Chapter 4 Notes

CHAPTER 4

The Mediterranean and Middle East, 2000–500 B.C.E.

I0.

The Cosmop Cosmopoli olitan tan Middle Middle East, East, 1700 1700–1 –1100 100 B.C.E. A0. A0. Weste estern rn Asia Asia 10. In the southern southern portion portion of of western western Asia, Asia, the Kassites Kassites ruled ruled Babyloni Babyloniaa during this this  period. Babylonia did not pursue territorial conquest. In the north, the Assyrians had their origins in the northern Tigris area. They were involved in trade in tin and silver. 20. The Hittites Hittites had had their capita capitall in Anatol Anatolia, ia, used horse-d horse-drawn rawn chariot chariots, s, and had access to important copper, silver, and iron deposits. 30. 30. Duri During ng the the sec secon ond d mill millen enni nium um B.C.E. Mesopotamian political and cultural concepts spread across much of western Asia. B0. B0. New New King Kingdo dom m Egy Egypt 10. The New New Kingdom Kingdom period period was was preceded preceded by the decline decline of the the Middle Middle Kingdom Kingdom and by the subsequent period of rule by the non-Egyptian Hyksos. A native Egyptian dynasty overthrew the Hyksos to begin the New Kingdom period. This  period was characterized by aggressive expansion into Syria-Palestine and into  Nubia. 20. Innovati Innovations ons during during the New Kingdom Kingdom period period include include Queen Queen Hatshepu Hatsheput’ t’ss attempt attempt to open direct trade with Punt and Akhenaten’s construction construction of a new capital at Amarna. Akhenaten Akhenaten also made Aten the supreme deity of Egypt and carried out a controversial reform program. 30. The genera generall Harem Haremhab hab seiz seized ed powe powerr in 1323 1323 B.C.E. and established a new dynasty, dynasty, the Ramessides. The Ramessides renewed the policy of conquest and expansion neglected by Akhenaten and their greatest king, Ramesses II (r. 1290–  1224 B.C.E.), dominated his age. C0. C0. Comm ommerce an and Co Communication 10. The Syria-P Syria-Palesti alestine ne area was was an importan importantt crossroads crossroads for for the trade trade in metals. metals. For  For  this reason, the Egyptians and the Hittites fought battles and negotiated territorial agreements concerning control over S yria-Palestine. yria-Palestine. 20. Access Access to metals metals was vital vital to all all bronze-age bronze-age states states,, but metals, metals, includi including ng copper  copper  and tin for bronze, often had to be obtained from faraway places. The demand for  metals spurred the development of trade in copper from Anatolia and Cyprus, tin from Afghanistan and Cornwall, silver from Anatolia, and gold f rom Nubia. 30. New modes modes of transpo transportati rtation on introdu introduced ced during during this this period period include included d horses, horses, chariots, and camels. II0. The Aegean Aegean Worl World, d, 2000—1 2000—1100 100 B.C.E. A0. A0. Mino Minoan an Cret Cretee 10. Minoan Minoan civilizat civilization ion is known known throug through h legendary legendary accoun accounts ts of King King Minos, Minos, the labyrinth beneath his palace, and the Minotaur. Archaeological Archaeological evidence for  Minoan civilization includes excavated palace sites at Cnossus, Phaistos, and Mallia, and widely distributed remains of Cretan pottery and other artifacts. The evidence suggests that Minoan civilization was influenced by the civilizations of  Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia.

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Minoan Minoan civilizat civilization ion was destroy destroyed, ed, probably probably by Mycenaean Mycenaean Greeks, Greeks, about about 1450 1450 B.C.E. B0. B0. Myce Mycena naea ean n Gree Greece ce 10. The Mycenae Mycenaean an Greek Greek people people are though thoughtt to be descended descended from from a combinat combination ion of an indigenous population and Indo-European invaders. The civilization developed suddenly around 1600 B.C.E. 20. Although Although it was was first first known known only only through through the the accounts accounts of  The Iliad  and The Odyssey, the existence of M ycenaean civilization was proved by the archeological expedition of Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 at Mycenae in southern Greece. Schliemann and other archeologists have discovered shaft graves, gold and silver jewelry, jewelry, a palace complex, and other artifacts. 30. Later Later Greek legend legend explain explainss the developme development nt of Mycenaea Mycenaean n civilizati civilization on as being being the result of immigration from Phoenicia or liberation of the Greeks from Minoan tyranny. tyranny. There is no archeological evidence to back up these legendary accounts. The evidence does, however, indicate that Mycenaean civilization was influenced by Minoan civilization and that the Mycenaeans rose to power on  profits from trade and piracy. 40. Mycenaean Mycenaean sites sites share certain certain common common characte characteristi ristics cs including including hillto hilltop p citadels citadels with thick fortification walls that enclosed palaces and administrative buildings. Also typical of Mycenaean civilization were luxury-filled tombs for departed rulers, large houses for the aristocracy, and the use of Linear B writing. Linear B was an early form of Greek that used s ymbols to represent syllables. 50. The Mycenaea Mycenaean n state control controlled led the economy economy,, organizing organizing grain grain agricult agriculture ure and wool production. However, we know little about the Mycenaean political system, religion, society, society, or particular historical events. The uniformity that is characteristic of the Mycenaean territory may have been due to some sort of   political unity, unity, or it may have been the result of extensive contact and trade. 60. Evidence Evidence for long-di long-distanc stancee contact contact and trade trade includes includes wall painti paintings ngs of ships ships in Egypt and Thera and excavated remains of the ships themselves. Other evidence includes the widespread dispersal of Cretan and M ycenaean pottery and other  goods around the Aegean world and in the Middle East. The evidence indicates that Cretan traders came first, and were later joined and then replaced by Mycenaeans. 70. In this this trade, trade, Crete and and Greece Greece exported exported wine wine or olive olive oil, weapon weapons, s, craft goods goods,, slaves, and mercenaries. They imported amber, ivory, ivory, grain, and metals (gold, copper, and tin). The fine line between trade and pirac y can be seen in the strained relations between the Mycenaeans and the Hittites and in the siege of  Troy. C0. The Fall of Late Late Bronze Bronze Age Civilizat Civilizations ions 10. Destructi Destruction on of Old Center Centerss of Civil Civilizati ization on in the Middle Middle East 20. Unknown Unknown invader invaderss destroyed destroyed the the Hittite Hittite kingdom kingdom.. Syria likew likewise ise fell fell to invasions. 30. The Egyptian Egyptianss battled battled invasio invasions ns from the the sea in the the north north and lost lost control control of   Nubia in the south. 40. Mycenaean Mycenaean civiliza civilization tion fell fell due to to a combination combination of internal internal decli decline ne and externa externall aggression. Annihilation Annihilation of the trading routes of the eastern Mediterranean undermined the position of the Mycenaean elite and probably led to internal unrest and collapse. 50. The collaps collapsee of Mycenaean Mycenaean civili civilizatio zation n demonstra demonstrates tes the degree degree to to which which the civilizations of the Late Bronze Age were interdependent; their prosperity and their very existence relied on the trade networks that linked them and gave them

access to natural resources, particularly metals. When this cosmopolitan world collapsed, the Mediterranean and the Middle East entered a “Dark Age”—a  period of poverty, isolation, and loss of knowledge. III0. The Assyrian Assyrian Empire, Empire, 911–61 911–612 2 B.C.E. A0. Backgr Backgroun ound d and Locati Location on 10. The Assyrian Assyrian homeland homeland was was in norther northern n Mesopotami Mesopotamia. a. It had more more rain and and a more temperate climate than Sumer and Akkad, but it was also more exposed to raiders. 20. Assyr Assyrian ian powe powerr revived revived in in the nint ninth h century century B.C.E. and the Assyrians built an empire, expanding along trade routes westward toward the Mediterranean, north to modern Armenia, east to modern Iran, and south to Babylonia. B0. B0. God and and King ing 10. Assyrian Assyrian kings kings were were regarded regarded as the center center of of the univers universe, e, chosen chosen by the gods gods as their surrogates in earth. Kings had secular and religious duties. 20. The secular secular duties duties of kings kings included included receivi receiving ng informati information, on, hearing hearing and decidin deciding g on complaints, and carrying out diplomacy and military leadership. The religious duties of kings included supervision of the state religion, performance of public and private rituals, and consulting and gaining the approval of the gods. 30. Assyrian Assyrian kings kings were were celebrated celebrated in propag propaganda anda that that was design designed ed to produce produce feelings of awe and fear in the hearts of their subjects. Such propaganda included the public display of royal inscriptions relating to conquests and punishments and artistic renderings of the kings as large, muscular, and fierce men. C0. C0. Conq Conque uest st and and Con Contr trol ol 10. At their their peak, peak, the Assyrian Assyrian armies armies had half a millio million n troops troops divided divided into into functionally specialized units. The Assyrian Assyrian troops used a variety of military technologies, including iron weapons, cavalry, cavalry, couriers, signal fires, and spy networks. 20. Assyrian Assyrian techniq techniques ues of conquest conquest inclu included ded terror terror tactics tactics and mass deport deportation ation of  of  civilian populations. populations. Mass deportation served a dual purpose: to destroy the morale of the enemy and to transfer needed laborers to the core area of the empire. 30. The Assyr Assyrians ians found found it difficult difficult to control control their their vast and diverse diverse territory territory.. Their  level of control varied, being more effective at the core and less effective in the  peripheral parts of the empire. 40. Within Within the the empire, empire, the duties duties of Assyr Assyrian ian official officialss were to collect collect tribute tribute and taxes, to maintain law and order, to raise and provision troops, and to construct and maintain public works. The central government included high-ranking officials and professionals. 50. The central central governme government nt exploit exploited ed the wealth wealth and and resources resources of the the empire empire for the the  benefit of the center, but also invested in provincial infrastructure, and so was not entirely parasitic. D0. Assyr Assyrian ian Societ Society y and and Cultu Culture re 10. Assyrian Assyrian society society had had three three major major social strat strata: a: free, land-o land-ownin wning g citizens; citizens; farmers and artisans; and slaves. The Assyrian economy was based on agriculture  but also included artisans and merchants. 20. In the realm realm of knowle knowledge dge and learni learning, ng, the Assyrian Assyrianss both preserv preserved ed the knowledge inherited from older Mesopotamian societies and made original contributions to mathematics and astronomy. astronomy. The Assyrian E mpire maintained libraries that were attached to temples in the cities, such as the Library of  Ashurbanipal in Ninevah. IV0. IV0. Israel Israel,, 2000–50 2000–500 0 B.C.E.

A0. Backgr Backgroun ound d and Locati Location on 10. The Israeli Israelite te people people were nomadi nomadicc herders herders and caravan caravan drivers drivers who who developed developed a complex sedentary agricultural civilization. civilization. As they did so, their cult of a desert god evolved into an influential monotheistic religion. 20. Israel’ Israel’ss location location makes makes it a crossro crossroads ads for trade. trade. Howeve However, r, the the area has few few natural resources. B0. Origin Origins, s, Exodu Exodus, s, and and Settle Settlemen mentt 10. Sources Sources for the the early histo history ry of the Israel Israelite ite people people includ includee the Hebrew Hebrew Bible, Bible, which is based in part on oral traditions compiled in the fifth century B.C.E., and archeological excavations. 20. Biblical Biblical account accountss of the origin originss of the Israeli Israelite te people people include include the the stories stories of  Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These stories may be a compressed account of the experiences of many generations of nomads. The story of Cain and Abel and the stories of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah reflect the tensions between the nomadic Israelite people and settled agricultural people. 30. The Biblica Biblicall account account of the the Egyptian Egyptian captivi captivity ty is not not confirmed confirmed by Egypt Egyptian ian sources but may be linked to the rise and fall of the Hyksos rulers of Egypt. The  period of Israelite slavery according to the Bible corresponds to the period of  large-scale construction projects under Sethos I and Ramesses II, while the Biblical account of the exodus may reflect the memories of a migration from Egypt and nomadic life in the Sinai. 40. The cult cult of Yahweh Yahweh with with its exclus exclusive ive devotion devotion to one one god develope developed d during the the  period of nomadism in the Sinai. 50. The Biblica Biblicall account account of Israeli Israelite te settlemen settlementt in the land land of Canaan Canaan says says that Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan and destro yed Jericho and other Canaanite cities. The archeological evidence of what probably happened is that the no madic Israelite tribes settled in the hills of Canaan, where they were joined by b y other  groups and by refugees from a troubled Canaanite society. society. C0. C0. Rise Rise of the the Mon Monar archy chy 10. Wars with the the Philistine Philistiness brought brought about about the need for for a strong central central governmen government. t. Saul, the first king, established the Israelite monarchy. David, the second king, completed the transition to monarchy. monarchy. 20. The Israeli Israelite te monarchy monarchy reache reached d the height height of its power in the the reign of King King Solomon, who forged alliances and sponsored trade. Solomon also expanded the  bureaucracy and the army, army, and built the First Temple in Jerusalem. The te mple  priesthood sacrificed to Yahweh, Yahweh, received a portion of the agricultural tax, and  became very ver y wealthy. 30. The wealth wealth and and prestige prestige of the the temple priest priesthood hood was was indicati indicative ve of the increa increasing sing gap between the rural and urban, and the wealthy and the poor in Israeli society. society. 40. Israelite Israelite people people lived lived in in extended extended families families and and practiced practiced arrange arranged d marriage. marriage. Monogamy was the norm. Men were allowed to have extramarital relations; women were not. 50. In early Israel, Israel, women women enjoyed enjoyed relative relative equality equality with with their their husband husbandss in social social life, but at the sa me time, they suffered certain legal disadvantages: women could not inherit property, property, nor could they initiate divorce. The main occupations of  women were bearing and raising children, maintaining the household, and engaging in agriculture or herding. As society became more urbanized, some women began to work outside the home in a variety of occupations. 60. There There are some some records records of women women exerci exercising sing political political influence. influence. Exampl Examples es include the story of Deborah and references to “wise women.” However, the status of women declined during the period of monarchy. monarchy.

D0. Fragme Fragmenta ntatio tion n and and Dispe Dispersa rsall 10. After Solom Solomon, on, Israel Israel divided divided into into two kingd kingdoms: oms: Israel Israel in the the north north (capital: (capital: Samaria), and Judah in the south (capital: Jerusalem). The two kingdoms were sometimes at peace with each other, and sometimes fought. 20. There There were some significa significant nt religiou religiouss development developmentss during during the the period period of  fragmentation. The concept of monotheism was sharpened, but at the same time, some Israelites were attracted to the worship of Canaanite gods. 30. Political Political develo development pmentss during the the period period of fragmentatio fragmentation n include include the Assyrian Assyrian destruction of the northern kingdom (Israel) in 721 B.C.E. and the fall of the southern kingdom (Judah) to the Babylonian monarch Nebuchadnezzar in 587 B.C.E. Nebuchadnezzar deported a large number of Jewish elites and craftsmen to Babylon. This was the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. 40. During During the Diaspor Diaspora, a, the Jewish Jewish people people developed developed instit institutio utions ns to preserve preserve Jewish Jewish religion and culture. These developments continued even after some of the Babylonian Jews were permitted to return to Jerusalem. Developments of the Diaspora included a stronger commitment to monotheism, strict dietary rules, and veneration of the Sabbath. V0. Phoenicia Phoenicia and the Mediterrane Mediterranean, an, 1200–500 1200–500 B.C.E. A0. The The Phoen Phoenici ician an CityCity-Sta States tes 10. The Phoenici Phoenicians ans were were the descenda descendants nts of the the ancient ancient inhabita inhabitants nts of Syria, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel who were pushed into the strip of land between the mountains and the sea in modern Lebanon b y about 1100 B.C.E. There, the Phoenicians established a number of small city-states that were deeply involved in commerce. They also invented the first alphabetical writing system. 20. The major major Phoenicia Phoenician n city-stat city-states es were Byblos Byblos,, Berytus, Berytus, Sidon, Sidon, and Tyre. Tyre. B0. Expans Expansion ion int into o the Medi Mediter terran ranean ean 10. Phoenician Phoenician expans expansion ion into into the Mediterra Mediterranean nean was carried carried out out by Tyre Tyre,, beginning beginning in the ninth century B.C.E. Colonies were established first on C yprus, then on the  North African coast, the south and southeast Spanish coast, Sardinia, Sicil y, and Malta. 20. Phoenician Phoenician expans expansion ion into into the Medite Mediterranea rranean n was the the work of a combina combination tion of  state and private enterprise. Expansion was a response to the Assyrian invasions of Syria and Palestine, the shortage of agricultural land in Tyre, Tyre, and opportunities for trade and access to resources. 30. Expansion Expansion brough broughtt the Phoenici Phoenicians ans into into conflict conflict with with the Greeks, Greeks, who who were also also seeking resources and establishing colonies in the western Mediterranean during this period. Conflict with Greece was most significant in the violent struggle for  control of Sicily—a struggle in which the Phoenicians had the upper hand by the mid-third century B.C.E. C0. Cartha Carthage’ ge’ss Comme Commerci rcial al Empi Empire re 10. The city city of Carthage Carthage was was establishe established d on a narrow narrow promonto promontory ry near modern modern Tunis Tunis around 814 B.C.E. The walled city was governed b y two judges selected from upper-class families and by a Senate that was dominated by the leading merchant families. 20. The navy navy was the the most importan importantt arm of Carthagi Carthaginian nian power power.. Citizens Citizens served served as rowers and navigators of the fast, maneuverable warships. 30. Carthagin Carthaginian ian foreign foreign policy policy and and military military activi activity ty were in the service service of trade trade and and were deployed in enforcing a commercial monopoly in the Mediterranean and developing new trading opportunities. Carthaginian merchants were active around the Mediterranean and traded with sub-Saharan Africa, along the Atlantic coasts of Spain and France, and with Cornwall.

D0. D0. War and and Rel Relig igio ion n 10. The Carthag Carthaginian inianss made no attemp attemptt to build build a territo territorial rial empire; empire; their their empire empire was an empire of trade routes and ports. The Carthaginian military was subordinate to the civilian government and consisted of mercenary soldiers commanded by Carthaginian officers. 20. Carthagin Carthaginian ian religion religion involv involved ed the worship worship of caprici capricious ous gods gods that needed needed to be appeased by sacrifice, including the sacrifice of Carthaginian children. The Greeks and Romans thought that the Carthaginians were a hard, gloomy people who treated their subjects harshly. harshly. VI0. Failure Failure and Transformati Transformation, on, 750–550 750–550 B.C.E. A0. Consequen Consequences ces of the Assyrian Assyrian Conquest Conquest 10. The Assyrian Assyrian conquest conquest brough broughtt about the the destructio destruction n of Israel, Israel, deportatio deportation n of the Jewish population of Israel, and pressure on the kingdom of Judah. 20. The Assyrian Assyrian conquest conquest put put pressure pressure on the the Phoenician Phoenicians; s; Assyri Assyrian an threats threats and Assyrian demands for tribute helped to spur the Phoenicians to establish colonies in the western Mediterranean. 30. The Assyrian Assyrian conquest conquest also also resulted resulted in the the invasion invasion and occupat occupation ion of Egypt Egypt and in Assyrian control over Babylonia and western Iran. 40. As their their empire grew grew,, the resources resources of the Assyrians Assyrians became became overexten overextended ded and they had difficulty ruling over a large, ethnically complex territory with subjects and neighbors who had come to hate Assyria. 50. The major major sources sources of of resistance resistance to the Assyrian Assyrian Empire Empire were were the NeoBabylonian dynasty of Babylon and the kingdom of the Medes in Iran. The Assyrian Empire was destroyed when the Medes captured the Assyrian homeland in northern Mesopotamia and eastern Anatolia, and the NeoBabylonians took over much of the other territory of the Assyrian Empire.