CHAPTER 2 Updated for Sem 20172018

NATURE CONSERVATION BFC 10202

Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering

Chapter 2 : Biodiversity Learn about natural environment : Living environment

INTRODUCTION

Learn about natural environment : Living environment – To learn about living components of planet earth I. Biodiversity – definition, levels, examples II. To learn about some interactions, values III. Issues, threats and how to overcome

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

¤ Created 4-6bill years ago – no living thing

¤ The big bang – life ¤ Microbes  plants  animals + man (evolutionary approach) ¤ Biosphere – atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere

The Earth - Biosphere

The Earth’s Life-Support System Has Four Major Components Troposphere (where weather happens) Atmosphere Stratosphere (contain ozone layer)

Hydrosphere

Water

Geosphere

Crust, mantel core

Biosphere

Everywhere that living organisms occur

EARTH

Natural Capital: General structure of the Earth

Fig. 3-2, p. 56

Atmosphere Biosphere (living organisms)

Soil Rock Crust Mantle

Geosphere (crust, mantle, core)

Mantle

Core

Atmosphere (air)

Hydrosphere (water) Fig. 3-2, p. 56

The Diversity of Life

Fig. 3-3a, p. 56

PHYSICAL COMPONENTS

¤ What are they? Characteristics?

¤ How are they important to human life and welfare? a. Soil – rocks b. Water c. Air

Soil ¤ All kinds of rocks ¤ Weathering becomes soil ¤ Medium for plant growth ¤ Support living and non-living things, natural and man-made things ¤ Provide areas for construction of buildings

Water ¤ Very important for life processes

¤ Body of living things comprise mainly of water eg. human >70% water ¤ >70% of planet earth covered with water

¤ Determine climate (eg. rainfall/humidity)

Air

¤ Oxygen needed for breathing process ¤ Carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, carbohydrates ¤ Nitrogen – a composition of protein

Upih Guling – Endau Rompin, Johor

I. LIVING COMPONENTS ¤ Characteristics and examples ¤ Importance a. Monera b. Protista c. Fungi d. Plants e. Animals f. Man

They form BIODIVERSITY

BIODIVERSITY

Definition : CBD 1991

– The variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (CBD, 1992).

Values of Diversity i.Utilitarian values : food, medicines, material structure

i.Ecological service value : pollinators, decomposers, watershed, replenishing oxygen, icon of tourism

i.Aesthetic value: green color to emotional development, beauty

i.Moral value: every living things has the right to live, uniqueness

i.Cultural,religous value: elephant , cow to Hinduism

BIODIVERSITY

– Levels : genetic, species, ecosystems

– Groups of organisms – Distribution, Endemism – Interactions : Ecological stability – Issues and threats – What do we do?

Level 1: GENETIC DIVERSITY

¤ Variation at genetic level due to different arrangement of chromosome ¤ Occur naturally or altered by man ¤ Eg. Brassica oleracea (cabbage) genetically modified by genetic engineering – cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, brussel sprout ¤ White cabbage, purple cabbage

GENETIC DIVERSITY

GENETIC DIVERSITY

GENETIC DIVERSITY: ALTERED BY HUMAN

Level 2: SPECIES DIVERSITY

¤ Chromosome: Different number & arrangement

¤ About 1.8mill species recorded/named ¤ Estimated 100mill – working figure 10mill ¤ Not discovered are mainly small sized organisms (microbes) eg.: bacteria, viruses, algae ¤ Difficult to access habitats eg. deep ocean, canopy

SPECIES DIVERSITY

SPIDERS

FROGS

SPECIES DIVERSITY

Species diversity

BUTTERFLIES

Level 3: ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY

¤ More diverse eg. Tropical vs. arboreal forest ¤ Involve diversity in interactions ¤ More diversity, more interactions – more stable ¤ In Malaysia : forest, mangrove, mountain ¤ Types of ecosystems – tropical, temperate, polar ¤ Vegetation determine diversity determine diversity of animals ¤ Vegetation – autotrophic depends on solar radiation for photosynthesis

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY

Ecosystem diversity Tropical Rainforest

Savannah

Temperate Rainforest

Desert

Taiga

Tundra

Chaparral

Freshwater

Marine

Level 3: ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY

Distribution

¤ Tropics higher diversity than temperate

¤ Lowland higher diversity than highlands ¤ Tropical rainforest 7% global land mass harbour >50% biodiversity

¤ Marine ecosystems in tropic higher primary productivity higher diversity

Distribution of tropical rainforest in the world

– Pic to show tropical rainforest

Endemism

¤ Certain species of living things only found in restricted geographical areas – endemics ¤ Eg. Orang utan (Borneo and Sumatra) ¤ Probosis monkey (Borneo)

¤ Zebra (Africa); Panda (China) ¤ Kangaroo (Australia)

Endemic to Borneo

Orang utan Pongo pygmaeus

Probosis monkey Larvatus nasalis

Zebra is Endemic in Africa

Giraffes is Endemic in Africa

6 GROUPS OF LIVING THINGS Monera • Prokaryote – bacteria, viruses

Protista • Eukaryote – one celled, protozoa, algae

Fungi • Autotrophic – make own food, no chlorophyll; enzymes digest food (decomposing organic matter), mushroom

Plantae • Autotrophic – mostly + chlorophyll

Animalia • heterotrophic

Man

1. Monera: bacteria, viruses

¤ Prokaryotic – ancient/early cell (nucleus unbounded) ¤ No apparent nucleus (just nucleoid), no nuclear membrane ¤ Organelles not bound by membranes (eg: mitochondria, chloroplast) ¤ Bacteria, virus • Eg : Esterichia coli – dysentery Salmonella – food poisoning • Eg: HIV - AIDS

Prokaryote

¤ Cell with no nuclear membrane ¤ Nucleoplasma dispersed all over cell in cytoplasma

Various kinds of Prokaryotes

2. Protista

¤ Eurokaryotic, one celled organisms ¤ Nucleus bound by membrane ¤ Organelle bound by membrane ¤ Able to do all life functions (eat, digest, breathe, reproduce, moves) ¤ Egs : • Plant-like (Volvox), • Animal-like (Paramecium) • In between (Euglena)

Eukaryote

Nucleus bound by a membrane

Various kinds of Eukaryotes

Volvox

Protozoa (eg. Euglena)

Paramesium

Importance of Protista

Carry diseases

Trypanosoma – sleeping sickness – vector tzetze flies, Africa

Entamoeba histolytica – hemoraging dysentery

Plasmodium – malaria, vector mosquitoes (Anophelese)

Glossina

3. Fungi

¤ Plant-like (not mobile/attached; autotrophic)

¤ No chlorophyl, enzymes digest food ¤ Food : decomposing organic materials eg. Rotting wood

¤ Body parts : root-like (mycorrhiza), trunk or stem-like (hypha), fruit body containing spores ¤ Some poisonous

Importance of Fungi

Decomposers in various ecosystems

Food – button mushroom, oyster mushroom

Biotechnology – yeast in fermentation

Medicines – Penicillium (medicine for infections, found on rotting bread/mold)

Fungi

Edible Fungi

4. Plantae (Plants) PLANT

Higher plants (reproduction: seeds)

Lower plants (reproduction: spores)

Non-vascular – mosses (Bryophyta)

Vascular – ferns (Pteridophyta)

Flower to cover seeds (Angiospermae)

One seed body (Monocotyledon)

Naked seeds (Gymnospermae)

Two seed body (Dicotyledon)

Gymnospermae (naked seeds)

4. Plantae (Plants)

¤ Green with chlorophyll

¤ Photosynthesis to make food and produce ¤ Oxygen as waste product

¤ With leaves, flower, roots, stem or the likes

Lower plants: Bryophyta

(mosses, liverworts, horn mosses)

¤ Mosses, liverworts, horn mosses ¤ 24,000sp (15,000 mosses; 9,000 liverworts and 100 horn mosses) ¤ No leaves, stem, flower, fruit and roots ¤ Rhizoid – root-like (to grasp surface) ¤ Water : male spore  female spore ¤ Important as resource for small organisms eg. tiny beetles, fish and in preventing erosion, cover plant, store/provide water to ecosystem ¤ Interacts with other organisms

Lower plants: Mosses – important indicator of humidity

Liverworts

Horn Mosses

Mosses

Elk Mosses

Lower plants: Pteridophyta (ferns)

¤ Vascular lower plants

¤ 12,000sp (67% tropical) ¤ Ancient – 375-400 million years ago ¤ Non-flowering, with spore ¤ Food, medicinal values ¤ Handicraft ¤ Succession – ecological in betweens

Pteridophyta

Higher plants: Tracheophyta

¤ Fruiting plants

¤ Naked seed – Gymnospermae ¤ Covered seed – Angiospermae (fruits/flowers) ¤ Mostly terrestrial ¤ Tolerance to dryness ¤ Reproduction using specific organs

Tracheophyta

Tongkat Ali

Pitchers plant (Nepenthes)

A unique plant with huge potential as tourism product

Gymnospermae (no flower/seed)

¤ Cycads – ancient plants (Jurassic, Dinosaur period) palm-like (at present as ornamentals) ¤ Ginko – ancient plant eg. Ginko biloba (strengthen memory) ¤ Gnetophytum – retain water in stem (liana) – eg Gnetum ¤ Cornifer – Pinus (Casuarina – ru)

Various Kinds of Gymnospermae

Ginkgo Biloba

Liana

Casuarina (Rhu)

Angiospermae (flower & seed)

¤ Flower protect seed ¤ Monocotyledon and dicotyledon ¤ Important as economic resources ¤ Food, construction materials, paper, medicines

Flowers

bunga tahi ayam

rose

Fruits of the dipterocarp (meranti)

Monocotyledon

¤ Egs : Coconut tree, oil palm

¤ One cotyl (germinating body) in seed ¤ Leaves : parallel vein ¤ Vascular bundles : scattered ¤ Root : fibrous

Coconut tree – monocot

Dicotyledonous

¤ Eg : Durian tree, long beans, peanuts ¤ Two cotyls (germinating bodies) in a seed ¤ Leaves : complex venation

¤ Vascular bundles : arranged ¤ Root : with main root system

Wild Durian from Sabah

5. Animalia (Animals)

¤ Heterotrophic – does not make own food, consume various kinds of food (no chlorophyll) ¤ Mobile (with appendage – legs, wings)

Examples: Protozoa

¤ One celled animals (mono-celled)

¤ Able to perform all live activities eg. move, feed, reproduce, react, breathe, excrete etc. ¤ Egs : Euglena, Paramecium ¤ Importance : caused diseases

Examples: Protozoa

Examples: Porifera (Sponges)

¤ Sponges are multi-celled

¤ Single cell may be able to survive but tend to aggregate ¤ Mainly marine animals ¤ Importance – commercial and medical ¤ Egs. Glass sponges, bath sponges

Examples: Porifera (Sponges)

Examples: Cnidaria / Coelentara

¤ Tissue – cells form layers and have specific function ¤ Two layers – epidermis and gastrodermis from two germs layers (ectoderma and endoderma) diploblastic ¤ Eg : Hydra, Corals, Sea anemone ¤ Symmetry - Radial

Examples: Cnidaria / Coelentara

hydra, jelly fish, anemone

Examples: Cnidaria / Coelentara

corals

Examples: Platyhelminthes

¤ Flat worms ¤ Triploblastic – 3 layers of tissue – epidermis, muscles, gut layers (from 3 germ layers – ectodermis, mesodermis and endodermis) ¤ Organs – mouth, gut, reproductive organs ¤ Acoelemate – no coelom ¤ Some movement; Symmetry: bilateral ¤ Importance: caused diseases eg. tape worms

Examples: Platyhelminthes (flatworm)

Examples: Nematoda

¤ Triploblastic, with organs

¤ Cylindrical with strong muscles ¤ Pseudocoelomate ¤ Eg. Round worms, Filaria, Hook worm ¤ Symmetry: bilateral ¤ Movement limited - endoparasite

Filariasis worms infection

Examples: Mollusca

¤ Triploblastic, developed organs ¤ Snails, shell-fishes (oyster, mussels, octopus and squids) ¤ True coelom ¤ Movement more active – directional ¤ Importance – food, pearls, source of calsium carbonate ¤ Used in research (vision)

Examples: Mollusca

snails, bivalves, squid (From Brum & McKane 1989)

Diversity of Sea Shells

Diversity of Land Snails

Examples: Annelida

¤ Triploblastic, true coelomate, directional movement with some forms of organs for movement ¤ Egs. Earthworms, polycheates, leeches ¤ Decomposers, medical

Examples: Annelida

Earthworm & polycheates (bristle worms)

Examples: Annelida - Leeches

Examples: Arthropoda

¤ Appendage for movement clearly segmented, invade land ¤ Symmetry : bilateral ¤ Egs : insects, millipedes, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, prawns, crabs ¤ Importance : many (food, pollinators, decomposers, vectors, carriers of pathogenic microbes)

Examples: Arthropoda

Spiders and centipedes (From : Brum & McKane 1989)

Examples: Arthropoda

Most diverse animal, beetles – 400,000 spp?

Examples: Arthropoda

Insects

(From Brum & McKane 1989)

Examples: Echinodermata

¤ Another line of evolution – formation of mouth, cleavage ¤ Animals with pentamerous radial arms ¤ Symmetry : bilateral and radial (matures forms) ¤ Starfishes, sea urchin, sea ferns, sand dollars

¤ Mainly marine ¤ Uses : food (sea urchin, sea cucumber), medicine (sea cucumber/gamat), decorations

Examples: Echinodermata

Starfishes, Sea Urchin

Examples: Chordata

¤ Higher animals with backbones (notochord) ¤ 5 Classes – Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia

¤ Importance – food, tourism, transportation, furs and feathers, medical, hides, fat sources , dairy products

Class 1: Pisces (Fish)

¤ Fish with cartilage bones (sharks, rays) and real bones (mackerels, sole, puffer fish, tuna) ¤ Threats – over harvesting, unsustainable methods, coral fish, whales ¤ Fresh water fish 9,000spp ¤ Marine fish 13,000spp ¤ Total fish species 22,000

Class 1: Pisces (Fish)

Class 2: Amphibia (Frogs/ Toads/ Salamanders/ Cecilia)

¤ Frogs and toads – 4,500spp ¤ Salamanders - not found in Malaysia ¤ Cecilian – rare ¤ Indicators – threats, global warming caused extinction ¤ Evolutionary importance – in between fish and reptiles

AMPHIBIA

FROG/ KATAK

TOAD/KODOK

SALAMANDER

SESILIA

Frogs- Indicator of Climate Changes

Class 3: Reptilia (Snakes/ Crocodiles/ Lizards/ Tortoises)

¤ Land animals - Shelled eggs

¤ Coarse skins – dehydration ¤ Importance – skin industry, food, medical (vaccines) ¤ Threats – over consumption eg. turtles eggs, snake skin

KOMODO DRAGON

SALTWATER CROCODILE

LEATHERBACK TURTLE

ANACONDA

LEAF CHAMELEON

Reptilia- An Important Evolutionary Organism

Reptiles: 268/69 (25%) Malaysia : 6500 (4%) World

Class 4: Aves (Birds)

¤ Flying and non-flying (wings)

¤ Domesticated – food (chicken, ducks, ostrich) ¤ Bird watching ¤ Seed dispersers

Birds: 736/11 (1.5%) Malaysia : 9672 (8%) world

OSTRICH

HUMMINGBIRD

STELLER’S SEA EAGLE

VULTURES (AS SCAVENGERS)

Birds – evolved from reptiles, shows evolutionary advancement –ability to fly

Birds – Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis)

Class 5: Mamalia

¤Land and air and aquatic ¤Fur as protection ¤No eggs stage (except monotremes) ¤Placentals and milk feeding

Mamalia

Mammals: 1. as source of protein 2. as tourism attraction

II. INTERACTIONS

¤ When two or more organisms interact with one another resulting in some effects. ¤ Eg: cow eats grass (herbivory); owl eat rats – predation ¤ Eg: worms in human stomach feeding on digested food - parasitism ¤ Eg: ants feed on honey produced by aphids, ants protect aphids - mutualism

INTERACTIONS - examples

¤ + + : Mutualism ¤ - 0 : Amensalism ¤ + - : Parasitism, Predation, Herbivory ¤ + 0: Epiphytic

++ : Mutualism

two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which each individual benefits from the activity of the other

- 0 : Amensalism

¤

Amensalism is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by itself

¤ Algal blooms can lead to the death of many species of fish and other animals but the algae doesn’t benefit the death of those individuals

+ - : Parasitism, Predation, Herbivory

Parasitism

Predation

Herbivory

¤ Parasitism is non-mutual relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host ¤ In predation, one organism kills and consumes another (prey).

¤ Herbivory is the consumption of plant material by animals

+ 0: Epiphytic/ Commensalism

Epiphytic

Commensalism

¤ Epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.

¤ Commensalism, is a class of relationships between two organisms where one organism benefits from the other without affecting it.

Effects of Interactions

¤ Interdependency – low to high degree

¤ Increase & decrease of organism populations ¤ Leads to ecological balance ¤ More interactions more stable (ecosystems) eg. Tropics: high biodiversity more interactions ecosystems more stable ¤ Disturbance to one components disturb the balance

Parasitic Plants and Plants

VALUES OF DIVERSITY 1. Utilitarian values : food, medicines, structural materials 2. Intrinsic/ecological /services values : pollinators, decomposers (insects), watershed, replenishing oxygen, tourism 3. Aesthetical values : beauty, green colour to emotional development 4. Moral values : right to live, uniqueness 5. Cultural, religious values : Elephant, Cow to Hinduism, 6. Optional values – for future uses eg. Wildlife in tourism

Uses of biodiversity

IMR

Fruits and vegetables IMR

Staple Foods

IMR

Tapioca & rice : carbohydrates IMR

Food : Protein

Cattle, fish and fowl

Construction materials

Panelling for houses

Trees provide water and oxygen

Aesthetic value

Simply beautiful

Tourism icon

Tourism icon

Tapir – endemic to peninsular Malaysia

III. ISSUES IN DIVERSITY

1.

We do not know what we have – poor documentation – how it affects – implication (Not enough surveys)

Not enough basic studies – focus on applied studies No supporting infra – eg bioinformatics

III. ISSUES IN DIVERSITY

2. We do not know much about traditional uses – poor documentation – how it affects Traditional uses of plants in healthcare not enough documentation Loss of TK – Takako & Maryati 2004

III. ISSUES IN DIVERSITY

3. Rich biodiversity poor technology – implication Slow advance in new technologies Still depend on old technologies Case of Bitangor : Sarawak has Bintangor (has potential to cure HIV) but need technology from America to help process

III. ISSUES IN DIVERSITY

4. Overharvesting Using unsustainable methods of harvesting Killing progenies, wasteful

Eg fish bombing, poisoning, clear cutting

III. ISSUES IN DIVERSITY

5. IPR, invasive species, PAs IPR and ABS – not clear cut Took too long time for patenting Invasive species

Protected Areas not many and not networked

Mikania micrantha – weed suffocating plants especially cover crop – legumes (kekacang) Costing millions of RM

Crows are invasive species IMR

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

 Conversion of land use from forest to agricultural, settlements (new townships etc), basic facilities (schools, offices etc),  Pollution (air, soil, freshwater and marine environment form agrochemicals pollution, siltation, oil spills)  Erosion of traditional knowledge (some plant wild varieties are not looked after and now extinct because traditional knowledge on use of these varieties was not practiced) ¤ Unsustainable harvesting of natural resources (such as using fine meshed nets when catching fishes), fish bombing and poisoning ¤ Climatic change and global warming (biodiversity has specific life regime, over which will cause death)

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Conversion of land use

Conversion of land use Pollution

Unsustainable Harvesting

Poor documentation of traditional knowledge : eg. Herbal uses

IMR

WHAT DO WE DO

¤ Enhance discovery of biodiversity

¤ Enhance discovery of uses of biodiversity ¤ Document traditional knowledge

¤ Enhance knowledge based industry (education/tourism/publication/multimedia) ¤ Enhance conservation ethics

WHAT HAVE WE LEARNT IN CHAPTER 2?

 The living component of planet earth  BIODIVERSITY  Define biodiversity  Go through the major groupings  Interactions

 Values  Threats  How to overcome the threat

– Thank you

– Terima kasih

THANK YOU YOU THANK