September 13, 2022 | Author: Anonymous | Category: N/A
Download CAPITULO No. 1 ELT 620...
GD_JUPFL Bl. 4 JBUQLEPGGJ×B D FDW JBWUDFDGJLB@W @FÊGUQJGDW JBEPWUQJDF@W 4.4. JBUQL JBUQLEPGGJ EPGGJ×B ×B W` e`a` s`ôdfdr qu` fd Jbstdfdgj÷b `fêgtrjgd gdtdflkd d tlel tjpl e` jbstdfdgjlb`s y s` fd e`sgrja` e`sgrja` glm glml l `f glbiub glbiubtl tl e` fls mdt` mdt`rjd rjdf`s f`s y `qujp `qujpls ls e` ub fuk fukdr dr e` trdadil m`ejdbt` fls qu` s` k`b`rd, glbvj`rt`, trdbshlrmd, trdbsplrtd, ejstrjauy` l utjfjzd fd `b`rkíd `fêgtrjgd> sj`bel dsí qu` ple`mls r`pr`s`btdr e` fd sjkuj`bt` mdb`rd9
HJKPQD 4.4 Wjst`md e` k`b`rdgj÷b, trdbsmjsj÷b y ejstrjaugj÷b @f lai`tjvl e` ubd jbstdfdgj÷b `fêgtrjgd `s hubedm`btdfm`bt` gumpfjr glb fls s`rv s`rvjg jgjl jlss qu qu` ` hu`r hu`rlb lb r` r`qu qu`r `rje jels ls eu eurd rdbt bt` ` fd `tdp `tdpd d e` e`ff pr prly ly`g `gtl tl,, `s e` e`gj gjr r prlp prlplr lrgj gjlb lbdr dr s`rv s`rvjg jgjl jl glb glb `f hjb hjb e` qu qu` ` fd `b `b`r `rkí kíd d `fêg `fêgtr trjg jgd d sdtj sdtjsh shdk dkd d fls fls r`qu`rjmj`btl e` fls ejstjbtls `f`m`btls r`g`ptlr`s qu` fd trdbshlrmdrdb s`kùb s`db fds b`g`sjede`s. ^0]
4.1. E@HJB E@HJBJGJ× JGJ×B B E@ JBWUD JBWUDFDGJ× FDGJ×B B @FÊGUQJGD @FÊGUQJGD
4
Jbstdfdgj÷b `fêgtrjgd s` pu`e` e`hjbjr glml `f glbiubtl e` `f`m`btls b`g`sdrjls pdrd glbeugjr y trdbshlrmdr fd `b`rkíd `fêgtrjgd, pdrd qu` s`d `mpf`ded `b fds mäqujbds y dpdrdtls r`g`ptlr`s pdrd su utjfjzdgj÷b hjbdf. Pbd jbstdfdgj÷b `fêgtrjgd e`a` gumpfjr fls sjkuj`bt`s r`qujsjtls9
W`r s`kurd glbtrd dggje`bt`s ` jbg`bejls. @hjgj`bt` y `glb÷mjgd. Dgg`sjaf` y hägjf e` mdbt`bjmj`btl. Gumpfjr glb fls r`qujsjtls têgbjgls qu` hjid `f r`kfdm`btl e` lards ` jbstdfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjgds.
Fds jbstdfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjgds mle`rbds, glml r`kfd k`b`rdf slstj`b` qu` ‖D jkudfede e` glbejgjlb`s têgbjgds, fd mäxjmd `glblmíd `s fd qu` pr`vdf`g`”. @s dsí qu` pdrd prly`gtdr ub sjst`md `fêgtrjgl s` cd `stdaf`gjel blrmds y r`kfds `b hlrmd r`sumjed ple`mls s`ôdfdr s`js pubtls prjbgjpdf`s.
E`hjbjgj÷b jbt`krdf e`f prlaf`md d r`slfv`r.
_lsjaf`s slfugjlb`s.
Grlqujs e`f sjst`md d prly`gtdr.
E`t`rmjbdgj÷b e` tlels fls pdräm`trls bdturdf`s y drtjhjgjdf`s qu` dgtùdb slar` gded ubl e` fls glmplb`bt`s e`f sjst`md, `stl jmpfjgd fd s`f`ggj÷b e` mdt`rjdf`s.
Ejm`bsjlbdel, delptdel pdrd `ffl fds h÷rmufds qu` glbv`bkdb, e` dgu`rel glb fd jmplrtdbgjd e` fls glmplb`bt`s y e`f sjst`md mjsml.
@vdfudgj÷b p`rmdb`bt` e`se` `f pubtl e` vjstd `glb÷mjgl e` tdf mdb`rd e` `bglbtrdr sj`mpr` ub pubtl e` `qujfjarjl, `btr`, fl qu` sjkbjhjgd fds lafjkdgjlb`s plr s`rvjgjl e` gdpjtdf`s e` `b`rkíd `fêgtrjgd plr `h`gtl Iluf` y ltrls. ^0]
4.7. JBWUD JBWUDFDGJL FDGJLB@W B@W E@ GLQQJ GLQQJ@BU@W @BU@W JBEPWUQJDF@W JBEPWUQJDF@W Wlb jbstdfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjgds glbt`bj`bel m`ejls l s`rvjgjl pdrd fd k`b`rdgj÷b trdbshlrmdgj÷b, dgumufdgj÷b, glbeuggj÷b, ejstrjaugj÷b y glbsuml e` `b`rkíd glb
fd hjbdfjede e` e`sdrrlffdr ub trdadil ‗ plr `i`mpfl m`gäbjgl, k`b`rdgj÷b e` gdflr y fuz l prlg`sls `f`gtrlquímjgls. Ujpls e` jbstdfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjgds9 - JBWUDFDGJLB D FD JBU@M_@
[email protected] @s ubd jbstdfdgj÷b `fêgtrjgd df djr` fjar`. - JBWUDFDGJLB _DQD JBU@
[email protected] @s ubd jbstd jbstdfdgj÷b fdgj÷b e`btrl e`btrl e` ub `ejhjgjl l ubd `bvlfv`bt`, `bvlfv`bt`, guyls m`ejls e` s`rvjgjl s`rvjgjl `stäb prlt`k prlt`kjels jels glbtrd fds jbhf jbhfu`bgjds u`bgjds dtmlshêrjgds. ^4] - JBWUDFDGJLB@W _DQ JBU@QJLQ@W @B @I@GPGJLB
[email protected] @s ubd jbstdfdgj÷b guyls m`ejls e` s`rvjgjl `std prlt`kjels slfl pdrgjdfm`bt` glbtrd glbtdgtls ejr`gtls. ^4] - JBWUDFDGJLB@W _DQD JBU@QJLQ@W @B @I@GPGJLB AFJBEDED.- @s dqu`ff dqu `ffd, d, guyls guyls m`e m`ejls jls e` s`rv s`rvjgj jgjl l `st `stäb äb prlt prlt`kj `kjels els slfl slfl pdrg pdrgjdf jdfm`b m`bt` t` glbtrd glbtrd glbtdgtls ejr`gtls. ^4]
4. 4.7. 7.4. 4. W@G W@GGJ× GJ×B B @s gded e`rjvdgjlb e` fds adrrds glf`gtlrds e` ubd jbstdfdgj÷b (plr `i`mpfl, fíb`d d`r`d, gdaf`s, trdbshlrmdelr, dglpfdmj`btl). ^4]
4.7.1. 4.7. 1. Q@GJB Q@GJBUL UL E@ W@QXJGJL W@QXJGJL @FÊGUQJGL @s ub flgdf l fukdr guyd hjbdfjede prjbgjpdf `strjad `b `f s`rvjgjl e` jbstdfdgjlb`s `f`gtrjgds y df qu` blrmdfm`bt` bl tj`b`b dgg`sl p`rslbds sjb glblgjmj`btl `b fd mdt`rjd. Glml plr `i`mpfl sdfds e` mdbel, jbstdfdgjlb`s e` ejstrjaugjlb `b r`gjbtls s`pdrdels, adbgls `f`gtrjgls e` v`rjhjgdgjlb y fdalrdtlrjls s`pdrdels, sdfds e` mdqujbds `b g`btrdf`s `f`gtrjgds y sjmjfdr`s. ^4]
4.7.7. 4.7. 7. Q@GJB Q@GJBUL UL E@ W@QXJGJL @FÊGUQJGL @FÊGUQJGL G@QQDEL @s dqu`f flgdf l fukdr `mpf`del `xgfusj `xgfusjvdm`bt vdm`bt` ` pdrd `f s`rvjgjl s`rvjgjl e` jbstdfdgjlb`s jbstdfdgjlb`s `f`g `f`gttrjgd rjgdss y qu` s` mdb dbtj tj`b `b` ` g` g`rr rrde del. l. Wl Wlfl fl tj`b` j`b` dg dgg` g`sl sl d `f p` p`rs rsl lbdf bdf `f`gtrlt`gbjgl gudfjhjgdel y p`rslbds jbstrujeds `b fd mdt`rjd> p`rslbdf f`kl plerd dgg`e`r `b glmpdôíd e` p`rslbdf gudfjhjgdel l jbstrujel. ^4]
4.5. U@BWJ U@BWJLB@W LB@W BL BLMJBDF MJBDF@W @W W`kùb fd F`y e` `f`gtrjgjede (F`y Bl 48?5 e`f 14 e` ejgj`mar` e` 4::5) fls bjv`f`s e` t`bsj÷b `stäb e`hjbjeds glml s` jbejgd d glbtjbudgj÷b9
Udafd 4.4 Bjv`f`s e` t`bsj÷b E@WGQJ_GJ×B ADID U@BWJLB
BJX@F E@ U@BWJLB
4 NX
(+ ;% y -4? %)
M@EJD U@BWJLB
24 NX y 8? NX (+ ;% y -4? %)
DFUD U@BWJLB
2 8? NX (+ 0% y 4? %)
4.0. GDBDF GDBDFJYDGJ JYDGJ×B ×B E@ JBWUD JBWUDFDGJL FDGJLB@W B@W @FÊGU @FÊGUQJGDW QJGDW Fd gdbdfjzdgj÷b e` jbstdfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjgds slb tlels dqu`ffls ejsplsjtjvls qu` tj`b` fd hubgj÷b e` trdbsplrtdr y prlt`k`r fls gdaf`s y glbeugtlr`s `fêgtrjgls glbtrd e`t`rjlrls e`t`rjlrls m`gäbjgls, m`gäbjgls, glbejgjlb`s dmaj`bt dmaj`btdf`s df`s ` pr`v`bg pr`v`bgj÷b j÷b e` jbg`b jbg`bejls ejls qu` s` pu`e`b prleugjr plr hdffds e` glrtlgjrgujtl. Fds gdbdfjzdgjlb`s mäs glmub`s slb9 - Fls ttual ualss glbe glbeujt ujt - Fds a adbe`id dbe`idss plrtd plrtdgdaf`s gdaf`s - Gd Gdbd bdf` f`td tds. s.
4.0.4. 4.0. 4. UPAL UPALW W _QLU@ _QLU@GULQ@ GULQ@W W 4.0.4.4. UPALW GLBEPJU L UPAL _QLU@GULQ QJKJEL
@f tual glbeujt `s ub tjpl e` tual (e` m`tdf l pfästjgl) usdel pdrd glbt`b`r y prlt`k`r fls glbeugtlr`s `fêgtrjgls usdels `b jbstdfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjgds. Fls tuals glbeujt m`täfjgls pu`e` s`r e` dfumjbjl, dg`rl l df`dgjlb`s `sp`gjdf`s.
HJKPQD 4.1 Uuals glbeujt m`täfjgl
HJKPQD 4.7 Uual glbeujt pfästjgl 4.0.4.4.1. 4.0.4. 4.1. BÙM@QL E@ GLBEPGULQ@W @B PB UPAL GLBEPJ GLBEPJU U @b jbstdfdgjlb`s jbstdfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjg `fêgtrjgds ds fls gdaf` gdaf`ss y glbeugtlr`s s` `bgu`btrdb dflidels yd s`d s`d `b tual tualss glbe glbeuj ujtt u ltrl ltrlss tjpl tjplss e` gdbd gdbdfjfjzd zdgj gjlb lb`s `s.. E` E`aj ajel el d qu qu` ` fls fls glbeugtlr`s tj`be`b d gdf`btdr gudbel gjrgufdb glrrj`bt`s `stls dh`gtdb d fls glbe glbeug ugtl tlr` r`ss qu qu` ` s` `b `bgu gu`b `btr trdb db d su fdel fdel,, pl plrr `std `std rd rdz÷ z÷b b `f bù bùm` m`rl rl e` glbeugtlr`s e`btrl e` ub tual glbeujt e`a` s`r fjmjtdel e` mdb`rd qu` `xjstd `spdgjl pdrd r`hrjk`rdgj÷b. _drd ejm`bsjlbdr `f ejäm`trl e` ub tual glbeujt s` e`a` tlmdr `b gu`btd fd sjkuj`bt` `gudgj÷b9
Elbe`9 D = Är`d jbt`rjlr e`f tual `b mm1 l pfk1. Dg = Är`d tltdf e` fls glbeugtlr`s,
H = Hdgtlr e` r`ff`bl @f hdgtlr e` r`ff`bl H tj`b` fls sjkuj`bt`s vdflr`s9
07 % _drd ub glbeugtlr
74 % _drd els glbeugtlr`s
57 % _drd tr`s glbeugtlr`s 5? % _drd gudtrl l mäs glbeugtlr`s
4.0.4.1. UPAL G GLBEPJU LBEPJU M M@UDFJGL @UDFJGL H HF@SJAF@ F@SJAF@ @st` `s ub tual c`gcl e` gjbtd m`täfjgd `b hlrmd c`fjgljedf, sjb bjbkùb r`guarjmj`btl, qu` s` utjfjzd `b jbstdfdgjlb`s elbe` s` r`quj`rd r`dfjzdr elafdeurds e` fls glbeugtlr`s. @st` tjpl e` tuals glbeujt tdmajêb s` hdarjgdb e` mdt`rjdf pfästjgl.
HJK. 4.5 Uual hf`xjaf` e` pfästjgl. 4.0.4.7. GDBDF@UDW L EPGULW
Fdss gd Fd gdbd bdf` f`td tdss l eu eugt gtls ls tj`b` j`b` fd hub ubgj gj÷b ÷b e` tr trdb dbsspl plrt rtdr dr y pr prlt lt`k `k`r `r d fls fls glbeugtlr`s. glbeug tlr`s. Fds gdbdf`t gdbdf`tds ds tj`b`b fd hlrmd e` ub gdbdf glb ubd tdpd y `stls slb e` mdt`rjdf m`täfjgd qu` blrmdfm`bt` pdrd fd r`hrjk`rdgj÷b e` fls glbeugtlr`s gu`btd glb lrjhjgjls. _drd su jbstdfdgj÷b s` e`a` r`dfjzdr `bgjmd e` pdr`e`s l sui`tds `b `strugturds m`gäbjgds `b hlrmd clrjzlbtdf.
HJKPQD 4.0 Gdbdf`tds 4.0.4.5 ADBE@IDW L Q@IDW Wlb `f`m`btls, qu` tj`b`b fd hubgj÷b e` trdbsplrtdr fls gdaf`s e` ejh`r`bt`s bjv`f`s e` t`bsj÷b, tuals glbeujt qu` glbtj`b` e` jkudf mdb`rd glbeugtlr`s qu` dfjm`btdb ejstjbtds gdrkds.
HJKPQD 4.8 Adbe`ids l r`ids Adbe`ids plrtdaf`s y slplrt`s, `s fd ubjede l glbiubtl e` s`ggjlb`s, glb sus c`rrdi`s, c`rrdi `s, qu` hlrmdb ubd `strug `strugturd turd ríkjed `mpf`ded pdrd slplrtdr slplrtdr glbeugt glbeugtlr`s lr`s y gdbdfj gdb dfjzdg zdgjlb jlb`s, `s, fd hjk hjkurd urd sjkuj` sjkuj`bt` bt` mu` mu`str strd d ubd adb adbe`i e`id d plrt plrtd-gd d-gdaf` af`ss e` tjp tjpl l `sgdf`rd, glb sus dgg`slrjls.
HJKPQD 4.; Adbe`ids Wj s` cdg`b gurvds l mlejhjgdgjlb`s eurdbt` fd jbstdfdgj÷b, s` e`a`b cdg`r e` mdb`rd mdb` rd qu qu` ` s` md mdbt bt`b `bkd kd fd gl glbt btjb jbuj ujed ede e `fêg `fêgtr trjg jgd d e` e`ff sjst sjst`m `md d e` adbe adbe`i `id d plrtdgdaf`s y `f slplrt` e` fls glbeugtlr`s.
4.8. GDIDW Z D DGG@WLQJLW GG@WLQJLW _DQD FD GDBDFJYDGJ×B GLB UPAL GLBEPJU Fds gdids s` utjfjzdb pdrd r`dfjzdr glb`xjlb`s e` glbeugtlr`s l ubjlb`s `btr` glbeugtlr`s. Fds gdids e`a`b `stdr jbstdfdeds `b elbe` pu`edb s`r dgg`sjaf`s pdrd ple`r cdg`r gdmajls `b `f dfumardel. _lr ltrd pdrt` tlels fls dpdkdelr`s y sdfjeds pdrd fämpdrds s` e`a`b `bglbtrdr dflidels `b gdids y `b hlrmd sjmjfdr fls glbtdgtls. Fds gdids s` glbstruy`b m`täfjgds y e` pfästjgl s`kùb s` us`b `b jbstdfdgjlb`s glb tual glbeujt m`täfjgl l glb tual e` _XG l plfj`tjf`bl. Fds gdids m`täfjgds pu`e`b t`b`r ejh`r`bt`s ejm`bsjlb`s l hlrmds glml s`r9 guderdeds, lgtlklbdf`s, r`gtdbkufdr`s y gjrgufdr`s. _drd dgg`sl e` tua`ríd, tj`b`b p`rhlrdgjlb`s `b fds gdrds fdt`rdf`s y `b `f hlbel.
HJKPQD 4.3 @mpdfm`s e`btrl e` fds gdids e` e`rjvdgj÷b Fds gdids y dgg`slrjls s` jbstdfdb df rds e` fd sup`rhjgj` dgdaded l df slar`sdfjr e` `s `sttä. @b pdr` pdr`e` e`ss l t`g `gcl clss e` gl glbg bgr` r`ttl, fder fderjfjffl fl u ltrl ltrlss mdt`r dt`rjd jdff`s jbglmaustjaf`s.
HJKPQD 4.: Ujpls e` gdids e` e`rjvdgj÷b Aäsjgdm`bt` fd s`f`ggj÷b e` ubd gdid e` `mpdfm` e`p`be` e` fl sjkuj`bt`9 * @f bùm`r bùm`rl l e` glbeugt glbeugtlr`s lr`s qu` `btr `btrdb. db. * @f tjpl y bùm`r bùm`rl l e` ejsplsjt ejsplsjtjvls jvls qu` s` glb`gt glb`gtdb db d fd gdid.
* @f mêt mêtlel lel e` d dfdmard fdmardel el d usdr.
4. 4.;. ;. UDAF@Q UDAF@QLW LW E@ EJ EJWUQ WUQJAP JAPGJL GJLB B @s ub `f`m`btl e`stjbdel df dflidm dflidmj`btl j`btl y prlt`g prlt`ggj÷b gj÷b e` glmplb glmplb`bt`s `bt`s `fêgtrjg `fêgtrjgls ls e` prlt`ggj÷b y e` mdbel (glbtdgtlr`s, r`fês têrmjgls, t`rmlmdkb`tjgls).
HJKPQD 4.4? Udaf`rls e` glbtrlf e` mltlr`s Uled jbstdfdgj÷b e`a` ejsplb`r df m`bls e` ub tdaf`rl e` ejstrjaugj÷b glb sus r`sp`gtjvds prlt`ggjlb`s dutlmätjgds `b s`rj` glb gded ubl e` fls gjrgujtls `b qu` qu ` s` su suae aejv jvje je` ` fd jbstd jbstdfd fdgj gj÷b> ÷b> `s `stl tlss td tdaf af`rl `rlss e` ej ejst strj rjau augj gj÷b ÷b e` e`a` a`b b `std `stdr r flgdfjzdels `b fukdr`s dgg`sjaf`s y fls gudf`s s`db glbtrlfdels e`se` `f jbt`rjlr. Ulel tdaf`rl e`a` prlt`k`r gded ubd e` fds fíb`ds vjvds, fd prlt`ggj÷b bl e`a` s`r e` mdylr gdpdgjede qu` fd mäxjmd glrrj`bt` glbeugjed plr ubd fíb`d `b su pubtl e` m`blr gdfjar`.
4.;.4 G@BUQL E@ GDQKD E`btrl e` ubd jbstdfdgj÷b `fêgtrjgd `s `f pubtl elbe` s` glbsje`rd ubd gdrkd jkudf d fd sumd e` tleds fds gdrkds pdrgjdf`s, qu` `b r`dfjede r`pr`s`btd `f g`btrl e` krdv`ede, sj fds gdrkds `fêgtrjgds s` trdtdb glml mdsds.
Pb g`btrl e` gdrkd `s `f fukdr elbe` s` `bgu`btrd fds e`mdbeds e` mdylr plt`bgjd e`btrl e` ubd jbstdfdgj÷b, p`rl e`p`bej`bel e`f tjpl e` jbstdfdgj÷b. Z Z0 _4
_1
_7
Z5 _5
Z7 ZGG
GG _0
Z1
_;
_3
_8
Z4
S4
S1
S7
SGG Hu`9 bt`9
S5
S0
S8
S;
S
@fdalrdgj÷b prlpjd d pdrtjr e`f Fjarl Jbstdfdgjlb`s @fêgtrjgds Jbeustrjdf`s ‗Ildl Mdm`e` Hjfcl
HJKPQD 4.44 G`btrl e` gdrkd Fds h÷rmufds qu` e`t`rmjbdb `stds flbkjtue`s slb fds sjkuj`bt`s9 Fxj _ j Fx
F _ 3 Fx Fx1 xgg
F Fxj Fx ygg
Fx4 Fx8 _ _ 8 Fx Fx8 _ Fx8 _ Fx7 _ _ 7 Fx Fx1 _ _ 1 Fx Fx4 _ _ 4 Fx _ ; Fx _ 0 Fx _ 5 Fx _4 _ _1 _ _ 7 _ _ _ 0 _ _ _ 8_ _ _ 5 _ ;
j
_ _ _ j
3
Fy5 _ Fy5 _ Fy7 _ _ 4 Fy Fy5 _ _ 1 Fy _ 7 Fy _ 5 Fy _ 0 Fy Fy1 _ _ 8 Fy Fy4 _ _ ; Fy Fy4 _ _ 3 Fy Fy4
(4.1)
j
4
1
7
5
0
8
;
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3
(4.7)
_
_ ( F F xgg , F ygg )
4.3 MDU@Q MDU@QJDF@W JDF@W GLM_F@M GLM_F@M@BUDQ @BUDQJLW JLW 4.3.4 Q@KF Q@KF@UDW @UDW E@ GL GLB@SJ× B@SJ×B B Wlb fls ejs ejspls plsjtj jtjvls vls qu` utjfjz utjfjzdmls dmls pdrd fds ejh`r`b ejh`r`bt`s t`s glb`xj glb`xjlb`s lb`s `bt `btr` r` fls glbeugtlr`s e` ub gjrgujtl `fêgtrjgl.
_lr blrmd k`b`rdf, glbstdb e` ub gjfjberl m`täfjgl cu`gl y els tlrbjffls rlsgdels e` dprj`t` qu` s` jbtrleug`b `b su jbt`rjlr pdrd hjidr `f gdaf`. Ulel `ffl vd `bvu`ftl plr ub mdt`rjdf djsfdbt`.
@st` tjpl e` r`kf`tds `s utjfjzdel, k`b`rdfm`bt`, pdrd r`dfjzdr fds glb`xjlb`s e` gdaf`s e`btrl e` fds gdids e` `mpdfm`s. W` e`blmjbdb `b hubgj÷b e` fd s`ggj÷b jbt`rjlr `b mjfím`trls guderdels. Wus vdflr`s slb 5, 8, 4?, 48 y 10 mmR1. Fds r`kf`tds e` pdsl, p`rmjt`b fd glb`xj÷b sjb glrtdr `f gdaf` y demjt`b gdaf`s e` mdylr s`ggj÷b.
HJKPQD 4.41 Q`kf`tds e` pdsl E`btrl e` fls drmdrjls, gudbel s`d pr`gjsl usdr r`kf`tds e` glb`xjlb`s, s` `mpf`db fds e`blmjbdeds alrbds Xjnjbk, qu` pu`e`b hjidrs` slar` ubd `strugturd m`täfjgd (gdrrjf). Fds glrr`splbej`bt`s df b`utrl y df glbeugtlr e` prlt`ggj÷b ff`vdb `f glflr gdrdgt`rístjgl e` `stls glbeugtlr`s.
HJKPQD 4.47 Q`kf`tds e` glb`xj÷b e` tj`rrd, blrmdf`s y b`utrl 4.3.11 ADW@W Z GFDX 4.3. GFDXJIDW JIDW E@ UJ_L UJ_L JBEPWUQJ JBEPWUQJDF DF _drd _dr d fd glb glb`xj `xj÷b ÷b `xt `xt`rbd `rbd e` `qu `qujpl jplss `b jbs jbstdf tdfdgj dgjlb`s lb`s `fê `fêgtr gtrjgds jgds jbe jbeust ustrjd rjdf`s f`s `xjst`b gfdvjids y ads`s (tlmdglrrj`bt`s jbeustrjdf`s).
Dt`bej`bel df bùm`rl e` plfls, t`b`mls9 • 1_+U9 els pl plfls fls mäs tlm tlmd d e` tj`rrd (mlblhäsj (mlblhäsjgds). gds). • 7_+U9 tr tr`s `s plfls mäs tlm tlmd d e` tj`rrd (trjhäsj (trjhäsjgds). gds). • 7_+B+U9 tr`s plfls, b`utrl, mäs tlmd e` tj`rrd (trjhäsjgd glb b`utrl). W` hd hdar arjg jgdb db gl glb b ej ejh` h`r` r`bt bt`s `s gl glfl flr` r`ss pd pdrd rd je je`bt `btjhjhjg jgdr dr fl flss vdfl vdflr` r`ss e` t` t`bsj bsj÷b ÷b y hr`gu`bgjd. Fls vdflr`s blmjbdf`s e` glrrj`bt` pdrd fds ejh`r`bt`s kdmds slb9 48, 71, 87 y 410 D.
HJKPQD 4.45 Gfdvjids y ads`s 4.:. @F@M@BULW E@ MDBJLAQD, GLBUQLF Z _QLU@GGJ×B 4.:.4.. _PFWD 4.:.4 _PFWDELQ@W ELQ@W @f pu pufs fsdel delrr `s ub mdbe mdbel l `fêg `fêgtr trjg jgl l md mdbu budf df qu qu` ` prl prlpl plrgj rgjlb lbd d s`ô s`ôdf df`s `s e` tjtjpl pl mlm`btäb`l, pu`stl qu` df e`idr e` `i`rg`r pr`sj÷b suajrä l r`kr`sd d su plsjgj÷b e` r`plsl. _lr fd ejsplsjgj÷b `fêgtrjgd ejstjbkujr`mls `b hubgj÷b e` sus glbtdgtls9
_ufs _u fsdel delrr glb gl glbt btdg dgtl tlss da daj` j`rt rtls ls pu pufs fsde delr lr`s `s e` md mdrg rgcd. cd. @f m`bg m`bgjl jlbd bdel el pufsdelr su`f` s`r e` glflr v`re` y sus alrb`s tj`b`b fd bum`rdgj÷b 7 y 5. Df pr`sjlbdr `st` pufsdelr s` gj`rrd su glbtdgtl `b hlrmd mlm`btäb`d y `bgj`be` ub `qujpl l gjrgujtl.
7 5
J
HJKPQD 4.40 _ufsdelr blrmdfm`bt` daj`rtl
Fls pufsdelr`s glb glbtdg glbtdgtls tls g`rrdels s` e`blmj e`blmjbdb bdb pufsdelr`s e` pdrl. @f m`bgjlbdel pufsdelr su`f` s`r e` glflr rlil y sus alrb`s tj`b`b fd bum`rdgj÷b 4 y 1. Df pr`sjlbdr `st` pufsdelr dar` su glbtdgtl `b hlrmd mlm`btäb`d y dpdkd ub `qujpl l gjrgujtl.
4 1
?
HJKPQD 4.48 _ufsdelr blrmdfm`bt` g`rrdel Fls qu` pls``b glbtdgtls daj`rtls y g`rrdels s` e`blmjbdb pufsdelr`s e` elaf` `h`gtl. Df pr`sjlbdr `st` pufsdelr dar` su glbtdgtl g`rrdel y gj`rrd su glbtdgtl daj`rtl `b hlrmd mlm`btäb`d.
7 5
4 1
HJKPQD 4.4; _ufsdelr e` elaf` `h`gtl _ufsdelr z`td e` `m`rk`bgjd s` utjfjzd pdrd dpdkdr tlels fls `qujpls qu` hlrmdb pdrt` e` ub gjrgujtl `b `b hlrmd jbstdbtäb`d. Df pr`sjlbdr `f pufsdelr e` `m`rk`bgjd
dar` su glbtdgtl g`rrdel y s` qu`ed dgtjvdel cdstd qu` s` cdkd kjrdr `b `f s`btjel e` fds hf`gcds qu` tj`b` `b su guaj`rtd.
4 1
HJKPQD 4.43 _ufsdelr z`td l pdrded e` `m`rk`bgjd Gdsj tlels fls pufsdelr`s `xjst`bt`s `b `f m`rgdel tj`b`b ub krdel e` prlt`ggj÷b J_ 80, glb fl qu` guar`b ub dmpfjl dadbjgl e` dpfjgdgjlb`s y glbejgjlb`s dmaj`btdf`s dev`rsds. Gudbel s` jbstdfdb els l mäs pufsdelr`s `b ubd gdid su`f` edrs` df glbiubtl `f blmar` e` altlb`rd.
HJKPQD 4.4: Altlb`rd 4.:.1. HJBDF 4.:.1. HJBDF@W @W E@ GD GDQQ@QD QQ@QD Pb hjbdf e` gdrr`rd `s ub jbt`rruptlr `fêgtrjgl qu` s` dggjlbd gudbel ubd pdrt` e` fd mä mäqu qujb jbd d l ub ubd d pj`z pj`zd d `b `btr trdb db `b glbt glbtdg dgtl tl glb glb `f mj mjsm sml. l. Fd dgtj dgtjvd vdgj gj÷b ÷b k`b`rdfm`bt` s` r`dfjzd plr ubd f`vd qu` dggjlbd ubd pdfdbgd e` dggjlbdmj`btl. Fls hjbdf`s e` gdrr`rd `b su `strugturdb gu`btdb glb glbtdgtls qu` tj`b`b fd hubgj÷b e` darjr, g`rrdr l glbmutdr ub gjrgujtl `fêgtrjgl.
HJKPQD 4.1? M`gdbjsml hjbdf e` gdrr`rd
HJKPQD 4.14 Hjbdf`s e` gdrr`rd 4.:.7 FDM_DQDW E@ W@ÔDFJYDGJ×B Uj`b` fd hjbdfjede e` s`ôdfjzdgj÷b y dfdrmd, fd mjsmd qu` bls jbejgd plr `i`mpfl `stdels e` hubgjlbdmj`btl l bl e` mäqujbds, `qujpls y ltrls qu` r`quj`r`b s`r s`ôdfjzdels> df jkudf qu` fds glbejgjlb`s e` hdffd, `stdel e` glbtdgtls duxjfjdr`s e` glbtdgtlr`s, pr`s`bgjd e` t`bsj÷b, dfdrmd, `tg. _drd fl gudf s` usd e` mlel k`b`rdfjzdel fls pjfltls e` s`ôdfjzdgj÷b glb jbejgdgj÷b fumjblsd. ^1]
S4
S1 S4 HJKPQD 4.11 _jfltl e` s`ôdfjzdgj÷b
4. 4.:. :.5. 5. GLB GLBUDG UDGULQ ULQ Fd blrmd XEG e`hjb` `f glbtdgtlr glml ub dpdrdtl m`gäbjgl e` glb`xj÷b glb ubd slfl plsjgj÷b e` r`plsl glbtdgtls prjbgjpdf`s daj`rtls bl dggjlbdel d mdbl y gdpdz gdp dz e` `stdaf `stdaf`g` `g`r, r, slp slplrt lrtdr dr ` jbt`rru jbt`rrumpj mpjrr fd glrr glrrj`b j`bt` t` adil adil fds glb glbejg ejgjlb jlb`s `s blrmdf`s e`f gjrgujtl jbgfujels fds slar`gdrkdeds e` s`rvjgjl. W`kù W` kùb b `f tjtjpl pl e` dggj dggjlb lbdm dmj` j`bt btl l `f glb glbtd tdgt gtlr lr pu pu`e` `e` s`r `f`gt `f`gtrlm rlmdkb dkbêt êtjg jgl, l, cjeräufjgl y m`gäbjgl. @f glbtdgtlr `f`gtrlmdkbêtjgl `s dqu`f qu` gdmajd fd plsjgj÷b e` sus glbtdgtls gudbel s` dfjm`btd `f `f`gtrljmäb qu` dgtùd ejr`gtdm`bt` slar` `f m`gdbjsml e`f glbtdgtlr. ^7]
D4
D1
470 47
158 45
HJKPQD 4.17 Glbtdgtlr W`kùb fd hubgj÷b e` fls glbtdgtls `f glbtdgtlr s`rä e` hu`rzd l plt`bgjd l glbtdgtlr duxjfjdr.
@f glbtdgtlr e` hu`rzd l plt`bgjd tj`b` jbt`rbdm`bt` glbtdgtls e` hu`rzd guyd bum`rdgj÷b bum`rd gj÷b `s (4-1, 7-5, 0-8) elbe` s` glb`gtdb glb`gtdb fds gdrkds qu` s` e`s`db cdg`r hubgjlbdr y dfkubls glbtdgtls duxjfjdr`s qu` s` utjfjzdb `b `f gjrgujtl e` glbtrlf glml s`r (47-45 daj`rtls l 44-41 g`rrdels).
HJKPQD 4.15 Glbtdgtlr e` hu`rzd l plt`bgjd Glbtdgtlr duxjfjdr slfdm`bt` tj`b` ubd alajbd pdrd su hubgjlbdmj`btl y glbtdgtls duxjfjdr`s glml s`r (47-45 daj`rtls l 44-41 g`rrdels). Bl gu`btd glb glbtdgtls pdrd `f gjrgujtl e` hu`rzd.
HJKPQD 4.10 Glbtdgtlr duxjfjdr
Fls glbtdgtls duxjfjdr`s `b hlrmd s`pdrded `s ub dgg`slrjl qu` s` utjfjzd pdrd ple`r t`b`r ejsplbjaf` mäs glbtdgtls duxjfjdr`s daj`rtls l g`rrdels. @st` pdrd su dgtjvdgj÷b e`a` sui`tdrs` df glbtdgtlr.
HJKPQD 4.18 Glbtdgtls duxjfjdr`s Glbstjtugj÷b e` ub glbtdgtlr `f`gtrlmdkbêtjgl. - Glb Glbtdg tdgtls tls prj prjbgj bgjpdf pdf`s. `s. Wlb fls e`stjbdels d darjr y g`rrdr `f gjrgujtl e` plt`bgjd. @stäb daj`rtls `b r`plsl. - Glbtdgtls duxjfjdr`s. Wlb fls `bgdrkdels e` darjr y g`rrdr `f gjrgujtl e` mdbel. @stäb dglpfdels m`gäbjgdm`bt` d fls glbtdgtls prjbgjpdf`s y pu`e`b s`r daj`rtls l g`rrdels.
- Alajbd. @f`m`btl qu` prleug` ubd hu`rzd e` dtrdggj÷b df s`r dtrdv`sdel plr ubd glrrj`bt` `fêgtrjgd. Wu t`bsj÷b e` dfjm`btdgj÷b pu`e` s`r e` 41, 15 y 11?X e` glrrj`bt` dft`rbd, sj`bel fd e` 11?X fd mäs usudf.
- Drmdeurd l mdrtjffl. _d _drt rt` ` m÷vj m÷vjff e` e`ff gl glbt btdgt dgtlr. lr. E` E`sp spfd fdzd zd fl flss glb glbtd tdgt gtls ls prjbgjpdf`s y duxjfjdr`s plr fd dggj÷b hu`rzd e` dtrdggj÷b e` fd alajbd. mdkbêtjgl l prleugjel plr - Bùgf Bùgf`l `l l guf gufdt dtd. d. _drt` hjid plr fd qu` s` gj`rrd `f hfuil mdkbêtjg fd alajbd. - Q`slrt`. @s ub mu`ff` `bgdrkdel e` e`vlfv`r fls glbtdgtls d su plsjgj÷b e` r`plsl ubd v`z g`sd fd hu`rzd e` dtrdggj÷b.
HJKPQD 4.1; _drt`s e`f glbtdgtlr 4.:.5.4. 4.:. 5.4. GDU@K GDU@KLQÍD LQÍD E@ W@QXJGJL W@QXJGJL W` `btj`be` plr gdt`klríd e` s`rvjgjl df glbiubtl e` blrmds y `sp`gjhjgdgjlb`s qu` hjidb gfdrdm`bt` pdrd quê tjpl e` trdadil pu`e` e`stjbdrs` ub glbtdgtlr. @b `f guderl s` jbejgd fds ejv`rsds gdt`klríds pdrd glrrj`bt` dft`rbd y glbtjbud.
Udafd 4.1 Udafd e` gdt`klríds e` s`rvjgjl pdrd glbtdgtlr`s. GLQQJ@BU@ DFU@QBD Gdtt`k Gd `klr lrííd @i`m @i`mpf pfl l DG4
Gdrkd bl jbeugtjvds l e`ajedm`bt` e`ajedm`bt` jbeugt jbeugtjvds, jvds, r`sjst r`sjst`bgjds `bgjds e` gdf`hdggj÷b.
DG1
Drrdbqu` e` mltlr`s glb rltlr alajbdel y dbjffls rlzdbt`s.
DG7
Drrdbqu` e` mltlr`s `b glrtlgjrgujtl glb e`sglb`xj÷b y rêkjm`b e`
mdrgcd.
DG5
Drrdbqu` e` mltlr`s `b glrtlgjrgujtl glb e`sglb`xj÷b eurdbt` `f drrdbq drr dbqu` u`,, jb jbv`r v`rsj sj÷b ÷b y hr hr`b `bdel del plr `f gl glbt btrdg rdglr lrrj` rj`bt bt`, `, md mdrgc rgcd d y jmpufsls.
GLQQJ@BU@ GLBUJBPD Gdtt`k Gd `klr lrííd @i`m @i`mpf pfl l EG4
Gdrkd bl jbeugtjvds l e`ajedm`bt e`ajedm`bt` ` jbeugtjvd jbeugtjvds, s, r`sjst`bgjds r`sjst`bgjds e` gdf`hdggj÷b.
EG1
Drrdbqu` e` mltlr`s e` e`rjvdgj÷b glb e`sglb`xj÷b `b rêkjm`b e` mdrgcd.
EG7
Drrdbqu` e` mltlr`s `b e`rjvdgj÷b glb e`sglb`xj÷b eurdbt` `f drrdbqu` drrdbq u`,, jb jbv` v`rs rsj÷ j÷b, b, hr hr`bd `bdel el pl plrr `f glbtr glbtrdr drjl jl gl glrrj rrj`bt `bt`. `. Md Mdrgc rgcd d d jmpufsls.
EG5
Drrdbqu` e` mltlr`s `b s`rj` glb e`sglb`xj÷b eurdbt` `f drrdbqu`, jbv`rsj÷b, hr`bdel plr glbtrdglrrj`bt`, mdrgcd d jmpufsls.
4. 4.:. :.0. 0. HPW HPWJAF JAF@ @ @s ub ejsplsjtjvl e` prlt`ggj÷b qu` prlt`k` e` glrtlgjrgujtls prjbgjpdfm`bt` y slar`gdrkds fd jbstdfdgj÷b, `s e`gjr, fls glbeugtlr`s, `f`m`btls e` mdbel y dpdrdtls glb`gtdels d fls ejh`r`bt`s gjrgujtls. @f husjaf` tj`b` jbt`rbdm`bt` ub hjfdm`btl e`fkdel qu` gudbel `xjst` ubd glrrj`bt` `f`vded `st` s` hube`. @f drgl qu` s` prlg`e` `b `f jbt`rjlr e`f husjaf` s` `xtjbku` glb ub plfvl `xtjbtlr.
HJKPQD4.13 Husjaf`s y símalfl
4.:.88 JBU@Q 4.:. JBU@QQP_UL QP_ULQ Q U@QMLMDKB@ U@QMLMDKB@UJGL UJGL Df jkudf qu` fls husjaf`s, prlt`k` e` slar`gdrkd slar`gdrkdss y glrtlgjrgujtls fd jbstdfdgj÷b, `s e`gj e` gjr, r, fl flss gl glbeu beugt gtlr lr`s, `s, `f`m `f`m`bt `btls ls e` mdbe mdbel l y dpd dpdrd rdtl tlss gl glb` b`gt gtde dels ls d fl flss ejh`r`bt`s gjrgujtls.
4.:.8.4 4.:. 8.4 GLBWUJUPGJ GLBWUJUPGJ×B ×B • Gdrgds Gdrgdsd d l `bvlft `bvlfturd urd djsfd djsfdbt`. bt`. • Alrb`s (`bt (`btrded rded y sdfjed) pdrd hjidr fls glbeu glbeugtlr`s gtlr`s e`f gjrgujt gjrgujtl. l. • @f`m @f`m`b `btl tl ajm` ajm`tä täfjfjgl gl.. @s ub ubd d pj pj`z `zd d hl hlrm rmde ded d pl plrr els els m` m`td tdf` f`ss e` ejh` ejh`r` r`bt bt` ` gl`h gl `hjjgj`b gj`bt` t` e` ejfd ejfdttdg dgj÷ j÷b, b, fl qu` pr prlv lvlg lgd d su gu gurv rvdt dtur urd d df ejf ejfdtdr dtdrs` s` plr plr gdf`btdmj`btl (`h`gtl têrmjgl). • Alajbd Alajbd.. @stä glbstjt glbstjtujed ujed plr cjfl e` glar` drrlff drrlffdel del slar` ub bùgf`l m÷vjf qu` `s dtrd dtrdíe íel l gudb gudbel el pl plrr `ffd `ffd pd pdsd sd ub ubd d glrr glrrj` j`bt bt` ` e` vdfl vdflrr glbs glbsje je`r `rda daf` f` (` (`h` h`gt gtl l mdkbêtjgl). • Gämdrd Gämdrd dpdkdgcj dpdkdgcjspds spds.. @s `f `f`m `f`m`bt `btl l qu` prlvl prlvlgd gd fd `xt `xtjbg jbgj÷b j÷b e` fls drgls `fêgtrjgls prleugjels `b `f jbt`rjlr e`f dpdrdtl df darjrs` sus glbtdgtls gudbel `stä gjrgufdbel ubd glrrj`bt` glbsje`rdaf`. • _dfdbgd _dfdbgd l mdb`t mdb`td. d. @s ubd pdfdbgd qu` utjfjz utjfjzdmls dmls pdrd r`drmd r`drmdrr (vlfv`r d g`rrdr) `f jb jbt` t`rru rrupt ptlr lr e`s e`spu puês ês e` ub ej ejspd spdrl rl,, l sjmp sjmpf` f`m` m`bt bt` ` pdr pdrd d dar darjr jr y g`r g`rrdr rdr `f jbt`rruptlr mdbudfm`bt`.
•Glbtdgtl m÷vjf. W` trdtd e`f m`gdbjsml e` dp`rturd qu` dar` ejgcl glbtdgtl plr `f `h`gtl e`f ajm`tdf l e` fd alajbd y qu` tdmajêb ple`mls darjr l g`rrdr e` hlrmd mdbudf plr m`ejl e` ubd pdfdbgd.
4. Mdb`td
e`
dggjlbdmj`btl.
@b
fls
muftjplfdr`s, tleds fds mdb`tds s` ub`b plr ubd kuíd. 1. Gl Glbt btdg dgtl tl m÷ m÷vj vjf.f. 7. Gl Glbt btdgt dgtl l hjhjil il glb pds pdstjtjffffd d `b df`d df`dgj gj÷b ÷b e` pfdtd y krdhjtl. 5. Ala Alajbd jbd e` ejs ejspdrl pdrl mdk mdkbêt bêtjgl jgl.. 0. E`s E`sglb glb`gt `gtdelr delr mdkbê mdkbêtjg tjgl l qu` de de`mä `mäss tjrd ejr`gtdm`bt` e`f glbtdgtl m÷vjf. 8. Gämdrd e`sjlbjzdbt` g`rämjgd.
glb
pfdqu`td
;. Ajm Ajm`td `tdff r`kuf r`kufdaf daf` ` pdrd fd e`sgl e`sglb`xj b`xj÷b ÷b têrmjgd. 3. Krd Krdpd pd e` hhjid jidgj÷b gj÷b sla slar` r` rdj rdjff EJ EJB B 581; 581;;. ;. :-4?. Alrbds e` `btrded y sdfjed plr tlrbjffl y pfdqu`td, pfdqu`t d, glb gdpdgj gdpdgjede ede e` glb`xj glb`xj÷b ÷b e` ?.048 mm1.
HJKPQD 4.1: _drt`s e`f jbt`rruptlr t`rmlmdkbêtjgl 4.:.8.1 4.:. 8.1 _QJBGJ_JL _QJBGJ_JL E@ HPBGJ HPBGJLBDMJ LBDMJ@BUL @BUL Gudbel fd glrrj`bt` qu` gjrgufd plr `f jbt`rruptlr dutlmätjgl `s e` ub vdflr sup`rjlr df gdfjardel, e`ajel d ubd slar`gdrkd, glmj`bzd d gdf`btdrs` `f ajm`tdf, gdf`btdmj`btl qu` s`rä mäs räpjel gudbtl mdylr s`d `f vdflr e` fd glrrj`bt`. @f gdf`btdmj`btl cdg` qu` `f ajm`tdf s` gurv` y dgtù` slar` `f glbtdgtl m÷vjf prlvlgdbel su dp`rturd (`h`gtl têrmjgl).
Wj fd glrrj`bt` qu` gjrgufd plr `f jbt`rruptlr `s e` ub vdflr muy `f`vdel, d gdusd e` ub glrtl rtlgj gjrg rgu ujtl, `s fd alajbd quj`b s` `bgdrk rkd d e` dtrd`r df bùgf`l jbst jbstdb dbtä täb` b`dm dm`b `bt` t`,, fl qu qu` ` pr prlv lvlg lgd d fd dp dp`r `rtu turd rd e` e`ff glbt glbtdg dgtl tl m÷ m÷vj vjff (` (`h` h`gt gtl l mdkbêtjgl). @st` dpdrdtl s` utjfj utjfjzd zd glml dglmp dglmpdôdmj` dôdmj`btl btl l sustjt sustjtutl utl e`f husja husjaf`. f`. W` hdarj hdarjgdb gdb e` ejh`r`bt`s ejh`r`bt`s gdfja gdfjar`s. r`s. Fls mäs usdels `b fds jbst jbstdfdgj dfdgjlb`s lb`s jbt`rj jbt`rjlr`s lr`s slb e` 8, 4?, 48, 1?, 10, 71, 5?, 0? y 87 D. _lr su bùm`rl e` plfls, pu`e`b pu`e`b s`r ubjplfdr`s, ubjplfdr`s, ajplfdr`s, trjplfdr`s y t`trdplfdr`s.
HJKPQD 4.7? Jbt`rruptlr`s t`rmlmdkb`tjgls ubjplfdr`s, ajplfdr`s y trjplfdr`s 4.:.;. Q@FÊ U@QMJGL @f r`fê têrmjgl `s ubd prlt`ggj÷b glbtrd glrrj`bt`s e` slar`gdrkd. Hubgjlbdb dprlv`gcdbel fd e`hlrmdgj÷b e` fls ajm`tdf`s (h`rrlbíqu`f ` jbvdr) adil `f `h`gtl e`f gdflr prleugjel plr `f pdsl e` fd glrrj`bt` qu` dfjm`btd df mltlr.
HJKPQD 4.74 @squ`md e` ub r`fê têrmjgl Gudbel fd glrrj`bt` dfgdbzd ub vdflr sup`rjlr df blmjbdf, fls ajm`tdf`s 4, 1 y 7 s` gurvdb `mpuidbel d fd pfdgd U, qu` dar` `f gjrgujtl e` mdbel qu` dfjm`btd fd alajbd e`f glbtdgtlr prjbgjpdf, glb fl gudf `st` fja`rd fls glbtdgtls prjbgjpdf`s y e`id e` hubgjlbdr `f mltlr. Fls r`fês ajm`täfjgls `stäb prlvjstls e` ub alt÷b kjrdtlrjl l e` ubd pdfdbqujtd pdrd `f diust` e` gudfquj`r vdflr qu` s` `bgu`btr` `b mdrk`b e` diust` e`f mjsml. Alrb`s e` hu`rzd (`btrded)
Alt÷b e` pdrded
Q`kufdgj÷b e` fjmjt` e` glrrj`bt` WUL_ Q@W@U BL BG
:0 :8 :; :3 Glbtdgtls duxjfjdr`s
1 5 8
Q`drm` mdbudf-dutlmägl
Alrb`s e` hu`rzd (sdfjed df mltlr)
HJKPQD 4.71 Q`fê têrmjgl
@f tj`mpl e` e`sglb`xj÷b e`p`be` e` fd t`mp`rdturd dmaj`bt` y e` fd glrrj`bt` qu` gjrguf` plr `f r`fê têrmjgl. @st` tj`mpl e`a` s`r jbh`rjlr df qu` pu`e` plb`r `b p`fjkrl `f mltlr. Gudbe Gu dbel l ub ml mltl tlrr `stä `stä gdf gdfj` j`bt bt` ` e` e`aj ajel el df s` s`rvj rvjgj gjl, l, tjtj`b `b` ` m` m`bl blr`s r`s r`s`rv r`s`rvds ds gdflríhjgds qu` ub mltlr hrjl. @stl s` v` glmp`bsdel plr `f glmplrtdmj`btl s`kùb fd gurvd gdrdgt`rístjgd e` ejspdrl. Wj `f r`fê têrmjgl s` gdrkd glb fd glrrj`bt` diustded, `f ejspdrl s` `h`gtudrd glb jbt`rvdfls e` tj`mpl muy ar`v`s.
4.:.3 U@M_L U@M_LQJYDE QJYDELQ@W LQ@W @b ub r`fê t`mplrjzdel eurdbt` `f mlm`btl e` glb`xj÷b l e`sglb`xj÷b e` su alajbd bl gljbgje` glb `f gj`rr` l dp`rturd e` sus glbtdgtls, r`sp`gtjvdm`bt`. Fls t`mplrjzdelr`s slb r`fês qu` p`rmjt`b diustdr fls tj`mpls e` glb`xj÷b y e`sglb e`s glb`xj `xj÷b ÷b e`f mjs mjsml. ml. Fd t`m t`mplrj plrjzdg zdgj÷b j÷b pu` pu`e` e` diu diustd stdrs` rs` `b mjf mjfjs` js`kub kubels, els, s`kubels, mjbutls y clrds e`p`bej`bel e`f mle`fl y mdrgd.
HJKPQD 4.77 U`mplrjzdelr`s 4.:.3.4 U@M_LQJYDELQ@W GLB Q@UDQEL D FD GLB@SJ GLB@SJ×B ×B
Wlb dqu`ffls qu` mlejhjgdb mlejhjgdb `f `stde `stdel l e` fls glbtdgtls gudbel cd trdbsgurrjel ub tj`mpl U e`se` fd dfjm`btdgj÷b e` su alajbd, vlfv`räb d r`plsl gudbel bl `xjstd t`bsj÷b `b fd alajbd.
N4U
ALAJBD
t
t
4;-43
GLBUDGULW
HJKPQD 4.75 Krähjgd e` dggjlbdmj`btl e` alajbd y glbtdgtls Las`rvdmls qu` `f glbtdgtl blrmdfm`bt` daj`rtl gdmajd fd plsjgj÷b e` sus glbtdgtls gudbel cd trdbsgurrjel `f tj`mpl U e` r`tdrel.
4.:.3.1 U@M_LQJYDELQ@W GLB Q@UDQEL D FD E@WGLB@SJ E@WGLB@SJ×B ×B Wlb dqu`ffls qu` mlejhjgdb `f `stdel e` fls glbtdgtls jbm`ejdtdm`bt` gudbel f` ff`kd t`bsj÷b d fd alajbd, p`rmdb`g`b dgtjvdels ub tj`mpl U y vu`fv`b d fd plsjgj÷b e` r`plsl. Df qujtdr t`bsj÷b d fd alajbd `s gudbel glmj`bzd d t`mplrjzdr, mdbt`bj`bel sus glbt gl btdg dgtl tlss dgtj dgtjvl vlss cds cdstd td qu qu` ` tr trdb dbsg sgurr urrd d d tjtj`m `mpl pl prl prlkr krdm dmdel del,, `b `btl tlbg bg`s `s fl flss glbtdgtls vu`fv`b d fd plsjgj÷b e` r`plsl.
ALAJBD
N4U
t
t
GLBUDGULW
4;-43
HJKPQD 4.70 Krähjgd e` dggjlbdmj`btl e` alajbd y glbtdgtls 4.:.: Q@FÊ JBU@Q JBU@QMJU@B MJU@BU@ U@ Fd t`bsj÷b e` mdbel s` dpfjgd `btr` fls alrb`s e` dfjm`btdgj÷b e`f t`mplrjzdelr D4-D1.
Q`kufdelr e` `mpl e` `bg`bejel
40 ?.0
D4 4
4.0
Q`kufdelr e` `mpl e` dpdkdel
1s
?.0
4
Alajbd e`f r`fê jbt`rmjt`bt`
4.0 1s
U`rmjbdf`s l alrb`s e`f glbtdgtl daj`rtl
48 43 D1
D4-D1 40-43 t4=t1
HJKPQD 4.78 Krähjgd e` dggjlbdmj`btl r`fê jbt`rmjt`bt` Pbd v`z dpfjgded fd t`bsj÷b e` mdbel, `f glbtdgtl glbmutdel e`f r`fê e` sdfjed jbt`rbl pdsd d fd plsjgj÷b 40-43 y p`rmdb`g` `b `ffd `f tj`mpl e` jbt`rmjt`bgjd
`f`kjel. Dgtl s`kujel s` jbjgjd `f tj`mpl e` pdusd qu` glrr`splbe` tdmajêb df tj`mpl e` jbt`rmjt`bgjd `f`kjel.
4.:.4? 4.: .4? MLU MLULQ LQ @f mltlr `s ubd mdqujbd `fêgtrjgd rltdtjvd qu` trdbshlrmd `b`rkíd `fêgtrjgd `b `b`rkí `b` rkíd d m`gäbj m`gäbjgd, gd, qu` s` ut utjfj jfjzd zd pdr pdrd d r`dfjzd r`dfjzdrr mlvjmj mlvjmj`bt `btls ls e` mäqujbd mäqujbdss `b jbstdfdgjlb`s jbeustrjdf`s. F4
F1
F7
_jb = _`fêgtrjgd
_m`g =_lut
HJKPQD 4.7; Mltlr 4.:.4?.4. 4.:.4 ?.4. MLULQ@W MLULQ@W E@ GLQQJ@BU@ GLQQJ@BU@ DFU@QBD @stls d su v`z glmpdrdbel fd v`flgjede e` kjrl e`f mltlr glb fd v`flgjede qu` tj`b` `f gdmpl mdkbêtjgl qu` utjfjzd `f rltlr pdrd kjrdr s` gfdsjhjgdb `b9
4.:.4?.4.4.. WJBGQ 4.:.4?.4.4 WJBGQLBLW. LBLW.-- Fd v`flgjede e`f gdmpl mdkbêtjgl `s jkudf d fd e` kjrl e`f mltlr. E`p`bej`bel e`f tjpl e` e`vdbdel y `f drrdbqu` `mpf`del pu`e`b s`r9 -
Mlt Mltlr e` pl plfl flss ssdf dfjj`b `bt` t`ss
-
Mltlr e` plfls fjsls
v`flgj gjed ede e e` e`ff gdmp gdmpl l mdkb mdkbêt êtjg jgl l `s 4.:. 4.:.4? 4?.4 .4..1. ML MLU ULQ DWJB DWJBG GQLBL QLBL..- Fd v`fl sup`rjlr d fd e` kjrl e`f mltlr. E`p`bej`bel e` fds gdrdgt`rístjgds y `b `sp`gjdf e` fd glbstjtugj÷b e`f rltlr, `xjst`b9
-
Mltl Mltlrr e` idufd idufd e e` ` dre drejfjffd fd,, l rlt rltlr lr `b gl glrt rtlg lgjr jrgu gujtjtl l
-
Mltl Mltlrr e` dbj dbjffffls ls rrlz lzdbt dbt`s, `s, l rl rltl tlrr ala alajb jbde del. l.
E`btrl e` fls mltlr`s dsíbgrlbls `f mltlr idufd e` drejffd `s `f mäs utjfjzdel pdrd v`flgjede`s glbstdbt`s, mj`btrds qu` `f e` dbjffls rlzdbt`s fl `mpf`dr`mls pdrd drrdbqu`s ejhígjf`s, plr `i`mpfl `f kjrl e` ubd krùd e` glbstruggj÷b.
4.:.4?.4.7 4.:.4 ?.4.7 _DQU@ _DQU@W W E@F MLULQ DWJBGQLBL Fds pdrt`s e`f mltlr, slb fds sjkuj`bt`s9 -
@f `s `stdt tdtlr lr `s fd p pdrt drt` ` hjid hjid e` ml mltlr tlr,, `stä `stä glbs glbstjt tjtuje ujel l plr gcdpds gcdpds e e` ` dg`r dg`rl l df sjfjgjl elbe` `xjst`b ubls gdbdf`s e`blmjbdels rdburds elbe` s` glflgdb fds alajbds.
Hjkurd 4.73 @stdtlr -
@f rl rltlr tlr `s ffd d pdrt pdrt` ` m÷vj m÷vjff e`f m mltl ltlr, r, qu qu` ` df df dfjm` jm`btd btdrr glb `b `b`rk `rkíd íd `fêgt `fêgtrjg rjgd d `f mltlr glmj`bzd d kjrdr. @st` `f`m`btl s` glb`gtd fd gdrkd m`gäbjgd qu` e`a` gumpfjr ubd hubgj÷b `b ubd `mpr`sd. @xjst`b aäsjgdm`bt` els tjpls e` rltlr`s rltlr `b glrtlgjrgujtl y rltlr alajbdel.
Hjkurd 4.7: Qltlr `b glrtlgjrgujtl
Hjkurd 4.5? Qltlr alajbdel -
Fl Flss rled rledmj mj`b `btl tlss l gl glijijb` b`t` t`ss guyd hub hubgj gj÷b ÷b `s mjbj mjbjmj mjzd zdrr fd hrjgg hrjggj÷ j÷b b qu` s` prleug` `btr` `f `i` y fds pj`zds qu` s` `bgu`btrdb glb`gtdeds d êf, plr m`ejl e` rledeurd, qu` dgtùd glml dplyl hdgjfjtdbel `f e`spfdzdmj`btl.
Hjkurd 4.54 Qledmj`btls -
Fd gdrgds gdrgdsd d `s fd p pdrt drt` ` `xt`rjl `xt`rjlrr m`t m`täfj äfjgd gd qu qu` ` gua guar` r` y pr prlt` lt`k` k` df ` `std stdtlr tlr y rltlr.
Hjkurd 4.51 Gdrgdsd
Fds tdpds `b tlel gdsl slb dqu`ffds qu` blrmdfm`bt` dflidb fls glijb`t`s l rledmj`btls qu` s`rvjräb e` dplyl df rltlr.
Hjkurd 4.57 Fds tdpds l gdid e` glijb`t`s @f v`btjfdelr qu` s` `bgdrkd e` `bhrjdr fd gdrgdsd e`f mltlr. Blrmdfm`bt` `stä guaj`rtd plr ubd tdpd prlt`gtlrd qu` gu`btd glb ubd r`ijffd, pdrd prlt`k`r df p`rslbdf qu` s` `bgu`btr` g`rgd e` `btrdr `b glbtdgtl glb `f v`btjfdelr `b mlvjmj`btl.
Hjkurd 4.55 X`btjfdelr Fd gdid e` alrb`s `s fd pdrt` `xt`rjlr qu` tj`b` fd hubgj÷b e` prlt`k`r fds glb`xjlb`s `fêgtrjgds qu` s` r`dfjzdb `b fd alrb`rd.
Fd alrb`rd e`f mltlr e` glrrj`bt` dft`rbd p`rmjt` fd glb`xj÷b e` fls e`vdbdels `stdtlrjgls `stdt lrjgls e`f mltlr d fd r`e qu` prlplrgjlbd `b`rkí `b`rkíd d `fêgt `fêgtrjgd rjgd qu` cdg`b qu` fd mdqujbd hubgjlb`. F4
F1
F7
GDID E@ ALQB@W
ALQB@QD
Hjkurd 4.50 Gdid e` alrb`s y alrb`rd Fd alajbd `stä hlrmded plr `spjrds (vu`ftds) e` dfdmar` l gdaf`s `brlffdels `b `f bùgf`l e`f mltlr. @f e`vdbdel l alajbdel e` `stdtlr trjhäsjgl glbsjst` `b tr`s e`vdbdels s`pdrdels, `spdgjdels 41?¿ `fêgtrjgls dfr`e`elr e` fd sup`rhjgj` e` fd mäqujbd.
Hjkurd 4.58 Alajbd l e`vdbdel `b ejstjbtds r`pr`s`btdgjlb`s
4.:.4?.4.5. GLB@SJLBDEL E@ PB MLULQ UQJHDWJGL GLB@SJ×B @WUQ@FFD F4
F1
F1
F7 F7
F4 X4
P4 X1
P1 [1
[4 F7
HJKPQD 4.5; Mltlr `b glb`xj÷b `str`ffd GLB@SJ×B UQJDBKPFL L E@FUD F4
F1
F7
[1 [4 X1
P4
P1 X4
F4
F1 F7
HJKPQD 4.53 Mltlr `b glb`xj÷b trjdbkufl AJAFJLKQDHÍD ^4] K. K. W`jp, Jbstdfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjgds, `fêgtrjgds, A`rfjb y Mubjgc9 Wj`m`bs Dn`bk`s` Dn`bk`s`ffsgcdh, ffsgcdh, 4:3:. ^1] [. Glssjl G., Glbtrlf Glbtrlf y dutlmdzdgj÷b dutlmdzdgj÷b jbeustrjdf, 1??8. ^7] J. Wuôlf @squjrlf, Dutlmdsmls Dutlmdsmls `fêgtrjgls jb jbeustrjdf`s, eustrjdf`s, Lrurl, Alfjvjd9 Fj Fjfjdf, fjdf, 4:38. ^5] K. @brjqu`z Cdrp`r, @f DAG e` fds jbstdfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjgds `fêgtrjgds jbeustrjdf`s, Fjmusd W.D. e` G.X., 4::4.
^0] @brjqu`z Cdrp`r Kjfa`rtl, Mdbudf e` jbst jbstdfdgjlb`s dfdgjlb`s `fêgtrjg `fêgtrjgds ds r`sje`bgjdf`s ` jbeustrjdf`s. ^8] Ildl Mdm`e` Hjfcl, Jbstdfdgl` Jbstdfdgl`ss @fêtrjgds Jbeustrjdjs, W`kubed @ejgj÷b, @ejgj÷b, Qjl e` Idb`jrl Wdl _dafl.
