Chemistry

Written By: Shamsul Amin (Jahanzebian)

S.NO 1 2

Contact # 0342-1963944

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QUESTIONS The sum of mole frictions of solute and solvent is always is equal to One mole is the amount of substance which contain as many element  particles as there are in The solids in which the molecules or ions are arranged in a regular repetitive manner are called The α bond between carbon and oxygen atoms i n aldehyde and ketone due to overlap of The ionization potential of hydrogen atom is The part of electromagnetic spectrum in which lyman series lie is Lyman series lies in Balmer series lies in Paschan series lies in Brackett series lies in Pfund series lies in The melting point and boiling point of ionic solids are If radius of circle become half keeping other quantities constant, then  percentage change in centripetal force is The London dispersion forces are present in polar and The frequency of electromagnetic do not change in If electron moves from 1 to 2 orbit , the radius of orbit will increase The first law of thermodynamics has a statement which implies that The bond in NaH is Liquids crutals are Because of regular and well ordered arrangement crystalline solids are Crystalline solids are also called Amorphous solids are also called In the periodic table, period represent

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In the periodic table, group represents

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The wavelength of radio waves > microwaves > IR > VL > UV > X-rays >

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The weight of the molecules exerts a force on the wall of the container is cause of exerting pressure by The precipitation of AgCl will occur if ionic product is Number of hydrogen atom presents in one mole of water Charge on one electron Number of electrons in one coulomb of charge is If Kc for certain reaction is large it indicates that

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AlCl3 is Forces controlling the reaction are proportional to the product of active masses Hydrogen bond in possible in Most stable covalent hydride At constant temperature when volume of given mass of gas is doubled its density becomes In all reversible process the entropy of the system 0.1000 Mole of NaCl is dissolved in 1.000dm3 distilled water at 298K, the concentration of resulting solution is

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ANSWERS 1 or 1.0 0.012kg of C-12 crystals sp2-sp 13.6 V Ultra violet region Ultra violet region Visible region Near IR region Mid IR region Far IR region High 100% Non polar molecule Vacume 4 times Energy is conserved Ionic bond Isotropic Anisotropic True solids Super cooled liquids The number of shells in an element Number of outermost shell electrons Gamma rays Ideal gas More than Ksp 1.204 x1024 atoms 1.6022 x 10 -19 C 6.25 x 1018 Product concentration will be high Lewis acid The law of mass action NH3 HF Half Increases 0.1000 M

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Mosely derives a direct relationship between the frequency of x-rays emitted by an element bombarded with high energy electrons, on what characteristic of the element does it depend The intensity of x-rays depend upon nature of The charge of electron was determined by The e/m ratio of an electron was determined by Metals are good conducters because The energy of electron in shell is given by

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The number of electron in one coulomb of charge are The solubility of solute depends upon Pressure, Temperature, nature of solute Heat capacity of substance at constant volume is directly related to the The number of orbitals in “M” shell of an orbit is H2 most closely represent At constant temperature, the pressure of the gas is doubled its volume  becomes Angular acceleration in the body is produced by The span of broad depends upon jumper’s Evaporation occurs at The rate of reaction is defined as According to bronsted and lowery concept SO 4-2 cannot function as When electron jump from one shell to another it emits energy, it was said by equal volume of all gases at same temperature and pressure contain same number of particles NCl3 contain An orbital may never be occupied by Glass in an example of amorphous solid which can be characterized as Four balloons filled with different gases, hydrogen filled balloon flew During redox reaction an oxidizing agent The penetrating power of x-rays depends on 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p………… The paramagnetic nature of substance depends on number of The value of K c is different at Standard solution are prepared in Nitrogen has three unpaired electrons according to Standard hydrogen electrode may act as both Stoichiometric calculation based on chemical equation provides us estimation about The phenomenon of gas cooling by sudden expansion is called Both hydrogen and helium is same number of CO2 is iso-structural with CaCO3 ,CaC ,KCN are (NH2)CO is Molecules of oxygen is diatomic and behaves as HClO4 is strongest Acid from TiCl4 is use as catalyst for the The shapes or appearance in which crytal grows is called SO2 is responsible for the formation of A catalyst is more effectivne when it is in the finally divided state because

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Electronic configuration of an element is ns2 np2 it belongs to group CaCl2 anhydrous is use as

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Atomic number

material of target R Milliken J.J Thomson(1897) It has free electrons En =−

1312 2

6.25 x 1018 And solvent Internal energy 9 Ideal gas One half Torque Angle of projection All temperature Dc/dt acid Bohr Avogadro’s law Six bonded electrons 3 electrons Very viscous fluid High Gain electrons Operating voltage electronic configuration Unpaired electrons Different temperature Volumetric flask Hund’s rule cathode and anode Theoretical yield Joule Thomson Effect Shells C2 H2 Inorganic Organic paramagnetic HClO1 , HClO2 , HClO3 manufacture of ammonia Crystal habit Acid rain It increase in surface area 4th of periodic table Drying agent

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Water boils at high temperature than HF because

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An atom has net charge of -1 it has 18 electrons and 20 neutrons.it mass number is The ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6ev. the ionization potential require will be Elements having same chemical properties belongs to same The oxidation number of Cl in Ca(ClO3 )2 is Trade name of titraflora ethylene polymer is Sum of number of neutrons and protons are called Water at 40 C is The most electronegative element is found in period The bond present in solid mercury is Substance dissolved in water react better because water 4.0 dm3 of O2 at a pressure 800 atm and 1dm 3 of N2 at pressure of 100 atm are put in 2 dm container, the total pressure is The amount of heat required the temperature of 1 calorie of substance through 1 K is called The group of animals which can run fast is NaCl does not conduct The bonds present in NH4 Cl are

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In PV=nRT here n is London dispersion forces are present in Stability of ionic compound is due to The excited state of an atom which can persist for unusual longer time is A zero order reaction is one whose rate is independent of If the distance between two charged particle is halved. The coloumb’s force  between them becomes The neutralization of strong acid by a strong base liberates an amount of energy per mole of H+ ion that is Spreading of smell in room is due to A well stoppered thermos flask containing some ice cubes is an example of NH3 and HCl are present at both side of pipe and diffuse to react and form  NH3 Cl ,the NH3 Cl will form near the Transition from n2 =2,3,4,5 etc to n1 =1 in hydrogen spectrum gives Transition from n2 =3,4,5.6 etc to n1 =2 in hydrogen spectrum gives Transition from n2 =4,5,6,7 etc to n1 =3 in hydrogen spectrum gives Transition from n2 =5,6,7,8 etc to n1 =4 in hydrogen spectrum gives Transition from n2 =6,7,8,9 etc to n1 =5 in hydrogen spectrum gives The reverse process of photoelectric effect is Vapor pressure of mercury is less than Restified spirit, kerosene oil and A concentrated solution has got Molecular formula of an acid C H2 O is The best known fuel cell is the hydrogen/ oxygen fuel cell. This is known as CO2 is non-polar but contained The emf from galvanic cell can be calculated from A liquid is in equilibrium with its vapors at its boiling point. On the average the molecules in the two phase have equal

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Hydrogen bonding per molecule in H2O is greater than HF 37 8.5 x 10 -10  volt Group (3,11) +5 Teflone Mass number Heaviest 2 Metallic bond Dissolves them in ions 900 atm Heat capacity Digitgrade Electric current Ionic, Covalent and coordinate covalent bond number of moles Solid, liquid and gases Lattice energy Metastable state Reactant concentration Four times Always the same diffusion Isolated system HCl end Lyman series Balmer series Paschan series Brackett series Pfund series X-rays Water High solute potential C2 H4 O2 Bacon cell Polar bonds The E0 value of the half cell Total energy

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Reason for alkali metals to be soft is that, they have

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If the pressure and temperature of 2 litres of CO2 are doubled, the volume will become Atoms present in one mole of Ca(OH)2 are Aluminum is resistant to CH4 &SiH4 have same A mixture of 50g H2 and 50 He has a total pressure of 1.5atm. partial  pressure of H2 gas is Calculate the volume occupied by 2.8g of nitrogen gas at STP is A piece of wood and iron seen to lose the same weight when completely submerged in liquid. The two pieces must have the same A solution of 2,0g NaOH dissolved in 1000 g of water has concentration Bohr’s theory explains The oxidation number of hydrogen in metal hydrides In discharge tube Neon gas will produce The value of principle quantum number l=1,the value of magnetic quantum number(m) are The study of heat changes accompanying a chemical reaction is known as On complete oxidation , one mole of an organic compound gave four moles of water which is Water is not used as thermometric liquid because it does not Number of moles of NaCl in 75,0g of table salt Oxygen atom has two unpaired electrons it is there fore The sample of compound contain 0.100g of hydrogen and 4.20g of nitrogen , the compound is

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Hybrid orbitals used by carbon atoms in C H4 is Hybrid orbitals used by carbon atoms in C2 H4 is Hybrid orbitals used by carbon atoms in C2 H2 is Esters are represented by general formula Ag2 S is a

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Theoretical yield is always less than actual yield because of

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The name “electron” was given to cathode rays by The charge to mass ratio of an electron was determined by e/m ratio of electron Charge of electron Charge of proton Proton was discovered by Mass of electron Mass of proton Mass of neutron To Bunsen flame Ba (barium) imparts To Bunsen flame Na (sodium) imparts To Bunsen flame Sr (strontium) imparts To Bunsen flame K (potassium) imparts BeCl2 BF3

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Not closed packed structure 2 litres 5 x 6.023 x 10 23 atoms Corrosion Structure 1.0 atm 22.4dm3 Volume 0.05M He+, Li++, Be+++ -1 Pink colour -1,0,+1 Thermo-chemistry Propane Expand linearly 1.28 Paramagnetic  NH3

Sp3 Sp2 Sp RCOOR Not common occurring sulphur compound Reversibility, Side reaction, Mechanical loss, Human error G.J Stoney(1874) J.J Thomson(1897) 1.7588 x 1011 C/Kg -1.6022 x 10-19 C +1.6022 x 10-19 C E. Goldstein(1886) 9.11 x 10-31 kg 1.6726 x 10-27 kg 1,6749 x 10-27 kg Green colour Yellow colour Red colour Violet colour Linear structure Triangular planer structure

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SnCl2 CH4 NH3 HO3 All single covalent bonds are s-s overlap s-p overlap p-p overlap Pi(π) bond is weaker than Bond order of H2 is Bond order of He2 is Bond order of O2 is Bond order of N2 is Molecule is stable if Greater the bond order, greater the The energy required to break a bond and form neutral atoms Bond energy is measure of strength of a bond which depends upon

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The bond energy for H (Hydrogen) atom is The bond energy for Cl (Chlorine) atom is The bond energy for HCl (Hydrochloric Acid) is Bond energy for HCl is more than calculated value it shows that HCl is Greater the charge difference between bonded atoms, Greater will be the Bond length are measured in C-C length is Cl-Cl bond length is The calculated value of bond length is higher than experimental for A molecule composed of two identical atoms, is always If difference between two atom is less than 0.9, Bond will be If difference between two atom is between 0.9 and 1.7 , Bond will be

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If difference between two atom is greater than 1.7, Bond will be The dipole moment of water is The angle between BF 3 is The angle between SnCl2 is The angle between CH4 is The angle between NH 3 is The angle between H2 O is Kinetic molecular theory of gases are proposed by Apparatus used for measuring gas pressure is called Manometer used for measuring atmospheric pressure is called A common type of Barometer is 1atm=760mm Hg=760 torr=101325Pa=1Nm-2 Graphical representation of Boyle’s law New volume at 500 C = Original volume at 0 0 C+(1/273 x Original volume at 00C ) x Ideal gas equation  Non ideal gas equation or Van der waal’s equation 

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Pt=P1+P2 +P3 +P4 ………...+Pn

Angular structure Tetrahedral structure Triogonal structure Angular structure Sigma bonds H2 HCl Cl2 Sigma bond(σ) 1 0 2 3σ n b > na Bond dissociation energy Bond energy Electronegativity, size of atom and bond length 36.21 x 10-23 KJ per mole 19.73 x 10-23 KJ per mole 72.39 x 10-23 KJ per mole Polar Additional bond energy A0, nm and Pm 154 Pm 198 Pm Heteronuclear molecule Non polar Non polar Polar with some ionic character Ionic character 1.84D 1200 Less than 1200 109.50 107.50 104.50 Bernoulli Manometer Barometer Torricellian barometer 14.7psi Hyperbola 50 PV=nRT (P+a/v2) (V-b)=RT or (P+a n2/v2) (V-nb)=nRT Dalton’s law of partial  pressure

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Velocity of NH3/velocity of HCl= Rate of diffusion of NH3/ Rate of diffusion of HCl= The temperature above which a gas can not be liquefied by pressure alone is called Pressure at critical temperature is The volume occupied by one mole of a gas at T c and Pc is H2 O→2H+O H2O(l)→H2O(g) Intramolecular forces are stronger then Covalent bond, Co-ordinate covalent bond Hydrogen bond > Dipole-Dipole interaction > London dispersion forces Thermodynamic properties (Boiling point, Boiling point, heat of vaporization and heat of sublimation) depends upon Hydrogen bond is present between hydrogen and HF is weaker acid than Ethyl alcohol(C2 H5 OH) is miscible in water in London dispersion forces (short-range forces) are also called

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London forces are present in The strength of London forces depends upon The boiling point increase down the group from Boiling point of neon Boiling point of xenon Boiling point of neon is less than xenon because neon has Boiling point of fluorine Boiling point of iodine Boiling point of fluorine is less than iodine because fluorine has Butane(C4 H10) has linear structure and long chain compound its boiling  point is 2-Methyl propane(C4 H10) has branched structure and short chain compound its boiling point is Ethane (C2 H6 ) is non-polar and its boiling point is Fluoro-methane (CH3 F ) is polar and its boiling point is

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Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is non-polar and its boiling point is Trichloro-methane (CHCl3) is polar and its boiling point is

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Rate of evaporation of water is slower than Vapour pressure of ether V.P = The temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure is called The pressure exerted by the vapours in equilibrium with a liquid at a given temperature is called Glycerine boils at Glycerine decrease to 210 0 C at At higher altitude, atmospheric pressure is Water boils at lower temperature at The amount of heat absorbed when one mole of solid converted into liquid at its melting point is called

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1.5 1.5 Critical temperature (Tc) Critical Pressure (Pc) Critical Volume (Vc) ΔH=920 k J mol ΔH=40.7 k J mol Intermolecular forces Intramolecular forces Intermolecular forces or Van der Waal’s forces Dipole-dipole forces F, O And N HCl, HBr and HI All proportion Dipole-induced dipole interaction Polar and Non polar Size of electronic clouds Helium to radon -245.90 C -107.10 C Smaller size than xenon -188.10 C 184.40 C Smaller size than iodine 272.5 K 261.3 K 184.5 K (London forces) 194.7 K (dipole-dipole interaction) 61.20 C (London forces) 76.80 C (dipole-dipole interaction) Ether 250 C P+Δh Boiling point Vapour pressure 2900 C 50 mm of Hg Less than 1 atm Higher altitude Molar heat of fusion(ΔHf )

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Molar heat of fusion(ΔHf ) for ice is The amount of heat absorbed when one mole of liquid converted into vapours at its boiling point is called Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) for water is The amount of heat absorbed when one mole of solid is directly converted into vapours at constant temperature and 1 atm pressure is called Molar heat of sublimation (ΔHsub) for solid iodine (I2) is Enthalpy change is a At boiling point the temperature becomes Polar substances has higher values of To measure surface tension we use The layers at the center of tube of liquids have high The resistance of fluid to its flow is called

6 kJ mol-1 Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) 40.7 kJ mol-1 Molar heat of sublimation (ΔHsub) 62.3 40.7 kJ mol-1 Physical change Constant ΔHf , ΔHvap, And ΔHsub Stalagmometer Velocity Viscosity

Molten sulphur at 2400 C with ring shape S molecules are less viscous than long chain entangled Sn molecules at The viscosity of water(H2O) is more than ethyl-alcohol due to

1900C

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The ratio of viscosity of liquid to the viscosity of water taken as standard is called Viscosity (η)=dt here d is  The viscosity of water is taken as 1 Centipoise at To measure the relative viscosity of liquid , we use The force required to maintain a difference of velocity of 1 ms-1 between two parallel layers of liquid one meter apart The unit of Co-efficient of Viscosity (η) is 1 poise = Stearin from52.10C to 62.60C behaves like a Cholesteryl benzoate from 1450C to 1790C behaves like a Crystalline solids are also called Amorphous solids are also called Crystalline solids have definite Geometrical shape and their particles are Amorphous solids have no definite shape and its particles are packed together without NaCl, CaCO3 , CaO, CuSO4 .5H2 O , Graphite and Diamond etc are Glasses, Plastics, Rubber,Coal, Tar and Gemstone are Plane of symmetry can be Axis of symmetry can be Centre of symmetry can be Grinding to a very fine powder, crystalline solids still retain their specific The temperature of crystalline solids remain constant until all particles The magnitude of interfacial angles after cleavage has taken place is always

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NaCl has a NaCl will grow in one dimension (needle like) if % of urea present is Crystalline solids have anisotropic behavior because of

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Physical properties of isomorphs are

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Structure of NaCl and Mgo is Structure of ZnO and CdS is Structure of KNO3 ,NaNO3 ,CaCO3 is

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Hydrogen bonding of water (H2O) Relative viscosity Density 250C Ostwald’s Viscometer  Co-efficient of Viscosity (η) Kgm-1s-1 10-1 Kgm-1s-1 Liquid crystal Liquid crystal True solids Super cooled liquids Arranged properly Proper arrangement Crystalline solids Amorphous solids More than 1 More than 1 Only 1 Geometrical shape Become mobile Different for different solids Cubic Habit 10% Regular particles arrangment Different from each other Cubic Hexagonal Rhombohedral

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Existence of more than two compounds in one crystalline form Existence of one compound in more than one crystalline form Existence of one element in more than one crystalline form Sulphur exist in two allotropic forms

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Oxygen exist in two allotropic forms Tin Diamond, Graphite and Bucky balls

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KNO3 exist in two allotropic forms

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Carbon exist in three allotropic forms

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The temperature at which one crystalline form changes to another Crystalline forms of same substance coexist in equilibrium at Transition Temperature of Sulphur is Transition Temperature of Tin is Transition Temperature of KNO3 is α, β, γ, a, b, c are unit cell dimensions or

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Energy required(+) to break one mole ionic crystal to its ions in the gas  phase or energy released(-) when one mole of ionic crystal is for med from its opposite gaseous atoms Lattice energy for NaF is Lattice energy for NaCl is Lattice energy for NaBr is Lattice energy for NaI is NaCl, MgO and NaBr are Diamond, Carborundum and Silicon carbide are Copper, Alluminium, Silver, Iron and Sodium are Ice and Sugar are Carbondioxide, Sulphur, Phosporus, Solidified noble gases and Iodine are

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The melting point of Ionic crystals, Covalent crystals, Metallic crystals are high while Molecular crystals have The Ionic crystals, Covalent crystals, Metallic crystals are hard while Molecular crystals are The Ionic crystals are soluble in The Covalent crystals are soluble in The Molecular crystals are soluble in Ionic crystals are

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Covalent crystals are

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Metallic crystals are

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Metallic crystals Because of the polar nature of molecule and presence of strong hydrogen  bonding, ice has high value of The law of mass action was proposed by C.M. Guldberg and P. Waage in Mathematical representation of law of mass action

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Isomorphism Polymorphism Allotrophy Rhombohedral and monoclinic O2 and O3 Gray tin(cubic) and White tin(tetragonal) Rhombohedral and Orthorhombic Diamond, Graphite and Bucky balls Transition Temperature Transition Temperature 98.50C 13.20C 128.50C Crystallographic elements Lattice energy

895 kJ mol-1 787 kJ mol-1 728 kJ mol-1 690 kJ mol-1 Ionic crystals Covalent crystals Metallic crystals Polar molecular crystals Non-polar molecular crystals High meting point Soft Polar Non-polar Non-polar Do not conduct heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity Good conductors of heat and electricity Ductile and Malleable Heat of fusion 1864 []2[]2

K c=

[]2[]2

K  p = K c (RT)Δn

The relationship between K  p and K c is

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The relationship between K  p and K x is The relationship between K  p and K n is If Δn=0 then the relationship between K  p , K c , K x and K n is The reaction is at equilibrium if Forward reaction will occur if Backward reaction will occur if The product concentration is much greater than reactants at equilibrium if The reaction proceeds in little forward direction if The concentration of products and reactants are in appreciable quantities at equilibrium if The optimum temperature for SO3 formation is The optimum temperature for NO2 formation is Addition NH4Cl of suppresses the ionization of Addition HCl of suppresses the ionization of Solubility product (K sp) is dependent to At room temperature solubility product (K sp) is If a base dissolves in water it is called an A weak acid has is a A weak base has is a pK w =14 at 250 C. the value pK w of decrease with HCl is strong acid so its Ka value is very large(10+7) and its pK a value is K a x K  b = K w = Ag+ , AlCl3 are pK a + pK  b = PH of water is 7.4 and it is PH =pK a +log [A-]/[HA] or PH =pK a +log [salt]/[acid] is called

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Salt derived from a strong acid and weak base make the solution Salt derived from a strong base and weak acid make the solution Salt derived from a strong acid and strong base make the solution Salt derived from a weak acid and weak base make the solution Increasing the concentration of reaction increase the Rate of chemical reaction if proportional to product of molar concentration to reaction substances each raise to appropriate power For aA=bB→ Products, Rate=-Δ[A]/dt =k[A]a [B] b Here k has fixed value for a reaction at gives Sum of exponents of concentration terms in the rate expression of equation is called 1032 molecules per liter per second at standard conditions

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Decomposition reaction rate of gaseous hydrogen iodide is Decomposition reaction rate of gaseous di-nitrogen pentoxide is Etransition is always greater than Sodium chloride ,ammonia and potassium Benzene , alcohol and ether Sugar , methanol and carboxylic acids Salt dissolved in sugar Clay dissolved in water Gum dissolved in water Sugar dissolved in water At 250 C the upper layer 5% solution of phenol in water and lower layer is At phenol water system critical solution is formed at

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K  p = K x (P)Δn K  p = K n (P/N)Δn K  p = K x = K c = K n Qc = K c Qc > K c Qc < K c K c Is very large K c Is very small K c Is neither small nor large 400-5000 C 30000 C NH4OH NaCl Temperature Very small Alkali Strong conjugate base Strong conjugate acid Increase in temperature Small(-7) 1014 Lewis acid 14 Buffer solution Henderson-Hasselbalch equation Acidic Basic Neutral Acidic, basic or neutral Reaction rate Rate law or Rate expression Temperature and  pressure Order of Reaction Number of colliding molecules 4.4 x 10 -3 mol/dm3-hour 9.4 x 105 mol/dm3-hour Ereactants Inorganic substances Organic solvents Organic substances Caorse mixture Suspension Colloidal dispersion True solution 30% water in phenol 65.90 C

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Weight in grams of solute necessary to saturate 100 grams of solvent at given temperature and pressure At constant temperature the solubility is directly proportional to the Number of moles of solute/number of kg of solvent Number of moles of solute/volume of solution(dm3) To temperature, solubility is To temperature, lowering of vapour pressure of solute dissolved in solvent is To temperature, molality is To temperature, mole friction is Parts per million (ppm) = wt. or vol. of solute / wt. or vol. of solution x Parts per billion (ppb) = wt. or vol. of solute / wt. or vol. of solution x Parts per trillion (ppt) = wt. or vol. of solute / wt. or vol. of solution x The solubility of NaCl and KBr is not affected by change in A dissolved dissolve in liquid ,its vapour pressure is Pressure of solution is always less than Lowering of vapour pressure depends upon nature of solvent, concentration of solute but not on The partial vapour pressure of any volatile component of solution is equal to the vapour pressure of the pure component multiplied by the mole friction of that component of solution Elevation of boiling point of dilute solution is directly proportional to Types of colloidal suspension are π= RTC/M One gram of matter to energy yields Loss of mass of coal is Increase in internal energy of system can results in a chemical reaction or change in First law of thermodynamics The only type of work in thermodynamics is In pressure-volume work The unit of work and heat is H=E+PV , here H is Heat evolved or absorbed during a reaction is equal to enthalpy of system Enthalpy of a system is Chang in enthalpy at 298K and 1 atm when reactants and product are un their natural state Unit of heat capacity Chang in enthalpy at 298K and 1 atm when one mole of compound is formed from its components Chang in enthalpy at 298K and 1 atm when one mole of compound is burnt in excess of air or oxygen Chang in enthalpy at 298K and 1 atm when one mole of water is formed from H+ from acid react with OH Chang in enthalpy at 298K and 1 atm when one mole of substance is dissolved in excess solvent so that further heat change are not detect To measure enthalpy change, we use direct calorimeter or Sum of energy change of closed cycle is zero Oxidation is addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen while Reduction is removal of oxygen and addition of hydrogen Oxidation loss of electrons while Reduction is gain of electrons Oxidation number of oxidizing agent

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Solubility Pressure Molality (m) Molarity (M) Dependent Inependent Independent Independent 106 109 1012 Temperature Decreased Solvent pressure  Nature of solute Raoult’s Law

Temperature 8 Osmotic pressure 2.2 x 1013 cal 3 x 10-9 Temperature and phase q=ΔE + w Pressure-volume work q=ΔE + pΔv Nm-2 x m3 =Nm or J Enthalpy of a system ΔH = q p State function Standard Enthalpy Change ( ΔH0) JK -1 Standard Enthalpy of Formation (ΔHf  0) Standard Enthalpy of Combustion (ΔHc 0)

Standard Enthalpy Solution (ΔHs 0) Hess’s Law Born Haber Cycle Classical concept of Oxidation-reduction Electron transfer concept Increases

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Oxidation number of reducing agent Oxidation number of free element is Oxidation number of hydrogen is +1, but in metal hydrides(NaH) it is Oxidation number of oxygen is -2, but in peroxides(OF2) it is The sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms in molecule is The sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms in an ion is equal to Balancing the Redox Equations by half reaction method is also called In balancing we add H2O where oxygen number are In balancing we add OH- where oxygen number are 1st law: amount of substance deposited(W) is directly proportional to amount of electricity(Q) passed (W=ZQ or w=ZIt) 2st law: Amount of electricity passed is directly proportional to chemical equivalent(e) 1st law(W α It), 2nd Law(W α e) so W= Ite/F here F is Faraday’ constant and it is value is E0 red value of Cu is E0 red value of Zn is Zinc has greater tendency to give off electrons than Copper has less tendency to give off electrons than The value of Standard Hydrogen Electrode(SHE) is E0 cell = E0 red + E0 oxi In cell where electrical energy is converted to chemical energy In cell where chemical energy is converted to electrical energy To manufacture NaOH we use an electrolytic cell which is also called The best example of Voltaic cell/Galvanic cell is Not reversible batteries Reversible batteries like Dry Cell Photoelectrical cells which generate energy like Lead Storage Battery Super batteries of high charge density like Hydrogen Oxygen Fuel Cell

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Decreases Zero -1 +2 0 Charge on ion The ion electron method Less Greater Farada’s Laws of Electrolysis Farada’s Laws of Electrolysis 96500c +0.34 -0.76 Hydrogen Hydrogen Zero Cell voltage Electrolytic Cell Galvanic or Voltaic Cell  Nelson’s Cell Daniell Cell Primary Batteries Secondary Batteries Solar Batteries Fuel Batteries