems ms research researc h is in its early stages. The perspective has largely been applied to children’s children’s motor and cognitivee skills, but some investigators cognitiv investigators have drawn on it to explain emotional and social developmentt as well (Fogel, opmen (Fogel, 200 2000; 0; Lewis Lewis,, 2000 2000). ). Cons Consider ider the young young teenage teenagerr, whose body body and reasoning powers are changing changing massively and who is also confronting the challenges challenges of secondary  school. Resear Researchers chers following parent– child interaction overunstable over time found theletransition to adolescenc adolescence e disrupted family parent–child commun communication. ication. It became andthat variab variable for several  years—a mix of positive positive,, neutral, and negative exchanges. exchanges. Gradually Gradually,, as parent and adolescent devised new, new, more mature mature ways of relating to one another another,, the system system reorganized reorganized and stabistabilized. Once again, again, interaction became predictable predictable and mostly mostly positive positive (Granic et al., 2003). As dynamic systems research research illustrates, today investigators investigators are tracking and analyzing development in all its complexity. In doing so, they hope to move closer to an all-encompassing approach to understanding change.

Figure 1.5

The dynamic systems view of development. Rather than envisioning a single line of stagewise or continuous change (refer to Figure 1.2 on page 7), dynamic systems theorists conceive of development as a web of fibers branching out in many directions. Each strand in the web represents a skill within the major domains of development— physical, cognitive, and emotional/social. emotional/social. The differing differin g directions of the strands signify possible variations variations in paths and outcomes as the child masters skills necessary to participate in diverse contexts. The interconnections of the strands at each row of “hills”  portray stagelike changes—periods of major transformation in which various skills work together as a functionin functioning g whole. As the web expands, skills become more numerous, complex, and effective. (Adapted from Fischer & Bidell, 1998.)

 

ADULTHOOD    T    N    E      M    P    O    L    E    V    E    D

CHILDHOOD

INFANCY

Physical

Cognitive

Emotional/ Social

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HISTORY, THEORY, AND APPLIED DIRECTIONS

 Askk Yo  As Your urse self   lf  

 

REVIEW

What features of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory distinguish it from Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory and from information processing?

REVIEW

Explain how each recent theoretical perspective regards children as active contributors to their own development.

APPLY

Return to the Biology and Environment box on page 10. How does the story of John and Gary illustrate bidirectional influences within the microsystem, as described in ecological systems theory?

REFL ECT

To illustrate the chronosystem in ecological systems theory, select an important event from your childhood, such as a move to a new neighborhood, a class with an inspiring teacher, or parental divorce. How did the event affect you? How might its impact have differed had you been 5 years  younger? How about 5 years older?

Comparing Child Development Theories In the preceding preceding sections, we reviewed major theoretical perspectives in child development research. resear ch. They differ differ in many respects respects.. First, they focus focus on differ different ent domains domains of develo development. pment. Some, such as the psychoanalyti psychoanalyticc perspective perspective and ethology, ethology, emphasiz emphasizee emotional and social social development. develo pment. Others Others,, such as Piaget Piaget’s ’s cognitive-dev cognitive-developmen elopmental tal theory, informat information ion processing, processing, and Vygotsky’ Vygotsky’ss sociocultural theory, theory, stres stresss changes in thinking. The remaining remaining approaches— behaviorism, behavi orism, social learning theory, theory, evolut evolutionary ionary developmental developmental psychology, psychology, ecologi ecological cal systems theory,, and the dynamic systems perspective—dis theory perspective—discuss cuss many aspects of childr children en’s ’s functioning. functioning. Second, Secon d, every theory contains contains a point of view about development. development.As As we conclude conclude our review of  theoretical perspectives, identify the stand each theory takes on the controversial controversial issues presented at the beginning of this chapter. chapter. Then check your analysis against Table Table 1.4 on page 32. Finally, we have seen seen that theories have strengths and limitations. Perhaps you you found that  you are attracted to some theories, but you have have doubts about others. As you read more about child development in later chapters, you may find it useful to keep a notebook in which you test your theoretical likes likes and dislikes dislikes against the evidence. Don’t be surprised if you revise  your ideas many times, just as theorists have done throughout this century. century. By the end of this course, you will have built your own personal perspective perspective on child development. Very likely, likely, it will be an eclectic position, or blend of seve several ral theories, theories, sinc sincee every viewpoint we have have considered has contributed to what we know about children.

Applied Directions: Child Development and Social Policy In recent recent years, the field of child development development has become increasi increasingly ngly concerned concerned with applying its vast knowledge knowledge base base to solving pressing pressing social social problems. problems. At the dawn of a new millennium, we know much more than ever before before about family, family, school, and community community contexts contexts that foster physically healthy and cognitively and socially competent children. Yet a nation’s nation’s values, policies, and programs powerfully affect children’s children’s experiences in these immediate contexts. planned set of actions by by a group, institu institution, tion, or governing governing body directed directed Social policy is policy is any planned at attaining a social goal. When widespread social problems arise, nations attempt to to solve them through a special type of social policy called public policy —laws —laws and government programs aimed at improving current conditions. Return to Bronfenbrenner’s Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems systems theory, and note how how the concept concept of the macrosystem suggests that sound public policies are essential for homeless, protecting children’s well-being. well-being. example, poverty increases an d families become homeless , achildren country’smight decideFor to build morewhen low-cost housing, raiseand the minimum wage, and increase welfare welfare benefits. When reports reports indicate that many children are are not

 

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STANCES OF MAJOR THEORIES ON BASIC ISSUES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Continuous or Discontinuous Development?

One Course of Development or Many?

Nature or Nurture as More Important?

Psychoanalytic perspective

Discontinuous: Psychosexual and psychosocial development takes place in stages.

One course: Stages are assumed to be universal.

Both nature and nurture: Innate impulses are channeled and controlled through childrearing experiences. Early experiences set experiences set the course of later development.

Behaviorism and social learning theory

Continuous: Development involves an increase in learned behaviors.

Many possible courses:  Behaviors reinforced and modeled may vary from child to child.

Emphasis on nurture: Development results from conditioning and modeling. Both early  and later experiences are experiences  are important.

Piaget’s cognitivedevelopmental theory

Discontinuous: Cognitive development takes place in stages.

One course: Stages are assumed to be universal.

Both nature and nurture: Development occurs as the brain matures and children exercise their innate drive to discover reality in a generally stimulating environment. Both early and  later experiences are experiences are important.

Information processing

Continuous: Children gradually improve in perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving skills.

One course: Changes studied characterize most or all children.

Both nature and nurture: Children are active, sense-making beings who modify their thinking as the brain matures and they confront new environmental demands. Both early and  later experiences are experiences are important.

Ethology and

Both continuous and discontinu- 

One course: Adaptive

Both nature and nurture: Evolution and heredity

evolutionary developmental psychology

ous: Children gradually develop a wider range of adaptive behaviors. Sensitive periods occur, in which qualitatively distinct capacities emerge fairly suddenly.

behaviors and sensitive periods apply to all members of a species.

influence behavior, and learning lends greater flexibility and adaptiveness to it. In sensitive periods, early experiences set experiences set the course of later development.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

Both continuous and discontinu-  ous: Language acquisition and schooling lead to stagewise changes. Dialogues with more expert members of society also lead to continuous changes that vary from culture to culture.

Many possible courses:  Socially mediated changes in thought and behavior vary from culture to culture.

Both nature and nurture: Heredity, brain growth, and dialogues with more expert members of society jointly contribute to development. Both early and later experiences are experiences are important.

Ecological systems theory

Not specified.

Many possible courses:  Children’s characteristics  join with environmental

Both nature and nurture: Children’s characteristics and the reactions of others affect each other in a bidirectional fashion. Layers of the

forces at multiple levels to mold development in unique ways.

environment influence child-rearing experiences. Both early and later experiences are experiences  are important.

Many possible courses:  Biological makeup, everyday tasks, and social experiences vary, yielding wide individual differences in specific skills.

Both nature and nurture: The child’s mind, body, and physical and social surroundings surroundings form an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills. Both early and later experi-  ences are ences  are important.

Dynamic systems perspective

Both continuous and discontin-  uous: Change in the system is always ongoing. Stagelike transformations occur as children reorganize their behavior so components of the system work as a functioning whole.

achieving well in school, school, federal and state or provincial provincial governments might grant more tax  money to school districts, strengthe strengthen n teacher preparation, preparation, and make sure that help reaches chilchildrenAmerican who needand it most. Canadian public policies that safeguard children and youths have lagged behind policies in other developed nations. A striking indicator is that about 16 percent of 

 

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33

American and Canadian children are poor— rates that climb to 32 percent for NativeAmerican America n children, children, 34 percent percent for AfricanAfricanAmerican and Hispanic Hispanic childr children, en, and 60 60 percent for Canadian Aboriginal children.1 Families hit hardest are parents under age 25 with young children. For single mothers with infants and preschool preschoolers, ers, the poverty rate in both countries is nearly 50 percent (Canada Camp Ca mpai aign gn 20 2000 00,, 200 003 3, 200 004; 4; U.S .S.. Ce Cen nsu suss Bureau, 2004b) Bureau, 2004b).. Of all Weste Western rn nations, nations, the Unite United d States has the highest percentage percentage of extremely poor children chil dren.. Mor Moree than than 6 perc percent ent of Americ American an children live in deep poverty (well below the poverty pove rty threshold, threshold, the income income level judged judged necessary for a minimum living standard), compared with 2.5 percent percent of Canadian children. However However,, these circumstance circumstancess are worrisome in both countries because the earlier earlier poverty begins, the deeper it is, and the longer it lasts, the more devastating are are its effects. Children of poverty are more likely likely than other children children to suffer from lifelong poor physical health, persistent deficits in cognitive cognitive development and academic achievement, high school dropout, mental illness, and antisocial antisocial behavior (Children (Children’s ’s Defense Fund, Fun d, 200 2004; 4; Po Poult ulton on et al. al.,, 20 2002; 02; Sec Seccom combe, be, 200 2002). 2). As Table Table 1.5 on page 34 reveals, the United States does not rank well on any key measure of chil children dren’s ’s health and and well-being. well-being. Canada fares fares somewha somewhatt better, better, devot devoting ing conside considerably  rably  more of its resources resources to education and health. For example, example, Canada grants all its citizens citizens government-funde ernmen t-funded d health care. In contrast, contrast, appro approximat ximately ely 12 percent percent of Americ American an children— children— most of them in low-income low-income families—have families—have no health insurance, insurance, making children children the largest largest segmentt of the U.S. segmen U.S. unins uninsured ured population population (Children (Children’s ’s Defense Defense Fund, 2004 2004). ). The problems of children extend beyond the indicators included in the table. For example, the United States States and Canada have been slow to move toward national standards and funding for child child care. In both countries, countries, affordable child care is in short supply, supply, and much of  it is substanda substandard rd in quality quality (Goelman (Goelman et et al., 2000 2000;; NICHD Early Early Child Child Care Resear Research ch Network, Netw ork, 2000 2000). ). In families families affected affected by divorce, divorce, weak enforcemen enforcementt of chil child d support payments payments heightens poverty poverty in mother-headed mother-headed households. By the time they finish finish high school, many  North American non-college-bound young people do not have the vocational preparation they need to contribut contributee fully to society. society. And about 11 percent percent of U. U.S. S. and Canadian Canadian adolesadolescentss leave cent leave high high school school without without a diplom diplomaa (Bushnik, (Bushnik, Barr Barr-T -Telfor elford, d, & Bussiér Bussiére, e, 2004 2004;; U.S U.S.. Department of Educat Department Education, ion, 2004 2004b). b). Mos Mostt are from low-inco low-income me families families and have have a long history of of poor academ academic ic achiev achievement ement,, lack of inter interest est in school schoolwork, work, and low low academi academicc selfselfesteem. Dropouts who do not return to finish their education are at risk for lifelong poverty. poverty. Why have attempts to help children and youths in the United States and (to a lesser extent) Canada been been difficult difficult to realize? realize? A complex complex set of cultur cultural, al, politi political, cal, and economic economic forces forces is involved.

Culture and Public Policies Each semester, semester, I ask my students to think about the question, Who should be responsible for rearing young children? Here Here are some typical answers: “If parents decide to to have a baby, baby, then they should be ready to care for it.”“Most people want to rear their own children and are not happy about others intruding into family life.” life.” These statements reflect a widely held opinion

1Aboriginal

peoples in Canada Canada include three three groups: (1) First Nations, Nations, or Native Native Canadian peoples; peoples; (2) Inuit, most of whom live live in northern northern Canada; Canada; and (3) Métis, or mixed-blood mixed-blood people of both Native Native Canadian Canadian and European descent.

 

∞ Texas third graders from

low-income families attend a run-down, overcrowded, underequipped elementary school classroom. Poverty threatens all aspects of children’s well-being. Along with their underprivileged home lives, unfavorable conditions at school increase these children’s chances of failing academically and developing behavior problems. © Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

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HOW DO THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA COMPARE TO OTHER NATIONS ON INDICATORS OF CHILDREN’S HEALTH AND WELL-BEING? U.S. Ranka

Canadian Ranka

Childhood povertyb (among 23 industrialized nations considered)

19th

19th

Australia, Czech Republic, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Spain

Infant deaths in the first year of life (worldwide)

26th

16th

Hong Kong, Ireland, Singapore, Spain

Teenage pregnancy rate (among 28 industrialized nations considered)

28th

21st

For Canada: Australia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Poland, Netherlands For the U.S.: Iceland, U.S.: Iceland, Portugal, Hungary, Slovak Republic

Public expenditures on education as a percentage of gross domestic product (among 22 industrialized nations considered)

10th

6th

For Canada: Israel, Sweden For the U.S.: Australia, France, New Zealand, Sweden

Public expenditures on health as a percentage of gross domestic productc (among 22 industrialized nations considered)

16th

4th

For Canada: France, Iceland, Switzerland For the U.S.: Austria, Australia, Hungary, New Zealand

Indicator

Some Countries the United States and Canada Trail

a1 = highest,

or best, rank U.S. and Canadian childhood poverty rates of 16 percent greatly exceed those of any of these nations. For example, the rate is 12 percent in Australia, 6 percent in the Czech Republic, 4 percent in Norway, and 2.5 percent in Sweden. cGross domestic product is the value of all goods and services produced by a nation during a specified time period. It provides an overall measure of a nation’s wealth. bThe

Sources: Perie et al., 2000; United Nations Children’s Fund, 2000, 2001; U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a; U.S. Department of Education, 2004a.

in North America— America—that that the care care and rearing rearing of youn youngg children, children, and paying paying for that care, are the duty of paren parents, ts, and only parent parents. s. This view view has a long history—on history—onee in which indepen indepen-dence,, self-r dence self-relian eliance, ce, and the privacy privacy of family life life emerged emerged as central North North American American values (Halfon & McLearn, McLearn, 2002). It is one reason that that the public has been slow slow to endorse government-supported benefits for all families, such as high-quality child care. And it has also contributed to the large number of American and Canadian children who remain poor, despite the fact that their parents are are gainfully employed (Pohl, (Pohl, 2002; Zigler & Hall, 2000). Consider our discussion so far, and you will see that it reflects cultural variation in values that strongly influence influence public policies: the extent to to which individualism versus collectivism prevai pre vails. ls. In individualistic societies, people think of themselves as separate entities and are largely concerned concerned with their own personal needs. In collectivist societies, people define themselves as part of a group and stress selves stress group group goals over over individual individual goals goals (Triandi (Triandis, s, 1995 1995). ). Although individualism tends to increase as cultures become more complex, complex, cross-national differences remain. remain. The United United States is strongly individualistic, and Canada falls in between the United States and most Western Western European nations, which lean toward collectivism. Furthermore, less consensus exists among North American than among European citizens on issues of child and family policy policy,, resulting in fewer and more limited programs—ones that target only the most economically disadvantaged and leave many needy children unserved (Ripple & Zigler, Zigler, 2003). And good social programs are expensive; expensive; they must compete compete for a fair share of a country’s country’s economic economic resources. resources. Children can easily remain unrecognized because they cannot vote or speak out to protect their own interests, as adult citizens do (Zigler & Finn-Steve Finn-S tevenson, nson, 1999 1999). ). Inste Instead, ad, they must must rely rely on the goodwill goodwill of others to make make them them an important government priority. priorit y. Without vigilance from child advocates, advocates, policies directed at solving one social problem can work at cross-purposes with children’s children’s well-being, leaving them in dire straits or worsening worsening their condition. condition. Consider Consider,, for example, welfare reforms aimed at returning welfare recipients to the work force. As the Social Issues box on the following following page makes clear, clear, these policies can help or harm children, depending on whether whether they lift lift a family out of poverty.

 

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s      

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SOCIAL ISSUES

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Welfare Reform, Poverty, and Child Development

In the mid-1990s, the United States and Canada recast their welfare policies, putting

Designers of welfare-to-work assumed that it would have positive benefits for chil-

in place welfare-to-work programs that ended decades of guaranteed government financial aid to needy families. In these new systems, recipients must go to work or face reduced or terminated benefits. The goal is to encourage welfare families to become self-sufficient. The U.S. program is strictly time limited. A family can be on welfare for only 24 continuous months, with a lifetime limit of 60 months, and the states can further restrict these benefits. For example, a state can prevent payments from increasing if recipients have more children, and it can deny teenage single mothers any benefits.

dren. But moving off welfare without increasing family income income poses serious serious risks to child development. In one study, mothers who left welfare and also left poverty engaged in more positive parenting and had preschoolers who showed more favorable cognitive development, compared with working mothers whose incomes remained below the poverty threshold. Among these mothers, harsh, coercive parenting remained high (Smith et al., 2001). In additional research, families who moved from welfare to a combination of welfare and work experienced a greater reduction in young children’s behavior

Canadian welfare policies, while strongly employment focused, are not as stringent. In Ontario, for example, welfare recipients must actively look for a job, engage in community volunteer work while acquiring work  skills, and take any paid work offered that they are physically capable of performing. If  these criteria are not met, eligibility for welfare ends. However, unlike the U.S. policy, a family’s benefits increase if family size increases while the family is on welfare. Nevertheless, several provinces have reduced these payments (National Forum on Welfare to Work, 2004). Until recently, most governmentsponored evaluations of welfare-to-work  focused on declines in the number of families on the welfare rolls. By these standards standards,, welfare-to-work seemed to be a resounding success. But as researchers looked more closely, they found that in the years after welfare reform, some people made successful transitions to financial independence—typically, those who had more schooling and fewer mental health problems. Others, however, had difficulty diff iculty meeting work requirements, lost their benefits, and fell deeper into poverty. Consequently, as welfare caseloads declined, the incomes of the poorest single-

problems than families who moved to total reliance on work (Dunifon, Kalil, & Danziger, 2003; Gennetian & Morris, 2003). Why was the welfare–work combination so beneficial? Most welfare recipients must take unstable  jobs with erratic erratic work hours and and minimal or no benefits. Working while retaining some welfare support probably gave mothers an added sense of economic stability. In the United States, it also sustained governmentprovided health insurance (Medicaid), a major source of American parents’ worry about leaving welfare (Kalil, Schweingruber, & Seefeldt, 2001). The resulting lessening of  financial anxiety seemed to enhance children’s adjustment. In sum, welfare reform promotes children’’s development only when it results in dren a more adequate standard of living. Punitive aspects of welfare-to-work that reduce or cut off benefits push families deeper into poverty, with destructive consequences for children’s well-being. Because of a shortage of affordable child care, mothers on welfare who have infants and preschoolers are least able to earn enough by working. Yet poverty is most harmful to development when it occurs early in life (see page 33). Welfare policies in other Western nations

mother families dropped sharply (Lindsey & Martin, 2003; 20 03; Primus et al., 1999).

do not just encourage parents to be better providers. They also protect children from

 This mother, who works as a nurse’s aide

at a Missouri children’s hospital, earns barely more than minimum wage. She depends on supplemental welfare benefits to make ends meet. If the state of Missouri slashes those benefits, her capacity to engage in effective parenting and her two daughters’ development are likely to suffer. AP/ Wide World Photos

the damaging effects of poverty. France, for example, guarantees most of its citizens a modest minimum income. Single parents receive an extra amount during their child’s child’s first 3 years—a benefit that acknowledges a special need for income support during this period. Government-funded, highquality child care begins at age 3, enabling mothers to go to work knowing that their children’s development is supported (Duncan (Dunc an & Broo Brooks-Gunn, ks-Gunn, 200 0). Canada offers working parents more generous tax refunds than are available in the United States. Still, widespread poverty in both nations underscores the need for more effective poverty prevention policies—ones that help poor families rear children while they transition to financial independence.

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Contributions of Child Development Research As the evidence in the Social Issues box suggests, for a policy to be effective in meeting children’ss needs, research must guide it at every step—during design, implementation, and evaldren’ uation of of the program. program. Ev Events ents of the 1960s 1960s and and 1970s 1970s initiated initiated the the current current trend trend toward toward greater involvement involvement of child development researchers researchers in the policy process (Zigler (Zigler & FinnStevenson, Steve nson, 1999 1999). ). For example, in 1965, research on the importance of early experiences experiences for children’ children’ss intellectual development played played a major role in the the founding of Project Head Start, the largest educational and family-services intervention program for poverty-stricken preschool children in the United States. In Chapter 8, we will see that several decades of research on the long-term long-term benefits of Head Start helped the program survive, contributed to recent recent increased increased government government support, and inspired the Aboriginal Head Start Program Program in Canada. In another instance, instance, findings on the severe impact of malnutrition on early brain development stimulated government-sponsor government-sponsored ed supplemental food programs. Since the 1970s, 1970s, the U.S. U.S. Special Supplemental Supplemental Food Food Program Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) and the Canadian Prenatal Prenatal Nutrition Nutrition Program (CPNP) have supplied poverty-stricken poverty-stricken women and their young young children with food packages, packages, nutrition education, breastfeeding support, and referral to health and social services. As researche researchers rs examined examined the impact of chil child d and family services, services, they saw how settings settings remote from children’ children’ss daily lives affect their well-being. As a result, investigat investigators ors broadened their focus focus to include include wider social social contexts, contexts, such as workplac workplace, e, commu community nity,, mass media, media, and government gove rnment.. They also addressed addressed the impact impact of socie societal tal changes changes on children, children, inclu including ding high rates of pove poverty rty,, div divorce orce,, family violen violence, ce, teena teenage ge parenth parenthood, ood, and materna maternall employment employment.. All these efforts have have helped to to refine existing policies, inspire new initiatives, and expand our understandin unders tandingg of chil child d development. development. The field field of chil child d development development now now recogni recognizes zes that that ∞ The Children’s Defense

Fund is the most vigorous interest group working for the well-being of children in the United States. It released this poster expressing outrage that millions of American children, most living in poverty or near-poverty, have no health insurance, making children the largest segment of the U.S. uninsured population. Permission granted by the Children’s Defense Fund

sound public policy is among the most powerful tools for preventing developmental problems and enhancing children children’s ’s quality quality of life.

Looking Toward the Future Policies aimed at fostering children’ children’ss development can be justified on two grounds. The first is that childre children n are the future—the future—the parents, parents, work workers, ers, and citizens citizens of tomorr tomorrow ow.. Inv Investin estingg in children chil dren yields yields valuable returns returns to a nation’s nation’s economy economy and quality quality of life. In contrast, contrast, failur failuree to invest invest in childre children n results results in “ec “economic onomic insuffi insufficienc ciencyy, loss of produc productivity tivity,, shorta shortages ges in needed skills, skills, high health health care costs, costs, growin growingg prison costs, costs, and a nation that will be less safe, safe, less carin caring, g, and less free free”” (Hec (Heckman kman & Mast Masterov erov,, 2004 2004;; Hern Hernandez, andez, 1994 1994,, p. 20). Second, child-orient child-oriented ed policies can be defended on humanitarian grounds—children grounds—children’s ’s basic rights as human beings. beings. In 1989, 1989, the United United Nations Nations General General Assembly Assembly,, with the assisassistance of experts from many child-rel child-related ated fields, fields, drew up the Conven Convention tion on the Rights Rights of the  Child, a legal agreement among nations that commits each cooperating country to work  toward guaranteeing guaranteeing environments environments that foster children’s children’s development, development, protect them from harm, and enhance enhance their community community participation and self-de self-determ terminat ination. ion. Exam Examples ples of right rightss include the highest highest attainable standard standard of health; an adequate adequate standard standard of living; free and compulcompulsory education; education; a happ happyy, unde understa rstandin nding, g, and loving family life; protecti protection on from all all forms of abuse and neglec neglect; t; and freedom of thought, consc conscience ience,, and religion religion,, subje subject ct to appropriat appropriatee parental parental guidance and national law. law. Canada’ Canada’ss Parliament ratified the Convention Convention in 1991, shortly after the United Un ited Nation Nationss completed completed it. Althou Although gh the United States played a key role in drawing up the Convention, Conve ntion, it is one of only two countries in in the world whose legislature has not yet ratified it. (The other nation is is Somalia, which currently  does not have a recognized national government.) American individualism individualism has stood in the

 

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way. Oppon way. Opponents ents of the Conven Convention tion maintain maintain that its provisions would shift the burden of  child rearing from the family to the state (Woodhouse, (W oodhouse, 2001). Despite the worrisome worrisome condition condition of many  children and families, efforts are being made to improve improve their condition. Throughout this book, we will discuss discuss many success successful ful programs that could could be expanded. Also Also,, growi growing ng awareness of the gap between what we know  know  and what we do to better children’s lives has led experts in child development to join with concerned citizens as advocates for more effective effec tive policies. policies. As a result, sever several al influeninfluential interest groups devoted to the well-being of chil children dren have have emerged. In the United United States, the most vigorous of  these groups is the Children’s Defense Fund. This private, nonprofit organization founded by Marian Wright Edelman in 1973 engages engages in research, public education, legal action, drafting of legisl legislation, ation, congr congressio essional nal testimony testimony,, and community community organizing. organizing. Each year, year, it publishes publishes The State of of America America’s ’s Children, Children, which provides a comprehensive comprehensive analysis of children children’s ’s condition, including government-sponsored government-sponsored programs that serve children children and families and proproposals for improving those programs. To learn more about the Children’s Children’s Defense Fund, Fund, visit its website at www.childrensdefense.org  In 1991, Canada initiated initiated a public public education education movement, movement, calle called d Campaign 2000, 2000, to build nationwide awareness awareness of the extent and consequences consequences of child poverty poverty and to lobby government representatives representatives for improved policies policies benefiting children. Diverse organizations— organizations— including incl uding profe professiona ssional, l, reli religious, gious, healt health, h, and labor labor groups at national national,, provi provincial ncial,, and comcommunity levels—have joined forces to work toward toward campaign goals. These include raising basic living standards so no no child lives in poverty, poverty, ensuring each child child affordable, appropriate housing, and strengthening child care and other community community resources that assist families in rearing children. children. Consu Consult lt www.campaign2000.ca  to explore explore the work work of Campaig Campaign n 2000, 2000, inclu includdwww.campaign2000.ca to ing its annual Report Card on Child Poverty in Canada. Finally, more researchers researchers are collaborating with community and government agencies to to enhance enhan ce the social social relevan relevance ce of their inv investig estigations ations.. They are are also doing doing a better job job of disseminating their their findings to the public, through television documentaries, newspaper stories, magazine magazi ne articles, articles, websi websites, tes, and direct direct reports reports to gover government nment officia officials. ls. As a result, result, they are are helping to create the the sense of immediacy about the condition of children and families that is

∞ Campaign 2000 is

Canada’s public education movement aimed at building national awareness of the extent of child poverty and the need to improve policies benefiting children. This Campaign 2000 poster calls for strengthening a diverse array of community resources that assist families in rearing children. Courtesy of Campaign 2000

necessary to spur a society into action.

 Askk Yo  As Your urse self   lf  

 

 

WWW

REVIEW

Explain why both strong advocacy and policy-relevant research are vital for designing and implementing public policies that meet children’s needs.

APPLY

Check your local newspaper or one or two national news magazines to see how often articles on the condition of children and families appear. Why is it important for researchers to communicate with the general public about children’s needs?

CONNECT

Give an example of how cultural values and economic decisions affect child-oriented public policies. What level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory contains these influences?

REFL ECT

Do you agree with the widespread North American sentiment that government should not intrude in family life? Explain.

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Summary  T h e F i e l d o f C h i l d D e v e l o p m e n t What is the the field of of child development, development, and  what factors stimulated stimulated expansion expansion of the   field?  5  Child development is an interdiscipli-

across domains domains of development and and even, as research on resilience illus illustrat trates, es, acro across ss individuals.

force in development, development, the development of  of  culturally relevant attitudes attitudes and skills, and the lifespan nature of development.

H i s t o r i c a l Fo u n d a t i o n s

5 As the psychoanalytic perspective

nary field devoted devoted to the study of human constancy and change from conception through thro ugh adolesce adolescence. nce. It is part of a larger discipline known as developmental psychology, or human development, which includes the entire entire lifespan. Child development research has been stimulated by both scientific curiosity and social pressures to better the lives of children.

Describe major historical influences on current theories theories of child development. development.

How is child development typically divided  into manageable domains and periods? 

5 The Enlightenment brought new ideas

5 Child development often is divided into

three domains: domains: (1) physical physical development, development, (2) cognitive development, and (3) emotional and social development. These domains are not really distinct; they form an integrated whole. 5 Researchers generally segment child

development into into five periods, each of  which brings with it new capacities and social expectations that serve as important transitions in major theories: (1) the preprenatal period, (2) infancy and toddlerhood, toddlerhood, (3) early childhood, childhood, (4) middle childhood, childhood, and (5) adolescence. adolescence. Many contemporary  contemporary   youths experience an additional additional period of  development called emerging adulthood, adulthood, in which they engage in further exploration prior to assuming adult roles.

5 Cont Contempora emporary ry theories of child developdevelop-

ment have roots extending far into the past. As early as medieval medieval times, childhood was regarded rega rded as as a separate separate phase of life. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, centuries, the Puritan conception conception of original sin led to a harsh philosophy philosophy of child rearing. rearing.

favoring more more humane humane treatment of children.. Lock dren Locke’ e’ss notion notion of the tabula rasa provided the philosophical basis for twentiethcentury behaviorism, and Rousseau’s Rousseau’s idea of  the noble savage foreshadowed the concepts of stag stagee and and maturation. A century later, Darwin’s theory emphasized the adaptive value of physical characteristics characteristics and behavbehavior and stimulated scientific child study. 5 Efforts to observe children directly began

Basic Issues

in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with baby biographies. biographies. Soon after, after, Hall and Gesell introduced the normative approach, which produced a large body of  descriptive facts about children. children. Binet and Simon constructed the first successful intelligence test, which sparked sparked interest in individual differences in development and led to a heated controversy over nature versus nurture. Baldwin Baldwin’s ’s theory was ahead of of its time in granting nature and nurture equal

Identify three basic issues on which child development theories take a stand.

importance and regarding children and their social surroundings as mutually influential.

5 Almost all child development theories

take a stand on the following controversial issues: (1) Is development a continuous process, or does it follow follow a series of  dis  discontinuous stages? (2) Does one general course of development characterize all all children, or do many many possible courses exist, exist, depending on the contexts in which children grow up? (3) Is development primarily  influenced by nature or nurture, and is it stable or open to change? 5

More recentissues. theories a balanced stand on these issu es. Andtake contem contemporary  porary  researchers realize that answers may vary 

gained in prominence, behaviorism and social learning theory  emerg emerged, ed, emph emphasiz asiz-ing principles of of conditioning and model  behavior ing and practical procedures of  behavior modification to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses. But behaviorism and social learning theory  have been criticized for offering too narrow  a view of importan importantt environmental environmental influences and disregarding children’s contributions to their own development. 5 Piaget’s cognitive-dev cognitive-developmental elopmental theory  theor y 

emphasizes that children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and © PETE BYRON/PHOTOEDIT explore their world. Acco According rding to Piaget, Piaget, children move through four stages, beginning with the baby’s sensorimotor action patterns and ending with the elaborate, abstract reasoning system of  the adolescent and adult. Piaget’s theory has stimulated stimulated a wealth of researc research h on children’s thinking and encouraged educational programs that emphasize discovery  learning. Neverthele Nevertheless, ss, his stagewise stagewise view of  development has been challenged for underestimating thepaying competencies competencies of young children and for insufficient attention to social and cultural influences.

Recent Theoretical Perspectives Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories What theories influenced influenced the study of child  development in the mid-twentieth century?  5 In the 1930s 1930s and 1940s, psychiatrists

and social workers turned to the psychoanalytic perspective for help in treating children’s emotional and behavior problems. In Freud’s psychosexual theory, children move through through five stages, during which threee parts thre parts of the person personality— ality—id, id, ego ego,, and superego—become superego—bec ome integrated. Erikson’s s psychosocial theory  builds on Erikson’ Freud’s theory by emphasizing the ego as a positive

Describe recent theoretical perspectives on  child development. 5  Information processing  views the mind

as a complex, symbol-manipu symbol-manipulating lating system, much like a computer. computer. This approach helps researchers achieve a detailed understanding of what child children ren of diff different erent ages ages do when when faced with tasks and and problems. Information processing has led to teaching interventions that help children approach tasks in more advanced adva nced ways. ways. As yet, how however ever,, it has not generated a comprehensive theory of  development.

 

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5 Four perspectives emphasize contexts

for development. Ethology  stresses the evolutionary origins and adaptive value of  behavior and inspired the sensitive period concept. conc ept. In evolutionary developmental psychology, researchers have extended this emphasis, seeking to understand understand the adapadaptiveness of species-wide competencies competencies as they change over time. © STEVEN RUBIN/THE IMAGE WORKS

5 Vygotsky’s

sociocultural theory has enhanced our understanding of cul cultur tural al influences, especially in the domain of  cognitive development. Through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of socie society, ty, chil children dren come come to use language language to guide their own thought and actions and acquire culturally relevant knowledge and skills. But Vygotsky’ Vygotsky’ss emphasis on culture and social experience led him to neglect the biological side of development. 5 In ecological systems theory, nested

layers of the environment— environment—microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and

macrosystem—are seen as major influences on children’s children’s well-being. well-being. The chronosystem represents the dynamic, dynamic, ever-chan ever-changing ging nature of children and and their experiences. experiences. 5 Inspired by ideas in other sciences and

recent perspectives perspectives in child development, development, a new wave of theorists has adopted adopted a dynamic systems perspective to account for wide variation in development. Accor According ding to this view,, the mind, view mind, body body,, and physica physicall and social worlds form an integrated system that guides guides mastery mastery of new skills. skills. A change change in any part of the system prompts prompts the child to reorganize her behavior so the various components work work together again, again, but in a more complex, complex, effective way. way.

Comparing Child Development Theories Identify the stand taken by each major theory on the basic issues issues of child development.

 A p p l i e d D i r e c t i o n s : C h i l d Development and Social Policy Explain the importance importance of social policies for  safeguarding children’ children’ss well-being, and cite   factors that affect the policy-making process, process, noting the role of child development research. research. 5 The field of child development development has

become increasingly concerned with applying its vast knowledge base to solving pressing social problems. problems. When widespread problems arise, nations attempt problems attempt to solve them   social policy  called through a special type of  social public policy. Favorable laws and government programs are essential for safeguarding children’ss well-being. American and (to a children’ lesser extent) Canadian public policies favoring children and youths have lagged behind policies in other developed nations. 5 Many factors influence supportive

forces in child development

public policies, including cultural values that stress collectivism over individualism, a nation’s economic resources, and organizations and individuals that

research vary in their focus on different domains of  development, in their their view  of dev develo elopm pment ent,, and in their strengths and limitations. (For a full summary, summary, see Table 1.4 on page 32.)

advocate for children’s needs. Policy-relevant Policy-r elevant research helps refine existing policies, forge new policy direcdirections, and expand expand our understa unde rstandin ndingg of child development.

AP/ WIDE WORLD PHOTOS

5 Theories that are major

Important Terms and Concepts behavior modification (p. 20) behaviorism (p. 19) child development (p. 4)

evolutionary developmental psychology (p. 25) exosystem (p. 29)

psychoanalytic perspective (p. 16) psychosexual theory (p. 16) psychosocial theory (p. 18)

chronosystem (p. 29) cognitive-developmental theory (p. 21) collectivist society (p. 34) contexts (p. 8) continuous development (p. 7) developmental psychology (p. 4) discontinuous development (p. 7) dynamic systems perspective (p. 29) ecological systems theory (p. 26) ethology (p. 24)

human development (p. 4) individualistic society (p. 34) information processing (p. 23) macrosystem (p. 29) maturation (p. 12) mesosystem (p. 28) microsystem (p. 27) nature–nurture controversy (p. 8) noble savage (p. 12) normative approach (p. 14)

public policy (p. 31) resilience (p. 10) sensitive period (p. 24) social learning theory (p. 20) social policy (p. 31) sociocultural theory (p. 25) stage (p. 8) tabula rasa (p. 12) theory (p. 6)