AMERICAN AMER ICAN JOURNA JOURNAL L OF PHYSI PHYSICAL CAL ANTHR ANTHROPOLOG OPOLOGY Y 112:3 112:339 39 –347 (2000)
Brachycephalization in Japan Has Ceased MAKIKO KOUCHI* Human-Environment System Department, National Institute of Bioscience and Human Technology, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8566, Japan
KEY WORDS secular change
debra de brachy chycep cephali halizat zation ion;;
facial fac ial flat flatnes ness; s; hei height ght;;
ABSTRACT Somatometric data are presented which show that the rapid brachycephalization in Japan has recently ceased. The causes of brachycephalizati aliz ation on are inv invest estiga igated ted in re relat lation ion to the sec secula ularr cha change nge in hei height ght.. Increases in head breadth have been the main cause of brachycephalization, and its pattern of secular change is very similar to that in height. Associations tio ns bet betwee ween n hea head d bre breadt adth, h, hei height ght,, and yea yearr of bir birth th wer were e exa examin mined ed by partial correlation coefficients and through a comparison of students and the general population. Brachycephalization is thought to result from increases in the growth rate for head breadth caused by improvements in nutritional levels, as seen in increases in height. Increases in height over the last 100 years have been accompanied by brachycephalization in Japanese and Koreans, but by debrachycephalization in many European populations. Increases in lateral growth in Asian heads may be related to the facial flatness which is characteristic to northern Mongoloid populations. Am J Phys Anthropol 112:339–347, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Changes in head forms over the last 100 Secular changes of 20-year-old Japanese inyears have been reported in many countries. vestigated using the published somatometIn Japan, brachycephaliz brachycephalization ation has cont continin- ric data measured during 1892–1994 are as ued ue d si sinc nce e th the e Me Medi diev eval al pe peri riod od (S (Suz uzuk uki, i, follows (Kouchi, 1996): mean heights of both 1969; 19 69; Na Naka kaha hash shi, i, 19 1987 87), ), wi with th th the e ra rate te of males and females have been increasing in chan ch ange ge in th the e la last st 10 100 0 ye year arss be bein ing g ex ex-- last 100 years, though the rate became very tremely high. low for people born in the 1970s. Weight has Factors that have been thought to be re- been increasing slowly for both males and spon sp onsi sibl ble e fo forr va vari riat atio ions ns an and/ d/or or se secu cula larr females born before 1920. For males born change cha ngess in hea head d for form m inc includ lude e the cli climat mate e after 1930, weight has been increasing more (Beals, 1972; Crognier, 1981; Kobyliansky, rap rapidl idly. y. On the con contra trary, ry, for fem female ales, s, the 1983), heterosis (Billy, 1975, 1979), migra- rate of increase in weight was very low, and tion (Kobyliansky, 1983), socioeconomic stahas changed little in those born after 1950. tus (SES) or social classes (Pa¨ lsson and a nd Sch As a result, body mass index (BMI) has been widetzky, 1983; Schwidetzky, 1973; Mikic´, ´, increa inc reasin sing g for males bor born n aft after er 195 1950, 0, but 1990) 19 90),, al allo lome metr try y re rela late ted d to in incr crea ease sess in decreasin decr easing g for females born after 1930. The heig he ight ht (S (Sus usan anne ne et al al., ., 19 1988 88), ), po post stur ure e head he ad fo form rm sh sho ows a pa patt tte ern of se secu cula larr (Mizog (Mi zoguch uchi, i, 199 1992), 2), and nut nutrit rition ion or die diets ts (Laske (La sker, r, 194 1946; 6; Shi Shimad mada, a, 1974 1974). ). Ho Howev wever er the causes of secular changes in head form are still unknown. *Correspo *Cor responden ndence ce to: Makiko Kouc Kouchi, hi, Human Human-Env -Environ ironment ment System tem Dep Depart artmen ment, t, Nat Nation ional al Ins Instit titute ute of Bio Biosci scienc ence e and The Japanese government has conducted Sys Human Huma n Tech Technolo nology, gy, Higa Higashi shi 1-1, Tsuk Tsukuba, uba, Ibara Ibaraki ki 305-85 305-8566. 66. anthropometric surveys since the 1890s and Japan. E-mail:
[email protected] Received 10 August 1999; accepted 12 December 1999. the statistical results have been published. © 2000
WILEY-LISS, WILEY -LISS, INC.
340
M. KOUCHI
TABLE 1. Number of subjects by birth year1
Male
Female
Birth year
SES
Age
N
Birth year
SES
Age
N
1916–1919 1920–1926 1910–1919 1920–1929 1930–1939 1940–1949 1950–1954 1950–1954 1955–1959 1955–1959 1960–1964 1965–1969 1970–1974 1975–1979 Total
S2 S2 G G G G G S G S S S S S
22–28 18–26 57–82 46–75 37–67 27–57 22–33 24–45 18–27 20–29 18–34 18–31 18–27 18–22
517 2,824 36 136 111 129 103 68 146 503 3,066 583 658 127 5,666
1902–1907 1908–1912 1922–1927 1921–1927 1920–1929 1930–1939 1930–1939 1940–1949 1950–1959 1950–1959 1960–1964 1965–1969 1970–1974 1975–1979
G2 G2 S2,3 S2 G G G G G S S S S S
23–29 18–24 17–21 17–23 26–75 17–25 41–68 27–56 19–28 19–42 17–35 18–30 18–25 18–23
128 357 119 119 118 58 119 79 124 132 1,011 538 366 162 2,707
1
S, students; G, general population. From series by Nishi (1952). 3 Students of physical education. 2
changes closer to height than to weight or BMI. In the present study, data are presented which show that the rapid brachycephalization in Japan has recently ceased. The causes of brachycephalization are investigated in relation to secular changes in height. MATERIALS AND METHODS Subjects
The birth year category was divided into 5or 10-year increments to ensure that each group had enough subjects. The educational level of the subjects was used as an indication of SES; groups for which the majority of the members received higher education (college or university) were marked as “student group (group S),” with other groups marked as “the general population (group G).” The numbers of subjects by group are shown in Table 1.
Subjects were 9,008 males and 3,430 feMeasurement items males with known dates of birth. Among Head length, head breadth, and height them, 3,341 male and 723 female subjects were derived from the original data of Nishi were used. These are equivalent to cephalic (1952), which were measured by members of measurements 1 and 3, and somatic meadepartments of anatomy at several univer- surement 1, in Martin and Knussmann sities and colleges mostly between 1942– (1988), respectively. Cephalic index was cal1945. The remaining 5,667 male and 2,707 culated as head breadth/head length 100. female subjects were measured by several Age at time of measurement varied widely. observers, including the present author, Age changes after adulthood has been who measured about 70% of the subjects. reached are insignificant for neurocranial The measurements were taken between measurements (Tallgren, 1974), but height 1977–1998 for males, and between 1955– decreases significantly with aging (Takasaki 1998 for females. Ages at time of measure- et al., 1984; Galloway et al., 1990). Therement ranged from 18– 82 years old for fore, height data measured for subjects aged males, and from 17–75 years old for fe- 60 years or over were not used for the analmales. Some of the data has been already ysis. analyzed for different purposes, and pubMaterials used for comparison lished (Hoshi and Kouchi, 1978; Hoshi et al., 1980; Kouchi, 1986; Kouchi et al., 1994). The materials shown in Table 2 were used The subjects were divided into 28 groups to examine the course of brachycephalizaaccording to sex, year of birth, and socioeco- tion. The year of measurement, ages of subnomic status (SES), as shown in Table 1. jects, and basic statistics for head length,
341
BRACHYCEPHALIZATION IN JAPAN
TABLE 2. Data used for comparison and number of groups by reference1
Reference Male Onishi, 1920 Matsumura, 1925 Otsuki, 1953 Kakimoto, 1953 Suzuki, 1963 Morita and Ohtshuki, 1973 HQL, 1997; personal communication Female Onishi, 1920 Matsumura, 1925 Otsuki, 1953 Kakimoto, 1953 Yanagisawa and Kondo, 1973; Yanagisawa, 1958 Ohtsuki and Iwamura, 1980; Ohtuski, personal communication HQL, 1997; personal communication 1
SES
Area
No. of groups
G S G G S S G
Fukuoka Prefect All Japan Hiroshima Prefect Hiroshima Prefect All Japan All Japan All Japan
7 1 6 11 1 1 1
G S G G S
Fukuoka Prefect All Japan Hiroshima Prefect Hiroshima Prefect All Japan
8 1 6 11 9
S
All Japan
1
G
All Japan
1
HQL, Research Institute of Human Engineering for Quality of Life; S, students; G, general population.
head breadth, and cephalic index are reported for these materials. The age ranges in these materials were either limited or subjects were divided into age groups of either 5 or 10 years. For each group of data, average birth year was estimated from the age range of the subjects and the year of measurement. Only the head breadth data were used for Onishi (1919, 1920) due to differences in definitions of head length. Onishi (1919, 1920) and Kakimoto (1953) did not measure height. For the age groups of 30 years old and over in Yanagisawa and Kondo (1973), height was also reported (Yanagisawa, 1958; personal communication). The earliest somatometric data on Japanese by Baeltz (1885) were not used due to differences in measurement definitions. Statistical method
Male subjects shown in Table 1 were di vided into 10 groups according to birth year (1910 –1919, 1920–1929, 1930–1939, 1940 – 1949, 1950 –1954, 1955–1959, 1960 –1964, 1965–1969, 1970 –1974, 1975–1979), and female subjects into 8 groups (1920 –1929, 1930–1939, 1940–1949, 1950–1959, 1960– 1964, 1965–1969, 1970–1974, and 1975– 1979). Equality of means was tested by ANOVA (Statview). Only groups with 30 or more subjects were used for the test. Of the groups by birth year and SES, shown in Table 1, and the groups from ma-
terials shown in Table 2, means for all of the three measurements and cephalic index were available for 23 of the male groups and 27 of the female groups. Using these group means, correlation coefficients between the four variables and birth year were calculated for each sex. Group means were used because the original data are not available for many groups. Partial correlation coefficients with height or birth year partialed out were also calculated. RESULTS
Equality of means was rejected at the 5% level for all the variables in both sexes. Secular changes in head length, head breadth, cephalic index, and height are shown in Figures 1– 4, respectively. Head length fluctuated in a relatively narrow range, and did not show any consistent trend with time (Fig. 1). Head breadth started to increase in people born in 1890–1900. It increased very rapidly in males born during 1910–1949 and in females born during 1920–1959 (Fig. 2). The pattern of changes in cephalic index is similar to that in head breadth, but increases ceased in males born after 1950 and in females born after 1960 (Fig. 3). Figures 1–3 indicate that brachycephalization is mainly caused by increases in head breadth, and that the cephalic index ceased increasing, although head breadth continued to increase slowly.
342
M. KOUCHI
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Secular change in head length for Japanese born between 1870–1980. *Student group.
Secular change in head breadth for Japanese born between 1860 –1980. *Student group.
The pattern of changes in height is very similar to that in head breadth. Changes slowed down for males born after 1950 and
for females born after 1960 (Fig. 4). In this generation, changes in head breadth decelerated and brachycephalization ceased. Dif-
343
BRACHYCEPHALIZATION IN JAPAN
Fig. 3.
Secular change in cephalic index for Japanese born between 1870–1980. *Student group.
ferences in height between students (S) and the general population (G) are clear for people born before 1950. This pattern of secular change and the differences in height between groups S and G are practically the same as those observed in a study based on government statistical reports of height (Kouchi, 1996). Table 3 shows correlation coefficients and partial correlation coefficients. Head breadth, cephalic index, and height were highly correlated with birth year, but head length was not. Partial correlation coefficients indicate that when height is the same, people born later have wider heads than people born earlier for both sexes. When the birth year
is the same, taller females have wider heads and are more brachycephalic than shorter females, but this tendency was not observed for males. DISCUSSION Students and the general population
The fact that height and head breadth show very similar patterns of secular change suggests that common factors may be related to both characteristics. If the factors that increase the growth rate for height also influence the growth rate of head breadth, then the taller student group (group S) should also have wider heads than
344
M. KOUCHI
Fig. 4.
Secular change in height for Japanese born between 1890 –1980. *Student group.
the general population (group G) for the trolled factors which may influence head same birth year. breadth differences, such as geographic As shown in Figure 4, students are taller variation (Kouchi, 1983, 1986) and lack of than the general subjects born in the same systematically collected male student data. periods for both sexes born before 1950, and Better nutritional levels in recent times the differences are statistically significant. may have affected the soft-tissue thickness For head breadth, however, the differences of the head and thus the cephalic index, for between groups S and G in the same periods nutritional levels affect the soft-tissue comare not so clear (Fig. 3). The male students ponent of head breadth more than head of Nishi (1952) (birth year: 1910s and length (Ivanovsky, 1923; Suzuki, 1948). 1920s), female students of Yanagisawa and Nature and nurture Kondo (1973) (birth year: 1910–1930), and present male students born in the 1950s Partial correlation coefficients indicate have significantly wider heads than the gen- that when height is the same, people born eral subjects, but the present subjects in later have wider heads. Considering the group G born in the 1910s and 1920s have drastic changes in nutritional intake, this head breadths as wide as the students of implies that genetically tall but undernourNishi (1952). ished people will have narrower heads than The results are suggestive but are not genetically short but well-nourished people. conclusive. Possible reasons may be uncon- The influence of environmental factors is
BRACHYCEPHALIZATION IN JAPAN
TABLE 3. Correlation coefficient between head measurements, birth year, and height1
345
Causes of brachycephalization
Changes in head shape that have accompanied increases in height in recent years Male Female have tended toward brachycephalization in (df 20) (df 25) Japan. As shown in Table 4, a similar pher(HL, HB) 0.527 ** 0.204 ns nomenon also occurred in Korea. Studies of 0.003 ns r(HL, Ht) 0.323 ns r(HB, Ht) 0.921 ** 0.910 ** Chinese immigrants to Hawaii (Appleton, r(Ceph, Ht) 0.937 ** 0.914 ** 1927) and the United States (Lasker, 1946), r(HL, BY) 0.324 ns 0.151 ns r(HB, BY) 0.938 ** 0.919 ** as well as Japanese immigrants to Califorr(Ht, BY) 0.961 ** 0.906 ** nia (Shapiro, 1939) and Brazil (Beiguelman, r(Ceph, BY) 0.955 ** 0.862 ** 1963), revealed that increases in height b. Correlation coefficients with height partialed out were accompanied by increases in head Male Female breadth for these Asian populations. In con(df 19) (df 24) trast, the changes in head shape which have r(HL, BY) 0.052 ns 0.363 ns accompanied increases in height in recent r(HB, BY) 0.491 * 0.539 ** years have tended toward debrachycephr(Ceph, BY) 0.565 ** 0.363 ns alization for European populations (Dornc. Correlation coefficients with birth year feldt, 1941; Billy, 1975, 1979; Facchini and partialed out Gualdi-Russo, 1982; Kobyliansky, 1983; SuMale Female (df 19) (df 24) sanne et al., 1988). Although the direction is opposite, head breadth is the key character0.330 ns r(HL, Ht) 0.044 ns r(HB, Ht) 0.204 ns 0.464 * istic in both brachycephalization and der(Ceph, Ht) 0.235 ns 0.620 ** brachycephalization. Explanations concernHL, maximum head length; HB, maximum head breadth; Ht, ing the cause of brachycephalization must height; Ceph, cephalic index; BY, birth year; ns, not significant. * Significant at the 5% level. be able to account for both systematic in** Significant at the 1% level. creases and decreases in head breadth associated with increases in height. In this sense, explanations in terms of heterosis, much stronger than that of genetic factors migration, social class, and allometry alone are insufficient. which affect height directly. Secular changes in body dimensions are The quality of nutrition in Japan has imthe results of changes in growth rate. For proved considerably in the last 100 years, linear dimensions, the direction of growth especially since 1945. Temporal changes in accords with the longitudinal axis of the nutritional conditions have been much part. However, for spherical forms, such as greater than socioeconomic differences of the head, the directions of the growth will be the same period. The effects of environmenmore complicated. The cephalic index is a tal factors may be underestimated if only practical indicator of overall head shape, contemporary data are used for analysis. but it oversimplifies the head form and The most important exogenous factors in- growth directions. fluencing growth are nutrition and disease, The form of the normal neural skull is the and the close relationship between changes result of the preferential direction of the in these factors and growth patterns is gen- growth vectors of the expanding neural erally accepted as a suitable explanation for mass by dural fiber systems (Moss and secular change (van Wieringen, 1986). The Young, 1960). Small increases in the growth dimensions of the head increase rapidly in rate in a specific direction during the first the first year of life (Ishikawa et al., 1987). year of life would lead to changes in head This growth may be influenced by a number form. For Japanese and Koreans, this inof factors, such as improved nutritional lev- crease has occurred in a lateral direction. els for mothers, whether there is bottle feed- For European populations, decrease in head ing or breast feeding (Shimada, 1974), tim- breadth must have been accompanied by ing of weaning, and the baby foods used. increases in other directions, probably the a. Correlation coefficients
1
346
M. KOUCHI
TABLE 4. Means of head measurements (mm) and height (cm) of Koreans1
Male
Female
Year of measurement
Head length
Head breadth
Height
Head length
Head breadth
Height
Reference
1908–1909 1930 1986
181.4 182.0 180.0
150.9 153.0 158.0
161.4 163.6 167.7
175.7 174.5 174.0
146.3 145.6 151.0
147.5 150.1 155.4
Kubo, 1913 Arase et al., 1934 KRISS, 1986
1
KRISS, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science.
vertical direction (Angel, 1976), for European brains have shown secular increases (Miller and Corsellis, 1977). The neurocranium and the face are functionally different units, but they are connected. Thus, the growth potential of one will influence growth in the other. The direct causes of brachycephalization in the Japanese may have been the preferential increase in growth rate of the neural skull in a lateral direction, which in turn may be related to facial characteristics, i.e., the facial flatness in the frontal and zygomaxillary regions which are characteristic of northern Asian populations (Ishida, 1992). Many Japanese textbooks on child care include “prone sleeping position” as an index item, and explain that such posture does not mean the baby is in ill health (e.g., Suzuki, 1977). This suggests that supine sleeping posture has been considered normal, but that prone sleeping posture is not corrected. Since a flat occiput is called “zeppeki (precipice),” and is not preferred from an aesthetic point of view, many mothers prefer a prone sleeping posture for their babies. Though the changes in sleeping position of babies are not clearly known, it would have been an increase in prone rather than supine sleeping posture if there had been any. Since such changes would promote antero-posterior rather than bilateral growth of heads, changes in sleeping posture cannot be a candidate for causes of brachycephalization. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Professor Akio Yamauchi, Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, for permitting me to use the data for the series by Nishi (1953) stored in the University Museum, The University of Tokyo. I thank Pro-
fessor S. Kato of the Jikei University School of Medicine, Professor Y. Naito of Nagasaki University School of Medicine, and Dr. H. Takayama of Keio University, Faculty of Literature, for permitting me to use the original data they measured. I also thank all the participants, colleagues, and friends who were concerned with the somatometric research. LITERATURE CITED Angel JL. 1976. Colonial to modern skeletal change in the U.S.A. Am J Phys Anthropol 45:723–726. Appleton VB. 1927. Growth of Chinese children in Hawaii and in China. Am J Phys Anthropol 10:237–252. Arase S, Kohama M, Shima G, Nishioka T, Tanabe H, Takamure I, Kawaguchi T. 1934. Contribution to the physical anthropology of the Koreans, II. J Chosen Med Assoc 24:111–153 [in Japanese]. Baeltz E. 1885. Die Ko¨rperlichen Eigenschaften der Japaner. Messungen und Beobachtungen an Lebenden. Mitt D Ges Nat Volkerk Ostasiens 4:35–103. Beals KL. 1972. Head form and climatic stress. Am J Phys Anthropol 37:85–92. Beiguelman B. 1963. A somatometric study on Japanese immigrants and Japanese unmixed descendants in Brazil. Z Morphol Anthropol 53:296–299. Billy G. 1975. Anthropometric evidence of exogamy related to secular changes in present-day populations. J Hum Evol 4:517–520. Billy G. 1979. Modifications phenotypiques contemporaines et migrations matrimoniales. Bull Mem Soc Anthropol Paris 6:251–259. Crognier E. 1981. Climate and anthropometric variations in Europe and the Mediterranean area. Ann Hum Biol 8:99–107. Dornfeldt W. 1941. Studien u ¨ ber Scha ¨ delform und Scha ¨ delvera ¨ nderung von Berliner Ostjuden und ihren Kinden. Z Morphol Anthropol 39:290–372. Facchini F, Gualdi-Russo E. 1982. Secular anthropometric changes in a sample of Italian adults. J Hum Evol 11:703–714. Galloway A, Stini WA, Fox SC, Stein P. 1990. Stature loss among an older United States population and its relation to bone mineral status. Am J Phys Anthropol 83:467–476. Hoshi H, Kouchi M. 1978. Anthropometry of adult male Japanese with remarks on correlation coefficients. Kaibogaku Zasshi [Acta Anat Nippon] 53:238–247 [in Japanese with English summary]. Hoshi H, Kouchi M, Tsutsumi E. 1980. Anthropometry of adult female Japanese with remarks on correlation coefficients. Kaibogaku Zasshi [Acta Anat Nippon] 55:525–534 [in Japanese with English summary].
BRACHYCEPHALIZATION IN JAPAN
Ishida H. 1992. Flatness of facial skeletons in Siberian and other circum-Pacific populations. Z Morphol Anthropol 79:53–67. Ishikawa T, Furuyama M, Ishikawa M, Ogawa J, Wada Y. 1987. Growth in head circumference from birth to fifteen years of age in Japan. Acta Paediatr Scand 76:824–828. Ivanovsky A. 1923. Physical modifications of the population of Russia under famine. Am J Phys Anthropol 6:331–353. Kakimoto K. 1953. Changes due to ageing in head length, head breadth, and cephalic index. Jinruigaku Shuho 7:42–58 [in Japanese]. Kobylinasky E. 1983. Changes in cephalic morphology of Israelis due to migration. J Hum Evol 12:779–786. Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science. 1986. A study on the National Anthropometric Survey in Korea, 1986. Tae Jon: Industrial Advancement Administration, Korea. Kouchi M. 1983. Geographic variation in modern Japanese somatometric data and its interpretation. Univ Mus Univ Tokyo Bull 22. Kouchi M. 1986. Geographic variations in modern Japanese somatometric data: a secular change hypothesis. Univ Mus Univ Tokyo Bull 27:93–106. Kouchi M. 1996. Secular change and socioeconomic difference in height in Japan. Anthropol Sci 104:325– 340. Kouchi M, Yokoyama K, Yamashia J, Yokoi T, Ogi H, Yoshioka M, Atsumi H, Hotta A. 1994. Human body dimensions data for ergonomic design. Rep Nat Inst Biosci Hum Tech 2 [in Japanese with English abstract]. Kubo T. 1913. Beitra ¨ ge zur physischen Anthropologie der Koreaner. Mitt Med Fak Univ Tokyo 12. Lasker GW. 1946. Migration and physical differentiation. Am J Phys Anthropol 4:273–300. Matrin R, Knussmann R. 1988. Anthropologie. Band I. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer. Matsumura A. 1925. On the cephalic index and stature of the Japanese and their local differences. J Fac Sci Imperial Univ Tokyo, sec V. 1. Part 1. p 312. Mikic´ Z. 1990. Social stratification and the brachycranization process in the Medieval period. The Stecci population of Yugoslavia. Homo 41:136–145. Miller AKH, Corsellis JAN. 1977. Evidence for a secular increase in human brain weight during the past century. Ann Hum Biol 4:253–257. Mizoguchi Y. 1992. An interpretation of brachycephalization based on the analysis of correlations between cranial and postcranial measurements. In: Brown T, Molnar S, editors. Craniofacial variation in Pacific populations. Adelaide: Anthropology and Genetics Laboratory, Department of Dentistry, The University of Adelaide. p 1–19. Morita S, Ohtsuki F. 1973. Secular changes of the main head dimensions in Japanese. Hum Biol 45:151–165. Moss ML, Young RW. 1960. A functional approach to craniometry. Am J Phys Anthropol 18:281–292. Nakahashi T. 1987. Human skeletal remains of the Edo period excavated from the Tenpukuji site, Fukuoka. J Anthropol Soc Nippon 95:89–106. Nishi S. 1952. Raporto de la Komitato por determini korpan raskarakterizon de japano. Kaibogaku Zasshi
347
[Acta Anat Nippon] 27:53–63 [in Japanese with Esperanto summary]. Ohtsuki F, Iwamura E. 1980. Geographical differences in head and face dimensions among Japanese females. Am J Phys Anthropol 52:264 [abstract]. Onishi Y. 1919. Head measurements of Japanese. J Ophthalmol Soc Japan 23:1076–1083. Onishi Y. 1920. Head measurements of Japanese. J Ophthalmol Soc Japan 24:67–78, 157–168, 309–316, 373–380. Otsuki K. 1953. A somatometric study of the aged. Jinruigaku Shuho 5:1–45 [in Japanese]. Pa´lsson J, Schwidetzky I. 1973. Die Variabilitat anthropologischer Merkmale in Island nach Endogamie/Exogamie, Altersklassen und Sozialgruppen. Homo 24: 23–34. Research Institute of Human Engineering for Quality Life. 1997. Japanese body size data 1992–1994. Osaka: Research Institute Human Engineering Quality of Life. Schwidetzky I. 1973. Endogamie und anthropologische Differenzierung auf den Kanarischen Inseln. Z Morphol Anthropol 65:1–13. Shapiro HL. 1939. Migration and environment. A study of physical characteristics of the Japanese immigrants to Hawaii and the effects of environment on their descendants. London: Oxford University Press. Shimada A. 1974. Different methods of infant feeding and the growth of head in infants and children: with special reference to brachycephalization of artificially fed children. Hum Ecol Race Hyg 40:21–36 [in Japanese with English summary]. Susanne C, Vercauteren M, Krasnicanova H, Jaeger V, ´ volution se´culares des Hauspie R, Bruzek J. 1988. E dimensions ce´phaliques. Bull Mem Soc Anthropol Paris 5:151–162. Suzuki H. 1948. On the thickness of soft tissues of the head. J Anthropol Soc Nippon 60:7–11 [in Japanese]. Suzuki H. 1963. Bones of the Japanese. Tokyo: Iwanami [in Japanese]. Suzuki H. 1969. Microevolutional changes in the Japanese population from the prehistoric age to the present day. J Fac Sci Univ Tokyo, sec V, vol 3, Part 4:279–308. Suzuki S. 1977. For consultation on child care. Tokyo: Kanehara [in Japanese]. Takasaki Y, Kaneko S, Anzai S. 1984. The effect of aging on stature and body weight for the aged. J Anthropol Soc Nippon 92:79 – 86. Tallgren A. 1974. Neurocranial morphology and aging: a longitudinal roentgen cephalometric study of adult Finnish women. Am J Phys Anthropol 41:285–294. van Wieringen JC. 1986. Secular growth changes. In: Falkner F, Tanner JM, editors. Human growth, 2nd ed, volume 3. New York: Plenum Press. p 307–331. Yanagisawa S. 1958. Somatological studies in Japanese women in regard to the establishment of standard measurements for garment sizing. Kaibogaku Zasshi [Acta Anat Nippon] 33:539–564. Yanagisawa S, Kondo S. 1973. Modernization of physical features of the Japanese with special reference to leg length and head form. J Hum Ergol (Tokyo) 2:97– 108.
