Bowing

THE BOUNCING BOW: A HISTORICAL EXAMINATION OF "OFF-THE-STRING" VIOLIN BOWING, 1751-1834 by Dallin Richard Hansen

A Research Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts

ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY May 2009

UMI Number: 3354456

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THE BOUNCING BOW: A HISTORICAL EXAMINATION OF "OFF-THE-STRING" VIOLIN BOWING, 1751-1834 by Dallin Richard Hansen

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ABSTRACT This document examines the historical use of "off-the-string" violin bow technique in the mid-eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries as described by the major treatise writers of this time period. Discussions include the "bouncing" capability of eighteenth-century bows (including various Baroque, transitional, and Tourte-style models), the relationship between changes in bow design and the evolution of musical aesthetic, bow stroke definitions and taxonomy during this time period, and common notational practices relating to playing off the string. The writer's intent is to clarify the historical origins of modern off-the-string technique and to dispel common misconceptions about the history of the bow by highlighting the use of these bow strokes during the eras of Leopold Mozart, Viotti, and Paganini. Other treatises used as evidence in this study are those written by Geminiani, Tartini, L'Abbe le fils, Corrette, Galeazzi, Campagnoli, Spohr, and Baillot.

in

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER

Page

1

INTRODUCTION

1

2

HISTORY OF THE BOW, 1700-1800

4

3

OFF-THE-STRING BOWING: BAROQUE

8

The Treatises

9

General Playing Characteristics and Off-the-String Strokes . . . . 12

4

5

6

7

Non-legato

12

Staccato

15

Virtuosic Strokes

16

OFF-THE-STRING BOWING: CLASSIC .

20

Playing Characteristics

20

Treatises

21

THE FRENCH SCHOOL

25

Viotti and the French School

25

Viotti and Tourte

27

Treatises .

29

POST-TOURTE

32

Paganini

.32

Spohr

35

Baillot

36

CONCLUSIONS

40

REFERENCES

.42 IV

APPENDIX

Page

A

ILLUSTRATIONS

46

B

NOTATION TABLES

55

v

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Tracing the development of the violin bow is complex. Eighteenth-century bows varied greatly in length, weight, and playing characteristics, and variations in bow design and technique were scattered among different countries, schools of thought, and the individual playing styles of leading virtuosi. In addition, bow design innovations were accepted slowly and gradually. Even the Tourte bow, which emerged in the 1780's, did not become a solo performance standard until the 1830's. Therefore, the lines of separation are fuzzy. Old and new designs were used concurrently during the eighteenth century, and tracking the appearance and use of specific bow types is difficult. The study of historical bowing (including technique, stroke development, and notation) presents similar challenges. The late eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries saw a period of intense transition in violin bowing. The physical equipment changed drastically, from the various Baroque models through the transitional styles of the 1770's to the modern bow standardized by Francois Tourte. Musical style and aesthetic also progressed significantly, spanning the ideals of the Baroque, Classic, and Romantic eras. Each of these aspects - equipment (physical characteristics of the bow) and aesthetic (musical style) - has an important influence on off-the-string bow technique. The purpose of this study is to explore the history of "off-the-string" bow technique both in terms of equipment and aesthetic, focusing specifically on this period of significant transition (1751-1834). In course, the writer hopes to dispel common misconceptions regarding the history of the bow (largely due to the modern oversimplification of bow history), including answering these specific questions: 1) How do

2 early and modern bows compare in terms of their capability to "bounce"? 2) What (if any) off-the-string strokes were used in the pre-Tourte era? 3) What influence did the Tourte bow have on "bounced" or "thrown" strokes? 4) How can the modern performer more effectively interpret historical notation (meaning of dots, vertical lines and wedges) in terms of bow stroke to make historically informed decisions? Because the term "off-the-string" is by nature ambiguous, in this study, off-thestring strokes are defined as: strokes that produce articulation (attack and separation) by means of a natural bounce, facilitated by the inherent elasticity of the bow stick - versus an on-the-string stroke, which produces articulation by a pinching or stopping of the bow on the string. Specifically, the writer will focus on all forms and degrees of (in modern terms) spiccato, sautille, and ricochet. The writer hopes to provide answers to when, why and how these strokes were employed by looking for evidence of connections between eighteenth-century performance practice and the physical equipment available. A select number of treatises have been examined from Geminiani and Leopold Mozart to Baillot and Paganini (listed below). While this list is by no means exhaustive, it represents proponents of the major schools of playing and philosophy.

3 1751

Geminiani

1756 L. Mozart 1760 Tartini's Letter 1761

L'Abbelefils

1783

Corrette

1796

Galeazzi

1797

Campagnoli

1800

Woldemar

1803

Rode, Baillot, Kreutzer

1829

Guhr/Paganini

1832

Spohr

1834

Baillot

CHAPTER 2 HISTORY OF THE BOW, 1700-1800 Understanding the physical attributes of the violin bow is particularly important in the study of eighteenth-century technique because bow design changed dramatically from the beginning to the end of the century. But exploring the history of the violin bow is challenging, due to the relatively small amount of available physical evidence. Unlike the great violins of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, examples of authentic early bows are difficult to find. Additionally, because bows were rarely stamped before 1750, the exact dates and makers of the existent examples are almost impossible to determine.1 Through most of the eighteenth-century, bow construction was far from standardized, varying greatly in design, quality, and playing properties. In the early 1700's, bow length and shape also varied by region, reflecting the musical taste and style of a particular area. Short, straight bows, for example, dominated in France and were used primarily for playing dance music. The Italians favored a longer, straight (or slightly convex) bow for the greater dynamic variety and nuance required for sonata playing. The German bow of the early eighteenth century was typically convex, of intermediate length, and especially useful in executing polyphonic music. Apart from the geographical trends, several specific bow types emerge as universally influential, reaching across national stylistic boundaries and representing the playing styles of historically significant violinists. Descriptions of these dominant bow types are recorded in three nineteenth-century French sources. In a work from 1856, musicologist and critic Francois-Joseph Fetis describes eight different historical bows 1

David D. Boyden, "The Violin Bow in the 18th Century," Early Music 8 (April 1980): 203.

5 from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, accompanied by a drawing of each. In his 1834 violin treatise, Pierre Baillot names a total of six eighteenth-century bow designs. Violinist Michel Woldemar offers descriptions of four distinct bows in his treatise of 1800. The present study will use Woldemar's categorization to briefly survey the most important bow designs used in the eighteenth century, highlighting the physical characteristics of each model.4 Woldemar's bow types carry the names of performers who supposedly championed their use, namely Corelli, Tartini, Cramer, and Viotti. The "Corelli" bow, also referred to as the short Baroque bow, was in common use from 1700-1750. Used by the early Italian masters such as Corelli, Somis and Locatelli, this bow was relatively light (37-42 grams) and averaged about 61cm in length. The bow had a relatively straight stick, fixed frog, and a swan-head or pike's-head tip. The balance point was relatively close to the frog, creating natural strength in the lower half and relative weakness at the tip of the bow. Appearing around 1720, the "Tartini" bow overlapped the use of the "Corelli" design, and gradually replaced it by around 1750. Often called the long Baroque bow, the "Tartini" model reached up to 71cm in total length. Anecdotally connected with the

2

Ibid., 199.

3

See Appendix A.

Specific playing characteristics of each bow will be discussed in the next chapter of this study. 5

Ibid., 200.

playing style of Tartini, the long bow was ideal for the more expressive demands of the Italian solo sonata. Leclair and Veracini also likely used this bow. The so-called "Cramer" or transitional-style bow appeared in Paris around 1770, with various designs made well into the nineteenth century. This bow was likely produced by Nicholas Leonard Tourte, brother of the more famous Francois Tourte, and exhibited several design characteristics that set it apart significantly from the bows of the past: the tip was much higher (typically a "battle-axe" design), leaving more space between the hair and the stick; the stick had a slight inward curve or cambre; the ribbon of hair was slightly thicker and wider (6mm); and an endscrew was added to more finely adjust hair tension. The "Viotti" bow described by Woldemar is the modern style bow standardized by Francois Tourte in the 1780's. The Tourte bow is commonly associated with the playing style of Viotti, and Fetis suggests that Viotti may have contributed to its design.7 Both the perfected design and superior craftsmanship of the Tourte bow contributed to its acceptance as an international standard. German violinist and treatise author Louis Spohr stated, "the best and most approved Bows are those of Tourte, in Paris, which has gained them an European celebrity."8 The most significant design elements of this bow are its increased and standardized length (74cm), the heavier "hatchet-head" tip, balance closer

Jaap Schroder, Bach's Solo Violin Works: A Performer's Guide (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 14. 7

See the section of this study entitled The French School.

8

Louis Spohr, Spohr's Grand Violin School, ed. U.C. Hill (Boston: O. Ditson,

1852), 8.

7 to the center of the stick, more pronounced and uniform cambre, use of pernambucco wood (ideal for strength and flexibility), much wider ribbon of hair (11mm), and the use of finer materials including an inlaid eye and frog cover (usually mother-of-pearl). These descriptions of these four major eighteenth-century bow types provide an important context for studying the history of off-the-string violin playing.

CHAPTER 3 OFF-THE-STRING BOWING: BAROQUE Understanding specific performance practices as described in historical treatises is nearly as complex as the history of the bow itself. The quality and scope of these documents vary greatly. In the early eighteenth century, many treatises were intended as a type of self-tutor, catering to the aristocratic amateur seeking to create music for personal use and enjoyment. The first treatises intended for the guidance of the professional violinist do not appear until after about 1750.' But although these show a more accurate picture of performance practice and advanced techniques, many are surprisingly void of detail, leaving many areas of technical and musical detail to the discretion of the student. For the writers of many of the treatises, omissions of technical information may reflect a philosophy that musical development and expression simply cannot be communicated in a written work. The 'incompleteness' of certain treatises may also reflect the irreplaceable element of oral transmission from master to pupil and perhaps the intentional preservation of this vehicle of learning. For notable eighteenthcentury performers who did not write methods, we can only look to the literature, which may or may not include studies or etudes.2 The first methods chosen for study are among those intended for the professional performer and are therefore relatively comprehensive in their exhibition of violin technique and performance. Written within about ten years of each other (1751-1761), the 1

Zoltan Szabo, "The Violin Method of B. Campagnoli: An Analysis and Evaluation" (D.M. diss., Indiana University, 1978), 36. Among the first treatises written for the professional are Geminiani, L. Mozart, Herrando, L'Abbe le fils, and Campagnoli. Several etudes from the mid eighteenth-century are still used by teachers and students today and are instructive, including Gavinies, Fiorillo, and Locatelli.

9 works of Geminiani, Leopold Mozart, Tartini, and L'Abbe le fils include the occasional treatment o f new' practices such as the extensive treatment of harmonics by L'Abbe le fils. Regarding bow technique, however, these sources are essentially a window to the past, reflecting the technical foundation established in the Baroque era. The Treatises The Art of Playing on the Violin, by Francesco Geminiani was published in 1751. Looking primarily to the past, Geminiani's treatise is among the first major expositions on violin playing. In his introduction to the 1952 facsimile edition of the work, scholar David Boyden observes, "Within the scope of its relatively few pages is covered quite completely the technical groundwork necessary to cope with almost any violinistic problem of its time." While generally thorough in scope, Geminiani's work excludes certain special effects used by the most accomplished virtuosos of his time such as Locatelli. In his own preface, Geminiani puts greater value on the 'Art' of violin playing rather than the 'tricks' of showmanship: "sudden shifts of the Hand from one Extremity of the Finger-board to the other, accompanied with Contortions of the Head and Body, and all other such Tricks.. .the Lovers of Art are not to expect to find any thing of that Sort in this Book.' The treatise was significant in its day, and was particularly influential in Ireland and England.5 Numerous 'Geminiani' treatises (largely anonymous works)

Francesco Geminiani, The Art of Playing on the Violin, ed. David D. Boyden (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), v. 4

Ibid., 1. The first edition of Geminiani's treatise was published in English.

10 appeared during and after his lifetime. Geminiani makes no specific mention of the type of bow he used, but we can deduce from iconography that his must have been the Italian 'sonata' bow, commonly connected with Tartini.7 This assumption is supported by Geminiani's warning against "marking the bow," suggesting the need for more cantabile phrasing - an ideal associated with the capabilities of the Baroque 'long' bow. Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770) wrote several theoretical works on music, but the closest document to a violin treatise is found in a letter written to Maddalena Lombardini in 1760. The letter is relatively short, but most of the content relates to bow instruction and includes advice on using a variety of bowings, achieving a good staccato, and other issues relating to bow mastery. His emphasis on bow technique was a distinctive feature of Tartini's playing and teaching and can be observed in his works for violin, especially L'arte del arco (The Art of the Bow), an advanced set of variations. The long Baroque or "Tartini" bow of the 1720's was apparently developed to realize the stylistic innovation o

of Tartini's music. Leopold Mozart published his comprehensive Versuch einer grundlichen Violinschulem 1756. The treatise was highly regarded well into the nineteenth century

6

See Appendix A. The frontispiece of the 1752 Paris edition shows an image of a bow type probably used by Geminiani. 7

Boyden, 202.

Pierluigi Petrobelli, "Tartini, Giuseppe," Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online; available from http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/ music/27529; Internet; accessed 14 February 2009.

11 (four printed editions existed by 1800) and reflects Mozart's thoroughness as a teacher.9 Mozart includes an exposition on the rudiments of music theory, extensive treatments of right and left hand technique, and important instructions on mid-eighteenth-century ornamentation. It is likely from the iconography that Mozart used a less-refined German version of the "Tartini"-style bow.10 However, Mozart's treatise reveals a sense of casualness toward his preference of bow. In advising on a rapid slurred-staccato passage, he explains how the player can make adjustments for different bow types: "a heavier and longer bow must be used more lightly and retarded somewhat less; whereas a lighter and shorter bow must be pressed down more and retarded more."11 This perhaps suggests a common perception of the time: it's not as important what equipment one uses but how one uses it. A student of Leclair and one of the finest violinists of the mid-eighteenth century, L'Abbe le fils (also known as Joseph-Barnabe Saint-Sevin) wrote a highly influential treatise, Principes du violon in 1761. Although his bow stroke descriptions and notation are less clear than in the treatises of Geminiani and L. Mozart, L'Abbe le fils' work was one of the first treatises to mention pronation and half-position and includes extensive

Robin Stowell, Violin Technique and Performance Practice in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 9. 10

Boyden, 205-206. See Appendix A.

Leopold Mozart, A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing, trans. Editha Knocker (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 119.

12 treatments of double-stops and the use of harmonics. The treatise also exhibits fairly advanced bow technique including a great variety of bow strokes and rapid passages of slurred staccato. General Playing Characteristics and Off-the-String Strokes Because of the physical characteristics of the early bows (relatively short and light, balance more toward the frog, more 'yielding' hair, etc.), the distinction of strokes being executed "on" or "off the string were much less defined than in our age of the modern bow. Performers and treatise authors were often more concerned with describing articulation than prescribing a specific stroke. Many writers first describe a desired degree of separation in a musical context before suggesting ways (strokes) in which these sounds can be achieved. The relationship between the physical properties of these early bows and playing off-the-string can be summarized in three main areas: 1) the fundamental pre-Tourte stroke is non-legato, 2) staccato often meant separation by lifting the bow out of the string, 3) ricochet, "flying spiccato," and other virtuosic strokes were used in this era by means of the natural bounce of the early bow. Non-legato The fundamental bow stroke up to the mid-eighteenth century was a non-legato stroke. Because the bow hair was more yielding, the natural, unaffected separate stroke (what we would call modern detache) of these early bows was cleanly separated by a softer attack and natural decay. According to Boyden, "[early bows produced] clear, 12

Neal Zaslaw, "L'abbe," Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online; available from http://www.oxfordmusiconline.eom/subscriber/article/grove/music/l575lpg3; Internet; accessed 2 February 2009.

13 short, unaccented strokes in the middle of the bow, and especially in the upper third.. .The old bow brings out more clearly repeated notes, broken chords, and string crossings at speed."13 Clean articulation in the context of fast tempos was a natural product of the early bow. The non-legato attribute also applies to longer strokes in slower tempos. In each of their treatises, both Geminiani and Mozart describe messa di voce (placing the voice), a small crescendo and diminuendo on a single sustained note. This term is also applied to vocal music of the period, but in string playing this 'swell' in the tone reflects not only a stylistic ideal, but also a technical issue: the natural yielding of bow hair requires a certain gentleness in the attack of notes to avoid an undesirable harshness. Mozart instructs, "every tone, even the strongest attack, has a small, even if barely audible, softness at the beginning of the stroke."14 Tartini similarly observes, "if the full pressure is applied immediately, a harsh scraping sound will result."15 Tartini gives a further description of the messa di voce principle in the letter to Ms. Lombardini, emphasizing its skillful execution as a hallmark of bow mastery: "[Press] the bow lightly, but steadily, upon the strings; in such a manner as that it shall seem to breathe the first tone it gives, not as by a blow given with a hammer upon it.. .Of this first contact, and delicate manner of beginning a tone, you should make yourself a perfect mistress in every situation and

13

Boyden, 203.

14

Mozart, 97.

1

Giuseppe Tartini, Traite des agrements de la musique, ed. Edwin R. Jacobi, trans. Cuthbert Girdlestone (New York: H. Moeck, 1961), 56.

14 part of the bow..." 16 As another aspect of the common eighteenth-century violin aesthetic, the messa di voce principle was both a musical ideal and a natural playing characteristic of the early bow. Accented bow strokes (such as martele, accents, and sforzandi), which are an indispensable component of modern playing today, were generally not natural on the early bows. These strokes would appear in later violin methods and are generally associated with the invention of the Tourte bow.17 Interestingly, the term detache appears in several 18,h-century works, but it generally meant non-legato. Eighteenth-century theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau describes detache as "short and dry.. .indicated by long dots." L'abbe le fils also mentions detache in connection with a clearly articulated stroke.18 Our modern definition of this term (separate bows, but connected - not detached) is a result of the bow design changes codified by Francois Tourte. Comparing the natural characteristics of the early and modern bow, one could conclude that the term detache has essentially held the same meaning throughout history: it is the natural, unaffected separate (up & down) stroke. In the case of the Baroque bows, this unaffected stroke was non-legato.

Giuseppe Tartini, A Letter from the Late Signor Tartini to Signora Maddalena Lombardini, trans. Charles Burney (London: R. Bremner, 1779; reprint, New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1967), 11 (page citations are to the reprint edition). 17

Stowell, 169. Ibid., 168.

15 Staccato The term staccato is one of the most confusing terms associated with modern string playing. The general musical definition of staccato is "separated," but the term also has reference to a particular bow stroke, usually played on the string. But what did staccato mean to the mid-eighteenth-century violinist? The treatises show that staccato was often executed by playing off the string. In discussing eighteenth-century bow articulation, violinist and author Pamela Goldsmith suggests that staccato could be produced in three ways on an early bow: 1) on the string (by means of the natural decay described in the previous section), 2) using a "lifted stroke" (off-the-string, at a moderate tempo), and 3) using a "bounced" stroke (faster tempo). She then adds, "the idea that the older bow did not bounce is untrue."1 Examples of this so-called "lifted" staccato are exceedingly common in the treaties. Leopold Mozart defines staccato as "struck; signifying that the notes are to be well separated from each other, with short strokes, and without dragging the bow"20 (in other words lifted out of the string). Geminiani describes staccato in a similar way, instructing "the bow is taken off the strings at every note."21 Geminiani marks these notes with a small vertical line or wedge. Mozart uses a similar notation (vertical line) to represent

19

Pamela Goldsmith, "Bowing Articulation in the Transitional Period (17611802)," The Strad 89 (March 1979): 1047. 20

Mozart, 45.

21

Geminiani, viii. See Appendix B.

16 strokes that should be "lifted"; his description for this marking is "the bow is lifted at each note.. .entirely separated from each other."23 In the Lombardini letter, Tartini also makes brief mention of staccato, first defining it as "separate and detached," and then giving an example of a sixteenth-note passage. Tartini indicates that in order to play staccato, the passage should "be played as if there was a rest after every note." In summary, the eighteenth-century staccato could be played either on or off the string. However, many treatise writers who mention staccato also provide a special notation for its use (vertical lines). Rather than the natural separation that occurs with the fundamental bow stroke of the time, the intent of this notation appears to be a sharply separated articulation, most effectively created by lifting the bow off the string. Performance-practice expert Robin Stowell summarizes this point in simple terms: "staccato was virtually synonymous at that time with spiccato." Virtuosic Strokes Virtuosic bow strokes, such as ricochet, sautille, and the so-called flying staccato, were used in the first half of the eighteenth century, but their use was exceptional. These strokes were considered by most musicians of the time as special effects used only by the most skilled virtuosi. Perhaps as their application was limited, discussion of these strokes is absent from most treatises. The greatest evidence of their existence is found in the compositions of virtuosi such as Locatelli.

Mozart, 45. Tartini, Letter, 15. Stowell, 168.

17 Tartini's Art of the Bow (1740's), a set of advanced variations for violin, exhibits a surprising variety of complex strokes. Similar advanced bowings appear in the etudes of Gavinies and Fiorillo.26 However, the 24 Caprices of Pietro Antonio Locatelli demonstrate the most advanced techniques of the time with special emphasis on bow demands. Published relatively early in the eighteenth century (1733), these caprices were the principle inspiration for Nicolo Paganini's 24 Caprices (written over 70 years later). Similarities between the two works are startling, notably Paganini's Caprice No. 1 and Locatelli's Caprice No. 7: both are in E Major and begin with precisely the same pitches and figuration. The bow stroke employed in both examples is a four-note ricochet, alternating down- and up-bow, arpeggiated across all four strings. The significance of this early example of ricochet is compounded by the fact that Locatelli played on a short Baroque bow! In 1741, he commented, "no fiddler can play anything with a long bow that he can't play with a short one."27 Although considered by many as the founding father of modern instrumental virtuosity, Locatelli was highly criticized during his lifetime, partially due to the "questionable taste" of his virtuosic innovations. Although the technical capabilities of the early bows were exploited in these advanced works, it would take time for the so-called "special effects" to become a part of the mainstream aesthetic. 26

Pierre Gavinies' Twenty-four Etudes and Federigo Fiorillo's Thirty-six Caprices are both still in use today. 27

28

Schroder, 14.

Albert Dunning, "Locatelli, Pietro Antonio," Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online; available from http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/ grove/music/16840; Internet; accessed 20 September 2008.

18 Numerous examples of what we call slurred staccato (notated as dots under slurs) can be found in all the treatises heretofore mentioned. Other names for this stroke include le coup d'archet articule, staccato martellement, notes piques, pikiren, and pichettdto. The treatise of L'Abbe le fils refers to this gesture as "roulades" or florid running passages. His musical examples contain various forms of down- and up-bow combinations, with up to fifteen notes per bow.29 Due to the variety of tempos and styles that appear in each treatise, defining rules for executing this stroke is difficult. However, some general principles emerge: in slow tempos, these were likely played as portato (long, on-the-string, with slight separation); in faster tempos, they were to be played off the string in "lifted" style.30 In modern terms, this faster version of slurred staccato strongly resembles the modern "flying staccato" or "flying spiccato," which rely on the natural 'bouncing' quality of the bow to create separations. In summary, off-the-string bow strokes, including spiccato and sautille (fast spiccato) were clearly possible in the early to mid-eighteenth century and evidence for their use is irrefutable. Generally, lifting the bow off the string was natural, necessary, and common for the early bows in creating detached articulation. More advanced "virtuoso" techniques, such as ricochet and off-the-string slurred staccato (flying spiccato), were also employed but were far from the mainstream of performing and 29

L'abbe le fils. Principes du Violon, ed. Aristide Wirsta (Paris: Centre de Documentation Universitaire, 1961), 10. 30

Stowell, 173.

Ivan Galamian, Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, 3d ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985), 80-81. Modern bow stroke taxonomy stems largely from this Galamian work.

19 teaching. These strokes would not find a permanent place in violin technique until long after the appearance of the Tourte bow.

CHAPTER 4 OFF-THE-STRING BOWING: CLASSIC Playing Characteristics As the European musical aesthetic gradually shifted from the ideals of the Baroque to those of the Classic Era, bow construction and design began to evolve dramatically. Around 1770, we see the appearance of several 'transitional'-type bows, characterized by the higher "battle-axe" head, greater length, and a slight cambre (inward curvature). Although their physical appearance is more similar to the Tourte bow than to its Baroque predecessors, these transitional bows exhibited a blend of performance characteristics from both early and modern designs. These bows retained much of the natural softness and decay of the early bow, but were also capable of a stronger attack, a hallmark characteristic of the Tourte design.1 The attributes of the transitional bow are connected with the playing style of Wilhelm Cramer (1746-1799) of the Mannheim school. In the 1770's and 1780's, he was considered one of Europe's foremost violinists, praised for the "fire, tone, and certainty" of his playing. Cramer was also noted for his use of off-the-string strokes, described as a "particular speciality" of his. Because of his unique bowing style, which included both strength and delicacy, his name has come to define the transitional-style violin bow.2 Scholars often refer to the transitional bow as simply the "Cramer" bow. Based on these accounts, we see that off-the-string playing was not only possible in the transitional 1

2

Schroder, 13.

Simon McVeigh, et al., "Cramer," Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online; available at http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/ 44589pgl; Internet; accessed 12 January 2009.

21 period, but an important aspect of the bow's design, use, and identity. Boyden suggests that the transitional bow is appropriate for music of the Mannheim school and also the Mozart violin concertos. Treatises The major treatises from the transitional period show evidence to support the stylistic elements described above. Although not solely a violinist, Michel Corrette published a violin method, L'art de se perfectionner dans le violon, in 1783. This French work begins with a small explanatory section followed by a large set of musical examples.4 The title page shows a drawing of a man holding an antiquated violin and a short Baroque bow with a swan-head tip. The written instructions offer little specific information on bow technique, but the music reveals patterns of notation that also seem to look to the past. Dots and vertical lines over notes are both used in various combinations throughout the treatise, but the placement of these markings suggest that the dot means simply separation, and the vertical line means further separation, most likely by lifting the bow from the string (similar to the works of Geminiani and Leopold Mozart).5 While demonstrating techniques for the advanced performer, Corrette's treatise represents the style and practices of the past.

3

Boyden, 206.

Corrette's music consists of original studies and etudes, but also includes lengthy excerpts (notably opera works) written by other composers. 5

Michel Corrette, L'art de se perfectionner dans le violon, Sibley Music Library, Eastman School of Music, Rochester, 1959 (Paris, [1783]), microcard, 31.

22 A more comprehensive treatise, Francesco Galeazzi's Elementi teorico-practici di musica from 1796 is thorough in scope and scientific in its approach. Galeazzi addresses the pedagogical needs of beginners and describes performance practices of the professional. Although written after the appearance of the Tourte bow, this work is not forward-looking and therefore applies to the era of the transitional bow. By the late eighteenth century, Italy was no longer the leader in new public taste, and the modern French bow design would not be embraced in Italy until around 1820. Galeazzi provides detailed descriptions of several relevant bow strokes: 1) pichettato, notated by dots under a slur, 2) an un-named, separate "off the string" stroke, notated by dots, and 3) sciolte, notated by vertical lines. Galeazzi describes the pichettato as "many disjunct notes which are all played in one bowstroke, with the bow bouncing on the string."7 This stroke appears to be similar to the modern "flying spiccato," also described by L. Mozart and others from the mid-18' century. Notably, Galeazzi is one of the first to suggest that this stroke can also be executed in a bouncing down-bow. The description of the second stroke, equivalent to the modern spiccato, is also unique among the treatises: "[these] notes are played with separate bows, off the string." The sciolte is worth mentioning because of its distinct notation; it is never described by Galeazzi as off-

Angelo Frascarelli, "Elementi teorico-practici di musica by Francesco Galeazzi: an Annotated English Translation and Study of Volume I" (D.M.A. diss., Eastman School of Music, University of Rochester, 1968), 4. 7

Ibid., 291. Galeazzi asserts that Tartini invented this bow stroke and describes the stroke as note Tartiniate. However, it is doubtful that this stroke was 'invented' by Tartini. 8

Ibid., Table I.

23 the-string, but the marking of a vertical line denotes some special articulation. Because of the unusual notation and the assumption that it is to be played on the string, the writer believes the sciolte may represent an early martele stroke. Galeazzi does not advocate a specific bow-type by name, but describes his preference for a bow that is light, long (67.6 - 68.8cm of hair), with an inward curvature (cambre) and good strength at the tip.9 These parameters suggest that Galeazzi most likely played on a transitional-style bow.1 The final treatise to be discussed in relation to the transitional period is Metodo per Violino, by Bartolomeo Campagnoli. Like Galeazzi's work, Campagnoli's treatise was published in Italy in the late eighteenth century (1797), but should be viewed in connection with the transitional style. The treatise is similarly comprehensive in scope and includes a balance of text, musical examples, and full compositions, representing old and new stylistic traits. Like the earlier treatise writers, Campagnoli cites the importance of messa di voce, and also provides a description of the off-the-string pichettato: "the bow is made to skip upon the strings with the greatest lightness."11 However, Campagnoli also makes obvious reference to accented strokes, an innovation associated with transitional and Tourte-model bows. He regards the accent as a necessary musical gesture

9

Ibid., 179.

10

Robin Stowell, "Violin Bowing in Transition: A Survey of Technique as Related in Instruction Books c. 1760-1830," Early Music 12 (August 1984): 326. Galeazzi's describes the bow's inherent weakness at the tip. 11

Bartolomeo Campagnoli, A New and Progressive Method on the Mechanism of Violin Playing, trans. John Bishop (London: Robert Cocks & Co., 1856), 11.

24 and describes the 'martele stroke (without naming it) in vivid detail: "in detached bowing, play at the tip attacking the string with vivacity"12 The similarity of this description with the nineteenth-century definition of martele is so compelling, that the first English translation (1856) added the heading Martele at the beginning of Campagnoli's paragraph. The iconography found at the beginning of Campagnoli's treatise shows a clear representation of a transitional bow with a "battle-axe" head, suggesting that this was his bow of choice.13 With this and other contemporary treatises as evidence, the Transitional bow exhibited the lightness and delicacy of the early bows (including their capability for off-the-string strokes) with the strength and power of the bow that has remained the standard since the mid nineteenth century - the Tourte model.

12

Ibid., 7.

13

See Appendix A.

CHAPTER 5 THE FRENCH SCHOOL Viotti and the French School Throughout the last three decades of the eighteenth century, Paris was quickly becoming one of the most important musical centers of Europe. The thriving music publishing industry, the presence of several major concert organizations, and the establishment of the Paris Conservatoire (1795) all contributed to its prominence and influence. The last part of this century also saw a shift from Italy to France as the center of violin (and bow) making and playing. The French violin school emerged in the 1780's. Established by the revolutionary playing style of Viotti, its legacy was sustained by other important violinist-composers such as Lafont, Rode, Kreutzer, Baillot, Dancla, Mazas, and Alard. The technical and musical ideals of the French School had considerable influence on violin playing in Germany and England in the eighteenth century and would help define the standards of the Belgian and Russian schools of the nineteenth century. For these reasons, Viotti has come to be known as "the father of modern violin playing."1 Grounded in the Italian traditions of Corelli and Pugnani, Giovanni Battista Viotti came to Paris in 1782. His debut performance at the Concert Spirituel immediately established him as one of the most prominent and unique performers of his day. Musicologist Robin Stowell notes, "Viotti.. .synthesized the charm and clarity of the eighteenth-century French style with [the] dramatic expression of his native Italy. His sound ideal and style of performance were richer, more powerful, more expressive and

Boris Schwarz, Great Masters of the Violin: From Corelli and Vivaldi to Stern, Zukerman andPerlman (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), 165.

26 more brilliant than any heard before."2 Others described Viotti's playing as "bold and emphatic," with "strong, full-bodied tone, incredible agility, accuracy and precision." One contemporary review was less complimentary about his unconventional style, however, describing his playing as "brusk and hurtful, [replacing] the dainty with the dramatic."3 In any case, the strong, expressive style of Viotti had profound influence upon his audience and students. An admiring student of Viotti and later teacher at the Conservatoire, Pierre Baillot records, "the years have only increased our respect and our predilection for the genius whose expression was so true, so natural, and at the same time on such a high level that it gave to all his inspirations a character that was both the most pleasing and the broadest.. .It might be said that the violin has never been greater or more beautiful than under the bow of Viotti."4 One of the great strengths of the French school was its unified technical approach. The Conservatoire Orchestra was praised for the unity of its bowing. In addition, Viotti's violin concertos would become a staple in the studies of the French school: the conservatoire performance contests would include a Viotti concerto in the audition repertoire for more than 30 years.5

Massimiliano Sala, ed., Giovanni Batista Viotti: A Composer Between the Two Revolutions (Bolgna: Ut Orpheus Edizioni, 2006), 220. 3

Schwarz, 137-8, 165.

4

Pierre Marie Francois de Sales Baillot, The Art of the Violin, ed. and trans. Louise Goldberg (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1991), ix, 12. 5

Schwarz, 152.

27 Viotti and Tourte The power and expressiveness of the Viotti style is closely connected with the capabilities of the bow he used. We know that Viotti used a Tourte-style bow, and contemporary accounts suggest that he had an influence in its design. We don't know to what extent Viotti's input affected the overall design of the new bow, but at least one major element in the bow's design has been attributed to Viotti. According to 18l century music critic Francois Joseph Fetis, "it was a result of Viotti's observations that Tourte began using a ferrule."6 Although the specifics of the Viotti-Tourte collaboration are unclear, we know Viotti was the first major musician to champion the new bow design.7 The most important physical attributes of Tourte's new design were its increased weight and length, balance closer to the middle of the bow, more uniform cambre, higher tip with a "hatchet"-style head, and wider ribbon of hair. These design elements facilitated at least two specific traits of the Viotti style: 1) greater capability for sustained legato, and 2) strength of tone and attack. The most influential aspects of the new playing style and bow design, therefore, had nothing to do with playing off-the-string. The Tourte bow's bouncing attributes would not be exploited until well into the 19th century. The first trait, sustained legato, is made possible by the uniform balance and cambre of the Tourte bow. The player can maintain more consistent pressure through the

6

Sala, 48.

Bruce R. Schueneman, The French Violin School: Viotti, Rode, Kreutzer, Baillot and their Contemporaries, ed. William E. Studwell (Kingsville, Texas: The Lyre of Orpheus Press, 2002), 12.

28 tip of the bow, making long phrases and cantabile expression more effective. As a stylistic necessity, Baillot advocates making bow changes without "the slightest jerk either at the heel [frog] or at the point [tip]," advocating "the same degree of intensity throughout the whole note."8 The artistic need for sustained legato represents a marked change from the musical ideals of the past. From the time of Corelli, the ability of a violinist to sustain a long, uninterrupted stroke was highly valued, but taught as an exercise in bow control.9 Leopold Mozart similarly asserts, "the longer and more even the stroke can be made, the more you will become master of your bow." From the early treatises cited previously however, sustaining a long, uninterrupted stroke did not apply to the musical style of the mid to late eighteenth century. The novelty of this technique at the time of Viotti is evident in a special notation to indicate its use. Viotti notated parallel lines (=) to indicate when a stroke is "begun, continued and ended with the same degree of force."11 It appears that the musical demand for this technique began with Viotti and was facilitated by the action of the Tourte bow. The second attribute, strength of tone and attack, is made possible because of the relative stiffness of the Tourte bow. With less 'give' in the hair, accented strokes can be

Stowell, "Violin Bowing in Transition," 320. David D. Boyden, The History of Violin Playing, from Its Origins to 1761 and Its Relationship to the Violin and Violin Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 256. Boyden quotes Bremner: "Corelli judged no performer fit to play in his band, who could not, with one stroke of his bow, give a steady and powerful sound, like that of an organ.. .and continue it for ten seconds." 10

1

Mozart, 99.

' Sol Babitz, Differences Between 18th Century and Modern Violin Bowing (Los Angeles: Early Music Laboratory, 1970), 5.

29 cleanly executed without the "harsh scraping" described by Tartini. As the accented stroke became a part of mainstream technique, we see the emergence of the term martele around the turn of the nineteenth century. The first treatises to name and describe the martele stroke are Woldmar's Grande methode ou etude elementaire pour le violon (1799) and Methode de Violon (1803), a collaborative work written by Rode, Kreutzer and Baillot. These works take on particular significance because they appear to be the first treatises to discuss technique in terms of the Tourte bow.12 Treatises Although not formally associated with the Viotti school, Michel Woldemar was an accomplished violinist and composer. His Grande methode includes a variety of exercises and musical examples, but the most valuable information relevant to this study is the categorization of eighteenth-century bows, his mention of the martele stroke, and his stated preference for the Tourte bow. The members of the Rode-Kreutzer-Baillot triumvirate taught violin at the Paris Conservatoire. Each were important figures in violin teaching and playing. Pierre Rode carried the Viotti tradition abroad with tours through Europe and Russia, and his Twentyfour Caprices remain a part of the modern pedagogical canon. Rudolph Kreutzer, also well known in his time as an opera composer and conductor, authored the enduring Forty-two Etudes, still admired (and despised) by teachers and students of the modern age. Pierre Baillot, perhaps the most academic of the three, later authored an exceptionally comprehensive treatise of his own in 1834. Rode, Kreutzer, and Baillot's

Stowell, Violin Technique and Performance Practice, 21.

30 collaborative work, Methode de Violon, (1803) was quickly adopted as the violin curriculum for the conservatoire. The authors clearly advocate a Tourte bow and offer a 1^

particularly detailed description of martele that parallel's our modern conception. While Viotti and his contemporaries contributed much to the development of violin technique and aesthetic, virtually no mention of off-the-string playing can be found in the performance accounts, literature, or treatises around the turn of the nineteenth century. In an extensive study on the effect of the Tourte bow on literature, scholar Pat Curry concludes that the post-Tourte literature illustrates a wider range of dynamics, more liberal use of accents in different parts of the bow, and increased sustaining requirements, but no evidence of an increase in bouncing strokes.14 The conservatory method of Rode, et al., contains no account of spiccato or bouncing bow. Woldemar mentions ricochet in his treatise, but only in the context of col legno (a special effect that involves striking the strings with the bow stick instead of playing with the hair).15 18thcentury scholar Bruce Schueneman summarizes the contribution of the French violin school, describing it as "revolutionary in its use of the Tourte bow, yet conservative in the matter of bouncing bow strokes."16

1^

Pat Bryan Curry, "The Francois Tourte Violin Bow: Its Development and Its Effect on Selected Solo Violin Literature of the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries" (Ph.D. diss., Brigham Young University, 1968), 248. 14

Ibid., 148. Stowell, Violin Technique and Performance Practice, 170.

16

Schueneman, 14.

31 In the two decades after its invention, the Tourte bow made possible several 'new' aspects of violin playing including big tone, strength of attack, and sustained legato. Contrary to the common perception of today, the Tourte bow was not initially conceived for playing off the string. As mentioned above, the ability of the Tourte bow to bounce would not be fully explored until the 1820's and 1830's, as musical aesthetic began to shift toward the ideals of the Romantic Era.

CHAPTER 6 POST-TOURTE Off-the-string strokes do not appear in violin treatises until the 1830's, nearly 50 years after the invention of the Tourte bow. The ninteteenth-century conception of playing off the string can be seen in the study of three post-Tourte treatises, illustrating the philosophies and styles of Nicolo Paganini, Louis Spohr, and Pierre Baillot. These very different violinists offer unique perspectives on the ability of the bow to bounce and their artistic motivations for using bounced strokes. Paganini Nicolo Paganini revolutionized violin playing in the early nineteenth century. He toured the countries of Europe, displaying technical feats that appeared impossible. His playing had a remarkable effect: professional violinists felt defeated by his abilities, and the public began to associate the mystery of his unusual appearance and unprecedented technique with the power of the devil. Although his style was clearly unusual, Paganini inspired a new generation of violinists who would bring these elements into the mainstream of violin technique. In the words of violinist and author Joseph Gold, "Other violinists made technical discoveries before him. However, like Columbus, Paganini's discoveries changed the world." During his lifetime Paganini was wary of revealing his technical secrets, but he allowed an associate and violinist, Carl Guhr, to watch him closely and record his observations. Guhr published Uber Paganinis Kunst die Violine zu spielen in 1831. This document is considered a "fully informative survey of all the technical aspects of 1

Carl Guhr, Paganini's Art of Violin Playing, ed. and trans. Joseph Gold (San Francisco: Teresa Parker Associates, 1982), [foreword].

33 Paganini's playing style," and therefore the closest thing we have to a Paganini treatise.2 Guhr describes several technical hallmarks that encompass the most unique aspects of Paganini's playing. These include the special 'effects' of double-stop harmonics, left hand pizzicato, playing una corda (all on one string), and scordatura (alternated tunings). Guhr also describes Paganini's unique style of bowing, which was defined by playing off the string: "in Allegro Maestoso, he prefers a different bowing from that taught in the Paris school. Their dictum is 'to hold the note as long as possible. Only half the bow should be used so that the entire string will vibrate.' Paganini moves his right arm in a whipping motion which makes the bow bounce. He uses only enough bow to put the string into vibration. This bowing is used only in Mezzo Forte passages, but it has a tremendous effect."3 Guhr suggests that Paganini dismissed the martele articulation of the French school in favor of what appears to be a modern spiccato or sautille stroke. Guhr also describes Paganini's use of ricochet as one of his specialties, executed by "throwing the bow on the string and letting it bounce. With notes rolling off like pearls, [a] scale is played with unbelievable speed."4 Guhr mentions that Paganini preferred an up-bow ricochet, although the down-bow technique is more natural. Baillot also comments on the novelty of the stroke, stating that "Paganini is the first we have

2

Edward Neill, "Paganini, Nicolo," Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online; available at http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/40008; Internet; accessed 5 December 2008. 3

Guhr, 9.

4

Ibid., 10.

34 heard use this," referring to many ricochet notes in a single bow. Paganini's famous "arpeggio" stroke (the four note, four string ricochet), inspired by Locatelli and displayed in Paganini's Caprice No. 1, is also illustrated in Guhr's work. The Guhr treatise makes no mention of the type of bow that Paganini used, but surprisingly, evidence from iconography and performance accounts suggest that he probably used a transitional-style bow for much of his career. A lithograph from 1820 by Begas clearly shows Paganini performing with a "battle-axe"-style transitional bow.6 Drawings of subsequent years show Paganini holding a bow that closely resembles the Tourte model. Performance accounts describe Paganini's skill in achieving gradual and dramatic crescendos for expressive effect. This technique could only be performed on a relatively long bow with a strong cambre. In comparison to violinists of the French school, however, Paganini's sound was described as weaker and less forceful, suggesting a lighter bow. His use of rapid down-bow staccato and up-bow ricochet also suggest a bow with less bulk; neither of these techniques is natural on the modern bow. Because of Paganini's preference for thinner strings (for ease in harmonics, left hand pizzicato, and playing in high registers), a lighter bow may have been more compatible with many of his signature effects. Paganini likely played on both transitional and Tourte-style bows, but it is nearly impossible to know when or under what circumstances he may have used

5

6

Baillot, 509.

Werner Bachmann, et al., "Bow," Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online; available at http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/03753; Internet; accessed 15 June 2008. See Appendix A.

35 them. However, the evidence suggests that the unique hallmarks of his style did not require the use of a Tourte bow. Spohr Inventor of the chin rest, Louis Spohr was a celebrated violinist, conductor, and composer. He is the foremost representative of the early nineteenth-century German school. His Violinschule of 1832 is comprehensive in scope and methodical in approach. Spohr intended the work to be a guide for teachers, addressing the needs of the beginner to the advanced player. He also includes lengthy descriptions of the violinist's equipment, including how to choose a quality instrument and bow. A former student of Spohr's and fellow violinist, U.C. Hill, observed, "the Violin School of Louis Spohr is more perfect and complete than any similar work that has come under [my] observation."7 Spohr's playing was relatively conservative and closely associated with the technique and style of the late eighteenth-century French school. He openly objected to the thrown-bow effects of Paganini. In his treatise, Spohr praises the superior characteristics of the Tourte bow, citing its weight, elasticity of the stick, uniform bending, and "very exact and neat workmanship," making him the first treatise writer outside of France to endorse Tourte specifically.8 Spohr's description of bow strokes also illustrates his close association with the French school. He describes several bow strokes, including the sustained detache, the "Viotti" bowing, and a bowing "called in the French school 'martele' (hammered).. .a

7

Spohr, 2.

8

Ibid., 8.

36 sharp, smart, quick stroke or push with the upper part of the bow." This description of the martele stroke is remarkably similar to the definition found in the conservatoire method of Rode, Kreutzer, and Baillot. Spohr notates vertical lines and dots to describe separated notes, but his wording is often ambiguous. Notes with vertical lines are labeled simply "short bows," lacking any clear reference to an "on" or "off distinction. Dots are used only under a slur and labeled "staccato." 9 Generally, Spohr's treatise shows a propensity for on-the-string bow strokes. The only exceptions are in a brief description of slurred staccato, in which "the bow is lifted after every push, but not so much as to cause the edges of the hair to rise off the string," and an explanation of the French fouette (whipped) stroke: "the bow is lifted over the string, and. ..thrown with force on it, and as close to the point as possible."10 No description or mention can be found of any stroke resembling spiccato, sautille, or ricochet. Scholar Boris Swartz compared the style of Spohr to another important virtuoso of the mid-nineteenth century in these words: "[Charles de Beriot's] graceful style, stressing the bouncing bow and the flying staccato, stood in direct contrast to the German school of Spohr, whose bow always adhered to the string."1' Baillot Pierre Baillot's L 'art du violon (1834) is truly comprehensive, addressing violin issues at the highest artistic level. His is by far the longest treatise discussed in this study,

9

Ibid., 102-103.

10

Ibid., 104, 106.

11

Schwarz, 209.

37 and contains the most thorough survey of off-the-string bow strokes. Fetis remarked, "of all the basic books that have been written on the art of playing instruments, this one is the best thought out, the best written, the most forward-looking, and the most useful."12 Baillot was considered one of the greatest and most popular violinists of his time. He gained special prominence for his interpretations of works by other composers; he did not primarily perform his own works, as most artists had done before him. He was a great proponent of chamber music, founding one of the first concertizing string quartets in Paris. Notably, Baillot was also a champion of the music of Beethoven and was the first violinist to perform the Beethoven concerto in France.13 Spohr said of Baillot's playing, "His bowstroke is skillful and rich in shades of expression."14 We know that Baillot owned at least three Tourte bows.15 Like many of his contemporaries, he praised its advantages, making special mention of its elasticity in executing bounced strokes. In his treatise, Baillot categorizes the existent bow strokes in great detail. He divides the detache stroke into three specific types: 1) on the string, 2) those produced with elasticity, and 3) sustained. Within the second category, he includes four specific types of bounced strokes: light detache, perle, spiccato, and ricochet. The light detache and perle strokes appear to be nineteenth-century forms of the modern sautille. They should be executed with an "elongated bounce.. .without lifting the hair from the

12

Quoted in Baillot, xxiii.

13

Baillot, xvii.

14

Quoted in Schwarz, 165.

15

Baillot, 501.

38 string."16 The only difference between the two strokes is their length: the perle is shorter and used in faster tempos. Baillot's treatise is the only one in this study that uses the term spiccato, and is played by "[making] the bow bounce lightly in the same place, leaving the string a little."17 His description of the ricochet stroke is similar to Guhr's: "[the player] throws the bow at the lower end of the middle.. .the bow rebounds and 'bites' several notes by itself."18 Although not completely consistent, Baillot uses dots and vertical lines to indicate various types of separated articulation. Dots usually represent general separation and can be applied to several of Baillot's bow strokes: if dots appear under a slur, they can represent ricochet or slurred staccato; the martele stroke is also most often indicated with dots. A vertical line usually indicates a lifted stroke, most often spiccato or its closely related forms. Ricochet is notated throughout the treatise with vertical lines and dots. We can make a general supposition about Baillot's notation: dots indicate on-the-string articulation, and vertical lines indicate an off-the-string stroke. Perhaps influenced by the style of Paganini or the change in musical aesthetic toward more Romantic ideals, Baillot extends the technical capabilities of the Tourte bow beyond Viotti, emphasizing its elasticity in producing bounced strokes. The fact that many forms of off-the-string strokes now appear in a major treatise represents their shift from being peculiar or exceptional to mainstream. Baillot's treatises illustrates the Tourte

16

Ibid., 186,509.

17

Ibid., 187.

18

Ibid., 184.

39 bow's full technical capability, including strength of attack (cherished by Viotti) and exceptional bouncing attributes.

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS Off-the-string violin playing was clearly employed during the mid-eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries, but for different reasons at different times. The principle factors that governed the use of these bounced strokes were the musical aesthetic of the time and the equipment used. Each of these elements underwent dramatic changes during this period of time. In the mid-eighteenth century, the prevailing musical style dictated a naturally separated articulation, which was often achieved by lifting the bow out of the string. Special effects, including ricochet were used by the most accomplished virtuosos, but were not considered mainstream. The Baroque-style bows, including those used by Corelli, Tartini, Geminiani, and Leopold Mozart, exhibited the capability to execute virtually all modern "bounced" strokes. The playing style of Viotti in the late eighteenth century represented a new musical aesthetic emphasizing power, attack, and cantabile playing. The Tourte bow was instrumental in facilitating the artistic ideals of the French school, making accented strokes an important aspect of violin playing. Reference to bounced strokes in the treatises and literature of this time is virtually non-existent. By the early to mid-nineteenth century, the unprecedented technical feats of Nicolo Paganini propelled the virtuosic bounced strokes from the peculiar to the mainstream. The comprehensive treatises of the 1830's, particularly Baillot's L 'art du violon, exploited the full technical and expressive potential of the Tourte bow, combining on-the-string strength with off-the-string brilliance.

41 The treatises discussed in this study provide a wealth of information concerning historical notation practices. Although each author offers a slightly different interpretation, there are remarkable consistencies regarding the question of playing on or off the string. In the most general terms, a dot indicates separation without specifying an on or off stroke; vertical lines indicate a special form of articulation, usually executed with a lift in the bow. The appendix to this study gives specific examples from each of the treatises relevant to off-the-string bow strokes. In addition to clarifying the history of off-the-string violin playing, the writer hopes to have dispelled the common misconception that bounced bow strokes were only possible after the invention of the Tourte bow. Although the innovations of modern equipment are crucial to the bow's expressive and technical capabilities, the modern conception of off-the-string playing was more a product of aesthetic than equipment. The wealth of information from treatises as early as 1751 illustrates that off-the-string playing was a common technique dating from the Baroque period.

REFERENCES Treatises Baillot, Pierre Marie Francois de Sales. The Art of the Violin. Edited and Translated by Louise Goldberg. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1991. Beriot, Charles August de. Methode de violon, op. 102. Revised by Gustav Saenger. New York: Carl Fischer, 1913. Corrette, Michel. L'art de seperfectionner dans le violon. Sibley Music Library, Eastman School of Music, Rochester, 1959; Paris, [1783]. Microcard. Campagnoli, Bartolomeo. A New and Progressive Method on the Mechanism of Violin Playing. Translated by John Bishop. London: Robert Cocks & Co., 1856. . Metodoper Violino. Revised by Enrico Polo. New York: G. Ricordi & Co., 1928. Frascarelli, Angelo. "Elementi teorico-practici di musica by Francesco Galeazzi: an Annotated English Translation and Study of Volume I." D.M.A. diss., Eastman School of Music, University of Rochester, 1968. Geminiani, Franscesco. The Art of Playing on the Violin. Edited by David D. Boyden. London: Oxford University Press, 1952. Guhr, Carl. Paganini's Art of Violin Playing. Translated and Edited by Joseph Gold. San Francisco: Teresa Parker Associates, 1982. L'abbe le fils. Principes du Violon. Edited by Aristide Wirsta. Paris: Centre de Documentation Universitaire, 1961. Locatelli, Pietro. L Arte del Violino. Milan: Ricordi, 1920. Mozart, Leopold. A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing. Translated by Editha Knocker. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Paganini. Niccolo. Twenty-four Caprices. Edited by Ivan Galamian. New York: International Music Company, 1973. Rode, Pierre. Violin-Schule von Rode, Kreutzer u. Baillot. Translated by Ad. Griinewald. Leipzig: C.F. Peters, [1800]. Spohr, Louis. Spohr's Grand Violin School. Edited by U.C. Hill. Boston: O. Ditson, 1852.

43 Tartini, Giuseppe. A Letter from the Late Signor Tartini to Signora Maddalena Lombardini. Translated by Charles Burney. London: R. Bremner, 1779. Reprint, New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1967. . Traite des agrements de la musique. Edited by Edwin R. Jacobi. Translated by Cuthbert Girdlestone. New York: H. Moeck, 1961. ^ . The Art of Bowing. Edited by Ferdinand David. Revised by E.L. Winn. New York: Carl Fischer, 1905. Woldemar, Michel. Grande methode, ou, Etude elementaire pour le violon, 2d ed. Library of Congress Photoduplication Service, Washington D.C.; Paris: Chez Hanry, [1800]. Microfilm. Other Sources Babitz, Sol. Differences Between 18' Century and Modern Violin Bowing. Los Angeles: Early Music Laboratory, 1970. Bachmann, Werner, et al. "Bow." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/03753 (accessed 15 June 2008). Boy den, David D. The History of Violin Playing, from Its Origins to 1761 audits Relationship to the Violin and Violin Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965. . "The Violin Bow in the 18th Century." Early Music 8 (April 1980): 199-212. Clark, Julian H. "The Developing Violin Bow." Early Music 8 (April 1980): 226-227. Curry, Pat Bryan. "The Francois Tourte Violin Bow: Its Development and Its Effect on Selected Solo Violin Literature of the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries." Ph.D. diss., Brigham Young University, 1968. Dunning, Albert. "Locatelli, Pietro Antonio." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/16840 (accessed 20 September 2008). Fetis, Francios Joseph. Biographic Universelle Des Musiciens et Bibliographic de la Musique, 2d ed. Vol. 8. Paris: Firmin Didot, 1870.

Generate

._. Biographical Notice ofNicolo Paganini. London: Schott & Co., 1876. Reprint, New York: AMS Press Inc., 1976.

44

Galamian, Ivan. Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, 3d ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985. Goldsmith, Pamela. "Bowing Articulation in the Transitional Period (1761-1802)." The Strad 89 (March 1979): 1039-1047. _ . "First Violin Methods Using the Tourte Bow." The Strad 91 (February 1981): 729-30, 800-802. Hawkins, Sir John. A General History of the Science and Practice of Music. 2 vols. London: J. Alfred Novello, 1853. Reprint, New York: Dover, 1963. Lorrin, Mark. Dictionary of Bowing and Tonal Techniques for Strings. Miami Beach: Folk World, Inc., 1968. McVeigh, Simon, et al. "Cramer." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/44589pgl (accessed 12 January 2009). Morgan, Philip. "Some Thoughts on Eighteenth Century Staccato and Spiccato." The Strad 89 (July 1978): 249-253. Neill, Edward. "Paganini, Nicolo." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/40008 (accessed 5 December 2008). Petrobelli, Pierluigi. "Tartini, Giuseppe." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/27529 (accessed 14 February 2009). Rousseau, Jean. Traite de la viole, qui contient une dissertation curieuse sur son origine. Paris: C. Ballard, 1687. Reprint, Amsterdam: Antiqua, 1965. Sala, Massimiliano. Editor. Giovanni Batista Viotti: A Composer Between the Two Revolutions. Bolgna: Ut Orpheus Edizioni, 2006. Schroder, Jaap. Bach's Solo Violin Works: A Performer's Guide. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007. Schueneman, Bruce R. The French Violin School: Viotti, Rode, Kreutzer, Baillot and their Contemporaries. Edited by William E. Studwell. Kingsville, Texas: The Lyre of Orpheus Press, 2002.

45 Schwarz, Boris. Great Masters of the Violin: From Corelli and Vivaldi to Stern, Zukerman and Perlman. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983. Schwarze, Penny. "Two Aspects of Baroque Violin Technique: Part One: the Frog Hold" Journal of the Violin Society ofAmerica 20:2 (Summer 2006): 189-206. Seletsky, Robert E. "New Light on the Old Bow - 1." Early Music 32 (May 2004): 286301. . "New Light on the Old Bow - 2." Early Music 32 (August 2004): 415-426. Sheppard, Leslie and Herbert R. Axelrod. Paganini. Neptune City, N.J.: Paganiniana Publications, Inc., 1979. Stowell, Robin. The Early Violin and Viola: A Practical Guide. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. . Violin Technique and Performance Practice in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985. . "Violin Bowing in Transition: A Survey of Technique as Related in Instruction Books c. 1760-1830." Early Music 12 (August 1984): 317-327. . Beethoven: Violin Concerto. Cambridge Music Handbooks, ed. Julian Rushton. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Szabo, Zoltan. "The Violin Method of B. Campagnoli: An Analysis and Evaluation." D.M. diss., Indiana University, 1978. Walden, Valerie. "Mr. Tourte, I Need a New Bow! How the Tourte Design Became the Model for the Modern Bow." Strings 20 (October 2005): 65-71. White, Chappell. "Viotti, Giovanni Battista." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/29483 (accessed 19 November 2008). Zaslaw, Neal. "L'abbe." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.eom/subscriber/article/grove/music/l 575 lpg3 (accessed 2 February 2009).

APPENDIX A ILLUSTRATIONS

47

N° 1. — Mersenne, 1620.

N°2. — Kircher, 1640.

N° 3. — Castrovillari, 1660.

N° 4. — Bassani, 1680.

N"5. — Corelli, 1700.

N°6. — Tartini, 1740.

N° 7. — Cramer, 1770.

N ° 8 . — Viotti. 1790.

Figure 1. Eight bows from the 17 and 18 centuries. From Fetis' Antoine Stradivari (Paris, 1856).

48

Fig. 2S

Fig. n

Fig.32[

Fig. 31

Fig- 30

Fig. 29

hi b.

d.

f.

Figure 2. Six different 18th-century bows from Baillot's L 'art du violon (Paris, 1834). Labeled by the author: a, Corelli; b, Pugnani; c, no label; d, no label but a description, "greater flexibility and a little more strength at the tip, the frog has been lowered, the tip raised, and the stick strengthened a little;" e, Viotti;/, "the bow generally used today."

N°. I.Archet de C o r e l l i . -3^

N°.S.Archet de

N°. 3 . Archet de

Tartini.

Cramer.

1ST

,N°. A. Archet de Viotti.

Figure 3. Woldemar's depictions of the four major 18' -century bow types. From his Grande methode (Paris, 1800).

49

Figure 4. The bow of Francesco Geminiani. Frontispiece of The Art of Violin (Paris edition, 1752).

Figure 5. Guiseppe Tartini, with violin and bow. Engraving after a portrait by (?)V. Rota (1761).

50

TiK. 11?*

i/:B'^ff'R**'

Figure 6. Bow images from Leopold Mozart's Violinschule (Augsburg, 1756).

51

t•

>.

•

i •

' . • • ' / '

9m

:

h

-1

/

/

Figure 7. Depiction of a transitional bow from Campagnoli's New and Progressive Method (1797).

52

Figure 8. This Begas lithograph (1820) shows Nicolo Paganini with a transitional bow with "battle-axe" head.

53

V.'--

/

«'.

Figure 9. This Ingres portrait from 1819 depicts Paganini holding a Tourtestyle bow.

54

Figure 10. Images from Louis Spohr's Violinschule (Vienna, 1833) showing a Tourte-style bow.

APPENDIX B NOTATION TABLES

56 The following tables include the most common musical notation and descriptions relating to off-the-string violin playing as found in the treatises used in this study. A certain ambiguity exists generally in these works regarding exactly what technical means were intended to execute a specific notation. However, many treatise writers are quite detailed and even include unique ways of notating a particular technique. The writer's intent is to clarify the historical uses and definitions of common violin notation and assist in the interpretation of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century literature. The tables are organized according to time period: 1) Baroque, 2) Transitional, and 3) Post-Tourte. In general, the notational symbols chosen are those most relevant to off-the-string bow strokes. Groups of eighth-notes indicate a slow to moderate speed, and groups of sixteenth-notes designate a faster speed. A blank space indicates that either the author gave no description of a particular marking or the material was too ambiguous to make specific assertions. When a bow stroke name appears in parentheses at the end of a description, this represents the modern bow stroke equivalent as defined by Galamian.

i

i

i

mssisxs

(no marking)

i

rrrr rrrr

rrrr

(no marking)

rrrr

Notation

Notated, but described as "peculiar" - not considered artistic.

Staccato "the bow is taken off the strings at every note"

Non- legato

Gemini ani

Detached "by a quick lift," deemed "somewhat difficult to the beginner."

Played up-bow; "the bow is lifted at each note" (flying spiccato)

Staccato "separated.. .without dragging the bow" (lifted off-the-string)

"separated by a slight pressure of the bow" (porlato)

Non-legato

L. Mozart

Tartini

j? 7 p 1 p i

"Play staccato as if they were separated by rests":

Non-legato

Notation from Baroque Treatises

TABLE 1

Roulades Florid running passages; played down- or up-bow.

"short, rapid bow" extra-short articulation perhaps lifted?

Separated

Non-legato

L'Abbelefils

-J

I

amm

ill

I

tils tils

an

Notation

1. Staccato - on-the-string at tip OR 2. Pichettato - "lightly bouncing stroke at the middle" {spiccato)

"Separated bows, off the string" (spiccato)

Separated

Note Sciolte Probably on the string (early martele)

Note Pichettate Up-bow; off the string (flying spiccato)

Lifted off the string

Separated

Note Portate "the bow does not leave the string" (portato)

Non-leeato

Campagnoli

Non-legato

Galeazzi

Non-legato

Corrette

Notation from Classic or Transitional-Bow Treatises

TABLE 2

00

i

i

i

i

rrrrrrr

i

rrrr

i

i

> > > >

rrrr

manele

rrrrrrrr

iiisiiis

(no marking)

rrrr usstsxs

i

frff

Notation

"Throwing the bow on the string and letting it bounce"; down- or up-bow; (ricochet)

Staccato On the string, up- or down-bow; very rapid.'

P 1 P* P* '

l

Bounced stroke (spiccato), sounds:

Guhr/Paganini

* 'P

*7 Pi

*• etc

Fouette "thrown with force onto the string, as close to the point as possible"

p •; p •/ ^ i

ff

Martele - "sharp, quick stroke" in the upper half; stopped on the string:

Staccato Up-bow, on the string

Light Detache - an "elongated bounced" stroke (sautille); OR Sustained Detache- on the string with no separation (detache)

Detache "equal in duration.. .without a stop, gap or rest."

Le staccato - on the string OR Ricochet - usually down-bow

Perle Separation produced by elasticity of the stick; off the string (sautille)

Lesautille (spiccato); OR another lifted stroke

Martele, OR Separated

Baillot

"Short bows" - separated notes, apparently on the string.

Spohr

Notation from Post-Tourte Treatises

TABLE 3

*s6