Necessary Distinctions Author(s): Diana Baumrind Source: Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 3 (1997), pp. 176-182 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1448882 . Accessed: 23/10/2014 11:19 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
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Psychological Inquiry 1997,Vol. 8, No. 3, 176-229
1997by Copyright LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.
COMMENTARIES Necessary Distinctions Diana Baumrind
Institute ofHumanDevelopment University ofCalifornia, Berkeley variablesof By takingintoaccountthemoderating and Dodge add cultureand context,Deater-Deckard thepossibleeffects depthto thedebateconcerning of harshphysicaldisciplineon children'saggressivebehavior.My commentary focuseson theapplications of andDodge's firstthreehypotheses to Deater-Deckard theeffects on children thecontroversy of surrounding parents'use of disciplinary spanking.I findless conthatthediscipline effect vincingtheirfourth hypothesis is maximizedin same-gender parent-child dyads.AcandWeisz (1994),forbothboys cordingto Rothbaum is moreclosely andgirls,mothers' qualityofcaregiving withexternalizing associatedthanfathers' beproblem havior.Furthermore, usingdatafromZaslow's metaandWeisz (whomDeateranalysis(1989), Rothbaum Deckardand Dodge citein anothercontext)reported thatthemeaneffect sizesofthecorrelations ofmaternal thanpaternal) (rather withexternalizing caregiving are greater forboysthanforgirls. In an earliercontribution to a conference on the hostedby the consequencesof corporalpunishment, AmericanAcademyofPediatrics, I raisedthreeofthe fourqualifying hypotheses putforth byDeater-Deckard andDodge (Baumrind, 1996)to argueagainsttheproposal advancedby Hyman(1990) and Straus(1994), toproscribe amongothers, anyuse ofcorporalpunishI submitted, mentbyparents. as do Deater-Deckard and Dodge,that: 1. Associations between harshdiscipline andchild includea nonlinear aggression component. 2. Thereare important culturalvariations in the on children effects ofcorporalpunishment. 3. Social contextswithin, as well as beyond,the themeaningto thechildof a familyinfluence disciplinary tactic,thusvarying itseffects. Carefuldefinitions ofsuchkeytermsas harshdiscipline,abuse,corporalpunishment, spanking, violence,
andchildhoodaggression willfurther advanceconsiderationof the issues raised by Deater-Deckard and Dodge. Deater-Deckard andDodge suggestthatthereis an important nonlinear intherelation component ofphysical punishment tochildaggressive behaviordepending on whether theincrements are at thehigh,middle,or low ends of a harshphysicaldisciplinedimension. "harshness" Presumably is definedbythemiddlelevel and"abuse"bythehighendof a measureofphysical discipline.However,it is not clear whetherDeaterDeckardandDodgeconceptualize harshdisciplineas a or a categoricalconstruct, dimensional becausesome reports of datafromtheirChildDevelopment Project treatharshdisciplineas occurring alonga continuum, withabuseatoneextreme andharshness atan intermediatelevel(e.g.,Weiss,Dodge,Bates,& Pettit, 1992), whereasotherreports(e.g., Deater-Deckard, Dodge, Bates,& Pettit,1996) appearto treatabuseas a categoricalconstruct identified as suchbya socialservice agencyor an interviewer. In otheranalyses(DeaterDeckard,Dodge,Bates,& Pettit, 1995),bothharshness andphysicalabusearefirst treated as dichotomous risk factors in a multivariate analysisof variance,andthen as continuousvariablesin a hierarchical regression Foratleastsomeanalyses(Dodge,Pettit, procedure. & Bates,1994),an interviewer's ratingofabuse(whether childhadbeenseverely harmed)wasincludedtoderive a continuous harshness ofdisciplinescore.Harshness seemsto be operationalized as pertaining onlyor primarilyto physicalpunishment. However,if harsh meansunpleasant, stern, orcruel,thenthetermapplies tootherthanphysical discipline, andphysical discipline is notnecessarily harsh. I agreewithDeater-Deckard andDodgethatthereis a strongnonlinear component in therelationof harsh disciplineto childaggression. ButI suggestthatthere is a qualitative inthepattern difference ofdistinguishing attributes thatdefineabuse: Discontinuity on a
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COMMENTARIES
innonlinearity ofa funcsingleordinalscaleresulting tionpointstoa qualitative difference butdoesnotdefine one.Implicitina nonlinear butnota categorical model istheassumption thatatsomepredictable point,a linear leads to a discontinuous changein a singleparameter muchas increasesinspeedresult changeinthesystem, in qualitatively different gaitsin a horseas it moves froma walk(slow,four-beat gaitwithfeetstriking the groundin a specificorder)to a trot(legs move in diagonalpairs)to a canteror gallop(three-beat gait). The different gaitsare notreducibleto thesinglepaofspeed. rameter A complexqualitativedifference is definedby a thatdiffers pattern ofessentialdistinguishing attributes onseveralvariables.Thus,authoritaconfigurationally tiveparentsare similarto authoritarian parentsin that and are membersof both patternsmonitorstrictly butauthoritarian differ from highly demanding, parents authoritative parentsin thatthelatterare also highly responsiveand communicative(Baumrind,1971, 1991b).The abusiveprofilediffers qualitatively from otherchildrearing patternswhereparentsalso have recourseto harshdisciplineidentifiedby severity and/or ofuseofphysicalpunishment frequency (Baumrind,1995). Parentswho escalateto battering from use of corporalpunishment intendedto disciplinary correct arelikelytosharea complexofattributes (Vasta, 1982).Abusiveparentsaremorelikelyto be hyperreactiveto negativestimuliandtohavean extreme need Theirpunishment tocontroltheirchildren. is lessconon thechild'sbehaviorthanon theirowninner tingent state.Ratherthanhavingflexiblerecourseto a wide inducrangeof disciplinary tactics,suchas time-out, denialofprivileges, anduseofreason, tion,persuasion, abusiveparentsrelymonolithically on theirgreater physicalpowerto intimidate theirchildintocompliance.Theirangeris explosive,andtheyhitinresponse totheirownfrustration thantocorrect rather thechild. One wouldexpecttherefore, as Deater-Deckard and Dodge assert,thatchildoutcomesassociatedwitha patternof physicalabuse are always detrimental, whereasoutcomesassociatedwithpatterns thatinclude harshbutnotabusivepunishment dependon cultural andfamilycontextual factors. Termsusedinthearenaofphysical discipline should be definednot onlyforconceptualclarity,but also becauseproponents ofbanning in corporalpunishment the home as well as in the school have employed rhetorical devicesto advancetheircase on emotional grounds.Thus,Straus'sbook(1994) on corporalpuninAmerican ishment familiesis titledBeatingtheDevil OutofThem.Hyman(1978, 1990),andMaurer(1974), as wellas Straus,employed suchrhetorical devices,and
muchoftheresearch theycitedtosupport theirunqualifiedconclusion thatcorporalpunishment placesa child atriskformaladjustment comesfrom research onphysicallyabusedchildren andsuffers fromothersuchserious methodological limitations as oversampling, relianceonclinicpopulations, sharedmethod and variance, failure tousecontrast forthechild's groupsortocontrol tomisbehave(Larzelere,1996). tendency The Place ofPhysicalPunishmentin theDisciplinaryEncounter Abusivephysicalpunishment consistsof beating, kicking,punching, scalding,and otherwiseinflicting bodilyinjuryon a child;itfallsoutsidethenormative rangeofsocialization inmostcultures, practices as well as in theUnitedStates.By contrast, consists spanking ofstriking thechildon thebuttocks orextremities with an openhandwithout inflicting physicalinjuryand is usedbymostparents normatively withyoungchildren. Abuseis violent-thatis, physicalforceis exertedin turbulent or furiousactionso as to injurethechild. Spankingis notviolent. Disciplineplaysan important role,butbyno means themostimportant role,inhowoptimalparenting produces optimalchildoutcomes.In middle-class European Americanfamilies,authoritative parenting appearstoproduceoptimaloutcomes(Baumrind, 1991a, 1993).Becausealmostall preschoolchildren inBaumrind'slongitudinal studywerespanked,includingall butone familyclassifiedas authoritative (Baumrind, 1973),to spankor notto spankwas irrelevant to successfulchildoutcomesinthatstudy. By notingwhatcharacteristics of punishment are associatedwithbeneficialoutcomes,researchers may enableparentsto use aversivedisciplineeffectively. Grusecand Goodnow(1994) offered an in-depth exploration oftheimpactofparental disciplinemethods, includingspanking,on thechild's internalization of values.Spankingmaytradea briefperiodof intense distressforlongertermguiltand anxietyassociated withinternalization. Spankingmaybe usedto control theshort-term behaviorof thechildand to reinforce theauthority oftheparent.How a spankingis administered,especiallywhetherit is used in conjunction withreasoning, largelydetermines whether theground rulesor metarules thattheparentsattempt to enforce areinternalized. In his comprehensive review,Larzelere (1996) specifiedmanyof the conditionsthatmaximizethe beneficial effects ofpunishment: usedlessthanweekly withyoungchildren, and infrequently, if at all, with atnonabusive adolescents; levelsofseverity byparents 177
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whoarenotphysically violentagainstfamily members; inconjunction withreasoning andatan interprivately mediatelevelofchilddistress. Theparenting context in whichspankingwas associatedwithbeneficialchild inthestudiesreviewed outcomes byLarzelerewaschild rather thanparent marked oriented oriented, bywarmth and positive involvement, with consistentfollowandunaccompanied andmonitoring, through bynatteringorridicule.Larzelerereported that,whenprudently used, spankingwas associatedwithmorebeneficial tactics:reaoutcomesthanthefollowingdisciplinary without reasoningwithout punishment, punishment soning,love-withdrawal, ignoringphysicalrestraint, rather thanparent-determined and a child-determined releasefromtime-out. The Child's Perceptionofthe LegitimacyofParentalAuthority MediatestheChildEffectsofParent Discipline
morelikelytomodelthemselves onparents wholegitimatetheirauthority by usingreasonto justifytheir decisionsanddemands(Elder,1963),especiallywhen children believethatparental is motivated authority by concernfortheirwelfarerather thantheadult'sdesire todominate orexploitthem(Pikas,1961).Adolescents are mostlikelyto internalize theirparent'smessage whentheybelievethattheirparenthas followeddue processandtakentheirneeds,abilities, andviewpoints intoconsideration (Grusec& Goodnow,1994). As childrenmatureintoadolescence,theybecomemore protective of theirautonomyin areas theyregardas personal,butcontinueto viewtheirparentsas having therightto demandconformity in theareaofmorality andtoa lesserextent ofsocialconvention (Nucci,1981; Smetana,1988). The CulturalContextModeratesthe Meaningto Parentsand Childrenof PhysicalDiscipline
As Deater-Deckard andDodge indicate,themeanParenting behaviorsthatappearauthoritarian in a ingtothechildofphysicaldisciplineoftenmediatesits EuropeanAmerican samplemayincludeculturally synon suchchildoutcomesas aggression. effects tonicfeatures thatmoderatechildoutcomesin Asian During thefirst 6 years,whichDubinandDubin(1963)referred Americanor AfricanAmericanfamilies(Baumrind, to as theauthority inception period,children'shetero1972).As Chao(1994) showed,thetraining concepthas in and their unilateral nomousbelief rules respectfor important features, beyondthe authoritarian model, adultsextendsto acceptanceof adultrulesand of the whichcontribute thandetract to,rather theschool from, reasonsparentsgive childrenforwhyand how they success of Chinese children.Deater-Deckardand enforcetheserules.Reasoning,used in conjunction Dodge reportthatthesmallassociationbetweenparwithpower-assertive methodsof discipline,clarifies ents'useofphysicaldiscipline andchildren's externalthebehavioralcontingencies forthechild,specifying izingbehaviorproblemsis positiveandsignificant for whatis acceptableandunacceptable behavior. By genEuropeanAmerican children butnegative(nonsignifithe eralizingfroma specificact to a rulegoverning Americanchildren. cant)forAfrican largerclassofbehavior expectedofthechild,reasoning Two factors thataffect themeaningtothechildofa broadensthecontextin whichcomplianceis expected, parent'suse of physicalpunishment help to explain evenintheparent'sabsence.By explaining theirdisciBlack-White inassociatedchildoutcomes: differences plinaryobjectives,parentsnot onlysignalthatthey (a) physicalpunishment is morenormative in Black believetheyowe theirchildan explanationand are thanWhitehomes,and (b) its use is associatedwith doingwhattheythinkis rightforthechild,butalso different parentalattributes. The normativeuse of enabletheirchildtocontrol punishment bycontrolling physicaldisciplineinAfrican American homesis often thebehavioron whichpunishment is contingent. justifiedby parentsas necessaryto protectchildren behaviorapPhysicalaggressionand oppositional fromphysicaland socialdanger,as wellas to enforce withotherparent-per- respectforparentalauthority. peartopeakaround30 months, More important, howceiveddisciplineproblems, including oppositional beever,in explainingtheculturally differentiated child haviorand emotionalinstability, peakingsomewhat outcomesofharshphysicalpunishment is thecontrastlaterin thepreschoolyears(Larzelere,Amberson, & ing childrearing contextsin whichit occurs.Deaterofusingreasontojustify Deckard and Dodge (1995) and Deater-Deckard, Martin, 1992).Theimportance directives increaseswithage.Thecontrast- Dodge,Bates,and Pettit(1995) reported caregivers' thatAfrican of authority viewedas justified ingeffects rather than Americanmothersare more likelythan European as illegitimate becomeparticularly apparent at adolesAmericanmothersto view physicalpunishment and cence(Kandel& Lesser,1969;Perry& Perry,1983). as equallyappropriate. reasoning ForAfrican American enterjuniorhighschool,theyare By thetimechildren mothers whowerewarm,thecorrelation betweenharsh 178
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(notabusivelevelsof) disciplineandchildaggression werelow,butforthosewhowerecold,thecorrelations weresimilartothoseoftheEuropeanAmerican sample. However,becauseinthisanalysisthetwoethnicgroups theapparentculturally werenotequatedforwarmth, a main effectof effectmay represent differentiated withcultureas a warmthratherthanan interaction modifier. tactic If thefamilycontextin whicha disciplinary thenwarmth shouldalso moderate operatesis primary, andchildren's therelationbetweenparents'harshness behaviorforEuropeanAmericanfamiexternalizing lies. Indeed,in previousreportsof the same study (Pettit,Bates, & Dodge, 1993), parents'(lack of) to laterchildaggression overand warmth contributed aboveharshdisciplineforthetotalsample.Similarly, ina panelstudyofWhitefamilies(Simons,Johnson, & showedno Conger,1994) harshcorporalpunishment detrimental delinimpactonadolescent aggressiveness, once theeffectofparentalinquency,anddysphoria, volvement had beenremoved.Emotionalneglectand theabsenceofparental havebeenfound responsiveness thancoercivedisciplinary tobe moreimportant stratebehaviors(Greengies intheetiologyofexternalizing & berg,Speltz,& DeKlyen,1993; Simons,Johnson, thatacross Conger,1994).Thus,thereis reasontothink ofspanking thechildeffects aremediated cultures, by and warmthand moderated parentalinvolvement by differentiated normative culturally expectations.
teacher-student wereextremely relationship, effective in shapingappropriate socialandacademicbehaviors, and were necessaryon an ongoingbasis to control inappropriate behaviorof hyperactive students. Positiveconsequences didnotsuffice, andimprudent negativeconsequenceswerecounterproductive. inthehome,usedprudently, Disciplinary spanking can shapesociallyconstructive behavior, thereby protectingchildrenfromthe naturaland morepainful consequencesof misbehavioroccurringoutsidethe nurturant familysetting.Parentswho strongly disapproveoftheuse ofphysicalpunishment mayresortto it imprudently-that is, impulsivelyand explosively-ratherthandeliberately to changea child's behavior(Parke& Collmer,1975). Corporalpunishmentusedinstrumentally is partofanentirely different personality patternand differsin effect,as well as intent, fromcorporalpunishment used expressively. Thechaotic,poor,multiple problemfamiliesthatPattersonand hiscolleaguesstudy(Patterson, 1982; Patterson& Chamberlain,1988; Snyder& Patterson, 1995)escalatetheirchildren'saggression byresorting to explosive,nonstrategic displaysof powerand nattering(i.e., low-intensity negativechatterconveying dislikeanddisapproval), byfailingtotrackandmonitortheirchildren'sbehavior, andbyeventually capitulating. As Deater-Deckard andDodgeclaim,therearenonlinear,including curvilinear, associationsbetweenfreof corporalpunishment quencyor intensity and child aggression. Whenno restraining forcesexist,hostile Between NecessaryDistinctions childbehaviors aggressive thataresuccessful arelikely Prudentand ImprudentUse of toproducean intensification ofchildaggressive acts.It Punishment appearsthatthemostseverelypunishedchildrenare amongthemostaggressive, butpermissive practices Prudentnegativeconsequencesare consistent, imthateschewanykindofpowerassertion arealso assoand specific.Imprudent mediate,calm,private, negaciatedwithhigheraggression (Gelles,1974).In further tiveconsequences arereprimands delivered late,inconsupportof thishypothesis, Lefkowitzand colleagues sistently, explosively,publicly,and nonspecifically. (Lefkowitz,Eron, Walder, & Huesmann, 1977; Physicalpunishment is leastlikelytobedetrimental and Lefkowitz, Heusmann, & Eron,1978)foundthat,comin deterring mostlikelyto be effective unacceptable paredtoveryharshorverypermissive parents, moderbehaviorwhenadministered without guilt;underconatelypunitiveparentsproducedthe least aggressive ina measured trolled circumstances fashion, whereboth boys.Physicalpunishment increased aggression toward andchildareawareofthereasonforitsuse;when parent peersonly in boys who did not identify withtheir in privateforwillfuldefiancerather administered than fathers. Sears (1961) also foundthatthechildrenof for childishirresponsibility; and not withchildren moderate usersof physicalpunishment weretheleast than18 months orsubsequent topuberty. younger aggressive. In an excellentset of experimental studiesin the classroom,a teamof investigators (Rosen,O'Leary, Joyce,Conway,& Pfinner, 1984)documented theimNecessaryDistinctions Between portanceof prudent negativeconsequencesformainInstrumental and HostileAggression behaviorof hyperactive tainingthe appropriate students.Prudentnegativeconsequences(whichdid not The emotional,nonstrategic aspectsof aggression includepaddling),withinthe contextof a positive aremorelikelythantheinstrumental aspectstoproduce 179
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escalation(Berkowitz,1993). Pulkkinen (1987) made and defensive a similardistinction betweenoffensive whoaggressoffenaggression. She foundthatchildren butthattheconverse sivelyalso aggressdefensively, to childrenwho at age 14 does nothold.In contrast andthenat age 20 werecharacaggressedoffensively andviolent criminal terized byweakself-control behavwhoat age 14 aggresseddefensively ior,children only were notcharacterized by an aggressivepersonality pattern and in factmanifested and good self-control schooladjustment. Although highlevelsof narcissism, especiallynarhavebeenfoundto be cissisticpersonality disorders, associatedwithviolenceagainstfamily members (Dutton& Hart,1992),thereis no evidencethata healthy, is associatedwithviolence.Therestableself-regard shouldbe made betweenjustified fore,a distinction and egoisticdisregardforthelegitimate self-esteem thecriminal rights ofothers. McCord(1988) compared behaviorof men who had been raisedby punitive parents(i.e.,thosewhousedcorporalpunishment, but werenototherwiseaggressive),parentswho did not use corporalpunishment butwhowereagnecessarily gressive(in thattheyyelledor threwthingswhen orengagedinconsiderable frustrated, spousalconflict), andparentswhowereneither punitivenoraggressive. ofaggressive McCordfoundthatadultchildren parents tendedto manifest aggressiveantisocialbehavioras adults,whereasmenrearedinhomesthatwerepunitive but not aggressivewere "egoistic,"althoughnot as antisocialas theformer group.Egoismwas operationalized as expressing prideand pleasurein theirown a benefit andaccepting towhichthey accomplishments wereentitled($20 forcontributing theirtimeto the betweenhealthy experiment). By failingtodistinguish andjustified (normalandvirtuous) highself-esteem and selfishegoism,McCordconcludedinappropriately that exposureto corporalpunishment increasedegoism, to thechildthemessagethat"egocentrism conveying is bothnormalandvirtuous" (p. 21). An EvolutionaryHypothesis Is Superfluousto an Understanding of theDifferential Effectsofa NormativeVersusa Non-Normative ChildrearingEnvironment The explanationforthe observation thatchildren respondmorefavorably totreatment thattheyperceive to be normative fortheirculturecan be foundincommonsocial-psychological processes,without recourse to an unprovable hypothesized evolutionary determinant-thatthespecieshasevolvedtobecomeresistant
to"minor"environmental irritants. Theproximal processessuggested byDeater-Deckard andDodge suffice. Children moreeasilyacceptpractices as legitimate that theyrecognizeas commonintheirimmediate communityand consonantwiththeirculturalvalues;parents whosedisciplinary practicesare extremely aversive, and non-normative evenin theirowncommunity, are morelikelyto suffer frompathology in irraresulting tionaloruncontrolled behaviorthatisolatesthefamily fromthelargercommunity and directlyharmstheir children. Ifchildren andtheirparents believethatdisciplinary spanking loveandconcern, signifies theywillrespond thaniftheybelievethatthepracticeis morepositively sociallyunacceptableor intendedto do themharm. Applying negative socialsanctions totheusebyparents ofphysical thepractice punishment renders non-normative and delegitimizes its use in the mindsof both andchildren, parents theself-fulfillthereby promoting ing prophecythatspankingwill be associatedwith familymaladjustment. Abusivepunishment is more strongly relatedthanmildorevenharshpunishment to childoutcomes, maladaptive notjustbecauseitis outsidethenormal range,butbecauseabuseis intrinsically cruel,andconveystothechildthatone's caregivers are tobe fearedandhated,rather thantrusted andloved. RequestsforClarification 1. The correlations betweenharshness of parents' with5-year-old discipline practices children andteachers' ratingsof externalizing behaviorin Grades K 6 are all significant through butof smalleffectsize, rangingfrom.17 to .26. Althoughharshness is distinguishedfromabuseinsomereported analyses,itis not clearifabusiveparents wereexcludedfrom theseanalyses.Ifweagreethatabuseis qualitatively different from harshness onseveralparameters, thencanwe agreethat abusivecaregiversshouldhave been excludedfrom theseanalyses? 2. Becausewarmth andabusearelikelytobe negato a significant tivelycorrelated degree,thecomparativecorrelations betweenharshdisciplineand child aggressionforwarmBlack familiescomparedto the correlations betweenthesame variablesforthetotal sampleof Whitefamiliesmusthave excludedmost abusiveBlack families,but notmostabusiveWhite families.Did parent-child warmth also moderatethe relationbetweenharshdisciplineandchildaggression forWhitefamilies? 3. For GradesK through 6, thesex-differentiated correlations betweenharshphysicaldisciplineandexternalizing problembehaviorare reported as ranging
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parent-child between.18 and .28 formatched-gender parpairs,and between.05 and .29 forcross-gender ofthetwo inmagnitude pairs.Thedifferences ent-child seem small.Are theystatistically setsof correlations and,if so, largeenoughto be meaningful, significant presented findings especiallyin view of thecontrary earlier? In Summary and Dodge and in Studiescitedin Deater-Deckard for haveshownthattheconsequences thiscommentary fora practicenormative thechildof anydisciplinary by the overallqualityof the cultureare determined in pattern andthedisciplinary relationship parent-child whichthepracticeis embedded.Forreasonsgivenin of myreplyto Scarr(Baumrind,1993),theinfluence factorswithinthe"averageexpectable environmental range"is farfromtrivial.Childoutcomesassociated of parentalauthority varyin withcontrasting patterns the normal not outside, merely within, ways important Furthermore, 1991b). 1991a, 1971, range(Baumrind, childdevelopment than"goodenough," rather optimal, rather than good enough, is associatedwithoptimal, childoutcomesassociated styles.Thevarying parenting harshparenting practicescan be exwithnonabusive, explanarecourseto an evolutionary plained(without practices tion)by thevaryingmeaningsof parenting as harsh,based on culturalnorms,and the identified stylesinwhicha harshpractice childrearing differential oftheconceptual andoperaClarification is embedded. assignedto suchkeytermsas harshtionaldefinitions and testsforthesignifiness,abuse,and aggression, import tohavetheoretical thought canceofdifferences of theimportant wouldfurther advanceconsideration toexplainthecomproposedbytheauthors hypotheses plex relationsbetweensuch disciplinepracticesas as a andsuchchildoutcomesas aggression, spanking, context. ofcultureandchildrearing function Note ofHumanDevelopment, Diana Baumrind, Institute CA, Berkeley, of California, TolmanHall, University 94708-1690. References D. (1971). Current ofparentalauthority. Baumrind, patterns Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4(1, Pt.2), 1-103. Baumrind, D. (1972). An exploratory studyof socializationeffects on Blackchildren: SomeBlack-Whitecomparisons. ChildDevelopment, 43, 261-267.
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Influence: toEnvironmental VariationinSusceptibility Argument AnEvolutionary JayBelsky
and FamilyStudies HumanDevelopment StateUniversity Pennsylvania take-home andindeedprincipal The majorfinding, and Dodge targetartimessageof theDeater-Decker behavioron children's ofparental cle-that theeffects of race,gender, mayvaryas a function development parenting-isespeand severityof "dysfunctional" oftheecologyof fromtheperspective ciallyimportant child development.AlthoughDeater-Deckardand Dodge are amongthe firstto documentdifferential familiesare on whether depending ofparenting effects Whiteor Black and whetherparentsare extremely to suggestthatthekinds coercive,theyarenotthefirst
mightbe expectedand theyhavegenerated offindings pursued.Bronfenbrenner thusshouldbe empirically modelof (1983) person-process-context andCrouter's addressestheprospectthat specifically development in mayoperatedifferently processesof development ecologicalniches,as well as the factthat different by affected individuals maybe differentially different point,whichis thislatter experiences; thesamerearing onlywithrespectto raceand genderin the considered willbecentral andDodgepresentation, Deater-Deckard advancedinthiscommentary. to arguments
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