Cape Environmental Science

Cape Environmental Science (Unit 2) Internal Assignment

Name: Stephen Pommells Candidate Number: Centre Number: 100106 Territory: Jamaica Teacher: Miss Ashmeade Unit: 2 Year: 2016

Table of Contents Topic Introduction Problem Statement Purpose of Project Methods of Data Collection Site Visits Labs Literature Review Presentation of Data Analysis of Data Discussion of Findings Conclusion Recommendation Bibliography

Introduction This Assignment seeks to satisfy the requirements for CAPE Environmental Science syllabus. In conforming to the syllabus, candidates were expected to complete an Internally Assessed project which is entails conducting site visits, laboratory report and a journal report, which would then

contribute to 20% of the final exam grade. This Internal Assessment focuses on instigating the factors that affect the productivity levels on a farm which was visited in Nain St. Elizabeth.

Problem Statement The issue being investigated is the factors influencing the productivity of the Nain farm in St. Elizabeth and possible solutions and/ or recommendations to promote higher levels of productivity.

Purpose of Assignment The purpose of this Assignment is to fulfil the requirements of the CAPE Environment Science syllabus, specifically the Internal Assessment aspect. Upon completing this assignment the candidate would have established his level of competence in the practical and investigative skills developed in the unit.

Methods of Data Collection The data required to complete this study was collected from observations made during site visits that was supported by samples that were collected as well investigated while carrying out the lab activities. Additional information was supplied using secondary sources which gave the researcher a better understanding of the topic being investigated.

Site Visit

Entry Number: 1 - Nain farm

Date: January 29, 2016 Site (Location): The site that was visited was a hilly farm land. Objectives: 1. To observe and identify farming practises that are used on these farms 2. To tour small farms in Nain 3. To find out the problems encountered by the farmers. Activities: A guided tour of the farm was done and the crops cultivated were observed and identified. Questions relating to the farming practises and chemicals used on the farm were asked which was then answered by the farmers present. Photographs were taken of the farm, together with, samples of soil were collected to be investigated and stored for future use. Observation: The researcher observed that mixed cropping, fallowing and inter cropping were farming practises done on the farm and crops were planted in plots. Common crops that were observed on the farms include: thyme, scallion, cucumber, tomatoes and melon. Also pesticides such as caratracks, vertimex and lanate have been used on the farm. Dry guinea grass have been used in the field as a mulching agent. The irrigation was provided by a system of sprinkles and drums.

Comments: Majority of the farming practises utilized are typical of that done on the scale of a small commercial farm. This is proven as they practice inter-cropping where more than one crop is planted on the same plot. They also practice following were the soil was left unseeded after

ploughing for a period of time in order to recover natural fertility. They also use artificial fertilizers which are particularly cheaper for the use on larger plots of land than the organic countertypes. Mixed cropping is also practiced which ensures that there is a variety of crops available on the farm. These practices are done to maintain normal rate and intensity of operations at the farm. The use of pesticides should be excluded from the farm and practising organic farming should be implemented so that health risks to buys will be reduced. Using dry guinea grass is a great idea as it helps to keep the soil nourished. Follow up activities: Class discussion and a lab was conducted.

Site Visit

Entry Number: 2 – STETH’s farm Date: March 1, 2016

Site (Location): Low lying rocky area on the school farm Objectives: 1. To tour, observe and record farming activities on the school’s farm 2. To identify problems associated with farming activities on the school’s farm 3. To highlight ways in which the school’s farm could be improved Activities: A guided tour of the school’s farm was done. An Agricultural Science teacher present provided information on the farming practices and the chemicals which are utilized on the farm. The students then asked questions about the farm. Afterwards, the candidates were giving a chance to ask questions. Afterwards soil samples were collected to be stored as future reference. Observation: One of the first observations made was the shallowness of the soil which had to be built up by the students and the teacher. The researcher observed that phased, mixed and inter cropping are farming practises done on the school’s farm. Crops such as: Callalloo, Sweet Pepper, Peas, Pak Choy, Cabbage and. Banana. Rocks are placed around the beds so as to prevent soil erosion. Chicken manure and grass are used as mulch. The use of organic farming is evident as a form of fertilization. It was also observed that security is the main issue for the school farm as the farm is isolated at the back of the school but the farm itself is not properly fenced. This allows stray animals to come on the property and eat the crops that are planted. Comments: The farming methods that are practised on the school farm are commendable as the use of mixed cropping ensures that a variety of crop is provided, phased cropping ensures that food is continuously available all year long and inter cropping allows more than one crop to be planted in one plot. The school farm also uses mulching to its benefit to help keep the soil fertile. At the time, security and praedial larceny are major issues on the farm because there is lack of security. The school farm losses crop because of the strayed animals that go on the farm and

destroy and/ or eat the crops. The best option in this case would be setting up parameter fence around the school farm to keep these animals away and a security guard hired to keep students and teachers safe. Follow-up Activities: A class discussion and a lab were done.

Site Visit

Entry Number: 3 – St. Bess Eggs Date: March 1, 2016 Site (Location): Low lying, flood prone area in New River.

Objectives: 1. To tour and observe activities on the land 2. To participate in activities on the farm 3. To find out the challenges which face the farm Activities: This site visit took the candidates onto guided tour of the St. Bess egg farm in St. Elizabeth. During the guide the candidates were shown some of the basic daily operations of the farm. Two varieties of chickens were observed and selected students were given the chance to go into the coop and pick up eggs. From there the candidates were given a tour of the packaging area. Observation: The researcher observed that there were twelve different coops on the egg farm consisting of Issa Brown and White Layers. Each coop had layers at different stages (age) as well as different litter for different purposes. Each coop consisted of layers at different stages. At every coop there is a foot bath that is filled with Jaze, a disinfectant that is used to sanitize the shoes of those entering the coop. The chickens’ beaks were clipped to prevent cannibalism. The water drums are painted white to keep the water inside cool, but although there short supply of water. Giving great need and use to their “automated” water supply system which supply the chickens with water. There are eight workers on the farm and they were all packing and transporting the eggs. Eight bags of feed are given to one coop of chickens per day and the pens are numbered. Comments: Having layers at different stages is a very clever way of monitoring the output of eggs from each set of chicken and it ensures continuous egg production relative to the different set of chickens. Having a foot bath to sanitize the shoes of these who enter the coop is a good move to reducing the amount of foreign debris that might get into the coop and potentially harm

the chickens through ingestion. Although they have a more mechanised system to provide water to the chickens (hence requiring less manual labour) there is still a water shortage on the farm and the owners could consider digging their own well and thus their own water that they have more control over. They also experience the problem of praedial larceny, most probably because they do not have a security officer working there. Flooding is also a major problem and so elevating the coops could help prevent any complications when a serious enough flood does arise. Follow-up Activities: there was discussion amongst the candidates and additional reading was done. A lab was also completed.

Entry Number: 4 – Bee Farm Date: April 6, 2016 Site (location): The farm is located on a sloppy area. Objectives:

1. To tour, observe and record activities done on the apiary farm. 2. To participate in activities on the apiary farm.

3. To find out challenges faced by the apiary farm. Activities: A guided tour of the apiary farm where the tour guide provided a description of the different activities done on the apiary farm and the various challenges encountered on a daily basis. Some of the candidates were given an opportunity to enter the apiary provided that they were properly safeguarded. They observed different activities done on the apiary, and even get the chance to take a look a bee hive foundation layer. The candidates were made to identify veromites and their effect on the bees. Observations: The tour guide had a smoker with onion skin and card board in it. The bees boxes were then elevated on blocks. The presence of the veromites became more evident as he “smoked” out the veromites. The tour guide used a tool to move the foundations in the bees boxes. The bee population was divided into three categories of bees. Comments: The smoker vital multipurpose tool used by the bee hive keeper to relax the bees in the box. It also helps to get rid of the veromites, insects considered parasitic to the bees as they feed on the bee’s eggs. This is where the onion skin is used where it serves as an irritant to the veromites. This is turn, solves the problem using a more sustainable approach. The boxes were elevated on blocks in effort to prevent future infestations. Alternatively, finding the veromites nest and eradicating them completely can prevent them from causing further damage to the bee population at the farm. The population was divided into three categories of bees based on roles that they carry out as per a structural hierarchy. Follow up activities: There was class discussion were information was shared amongst candidates. Additional reading was also done.

Labs

Lab Number: 1 Title: Soil and Texture by Fractionation Aim: To determine the texture of the soil sample using the fractionation method Material: 100ml measuring cylinder, soil sample, stirring rod and water Procedure: A 100ml cylinder was filled with 25ml of the soil sample. Water was then added until there was about 75ml of the soil sample mixture in the cylinder. Subsequently, a stirring rod was used to mix soil/water mixture thoroughly. The cylinder was placed on the lab station and left to settle overnight. When the soil suspension was settled out there were three distinct layers (Sand, silt and clay). The volume of each layer of soil was measured and the total volume of the sample. The percentage of each component was calculated and the type of soil identified by using the texture triangle. The results were recorded in a table.

Results: Table showing the volume of each layer of soil Soil Type Clay Silt Sand (Fine) Total

Volume of each layer 31.5% 67.3% 1.14% 100%

NB. The type of soil identified in this procedure was Silty Clay Loam.

Discussions and Conclusions: Soil texture is the relative proportions of sand, silt, or clay (often known as soil separates) in a soil. Soil texture as a property of soil structure alone has a profound effect on the behavioural characteristics of soils, such as its water holding capacity, nutrient retention and supply, drainage, and even erodibility. As a result there are soil textural classes which help with the characterization of soils based upon their composition. Soils with the finest texture (smallest particle size) are called clay soils which tend to absorb and hold water more readily and it is also makes it resistant to erosion. While soils with the coarsest texture (largest particle size) are called sands and are more permeable by air and water and are more susceptible to erosion than clay soils. Silt soils, when compared to the slay and sand types, relatively fall midway in terms of particle size, smoothness, fertility and water holding capacity, but typically behaves more like clay soils. A soil that has a relatively even mixture of sand, silt, and clay and exhibits the properties of each is called a loam. The difference of particle size amongst the different soil separates allows them to possess different densities. On this basis, the different percentages of soil separates within a single soil sample can be made evident by mixing the soil sample with enough water (within a small container) to allow the insoluble components of the soil to isolate themselves in suspension based on their respective densities (where the least dense soil separates will settle closer to the top of the suspension; and the more dense soil separates, closer to the bottom) showing the different components of the soil mixture. The percentages of clay, silt, and sand in a soil can be found and used to determine the identity of the soil sample by using the textural triangle which

serves as a reference to determine the textural class of the soil sample. in the case of this experiment the textural identity of the sample indicates that it is a silty clay loam soil. Lab Number: 2 Title: Soil Bulk Density and Soil Porosity Aim: To determine the bulk density and porosity of a soil Materials: Hammer, hand towel, soil core, vernier calliper, plastic bag, petri dish, oven and balance. Procedure: An area for sampling was selected with little or no roots. The soil core of a known volume was hammered into the soil. (Volume of the core is calculated using the formula V= π r 2 h where r is the radius of core and h is height of core). The soil core was then removed ensuring that it was totally full but not over flowing with soil (trying not to compact the sample). The sample was placed in a plastic bag where it was labelled for analysis. The mass of the soil was found and the soil sample collected. The dry soil sample was placed in the oven at 105˚C for 24 hours. The bulk density was then calculated using the formula (Oven dry soil weight / Total volume of soil). With that, the soil porosity was then calculated as (bulk density/ particle density) x 100% (where the Particle density = oven-dry soil weight / volume of soil solids)

Results: Table showing the volume core, mass, bulk density and porosity Volume of Core 45.56 cm3

Mass 80.9 grams

Bulk Density 1.77g/cm3

Porosity 0.77 g/cm3

Discussion and Conclusions Soil water and air occupy voids in the soil, called pore spaces. The pore system in soil provides the conduits for air and water exchange and houses roots and microbes. Pore size affects pore

activity. Big pores, macropores, facilitate free-water drainage, aeration, evaporation, and gas exchange. Mesopores, medium-size pores, are essential to capillary water distribution, and micropores provide water storage sites. Soil porosity takes into account the amount of pore volume (% of pore space) and is defined by it. That is, the portion of the soil volume occupied by pore spaces. This property does not have to be measured directly since it can be calculated using values determined for bulk density and particle density. Finding the ratio of bulk density to particle density and multiplying by 100 calculates the percent solid space, so subtracting it from 100 gives the % of soil volume that is pore space. Bulk density is the soil mass divided by unit volume. In its natural state, a soil's volume includes solids and pores; therefore, a sample must be taken without compaction or crumbling to correctly determine bulk density. The particle density is the volumetric mass of the solid soil. It differs from bulk density because the volume used does not include pore spaces. The bulk density of the soil collected from the Nain farm is 1.77g/cm3 and the porosity is 0.77 g/cm3. This is relatively low as the ideal volume for bulk density is 2.68 g/cm3. This is caused by the excess tillage of the soil which allows water to pass through quickly. Excess tillage causes the soil to lose its compactness and density. When eroded soil particles fill pore space, porosity is reduced and bulk density is increased. Tillage and equipment travel results in compacted soil layers which increase bulk density. Tillage prior to planting temporarily decreases bulk density on the surface but increases at the depth of tillage. Measures can be implemented to increase organic matter and reduce compaction which improves bulk density and porosity. These measures are; continuous no-till, cover crops, solid manure or compost application, diverse rotation with high residue crops, minimize soil disturbance and avoid operating equipment when soils are wet.

Lab Number: 3 Title: Soil Drainage and Water-holding Capacity Aim: To determine the water-holding capacity and drainage in a soil sample Materials: Filter funnel, filter paper, stop watch, 25ml measuring cylinder, conical flask, water and soil sample. Procedure: A piece of filter paper was folded and placed in a funnel. 20ML of a soil sample (dried) was placed into the funnel. The funnel was held over a conical flask and 50ml of water was poured into the funnel. Afterwards, the time for which it took for the water to start coming out of the funnel, was measured and recorded. The time it took for water to stop dripping from the funnel was also recorded. Afterwards, the volume of water collected was measured and the rate of drainage was calculated and recorded.

Results Table showing the Soil drainage and water-holding capacity. Place where soil is taken from Farm In Nain STETHS School Farm

Time taken to drain

cm3 of water

Cm3 of water held

50 seconds 54 seconds

drained 40cm3 40cm3

10cm3 10cm3

Table comparing rate of drainage Place where soil is taken

Volume collected

Total Rate of drainage

from Farm in Nain

40cm3

0.8cm3s-1

50 STETHS School Farm

40cm3

0.7cm3s-1

54

Discussion One of the main functions of soil is to store moisture, thus acting as a buffer, supplying water to plants between rainfalls or irrigations. This water content varies with the conditions and is termed as the water holding capacity of the soil. On the other hand there is soil drainage which can sometimes act against the water holding capacity of a soil as this property allows water to pass through the soil. This shows that there is a strong relation between the water holding capacity of a soil and the soil drainage of the soil, as they are both affected by the same factors. Such factors include: soil texture and structure, water infiltration and permeability. When soil is saturated, all the pores are full of water and all gravitational drains out over time, leaving the soil at field capacity. Plants then draw water out of the capillary pores, readily at first and then with

greater difficulty, until no more can be withdrawn and the only water left are in the micro-pores. The soil is then at wilting point and without water additions, plants die. In this way the movement of water through a soil can be described as acting like a filter, holding a portion of the water it receives and releasing the rest. On this basis, the water-holding capacity and drainage in a soil sample can be determined by the rate at which water percolates through it. That is, the rate at which water passes through the soil sample (in the case of the experiment) is directly defined by the soil drainage and the water capacity of the soil. Therefore the soil drainage and the water capacity can be determined by passing a specific volume of water through the soil sample and use the rate of percolation to determine the soil drainage and the difference of water given to the sample to the amount that was collected after drainage. Conclusion It can be concluded that how quickly or slowly the soil drains water is based on the soil texture and other elements. Also the soil type on the school farm has better water holding capacity as it drains water slower than the farm in Nain.

Journal Literature Review Agriculture is the science or practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil and/ or waters for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals to provision of food, and other products. Jamaica as well as most of the other countries and islands in the tropical region is known for their ability to produce agricultural products found nowhere else in the world. Agriculture, by itself, is a prime contributor to the development of Jamaica’s economy as it is often look to as the main provider of raw materials used by the manufacturing sector. However, Agriculture especially in Jamaica has been somewhat affected by the influence of praedial larceny, technology, natural disasters and hazards, and pests and/ diseases. These factors may occur ether to the detriment or benefit of farmers around the island. According to Winston

Bailey, an agriculturist, in one of his articles on the influence of technology on agriculture, state that technology as major economic force drives agriculture, at least on the commercial scale. But with advanced technology being out of the reach of the average farmer, some farmers often times neglect the use of modern technology, even though they intend to produce on a commercial scale. Farmers experiences financial losses where crops and tools are destroyed and stolen. A 2010 report endorsed by the CARICOM Council of Ministers for Trade and Agriculture estimates that the total annual losses in Caribbean Community to be 385 million. Jamaica’s Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries estimated in 2010 that praedial larceny costs Jamaican farmers up to 5 million dollars per year in losses. Not only are there financial losses but also physical losses. Farmers suffer great losses to praedial larceny where some decide to quit farming all together. Robert E. Branson, Douglass G. Norvell. In their book, introduction to agricultural marketing, states that incentives facilitates the innovation, technologies and endorses input and output marketing arrangements. It was also assumed to have a positive influence on the productivity levels on farms. Some of the incentives farmers receive are subsidies such as grants, tax break or trade barriers. These encouragements push farmers to find ways of improving the quality, variety and quantity of the crops they produce. Natural disasters are a major factor in level of productivity of farms. In St. Elizabeth farmers have been affected greatly from drought over the past two years. St. Elizabeth and Manchester accounts for approximately 40% of Jamaica’s domestic agricultural production however, over the past two years that percentage fell because of drought or dry spell. However, the Minister of Agriculture decided that the ministry will implement the National Irrigation Development Plan. This was to farmers a fighting chance by helping with water supply for their crops and also their

livestock’s. This as well as other past programs developed by the ministry have garnered praise from many farmers who say they have greatly benefitted from these programs. Pests have now become a major issue over the past years and there has been a myriad of ways that farmers have tried to resist its effects. Most have chosen to increase the amount of pesticides they apply to the crops an act that in most cases have done nothing but complicate the problem. Health problems such as cancer, respiratory ailments and food poisoning can develop in humans and environmental problems such as pesticides are dissipated in the air as vapour, in water as run-off or in soil by leaching to the groundwater. Organic farming has been seen as the natural solution to the problem and providing that it’s a cost effective alternative, the importance of its use has been stressed by those in the profession.

Discussion of Findings Throughout this project it became apparent that there are many factors that affect the productivity from the Nain farm in a positive and/ or negative way. Technology for one, has been seen as a double edged sword which can either improve production or cause undesirable situations if not used properly. The level of technological integration can be improved on the farm as the level of manual labour observed can be a possible source of hindrance to the productivity of the farm.

Conclusion In conclusion it can be said that the productivity of the Nain farm in St. Elizabeth is affected by several factors which include the use of modern technology, personal motivation, praedial

larceny, pests and diseases and also drought. These impacts can be seen to have a negative effect on the farms productivity.

Recommendation Throughout this project various points pertaining to the factors affecting productivity of the farm in Nain St. Elizabeth have been highlighted. These points can be used as a reference showing the position of the Nain farm in terms of its development. With that said, there are various solution that can be taken from this project. 

The farm should make good use of the National Irrigation Plan (NIP) to strengthen their



water security. Farmers can be given incentives that can assist them furthering the development of their



farms. There should be more severe sanctions put in place for those who practice praedial

 

larceny. Farmers in Nain should lessen down on the amount of tilling done to the soil. Different seminars can be held to educate and inform farmers on the factors that affect productivity levels on farms.

Bibliography William P. Cunningham, M.A (2010). Environmental Science A Global Concern. New York: McGraw Hill Publishers. Thrones Nelson. CAPE Environmental Science Unit 2 study Guide: Oxford University Press. Robert E. Branson, Douglass G. Norvell. Branson (1983). Introduction to Agricultural Marketing. New York : McGraw-Hill.

“Characteristics of Different Soils.” Http://www.vaderstad.com/. N.p., n.d. Web. “Soil Water Holding Capacity.” http://bettersoils.soilwater.com.au/module2/. N.p., n.d. Web. Microsoft Cooperation, (2009). Microsoft Encarta. Microsoft Cooperation.