Child Abuse

Child abuse Child abuse is the physical, sexual or emotional maltreatment or neglect of a child or children.[1] In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Department for Children And Families (DCF) define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child.[2] Child abuse can occur in a child's home, or in the organizations, schools or communities the child interacts with. There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect, physical abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, and sexual abuse. In Western countries, preventing child abuse is considered a high priority, and detailed laws and policies exist to address this issue. Different jurisdictions have developed their own definitions of what constitutes child abuse for the purposes of removing a child from his/her family and/or prosecuting a criminal charge. According to the Journal of Child Abuse and Neglect, child abuse is "any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm".[3] However, Douglas J. Besharov, the first Director of the U.S. Center on Child Abuse and Neglect, states "the existing laws are often vague and overly broad"[4] and there is a "lack of consensus among professionals and Child Protective Services (CPS) personnel about what the terms abuse and neglect mean".[5] Susan Orr, former head of the United States Children’s Bureau U.S. Department of Health and Services- Administration for Children and Families, 2001-2007, states that "much that is now defined as child abuse and neglect does not merit governmental interference Physical abuse

Physical abuse involves physical aggression directed at a child by an adult. Most nations with childabuse laws consider the deliberate infliction of serious injuries, or actions that place the child at obvious risk of serious injury or death, to be illegal. Bruises, scratches, burns, broken bones, lacerations, as well as repeated "mishaps," and rough treatment that could cause physical injury, can be physical abuse.[13] Multiple injuries or fractures at different stages of healing can raise suspicion of abuse. Physical abuse can come in many forms, although the distinction between child discipline and abuse is often poorly defined. However, the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations has stated that the prohibition of degrading treatment or punishment extends to corporal punishment of children. [14] Since 1979, 29 countries around the world (at 2010) have outlawed domestic corporal punishment of children.[15] In Europe, 22 countries have banned the practice. Cultural norms about what constitutes abuse vary widely: among professionals as well as the wider public, people do not agree on what behaviors constitute abuse.[16] Some professionals claim that cultural norms that sanction physical punishment are one of the causes of child abuse, and have undertaken campaigns to redefine such norms.[17][18][19] Psychologist Alice Miller, noted for her books on child abuse, took the view that humiliations, spankings and beatings, slaps in the face, etc. are all forms of abuse, because they injure the integrity and dignity of a child, even if their consequences are not visible right away.[20] Sexual abuse Main articles: Child sexual abuse and child-on-child sexual abuse

Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation.[21] Sexual abuse refers to the participation of a child in a sexual act aimed toward the physical gratification or the financial profit of the person committing the act.[13][22] Forms of CSA include asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities (regardless of the outcome), indecent exposure of the genitals to a child, displaying pornography to a child, actual sexual contact with a child, physical contact with the child's genitals, viewing of the child's genitalia without physical contact, or using a child to produce child pornography.[21][23][24] Selling the sexual services of children may be viewed and treated as child abuse with services offered to the child rather than simple incarceration.[25] Effects of child sexual abuse include guilt and self-blame, flashbacks, nightmares, insomnia, fear of things associated with the abuse (including objects, smells, places, doctor's visits, etc.), self-esteem issues, sexual dysfunction, chronic pain, addiction, self-injury, suicidal ideation, somatic complaints,

depression,[26] post-traumatic stress disorder,[27] anxiety,[28] other mental illnesses including borderline personality disorder[29] and dissociative identity disorder,[29] propensity to re-victimization in adulthood,[30] bulimia nervosa,[31] physical injury to the child, among other problems.[32] In the United States, approximately 15% to 25% of women and 5% to 15% of men were sexually abused when they were children.[33][34][35][36][37] Most sexual abuse offenders are acquainted with their victims; approximately 30% are relatives of the child, most often brothers, fathers, mothers, uncles or cousins; around 60% are other acquaintances such as friends of the family, babysitters, or neighbours; strangers are the offenders in approximately 10% of child sexual abuse cases.[33] In over one-third of cases, the perpetrator is also a minor.[38] In a 1999 news story, BBC reported, "Close-knit family life in India masks an alarming amount of sexual abuse of children and teenage girls by family members, a new report suggests. Delhi organisation RAHI said 76% of respondents to its survey had been abused when they were children 40% of those by a family member."[39] Psychological/emotional abuse Main article: Emotional abuse

Emotional abuse is defined as the production of psychological and social deficits in the growth of a child as a result of behavior such as loud yelling, coarse and rude attitude, inattention, harsh criticism, and denigration of the child's personality.[13] Other examples include name-calling, ridicule, degradation, destruction of personal belongings, torture or killing of a pet, excessive criticism, inappropriate or excessive demands, withholding communication, and routine labeling or humiliation.[40] Victims of emotional abuse may react by distancing themselves from the abuser, internalizing the abusive words, or fighting back by insulting the abuser. Emotional abuse can result in abnormal or disrupted attachment development, a tendency for victims to blame themselves (self-blame) for the abuse, learned helplessness, and overly passive behavior. Child labor Main article: Child labor

Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful.[45] This practice is considered a form of exploitation and abuse of children by many international organisations. [46][47] Child labor refers to those occupations which infringe the development of children (due to the nature of the job and/or the lack of appropriate regulation) and does not include age appropriate and properly supervised jobs in which minors may participate. According to ILO, globally, around 215 million children work, many full-time. Many of these children do not go to school, do not receive proper nutrition or care, and have little or no time to play. More than half of them are exposed to the worst forms of child labour, such as child prostitution, drug trafficking, armed conflicts and other hazardous environments.[48] Child trafficking Main article: Child trafficking

Child trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of children for the purpose of exploitation.[49] Children are trafficked for purposes such as of commercial sexual exploitation, bonded labour, camel jockeying, child domestic labour, drug couriering, child soldiering, illegal adoptions, begging.[50][51][52]It is difficult to obtain reliable estimates concerning the number of children trafficked each year, primarily due to the covert and criminal nature of the practice.[53][54] The International Labour Organization estimates that 1.2 million children are trafficked each year.[55] Female genital mutilation Main article: Female genital mutilation

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the

female genital organs for non-medical reasons."[56] It is practiced mainly in 28 countries in western, eastern, and north-eastern Africa, particularly Egypt and Ethiopia, and in parts of Asia and the Middle East.[57] FGM is most often carried out on young girls aged between infancy and 15 years.[58] The consequences of FGM include physical, emotional and sexual problems, and include serious risks during childbirth.[59][60] In Western countries this practice is illegal and considered a form of child abuse.[61][62] Child marriage Main article: Child marriage

A child marriage is a marriage whereby minors are given in matrimony - often before puberty. Child marriages are common in many parts of the world, especially in parts of Asia and Africa. These marriages are typically arranged and often forced; as young children are generally not capable of giving valid consent to enter into marriage, child marriages are often considered by default to be forced marriages. Marriages under the age of majority have a great potential to constitute a form of child abuse.[63] In many countries there are no adequate laws to criminalize these practices, and even where there are laws, they are often unenforced.[64] Violence against children accused of witchcraft Main articles: Witchcraft and Witchcraft accusations against children in Africa

Customary beliefs in witchcraft are common in many parts of the world, even among the educated. This is especially the case in parts of Africa.[65] Witchcraft accusations against children in Africa have received increasing international attention in the first decade of the 21st century. Children who are specifically at risk of such accusations include orphans, street-children, albinos, disabled children, children who are unusually gifted, children who were born prematurely or in unusual positions, and twins. [66] Being accused of witchcraft in Africa is very dangerous, as a witch is culturally understood to be the symbol of evil, and the cause of all ills. Consequently, those accused of being a witch are ostracized and subjected to punishment, torture and even murdered.[67][68] Recent reports by UNICEF, UNHCR, Save The Children and Human Rights Watch[69][70][71][72] have highlighted the violence and abuse towards children accused of witchcraft in Africa.

Effects of Child Abuse The immediate effects of child abuse can be extremely serious, especially in infants, where some of the serious injuries and fatalities result from shaking during the first 12 months of life. In both infants and older children, the effects of child abuse vary according to the types of abuse or neglect and can be identified by the following signs. Physical effects of child abuse 1. Unexplained burns, cuts, bruises, or welts in the shape of an object 2. Bite marks 3. Anti-social behavior 4. Problems in school 5. Fear of adults Emotional effects of child abuse 1. Apathy 2. Depression 3. Hostility or stress 4. Lack of concentration 5. Eating disorders Sexual effects of child abuse 1. Inappropriate interest or knowledge of sexual acts 2. Nightmares and bed wetting 3. Drastic changes in appetite 4. Overcompliance or excessive aggression 5. Fear of a particular person or family member

Neglect 1. Unsuitable clothing for weather 2. Appearance is dirty or unbathed 3. Extreme hunger 4. Apparent lack of supervision Long-range effects of child abuse Statistics underscore the alarming effects of child abuse over time:   

36.7% of all women in prison and 14.4% of all men in prison in the United States were abused as children. Children who have been sexually abused are 2.5 times more likely to abuse alcohol and 3.8 times more likely to become addicted to drugs. One third of abused and neglected children will later abuse their own children, continuing the horrible cycle of abuse.

Prevention A support-group structure is needed to reinforce parenting skills and closely monitor the child's wellbeing. Visiting home nurse or social-worker visits are also required to observe and evaluate the progress of the child and his/her caretaking situation. The support-group structure and visiting home nurse or social-worker visits are not mutually exclusive. Many studies have demonstrated that the two measures must be coupled together for the best possible outcome.[140] Children's school programs regarding "good touch...bad touch" can provide children with a forum in which to role-play and learn to avoid potentially harmful scenarios. Unintended conception increases the risk of subsequent child abuse, and large family size increases the risk of child neglect.[92] Thus a comprehensive study for the National Academy of Sciences concluded that affordable contraceptive services should form the basis for child abuse prevention.[92][141] "The starting point for effective child abuse programming is pregnancy planning," according to an analysis for US Surgeon General C. Everett Koop.[92][142] April has been designated Child Abuse Prevention Month in the United States since 1983.[143] U.S. President Barack Obama continued that tradition by declaring April 2009 Child Abuse Prevention Month.[144] One way the Federal government of the United States provides funding for child-abuse prevention is through Community-Based Grants for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (CBCAP).[145] Each year during Child Abuse Prevention Month, “often media and commentators take the number of reports to be synonymous with the number of cases of actual child maltreatment; this is obviously not the case”.[146] From the 3.3 million hotline calls (2010), there were less than 475,000 substantiated cases (2010 NCANDS: 436,321 substantiated+24,976 indicated=461,297 total), resulting in about 15% of hotline calls substantiated/indicated, of which 78.3% were for neglect.[11][83] “Some argue that even many “substantiated reports involve only minor or insignificant matters, which most reasonable people would not truly consider abuse or neglect.”.[84] The 3.3 million annual (hotline) referrals effects on average 1 out of 10 U.S. families with children (There are 32,200,000 U.S. families with children under 18 according to the 2010 U.S. Census) .[82] “Unsubstantiated rates of the current magnitude go beyond anything reasonably needed; a high rate of unsubstantiated reports should concern everyone”, according to Besharov. He further states “each report results in what can be an intrusive and traumatic investigation that is inherently a breach of parental and family privacy. The emotionally charged desire to “do something” about child abuse, fanned by repeated and often sensational media coverage has led to an understandable, but counterproductive over reaction on the part of the professionals and citizens who report child abuse” according to Besharov.[147] Resources for child-protection services are sometimes limited. According to Hosin (2007), "a considerable number of traumatized abused children do not gain access to protective child-protection strategies."[148] Briere (1992) argues that only when "lower-level violence" of children ceases to be culturally tolerated will there be changes in the victimization and police protection of children