Bourguignon, Erika-Possession and Trance

 

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Possession and Trance Trance Erika Bourguignon

repla replaced, temporarily tempo rarily entity or permanently perma nently, bythought anothertoentity ent ity.. Moreced, rarely rarely, , a second may also,be enter without displacing displacing the first, first, eve evenn though the The English term “possession” includes both the concept concept the body without of ownership and of control and domination. Belief in behavioral manifestations are those of this additional possess poss ession ion by spiri spirits, ts, that is, is, the possib possibilit ilityy that that an presence. Such an explanation for possession by the spirit individual’s actions and behavior may be controlled by of a dead sinner (dybbuk ) is found in the Jewish tradition. spirits or demons, is attested attested in English English usage from the A belief in entities that may possess individuals is also 16th century. These beliefs have left their traces in every- required, be they hostile or benevolent, spirits of the dead, day language. Belief in spirit possession is both ancient sometimes of animals or witchcraft beings. High gods are and very widespread as seen in the historical and ethno- rare among the spirits that are believed to possess graphic record. One of the remarkable features of this humans. It is apparent that beliefs in spirit possession are linkedd to complex cosmologies cosmologies,, altho although ugh the details of  system of beliefs and associated ritual practices is its very linke great flexibility and innovative potential. This is demon- such esoteric systems may be known only to ritual specialists. For For the ritual participants, participants, such cosmologies may strated its expansionmight and diffusion, difhave fusion, where declineInanda be more implicit than explicit. The behavior acted out is indeed by disappearance been expected. large-s lar ge-scale cale,, cros cross-cu s-cultur ltural al study study,, some form form of such such largely learned and structured by local expectations. Understanding the human being as consisting of  beliefs was found to be present in 77% of 488 sample several potentially separable parts may be used to account societies (Bourguignon, 1973). Given Given the terminological possession,”” but also for dreams, confusion at the time of this research and a great deal of  not only for “spirit possession, hallucinat cinations, ions, seizu seizures, res, and death death.. ad hoc generalization in the literature on the basis of  hallu single ethnographic cases, such systems of belief needed to be studied in the larger context of their behavioral and sociocultural correlates. Once the geographic distribu- BEHAVIORAL MANIFESTATIONS tions and the cultural cultural linkages linkages had been identified, identified, the special features of specific ethnographic instances could The behavioral manifestations of such “possessions, “possessions,” or be studied in depth. A distinction between beliefs and displacement of a person’s soul or other key element by behaviors revealed that certain types of behaviors reflect another entity, entity, vary widely but fall into two main groups: general human physiological and psychological features (1) negative changes changes in physical health or behavior or, or, on and that these are not necessarily associated with posses- the other other hand, hand, enhanc enhanced ed powers, powers, and (2) altera alterations tions in sion beliefs. A broad sampling of human societies made state of consciousness and behavior behavior.. Bourguignon (1973) it clear that what may be considered pathological in refers to the second type as Possession Trance and to the n on-Trance Possession). Western bio-medicine is often conceptualized in radically former simply as Possession (or non-Trance These two types have different geographic distributions different ways in other cultures. and are linked to different sociocultural and economic variables. Also, where they occur in the same society society,, they are likely to have different distributions within the SOURCES AND T YPES OF BELIEFS populatio popul ation. n. The sec second ond type type,, Pos Possess session ion Tr Trance ance,, is Possession beliefs are rooted in conceptions of the human significantly linked to female participation. being as consisting of several elements (such as body, Trance Tran ce (or dissociatio dissociation), n), not linked linked to possession possession mind mi nd,, pe pers rson onho hood od,, se self lf,, na name me,, id iden enti tity ty,, so soul ul or so soul uls, s, belief (non-Possession Trance), may be sought intentionintentionevenn part souls), eve souls), where one one or more of these these may be ally ally,, as in the vision quest of North American Indians.

INTRODUCTION

 

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Possession and an d Trance Trance

refers to to communicati communication on with spirits spirits,, usual usually ly As such it refers in visions. These may be auditory rather than visual in nature. Although Although at times women have sought visions, the typical seeker was a young man. Austerities (isolation, exposure, expos ure, fast fasting, ing, and so forth) forth) were were used used to induce induce the trance state. Trance may also occur spontaneously spontaneously.. How it will be

(or altered state state of consciousness consciousness)) and/or Possession Possession Trance in a sacred context. That is to say, say, Trance states interpreted as due to possession, possession, or interpreted in some other way, way, are here grouped together. together. For the remaining remaining 10%, evidence on the subject was was unavailable unavailable or inadequate. There were significant differences among ethnographic regions in the utilization of trance states: states: they

interpreted and evaluated will depend on the particular cultural context. A distinction between b etween Possession Trance and non-Possession Trance corresponds roughly to a distinction between possession religions and shamanism (e.g (e .g., ., de Heu Heusc sch, h, 19 1981 81). ). Ot Othe hers rs (e (e.g .g., ., Le Lewi wis, s, 19 1989 89)) generalize the term more widely, widely, applying it to all who control spirits, regardless of their manner of interaction. The terms terms “sham “shaman” an” and “sham “shamani anism” sm” are also also used used differently in different ethnographic regions. Since these terms are used quite inconsistently in the ethnographic and historical literature literature,, shamanism is currently a contested conte sted category category (Bourguignon (Bourguignon,, 1989a; Kehoe, Kehoe, 2000). As noted, for physical physical or behavioral behavioral changes changes to be

ranged from a high of 97% of societies in Native North Amer America, ica, to 94% each each in the the Insular Insular Pacif Pacific ic and East Eurasia, Eurasia, 84% in South South America, 83% in Sub-Saharan Sub-Saharan Africa, and to a low low of 80% in the Circum-Mediterranean Circum-Mediterranean region. A belief in spirit possession was found in 74% of  the world world sample. Again, there was was wide variatio variationn between world regions, regions, ranging from 88% of the societies societies of the Insular Pacific and East Eurasia, Eurasia, to 81% of SubSaharan Saha ran societie societies, s, 80% in the Circum-Me Circum-Mediter diterranea ranean, n, to 65% in South America, and finally North America with a low of 52%. Here we are counting both societies that either have a possession belief linked to trance states and those where possession refers to some other change in the

interpreted as due possession, a belief in possession must be availab available. le. to Such beliefs, if beliefs, not traditional traditi onal in a given community, community, may be adopted in contact situations. It should be emphasized emphasized that “possession” “possession” is not directly observable; it is an interpretation of behavior made by participants, and it is statements statements of participants that must be obtained by an outside observer or researcher to discover it. There are situations in which it may appear that an entity speaks through an individual—that is, an example of “possession”—but “possession”—but where, upon investigation, investigation, the individual may claim to be repeating what he hears, and fully remembers the message after the event (for a description of this situation among the Hunza of Northern Pakistan, Paki stan, see Sidky, Sidky, 1994). Amnesi Amnesia, a, actua actuall or normat normative ive,, full or partial, is frequently associated with with Possession Possession Trance, but not with Trance Trance where Possession is is absent. In this case, case, what the trancer trancer sees sees or hears must be remembered in order to be communicated to the group. Ritual trancing trancing is not idiosyncra idiosyncratic tic behavior, behavior, but is carried carri ed out in a group group context, context, often on behalf behalf of the the group.

host. WithWorld With regardistoindeed possession beliapart. beliefs, efs, one might say that the New a world Possession Trance is significantly correlated with Sub-Saharan Africa, where it appears in 45% of societies. By contrast, non-Possession Trance is highly correlated with North America, where it is found in 72% of sample societies. In addition, both Possession Trance Trance and Trance Trance are found in 20% of African societies. In North America, both are found in 21% of societies. In other words, while the most prominent form of sacred altered altered state of  consciousness in North America is Visionary Visionary Trance, in Africa it is Possession Trance. Visionary Trance is more likely to be found among men, Possession Trance among women. Belief in spirit possession is also widespread (Bourguigno (Bour guignon, n, 1976). ItIt appear appearss in 74% of sample sample socisocieties. Because of the difference between the near universality of institutionalized trance and the much lower incidence of possession beliefs, as well as other evidence, evidence, such as the widespread existence of nonsacred forms of  trance, it may be argued that trance trance has its roots in human physiology physi ology,, wherea whereass possession possession beliefs, which are highly variable, are cultural phenomena. The human capacity for trancing (or dissociation) thus may be seen as raw material for cultural utilization. It may be noted that Possession Trance involves the enactment of multiple roles by human actors. This is more likely to to be the case in complex complex societies, where

GEOGRAPHIC  DISTRIBUTIONS AND SOCIOCULTURAL CORRELATES In the study cited above, above, Bourguignon (1973) found that 90% of sample societies had institutionalized Trance

 

Possession Beliefs in Western Thought

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there exists a varied repertory of roles for individuals. It is then not surprising that correlations were found between the presence of Possession Trance and four variables showing showing degrees of societal complexity: complexity: estimated population size over 100,000; present or recent presence of slavery; permanent or semi-permanent settlements; and a jurisdictional hierarchy above the local level.

shows major differences in the predominant economy (hunting and gathering vs. agriculture), agriculture), small versus large large population size, size, simple versus versus complex complex political structures, etc. as well as the differential differential participation of men and women in religious rituals. In an early cross-cultural statistical statis tical study study,, D’Andra D’Andrade de (1961) studied studied the use of  dreams (and visionary trances—the two are not clearly

Societies with Trance only were significantly less likely to have these characteristics. Societies having both Trance and Possession Trance were found to be intermediary between the other two types or to be the most complex of all. These correlations have been confirmed by restudies by other scholars (Shaara & Strathern, 1992; Winkel Winkelman, man, 1992). Where both Possession Trance and non-Possession Trance are found in the same same society, society, it is often the case that they involve different types of persons and different contexts. The same applies to Possession and Possession Trance Tr ance.. For example, example, among the Azan Azande de (Evans(EvansPritchard, Pritc hard, 1937) there there is is a belief belief in in possessio possession: n: certa certain in

distinguished in the literature) to seek and control supernatural powers. He found that about 80% of hunting and fishing societies use dreams in this way and only 20% of  societies that depend on agriculture and animal husbandry do. But hunting and fishing was the predominant type of economy in native North America and relatively rare in Sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, Moreover, the seekers were primarily men. D’Andrade D’Andrade (1961, (1961, p. 326) speaks speaks of  “anxiety about being isolated and under pressure to be self-reliant” self-reli ant” and suggests suggests that that this this may create “an involvement with a type of fantasy about magical helpers.”” That the vision quest takes place at a time in the helpers. lives of young men when they needed to become inde-

people—mostly witchcraft ing in their bodiesmen—have which theya can activatecreature to causeresidharm to others. There are also “witch doctors, doctors,” most of whom also are men. They take “medicines which give them power to see the unseen and to resist great fatigue” (Evans-Pr (Eva ns-Pritcha itchard, rd, 1937, p.178) p.178).. It is not known known whether whether these “medicines” are pharmacologically active. active. They are takenn in conjunction take conjunction with drumming, drumming, singi singing, ng, and active active dancing during which the witch doctors achieve a state of  dissociation dissocia tion in in which which they they prophecy prophecy,, and identify identify witches. That is, there exists a ritual Trance Trance state among the Azande, Azande, which is not linked to a belief belief in possession. However, Howev er, Possession Trance Trance did exist among the Azande, for Evans-Pritchard (1962) tells us that they also had women ghost diviners who went into trance and were possessed. In a study of a sample of African societies, Greenbaum (1973) has found support for a hypothesis suggesting a relationship between the presence of  Possession Trance and societal rigidity rigidity.. Winkelman (1992), focusing his attention on various types of “trance-based healers”—that is, is, healers employing trance states—offers a four-fold classification: Shaman; shaman/healer; healer; medium. These four types are found linked to levels of societal complexity. The difference between Sub-Saharan Africa and Native North America suggests some explanatory hypotheses: the ethnographic record record of these two regions

pendent and self-reliant societies where self-reliance and independenc indep endence e were in nece necessary ssary for the male the role, is also noteworthy. noteworthy. On the other hand, in the agricultural, sedentary seden tary societ societies ies of Afric Africa, a, Posse Possessio ssionn Trance Trance,, practiced in groups, addressed the concerns of women women with striking frequency. They often involve diagnoses of  problems, proble ms, by means of divinati divination, on, concer concernn for long-term long-term relationshi relat ionshipp with spirits, spirits, as well as the opportunity opportunity to act out various various roles. When women are are possessed possessed by powerful male spirits, these may be their spirit husbands.

POSSESSION BELIEFS IN WESTERN THOUGHT A difficulty difficulty with the concept of “possession” “possession” arises from its history in the Western tradition, since ideas of some types of demonic and other possessions come to us from both Hebrew and Greek sources. sources. For example, the New Testament (Mark 5:1–17) describes Jesus exorcising a mad man, whose possessing spirits then went went into a herd of swine who drowned d rowned themselves. This account has been related to its political context: the Roman occupation of  Palestine Pale stine (Crossan, (Crossan, 1994, p. 89). Luke (11:14–15) (11:14–15) tells of  a mute man who was able to speak once the spirit that possessed him was driven out. Numerous exorcists were active in Galilee at the time, where there was probably a mass of manuals and other literature available to them.

 

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The popular view of the day, day, as expressed in in the New Testam estament, ent, was that that evil spirits spirits caused caused illness, illness, physic physical al and mental, mental, by possessing possessing people people (Guinebert, (Guinebert, 1959). The The sophisticated sophistic ated view view of the time, time, expresse expressedd by Jewish Jewish writers such as as Flavius Josephus and Philo Philo Judaeus, was rather that it was the souls of evildoers who possessed individuals, a view that was elaborated later in in Jewish

A vari variety ety of explanati explanations ons have have been offered, offered, both by the people themselves and by outside observers. Lewis (1989) sees possession trance religions as consisting of of two types. types. He distinguishes between central morality cults and amoral peripheral cults. The central cults are dominated by men and support the official morality of the society; the peripheral ones are

history, where a tradition of negative history, negative spontaneous possession and exorcism continued. As for the Greek traditio tradition, n, where evidenc evidencee is also limited, limi ted, sour sources ces avai availabl lablee to scholars scholars have have been been interpreted as dealing with with Possession Trance, Trance, rather than possession as evidenced in mental or physical illness. The examples given given by Dodds (1957) refer to the Phythia, Phythia, that is, the Delphic Delphic oracle oracle of Apollo, Apollo, whose propheci prophecies es were believed to be coming from the god (see also Maurizio, 1995). Dodds also considers the cult of Dionysius, particularl parti cularlyy as reflected reflected in Euripides’ Euripides’ play play,, the Bacchae. The Frenc Frenchh classi classicist, cist, Jeanm Jeanmaire aire (1951), compa compares res the fragmentary evidence on Greek Dyonesian religions with

amoral and the possessed are mostly women and other deprived persons. He argues that “for all their concern with disease and its treatment, such women’s women’s possession cults … are thinly disguised disguised protest movements directed against again st the the domina dominant nt sex” sex” (Le (Lewis, wis, 1989, p. 31). 31). Kend Kendall all (1985) has challenged challenged Lewis’ Lewis’ss thesis, arguing that in Korea the healing and Possession Trance activities primarily controlled by women are complementary to the male-dominated male-domina ted ancestor ancestor cult, cult, and do not represent represent a peripheral cult, nor are they amoral amoral or protest movements movements directed against men. Consequently Consequently,, the Korean religious and ritual system involves both sets of activities. Lewis also claims that Possession Trance of the socially

the zar to cult modern Ethiopia. both cases appears be of a curative curati ve function, andInwomen are putthere into Possession Trance with the use of drum rhythms. Here, rather than than exorcism, exorcism, we find rituals rituals of initiation initiation and attempts at meeting the demands of the possessing spirit, thus turning a negative presence into an ally ally.. In addition, Johnston (2001) describes a form of Greek divination using child mediums. In the Christian Christian tradition, tradition, demoni demonicc possession possession and exorcism exorc ism have, have, at times, times, playe playedd a signif significant icant role, sometimes involving important political issues. The case of  the posses possessed sed nuns of London London in 17th-century 17th-century France France represents a dramatic example example (de Certeau, Certeau, 2000). As a result of this background, Western observers at times have been tempted to read evidence of “possession,”” where, in fact, sion, fact, such an understand understanding ing may not have have corresponded to the particular local tradition.

deprived constitutes a means of manipulating ful through supernatural sanctions. He speaksthe of powerthis as an expression of the war between the sexes. He gives Haiti as an example where, he claims, vodou is an amoral peripheral cult. This is an inappropriate example. Manipulation through supernatural sanctions can work only if the powerful share the belief system of those who would so manipulate them. Brazilians explain the greater disposition of women to become mediums by their view that the process of  developing their mediumistic capacities requires suffering, and women women have a greater capacity capacity for sufferi suffering ng than th an me men. n. Nutritional explanations have also been proposed, particularly with regard to calcium metabolism. The most elegant model has been proposed by Raybeck et al. (1989). These authors relate the problems encountered by individual women at the sociocultural level on the one hand to existing existing beliefs in possession by spirits, and to stress and anxiety at the psychological level on the other. This leads to physiological changes, notably a depressed depressed level of calcium in the blood, independent of dietary calcium intake. It is known from substantial physiological research that women’s calcium metabolism differs from that of men. The resulting symptoms, such as dizziness, nes s, tre tremors mors,, con convul vulsion sions, s, and dis dissoc sociat iation ion are the thenn interpreted as spirit possession at the cultural level. This intere interesting sting model model,, howe however ver,, remai remains ns to to be teste testedd in field studies.

POSSESSION RELIGIONS, WOMEN,  AND MORALITY It has been observed consistently that in most instances of possession illness and Possession Possession Trance, Trance, the majority of spirit hosts are women. This was true of 19th-century European spirit mediums as well as contemporary leaders of Spiritualist churches in the United States, of Balinese and Zulu healers and diviners, of possession trancers in Haitian vodou, and Brazilian Brazilian Afro-Cat Afro-Catholic holic religions religions..

 

Possession and Healing

POSSESSION AND HEALING In recent years there has been a great and continuous increase incre ase in the literature literature dealing with possessio possession, n, both descriptively and analytically. This corresponds also to the worldwide distribution of the phenomena in question, as well as to greater interest in various aspects of this complex subject by researchers. Beginning in the 1960s, with the development of transcultural psychiatry, Possession Trance religions and shamanism have been considered with regard to their functions as healing system sys temss (e.g. (e.g.,, Kie Kievv, 1964 1964;; Princ Prince, e, 1964 1964). ). More rece recent nt studies have focused on a broad range of other issues, such as commun communicati ication, on, discou discourse rse analys analysis, is, women women’s ’s positi pos ition, on, pol politi itical cal resista resistance nce,, ref reflec lectio tions ns of his histor toryy, and social change. Not only do new Possession Trance religions spring up, but even even among established religions, such as Haitian vodou, new spirits make themsel themselves ves known. The focus of analysis varies with the individual researcher and the specific local situation. The rather rough grouping into two types of possession (see above) includes a variety of subtypes—for example, the concerns concerns with with healing healing are much more more prominent in East Africa then in West West Africa. The African Diaspora, Dias pora, as in in Brazil, Brazil, has produc produced ed an an emphasis emphasis on mediumistic capacities, in which which suffering—though suffering—though not necessarily illness—is seen as leading to spiritual development.. The Jew opment Jewish, ish, Christ Christian, ian, and Mosle Moslem m tradit traditions ions see possession possession almost entirely entirely as negative negative,, due to demonicc or other hostile demoni hostile forces, and as requiring requiring exorcism—that is, the driving out of the invading invading spirit that produces manifestations that are interpreted as hostile to religion. There are, howeve however, r, some exceptions. exceptions. For example, the Protestant Pinrotestant glossolalia glossolal ia (speaking tongues) tradition as a sign ofunderstands possession by the Holy Ghost. The Anastenaria ritual of Northern Greece (Greek Macedonia and formerly also Thrace) involves a healing tradition in which participants are possessed by Saints Constantine and Helen while they dance on burning embers. This practice is sanctioned within the Greek Orthodox Ortho dox Church (Danforth, (Danforth, 1989). In mystical mystical Judais Judaism, m, some schola scholars rs (Goldish (Goldish,, personal communication, 2003) read the voice of a supernatural entity (maggid), that speaks to or through mystics and prophet prophetss as possess possessions ions,, whil whilee others others do not (e.g (e .g.,., Bi Bilu lu,, 19 1996 96). ). Islam,, on the whole, Islam whole, has been tolerant tolerant of local local spirit spirit beliefs. Thus, in various parts of North Africa as well as in Sub-Saharan Africa, spirit cults are active active in which

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Possession Trance Possession Trance is part of the ritual ritual activity activity,, and initially harmful spirits are transformed into allies and helping spirits through the ritual process. This is true of  the zar zar cult cult in Sud Sudan an (e.g. (e.g.,, Bod Boddy dy,, 198 1989), 9), Egy Egypt pt (e.g. (e.g.,, Salima, Sal ima, 1902) 1902),, and the the Gnaw Gnawaa of Moroc Morocco co (Chlye (Chlyeh, h, 1999; Welte, Welte, 1990). This last is one of many groups whose history reveals it to be a cult of the Sub-Saharan Diaspora. Traditionally Traditionally,, men have been primarily drummers and women mediums and healers. However, However, Welte (1999) argues that, that, as a result of the worldwide pauperization of peoples, men are now expressing expressing depression in psychos psy chosoma omatic tic symptom symptomss interpre interpreted, ted, and treate treated, d, as possession and requiring exorcism. As noted earlier, earlier, there is a frequent linkage between possession beliefs and altered states of consciousness (trance). However, However, its precise nature varies substantially. substantially. If we consider consider possessio possessionn belief, trance state, state, and a third variable, vari able, illne illness, ss, then the follow following ing examples examples show show this variation very very clearly. clearly. Thus, in the zar cult of Eastern Africa Afr ica (Eg (Egypt ypt,, Sud Sudan, an, Eth Ethiop iopia, ia, Som Somali alia), a), as ment mention ioned ed earlier, variousastypes illness or strange behaviorfugue may be diagnosed spiritofpossession. These include stat st ates es,, st stoma omach ch ac aches hes,, in infe ferti rtili lity ty,, apa apath thyy, se seiz izure ures, s, an andd many other other symptoms. symptoms. On the basis of divinati divination, on, the possessing spirit is identified and will then be invited; that is, possessi possession on trance is ritually ritually induced. induced. Over time, through cult initiation, the spirit is placated placated and turned into an ally. The result is a life-long cult membership. In Posse Possession ssion Trance Trance,, the women women enact complex complex personpersonalities of individual zar spirits. By contrast, Corin (1998) describes describes the Zebola cult of the Congo, and particularly of Kinshasa. Here illness is explained as due to the malevolence of others. It is redefined as spirit possession by means of divination. During Duri ng divina divination tion,, the spirit spirit manif manifests ests itse itself, lf, spea speaks ks through the woman in Possession Possession Trance, identifies itself, itself, and reveals the causes of the illness. A lengthy process of  initiation follows; it seeks to control the spirit by inhibiting manifestations of trance. This is accomplished, among other other things, things, throug throughh medication medications, s, as well well as the teaching of complex dance performances. The woman then maintains a relationship with the spirit which is now her protector pr otector.. Haitian vodou presents quite a different picture. Here illness and bad dreams are seen as harassment by vodou spirits (lwa) to encourage the victim to seek initiation. Possession Trance may also occur spontaneously, and then require divination for the identification of the spirit. Initiation and ritual participation are seen as

 

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religi religious ous and familial obligations. obligations. Possession Possession Trance, Trance, in which the complex complex characters characters of spirits are acted acted out, are part of long-term relationships between humans and their spiritss who need spirit need to be fed, as well as entertained entertained,, in order to give humans the support they need in their difficult lives.

Possession and an d Trance Trance

searches for alternatives) and partly due to crises in identity. Examples include the presence of Caribbean religions in the United States and in the United Kingdom. These were syncretic religions developed in the areas from which the the migrants have have come. In Trinidad, Trinidad, for example, exam ple, we find both both South Indian Kali Kali religion religion and Afro-Protestant Afro-Protes tant groups, both of which are at this time rep-

resented in Britain. In a different different vein, the development development of  and interest in Channeling in the United States speaks to While exorcism had virtually disappeared as a practice in a concern concern with identi identity ty and self self help (M. Bro Brown, wn, 1997) 1997).. Catholicism and mainstream Protestantism through most This pattern of mediumistic behavior is distinct from earof the 20th century, century, it has made a significant come back lier Spiritualism Spiritualism of the 19th and early 20th century, century, where in the last 30 years. It received great popular attention the spirits called up through mediums were those of the with the publication of the book and the film The Exorcist  recently dead. The spirits called on by channelers address in the 1970s. 1970s. In the same same period, the exorcism exorcism of a more distant, distant, impers impersonal onal spirit spirit guides. There There is also a German girl attracted worldwide attention. When she belief in reincarnation and previous lives. Most channeldied, the priests/exorcists and the girl’s girl’s parents were were con- ers are women; most spirits male. victed of unintended manslaughter. While the exorcisms Although Spiritualism was first developed in the had continued over over an extended period of time, she was Unite Unitedd States, it rapidly rapidly spread to Europe. A French also diagnosed and treated for epilepsy by a physician vari variety ety,, as developed developed by Alain Kardec Kardec (pseudonym (pseudonym of 

THE RETURN OF EXORCISM

(Goodman, 1981). Archbis Archbishop hoptoofbeNew York permitted an exorcism of The a teenage girl broadcast on the ABC program 20/20. In this case the girl had been diagnosed and was under treatment for schizophrenia. What is interpreted as possession requiring exorcism in a given situation varies widely but seems to involve some common features. One of these is uncharacteristic behavior.. Hensely (1993) tells behavior tells the story of a man, in the Ohio–Kentucky border area, who is believed believed by an exorexorcizing minister to to be possessed. Carl, a humble and meek man, has outbursts of violence. violence. This is said to be due to people who died violent deaths in a club location Carl frequented, and whose spirits have not moved on. As of 2001, there are frequent reports of exorcisms in national newspapers and magazines; a Seattle radio station reportedly conducts exorcisms over the air. (See alsoo Cuneo’ als Cuneo’s, s, 2001, rev review iew of the the curre current nt state state of  exorcism in America.)

POSSESSION RELIGIONS ARE INCREASING IN NUMBERS The great increase in the reporting of the phenomena in question is likely to be due to both a growth of interest and awareness awaren ess by researchers, but also to an actual increase in incidence. This in turn seems to be partly due to displacement/diffusion ment/dif fusion of populations, and spread spread to others, others, partly due to health crises (including both traditional healing and

H. L. D. Spiritistic Rivail) Riv ail),, has been and been mostProtestant most influentia influe ntial l in Latin Latin America. religions Evangelical religions which encourage ecstatic experiences are the most rapidly spreading forms of religion worldwide.

POSSESSION RELIGIONS AS WORSHIP AND TRADITION To see Possession Trance only in medical terms would be a mistake. Behavior that might be seen as pathological in the Western Western or bio-medical bio-medical system, may be seen in terms of a mythico-religious system in a traditional society. Hollan (2000, pp. 546–547) notes that “possession “possession behavbehavior that is culturally culturally normativ normative, e, no matter matter how how bizarre or irrational it appears from a Western Western point of view, view, should never be considered considered pathological pathological or psychotic…. psychotic …. [It] is culturally constituted symbolic behavior …. ….”” As Suryani Suryani and Jensen (1993, p. 46) write: “In Bali, Bali, ritual possess possession ion is common, common, controll controlled, ed, desirab desirable, le, sociall sociallyy useful, highly value valued, d, sociall sociallyy reinforced reinforced by society society and individual indi vidually ly sati satisfyin sfying. g.”” Balin Balinese ese Possession Possession Trance occurs in numerous contexts: contexts: the work of traditional healhealers (balian), ma mask sked ed rit ritual ual dra drama mas, s, kri kriss dance dancers rs,, hob hobby by horsee dancers, hors dancers, litt little le girl girl trance trance dancer dancers, s, and so forth forth.. Among forms of Possession Trance considered aberrant and sometimes requiring biomedical intervention are incidents of collective dissociation among school girls and attacks of amok among men.

 

Summary and Some Conclusions

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Traditional people may be caught in a conflict between two different explanatory systems (Kleinman, 1980). Possession Trance linked to long-term relationships with one or more spirits involves the development of  what appear to be secondary or alternative personalities. This may be seen by psychiatrists as D(issociative) I(denity) D(isorder), D(isorder), often referred to as Multiple Multiple Personality Personality

members of the educated middle class among these groups are now identifying themselves with religious practices that were primarily linked to the poor in their homelands. These were negatively sanctioned and often denied by the earlier generations of their families (see K. Brown, Brown, 199 1991; 1; Palmié Palmié,, 199 1991). 1). Pentecostal and Charismatic churches have a long

(Bourguignon, (Bourguign on, 1989b 1989b;; Suryani Suryani & Jens Jensen, en, 1993) 1993).. Bizarre Bizarre behavior and speech may be diagnosed as psychotic by psychiatrists. It might be noted that Suryani herself is both a Western-trained physician and psychiatrist and a balian, a Balinese trance healer. In rece recent nt year years, s, for ex exam ample ple,, zar bel belie iefs fs and and practices have been brought to Israel by Jewish immigrants from Ethiopia. Ethiopia. As reported by Witzum, Grizaru, and Budowski (1996), some women who who had brought zar  illness behavior from Ethiopia were inappropriately referred refer red to menta mentall health clinics, hospit hospitalize alized, d, and treated with anti-psychoti anti-psychoticc medications. medications. By contrast, contrast, having their behavior labeled as  zar  possession provided them

and variable history in this country. Here the faithful experiencee possession experienc possession by the Holy Spirit, speak in tonguess (glossolalia) tongue (glossolalia),, and manifest manifest other “Gifts of the Spirit.”” They are associated with Spirit. with healing only to a limited extent. They have widespread appeal as well in Latin America and Africa, where they may may be in competition competition with established Possession Trance religions. Any consideration of rituals of Possession Trance and, often also also of Tra Trance, nce, must not not neglect neglect the esthe esthetic tic aspects of what are more or less complex performances. The most famous are to be found in Bali, but also in India on the one hand and in the Afro-American traditions of  Brazil. Possession Trance rituals only rarely involve the

and theirthefamilies copingThe with and avoided stigma ofmeans mentalofillness.  zar distress ritual serves as a curing ceremonial. Kahn and Kelly (2001) conducted a study of Xhosaspeaking psychiatric nurses in South Africa and note “their dual allegiance to apparently competing and largely incommensurate incommensur ate mental mental health health paradigms” paradigms” (pp. 34–35). 34–35). Here it is health care workers, as well as as patients, patients, who are involved in the conflict between competing explanatory systems. A major category of Xhosa traditional healers are diviners,, who are “called” to their profession by an initiadiviners initiatory illness, inv involving olving possession possession by ancestor spirits spirits and who in their divination practices go into Possession Trance. Possession Trance rituals, howev however, er, do not necessarily deal with illness and curing. They may serve to alleviate many different kinds of stress, such as marital or financial problems or concern over school examinations. They may also be experienced as forms of devotion and fulfillment of obligations to the spirits inherited in family lines or revealed to specific individuals. As such they reflect participants’ sense of self self and of belonging. For Caribbean people in the United States, for example Haitians, Haitians, Cubans Cubans,, and Jamaicans, Jamaicans, their Afro-Ch Afro-Christi ristian an religions, in which rituals center around various forms of  Possession Trance, have become significant elements in their reaffirma reaffirmation tion of their ethnic identities identities.. This is illustrate illus tratedd by the fact fact that, that, in the Unite Unitedd States, States, some

use of masks, as in theindividuals trance dramas Bali. More freMore quently the possessed act outofthe personalities and activities of the possessing spirits in interactions with wi th th thee audi audien ence ce,, in dan dance ce,, an andd cost costum umes es,, al alll of itit accompanied accom panied by music, music, freque frequently ntly drumming, drumming, the whole whole constituting a dramatic performance. Moore (1982) discusses music and dance as expressions of religious worship, worship, with specific specific reference reference to Cumina and Revival, Revival, two religious groups in Jamaica. Jamaica. He notes that to participants these art forms are vehicles “for self expression and release of inner tensions…[a]psychic outpouring [that] restores vitality and refreshes r efreshes the whole person” perso n” (p. 299).

SUMMARY AND SOME CONCLUSIONS Beliefs in the possibility of possession by spirits or other entities has been found to be very widespread among the societies of the world. Howeve However, r, there are regional variavariations in the percentage of societies that have such beliefs and the manner in which these beliefs are formulated. Such variations are not random or arbitrary but are related to other sociocultural features predominant in a given region or characteristic of particular societies. As the societies change under impact of modernization and globalization some of the beliefs and ritual practices change also.

 

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A study of ideas of possession by spirits and other beings necessarily leads to an investigation of how this possession is experienced and therefore to a study of the ritualization of possession states and to trance (altered states of consciousness, dissociation). It also leads to a study of the relationship to other features of the societies in which these occur, occur, how they are distributed distributed throughout the world, world, who the the participant participantss are, how the the states states are are diagnosed and evaluated, evaluated, and what social uses are made of possession states. Historically Histor ically,, the approach approach to both possession possession and trance has reflected the interests of the investigators. In Haiti,, for example Haiti example,, the initia initiall writings writings had to to do with demonology and then with ideas of pathology, specifi specifically cally hysteria. These were inherited from French psychiatry, where Janet compared his hysterical patients to the cases of possession and exorcism in French history. Anthropologists logi sts,, such as Hersk Herskovit ovitss (1937), (1937), emph emphasiz asized ed cultural cultural relativism, relativi sm, and since the the Haitians induced Possession Possession Trance in their their rituals and valued valued these states, he argued that they were normal and not tobegan be seen In the 1960s some psychiatrists to as seepathology. Possession Trance as as therapeutic rather rather than pathological, pathological, and sometimes also a prophylactic. There also developed a view of  possession possessi on as political political phenomenon, phenomenon, whether as resistanc resistancee to existing circumstances circumstances and and conditions or as a means of  mobilization mobilizati on in a liberation struggle. struggle. More generally, generally, the relationship between possession and social change has become a topic of great interest interest (e.g., (e.g., Keny Kenyon, on, 1995). When computer analysis of data became possible, the statistical comparative method could be utilized to test hypotheses with regard to spirit possession beliefs. Because of women’s strong presence in Possession Trancee religions, Tranc religions, research into these groups became became relevant to gender studies. When still other approaches developed in anthropology, anthropology, these have have been utilized utilized in related research, research, so that Lambeck (1989) (1989) speaks of a move from disease to discourse. At that point the emphasis again turned to the workings of individual societies rather than to comparative analysis. With the development of New New Age Age religions in in the United States, States, still another field of research on possession and trance opened up, as took place place when migrants migrants from distant distant places places brought their Possession Trance religions to metropolitan centers. In sum, the research reflects the reality on the ground as well as the interests of the investigators. Although much has been accomplished in the last 40 years years,, there is is much that that remains remains to to be done.

Possession and an d Trance Trance

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Shamanism Michael Winkelman

INTRODUCTION

contentious. Some consider shamanism specific to Siberia (e.g.,., Sii (e.g Siikala kala,, 1978) 1978),, whil whilee others others conside considered red shaman shamanss to The term shaman entered English from other cultures be any practitioners who voluntarily enter altered states of  consciousness ss (Peters & Price-Williams, Price-Williams, 1981). (Flaherty (Flahe rty,, 1992) and has been attributed attributed to practices practices consciousne Cross-cultural and interdisciplinary research indicates around the world (Vitebsky (Vitebsky,, 2001). Shamanism received received widespread academic attention following Eliade’s (1964) shamanism is an etic phenomenon involving psychobioShamanism: Archaic techniques of ecstasy, whic whichh considconsid- logical adaptations to the adaptive capacities of altered ered shamanism a worldwide healing practice involving states of consciousness (ASC) or the integrative mode of  (Winkelman, lman, 2000). Shamanism Shamanism was a ecstatic communication with the spirit world on behalf of  consciousness (Winke the commun community ity (cf. (cf. Hali Halifax, fax, 1979; Hult Hultkrant krantz, z, 1973). central cultural institution at the dawn of modern humans Lewis-Williams, lliams, 1998; Whether shamanism is cross-cultural or regionally some 40,000 years ago (Clottes & Lewis-Wi specific, specifi c, and consequently consequently an etic or emic emic phenomeno phenomenon, n, is Ryan, 1999) 1999).. Shamanism Shamanism is a fundamental fundamental aspect aspect of