Chapter 3

Chapter 3

Research Problems: Statements, Questions, and Hypotheses This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:  Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;  Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or i n part, of any images;  Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

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Importance of Research Problems 

Formulates a clear, concise, and manageable research problem

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Communicates to others

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Focus and importance of problem

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Educational context and scope

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Framework for reporting results

Indicates evidence-based inquiry

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Sources of Problems 

Casual observation  

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Deductions from theory  

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Relationship between between cognition and affect af fect Relative effectiveness of positive or negative reinforcement Effectiveness of using math manipulativ manipulatives es Relationship between instructional style and learning style

Related literature  

Study of dropouts in your locale Use of math manipulatives in secondary schools

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Sources of Problems 

Current social and political issues  

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Practical situations  

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Gender and race equity Inclusion Evaluations of specific programs Effectiveness of local initiatives

Personal experience and insight 

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Teaching statistical courses from an applied perspective Effectiveness of non-threatening classroom assessments

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Formal Problem Statements 

Purpose 

Introduces reader to importance of  problem

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Places problem in an educational context

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Provides framework for reporting results² findings and conclusions

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Problem Formulation in Quantitative Research   

Is phrased as statements, questions or  hypotheses Provides identification of population, variables, and logic of problem Presents logic of constructs, variables, variables, and operational definitions

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Construct 

Complex abstraction not directly observable 

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e.g., motivation, meta-cognition, selfconcept, aptitude, etc. Derived from theory Expresses idea behind a set of particulars Can combine several variables into meaningful patterns

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Variable  An event, category, behavior or attribute attributes of levels that  Composed of attributes express expre ss a construct  Each variable a separate and distinct phenomenon  Two types based on what is measured 

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Categorical variables²groups variables²groups variable into attributes (categories) Continuous measured variable²can assume an infinite number of values within a range Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Research Variable Types 

In experimental research 

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Independent²comes first²influe Independent²comes first²influences nces or  predicts   Also called manipulated or experimental variable   Antecedent Dependent²comes second²if affected or  predicted by independent variable  Consequence

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Research Variable Types 

In non-experimental research  Independent variable cannot be manipulated  In correlational studies  Antecedent called predictor variable  Dependent variable called criterion always possible to tell which comes c omes  Not always first 

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When prediction not goal, but rather to see if  there is a relationship between variable

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Operational Definition for  Variable  Assigns meaning to a variable by specifying activities or operations necessary to measure, categorize, or  manipulate variable what is necessary to  Tells researcher what answer question or test hypothesis 

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Problem Formulation in Quantitative Research   

Identify population, variables and logic of  problem Specific research questions and hypotheses Questions²simple Questions²simp le and direct 

Descriptive²typically asks ³what is´ and implies a survey research design 

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Relationship²implies a correlational design 

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e.g., What is current dropout rate in Louisiana? e.g., What is relationship between math m ath attitude and math achievement?

Difference²implies a comparison 

e.g., Is there a difference in effectiveness eff ectiveness of graded and non-graded homework?

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Research Hypotheses in Quantitative Research 

Statements 

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e.g., purpose of this research is to ....

Questions 

e.g., What is ...?

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Research Hypotheses in Quantitative Research 

Tentative statement of expected relationships between two or more variables 

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e.g., there is a significant, positive relationship between self-concept and math achievement

States direction of relationsh relationship ip Should be testable, verifiable Should offer a tentative explanation based on theory or previous research Concise and lucid Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Problem Formulation in Qualitative Research 

Is phrased as statements or questions, never as hypotheses 

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Broad statements: how, what and why

Begins with selecting general topic and mode of inquiry 

i.e., interactive and non-intera non-interactive ctive

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Qualitative Field Records, Descriptions, and Abstractions  

Employs inductive reasoning Selects a particular case (rather than variables as in quantitative) for in-depth study 

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Case is a particular social soci al situation chosen by researcher in which some phenomenon will be described by participants¶ perceptions  Aim is to gain understanding of a broader  phenomenon

Qualitative field records   

Participant observation field notes Interview tapes Researcher notes on historical documents

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Narrative Descriptions    

Detailed narrations of people, incidents, and processes Completed after data collection because of  discover-orientation discover-orient ation of research Called ³rich´ or ³thick´ Contains information on    

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People Incidents Participants¶ language Participants¶ ³meanings´

Synthesized abstractions 

Summary generalizations and explanations of major  research findings of study

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Problem Reformulation 

Initial statement of a broad, general question 

i.e., foreshadowed problem, phrased as ³what,´ how,´ and ³why´ of situation

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Condensed problem statement identifying a specific focus

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Reformulation of problem during research²emergentt design research²emergen

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Statements of Qualitative Research Purposes and Questions 

Qualitative Qualitativ e problem statements 

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Qualitative traditions of ethnography, phenomenology, case study, grounded theory, and critical study Focus on current phenomena through interactive data collection

Historical problem statements and questions  Analysis of documents and archives  Focus on understanding past 

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Mixed Method Problem Formulation 

Equal priority to all questions both quantitative and qualitative data collected about about same s ame time 

Research questions and foreshadowed problems

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Problems usually presented together 

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Findings from both kinds of data would be analyzed and interpreted together  (triangulation) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Mixed Method Problem Formulation 

Measured results explained by qualitative data 

Data collected sequentially

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Quantitative phase provides general results explained with qualitative data

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Explanatory design

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Mixed Method Problem Formulation 

Qualitative questions, then quantitative questions 

Used when there is little prior research on a topic or practice that is new

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Qualitative methods used first to investigate scope of phenome phenomenon non

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Quantitative methods investigate findings in a more structured way

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Exploratory design

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Significance of Problem Selection 

Rationale for a study 

Justifies why an evidence-based inquiry is important

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Indicates researcher¶s interest/choice

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Knowledge of an enduring practice

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Theory testing

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Generalizability

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Significance of Problem Selection 

Extensions of understanding

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Methodological advancement

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Current issues

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Evaluation of a specific practice or policy Evaluation at a given site

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Exploratory research

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Standards of Adequacy for  Problem Statements 

General research problem 

Does statement of general research problem imply possibility of empirical investigation?

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Does problem statement restrict scope of  study?

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Does problem statement give educational context in which problem lies?

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Significance of Problem 

Does problem contribute to one or more of  following? 

Develops knowledge of an enduring practice

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Contributes to theory development

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Expands current knowledge

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Provides an extension of our understanding

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 Advances methodology

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Related to a current social or political issue

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Evaluates specific practice or policy at given site

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Explores an issue about which little is known

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Specific Research Question or  Hypothesis 

Quantitative 

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Does specific research purpose, question, or hypothesis state concisely what is to be determined? Does level of specificity indicate question or hypothesis researchable? Do variables seem amenable to operational definitions? Is logic clear? Are variables identified? Does research question or hypothesis indicate framework for reporting results Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Qualitative 

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Do research questions, foreshadowed problems, or condensed problem statements indicate indicate particular case of  phenomena to be examined? Is qualitative methodology appropriate for description of present of past events? Is logic reasonably explicit? Does research purpose indicate framework for reporting findings?

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Mixed Methods 

Is relative emphasis of each method made explicit?

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Is order in which quantitative and qualitative data collected clear?

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Other Criteria 

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Is problem one in which researcher has a vital interest and a topic in which researcher has both knowledge and experience?  Are problem and design feasible in terms of measurement, access to case, sample, or population, population, permission to use documents, time frame for completion, financial resources, and like? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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Other Criteria 

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Does researcher have skills to conduct proposed research and to analyze and interpret results? Does proposed research ensure protection of human subjects from physical phy sical or mental discomfort or harm? 

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Is right of informed consent of subjects provided? Will ethical research practices be followed? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

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