Bakun Dam

1.0

INTRODUCTION

Moving water is a powerful entity responsible for lighting entire cities, even countries. Thousands of years ago the Greeks used water wheels, which picked up water in buckets around a wheel. The water’s weight caused the wheel to turn, converting kinetic energy into mechanical energy for grinding grain and pumping water. In the 1800s the water wheel was often used to power machines such as timber-cutting saws in European and American factories. More importantly, people realized that the force of water falling from a height would turn a turbine connected to a generator to produce electricity. Niagara Falls, a natural waterfall, powered the first hydroelectric plant in 1879. Hydro means ‘water’, so hydro power is water power. Thus, hydroelectric power is electricity generated using water power. Potential energy (or the stored energy in a reservoir) becomes kinetic energy (moving energy). This is changed to mechanical energy in a power plant, which is then turned into electrical energy. Hydroelectric power is a renewable resource. We have used running water as energy sources for thousands of years. Nowadays, there are many hydroelectric power stations, providing around 20% of the world electricity. The largest hydroelectric dam in the world is Rogun in Tajikistan. It stands over 1000 feet tall.

To make electricity this way, the water is held in a reservoir, behind the dam, the water close to the control gates is where the intake is, and when the control gates open, the water rushes through the penstock and turns the turbine. After the water does so, it goes through the outflow into the river. The turbine spins the generator, and the electricity goes to the transformer in the powerhouse. Then the transformer transforms the electricity into a usable form, and the electricity travels through the power lines and goes to homes and businesses. One more thing that is needed is location. To build a dam there has to be valleys and rivers. This will help with the building of the dam. There has to be great location or it won’t work. The land cannot be flat, or there is no way to build a dam. Canada, USA, the former USSR, Brazil, China, Norway, Japan, Sweden, India, and France all use hydroelectric energy. These countries are in order from the largest number of kilowatts in billions that are used each year.

1.1

History of hydropower

Nearly 2000 years ago the Greeks used water wheels to grind wheat into flour. In the 1700’s, hydropower was broadly used for milling of lumber and grain for pumping irrigation water. Appleton, Wisconsin became the first operational hydroelectric generating station in the United States, in 1882, producing 12.5 kilowatts (kW) of power. The total electrical capacity generated was equivalent to 250 lights. Within the next 20 years roughly 300 hydroelectric plants were operational around the world. The invention of the hydraulic reaction turbine created the suddent expansion of hydropower. 40 % of the United States’ electricity was provided by hydroelectric power in the early 1990’s. For more than a century, the technology for using falling water to create hydroelectricity has existed. The evolution of the modern hydropower turbine began in the mid-1700s when a French hydraulic and military engineer, Bernard Forest de Belidor wrote Architecture Hydraulique. In this four volume work, he described using a vertical-axis versus a horizontal-axis machine. During the 1700s and 1800s, water turbine development continued. In 1880, a brush arc light dynamo driven by a water turbine was used to provide theatre and storefront lighting in Grand Rapids, Mischigan and in 1881, a brush dynamo connected to a turbine in a flour mill provided street lighting at Niagra Falls, New York. These two projects used direct-current technology. Alternating current is used today. That breakthrough came when the electric generator was coupled to the turbine, which resulted in the world’s and the United States, first hydroelectric located in Appleton, Wisconsin. In 1882. 1.2

Types of hydropower plants

There are three types of hydropower facilities: impoundment, diversion and pumped storage. Some hydropower plants use dams and some do not. Many dams were built for other purposes and hydropower was added later. In the United States, there are about 80,000 dams of which only 2,400 produce power. The other dams are for recreation, stock/farm ponds, flood control, water supply and irrigation. Hydropower plants range in size from small systems for a home or village to large projects producing electricity for utilities.

1.2.1

Impoundment

The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An impoundment facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a generator to produce electricity. The water may be released either to meet changing electricity needs or to maintain a constant reservoir level.

An impoundment hydropower plant dams water in a reservoir

1.2.2

Diversion

A diversion, sometimes called run-of-river, facility channels a portion of a river through a canal or penstock. It may not require the use of a dam.

The Tazimina project in Alaska is an example of a diversion hydropower plant. No dam was required.

1.2.3

Pumped Storage

When the demand for electricity is low, a pumped-storage facility stores energy by pumping water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of high electrical demand, the water is released back to the lower reservoir to generate electricity. 1.2.4

Sizes of hydroelectric power plants

Facilities range in size from large power plants that supply many consumers with electricity to small and micro plants that individuals operate for their own energy needs or to sell power to utilities. 1.2.4.1 Large Hydropower Although definitions vary, the U.S. Department of Energy defines large hydropower as facilities that have a capacity of more than 30 megawatts.

1.2.4.2 Small Hydropower Although definitions vary, DOE defines small hydropower as facilities that have a capacity of 100 kilowatts to 30 megawatts. 1.2.4.3 Micro hydropower A micro hydropower plant has a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts. A small or micro hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a home, farm, ranch or village. 1.3

How it works

Power is generated or ‘manufactures’ in large power generating stations using the same basic principle as a small grist mill yet on a much larger and vastly improved scale for better efficiency. These electrical generators are attached to massive turbine devices which spin at great speeds as a result of water rushing through them. These power station turbines are much more efficient at extracting the kinetic energy from the moving water and converting that energy it into power through these generators. The Hydro Electricity extracted from water depends not only on the volume but on the difference in height between the source and the water’s outflow. This height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in water is directly proportional to the head. To obtain very high head, water for hydraulic turbine may be run through a large pipe called a penstock. For instance, energy is derived to make power by the force of water moving from a higher elevation to a lower elevation through a large tube otherwise known in technical terms as a “penstock”. When the water reaches the end of the penstock, it turns a water wheel or “turbine” at enormous speeds. The turbine rotates, via a connected shaft to an electrical generator, and this generator creates electricity. It is the turbine and generator working in combination that converts “mechanical energy” into “electric energy”. The water that makes this possible is a renewable energy sources just like the wind that turns the turbine attached to a generator. Hydro Electricity may be extracted from water but it depends not only on the volume of water but also on the difference in height between the top of the penstock and where the water spins the turbine. This difference in height is often referred to as the “head”. From this “head”, it can be

determined the exact amount of potential energy that can be converted. Therefore, it is advantageous to build power dams as high as possible to convert the maximum energy from mechanical energy. While many Hydro Electricity generating stations supply world power grids, some projects are created for private business purposes. For example, aluminium manufacturing companies require large amounts of power. And there are many other examples of industries that use hydro electricity in their manufacturing operations. Hydropower functions by converting the energy in flowing water into electricity. The volume of water flow and the height (called the head) from the turbines in the power plant to the water surface created by the dam determines the quantity of electricity generated. Simply, the greater the flow and the taller the head means the more electricity produced. The simple working of a hydropower plant has water flowing through a dam, which turns a turbine, which then turns a generator. A hydropower plant (including a powerhouse) generally includes the following steps: 1. The dam holds water back and stores water upstream in a reservoir, or large artificial lake. The reservoir is often used for multiple purposes, such as the recreational Lake Roosevelt at the Grand Coulee Dam. Some hydroelectric dams do not impound water, but instead use the power of the flowing river and are known as run-of-the-river. 2. Gates open on the dam, allowing gravity to pull the water down through the penstock. An intake conduit carries water from the reservoir turbines inside the powerhouse. Pressure builds up as water flows through the pipeline. 3. The water then hits the large blades of the turbine, making them turn. The vertical blades are attached through a shaft to a generator located above. Each turbine can weigh as much as 172 tons and turn at a rate of 90 revolutions per minute. 4. The turbine blades turn in unison with a series of magnets inside the generator. The large magnets rotate past copper coils, which produce alternating current (AC).

5. The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the AC and converts it to higher-voltage current so as to allow electricity to flow to customers. 6. Out of every power plant exit four power lines consisting of three wires (associated with three power phases) and a neutral (ground) wire. Used water is carried through outflow pipelines, which reenters the river downstream.

1.4

Advantages of the Dam

No Fuel Cost – Hydro Energy does not require any fuel like most other sources of energy. This is a huge advantage over other fossil fuels whose costs are increasing at a drastic rate every year. Electricity prices are increasing rapidly in most parts of the world much faster than general inflation. Price shocks due to high fuel costs are a big risk with fossil fuel energy these days. In terms of fuel, the only thing needed is water. Assuming the natural processes running the Earth’s water cycle continue, lakes will be refilled by rain and water and the dam will continue to operate. Low Operating Costs and little Maintenance – Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation.

Low Electricity Cost – The electricity produced from Hydro Power is quite low making it very attractive to construct hydro plants. The payback period is estimated to be between 5-8 years for a normal hydro power plant. Using this type of energy to generate electricity is not dependent upon the price of uranium, oil or other types of fuel. This makes electricity costs lower and more stable, one of its most significant advantages. Hydro Plants also have long lives of between 50-100 years which means that they are extremely profitable. No Greenhouse Gas Emissions/Air Pollution – Hydroelectricity does not produce any GHG emissions or cause air pollution from the combustion of fossil fuels unlike coal, oil or gas. This makes them very attractive as a source of cheap, non carbon dioxide producing electricity. The pollution created by hydroelectric energy generation is quite minimal. There is some pollution involved in initially constructing the power stations, but this is true of all power plants. It also does not produce radioactive waste or involve the environmental impact of fuel being transported to it. Energy Storage – Pumped Hydro Storage is possible with most of the hydro power plants. This makes them ideal storage for wind and solar power which are intermittent in nature. Hydro Dams can be modified at low costs to allow pumped storage. Small Size Possible – Hydroelectricity can be produced in almost any size from 1 MW to 10000 MW which makes it very versatile. Small Hydro Plants are being encouraged by government as they cause less ecological affects than large hydro plants. Even micro hydro plants are possible. Hydroelectric power stations can be set up in almost any size depending upon the river or stream used to operate them. It is big enough to power a single home, factory, small town or large city. Reliability – Hydro Power is much more reliable than wind and solar power as it does not rely upon finite resources like natural gas or coal to generate power. Hydroelectricity is more or less predictable much in advance though it can decrease in summer months when the water is low in the catchment areas. High Load Factor – The Load Factor for Solar and Wind Energy ranges from 15-40% which is quite low compared to Fossil Fuel Energy. Hydroelectricity on the other hand has a load factor of almost 40-60%.

Long Life – Hydro Plants has a very long life around 50-100 years which is much longer than that of even Nuclear Power Plants. The long life implies that the lifecycle cost of a Hydel Power Plant becomes very low in the long term. Hydroelectric power might be the most widely used of the alternative energy sources given that the flow of energy can be regulated, and the large quantities of energy which can be generated from a single dam. 1.5

Disadvantages of the Dam

Since the most feasible sites for dams are in hilly or mountainous areas, the faults that often created the topography pose a great danger to the dams and therefore the land below them for thousands of years after they have become useless for generating power. In fact, dam failures do occur regularly due to these terrain conditions, and the effects are devastating. When a new dam’s reservoir floods the countryside, people who live in the area have to move and relinquish their former lifestyles in order to make way for the project. This is very stressful and often controversial, especially if a community has maintained a particular way of life on the same land for generations. The construction of a dam not only affects the people nearby, it can severely alter a river’s natural functions. According to American Rivers, a conservation organization, “by diverting water for power, dams remove water needed for healthy in-stream ecosystems. Stretches below dams are often completely dewatered.” This may not seem like a significant problem until animal species are studied. Birds that have migrated to a specific riparian environment for generations no longer have enough insects on which to prey when the water level drops. If they have few migration alternatives, that could mean the endangerment of species that once flourished. Fish species such as salmon “depend on steady flows to flush them down river early in their life and guide them upstream years later to spawn. Stagnant reservoir pools disorient migrating fish and significantly increase the duration of their migration. “Native populations of fish may decrease or disappear altogether due to temperature changes caused by dams. Slower water flow means warmer temperatures, and bottom-release of cold water means cooler temperatures. Several of hydropower’s disadvantages focus on fish. It is easy to forget how important fish and other aquatic life are, some of which reside at the bottom of the food chain.

The environmental changes caused by hydroelectric projects may be obvious to the local biologist, but elude the average person. Most people will more readily notice a smoggy haze developing in an area where a coal plant is operating than a smaller population of a particular bird species where a hydropower facility functions. Such oversights lead people to believe that nothing is wrong. Hydroelectric companies and organizations often emphasize their “clean” manufacture of electricity and neglect to mention the long-term environmental hazards. “Dams hold back silt, debris and nutrients.” Silt collects behind the dam on the river bottom, accumulating heavy metals and other pollutants. Eventually this renders the dam inoperable, leaving the mess for future generations, who will either have to remove the collected debris or live with a potentially catastrophic mudflow poised to inundate the area below the dam. There is also a debate between preserving rivers for their aesthetic value versus meeting the energy needs of thousands of people. The latter has prevailed. Today “there are 600.000 river miles impounded behind dams. In contrast, only 10,000 river miles (not even half of 1%) is permanently protected under the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.” The only undammed river in the US that is longer than 600 miles is the Yellowstone. In Malaysia, there are many dam already built all over the country. Such as Terengganu Hydroelectric Dam with 400MW installed capacity (Sultan Mahmud Power Station 4X100MW), Cameron Highlands Dam 262MW installed capacity (Jor Dam 100MW, Woh Dam 150MW, Odak Dam 4.2MW, Habu Dam 5.5MW, Kampung Raja Dam 0.8MW, Kampung Terla Dam 0.5MW, Robinson Falls Dam 0.9MW), Sungai Perak Hydroelectric Dam installed capacity (Bersia Dam 72MW, Chenderoh Power Station 40.5MW, Kenering Power Station 120MW, Sungai Piah upper dam 14.6MW, Sungai Piah lower dam 54MW, Temenggor Power Station 348MW).

2.0

BACKGROUND OF BAKUN DAM

The Bakun Dam is situated on the Bakun Rapids at the confluence of the Rajang and Balui Rivers, in Sarawak, East Peninsular Malaysia. This dam is estimated to produce 2400 MWs of hydropower and would cost 13.5 billion Ringgits (3.6 billion USD). The project included a plan for 650 kilometres of undersea electricity transmission lines to transmit electricity from

Sarawak to Peninsular Malaysia, and some related infrastructure such as roads, a new township and an airport. The Bakun Dam project contains a 210 metre high concrete dam, which will create a catchments area of 14,750 sq kilometres, and floods a tract of 69,640 hectares of Sarawak's primary rainforest, roughly the size of Singapore. It will be the biggest of its kind in Southeast Asia once construction is completed. The project was first proposed in 1986, approved by the cabinet in 1994, and shelved in 1997 during the Asian economic crisis. This project was revived in 1999 in a scaled-back version with 500 MW capacities, but the decision was revised again in 2001 to revert to its original 2400 MW scale, though without the installation of the 600 kilometres of undersea cable. Bakun Dam is currently under construction and is expected to start its operations in 2007. Malaysian government national policy (Vision 2020), aims to achieve a fully industrialized nation by the year 2020. Large-scale projects are the key to achieving this. The Bakun Dam is expected to be the main powerhouse to meet the nation’s increasing demand for energy. It will also aid economic growth and industrialisation in the Sarawak region. The Malaysian government, with the help of the Bakun Dam, also aims to develop and modernise the indigenous people of the area. Thus, the regime favours the Bakun Dam project without any reservations. 3.0

ISSUES

3.1

Protest against the Bakun Dam

The Bakun Dam threatens the region’s forests, rivers, soils and traditional economy. Activities such as logging, habitat destruction and reservoir flooding are expected to have a serious impact on the rainforest, resulting in severe ecological problems. These are the main concerns of the local population and activists, which lead to their open opposition of the Bakun Dam project. The lack of consultation with the affected indigenous people, and no public participation in the EIA process has been criticised by various parties. Environmentalists, NGOs and indigenous peoples' organizations in Sarawak argue that there is no need in the region for such a large power generation project (Bocking, 2003; Thompson & Hui, 2001). Kua Kia Soong, director of Malaysian Suara Rakyat Malaysia-SUARAM (The Voices of Malaysian People) alleges: “The manner in which the Bakun Dam has been justified, from the original 2400 MW with submarine cable to West Malaysia, to a downscaled 500 MW dam, now

back to 2400 MW without submarine cable, smacks of very irresponsible policy making. Almost certainly, no serious attempt has been made to justify the project in terms of energy needs and supply” (Thompson & Hui, 2001). More than 10,000 indigenous people from 15 communities used to live along the Rajang and Balui River. They have been forcibly displaced and relocated to the government-sponsored resettlement area located at Kampung Sungai Asap (Asap River Village) and Kampung Sungai Koyan (Koyan River Village). The Coalition of Concerned NGOs on Bakun (Gabungan), the Bakun Region People's Committee (BRPC), Sahabat Alam Malaysia-SAM (Friends of the Earth) and other members of Malaysian civil society are providing support to the affected indigenous people in their fight against the Bakun Dam project. These groups believe that the only real solution is shelving the project. They address the growing crisis faced by people displaced by the project, and advocate a more realistic, sustainable, transparent and democratic approach to the issue of energy needs and supply in Malaysia. However, policy makers do not provide any information to the Bakun residents nor arrange any dialogue and consultation with the different tribal groups regarding the details of compensation or resettlement schemes. In 1999, the authorities carried out the codenamed ‘Operation Exodus’ resettlement exercises, which provided limited information to the affected villagers. The only information imparted was that the 70 per cent balance of their cash compensation (for the ‘loss of property and goods’ from their previous homes in Bakun) could only be given within two weeks of their arrival at the government-planned Asap Resettlement village. The state government also warned the villagers that compensation payments would be withheld from those who refuse to move out. Moreover, army and police forces would be used to remove protesting villagers. The fear of losing their compensation money and the worries of the armed forces action were the main reasons that drove the people to move into the resettlement area. At the resettlement area, people are suffering from poverty, malnutrition, unemployment and adverse socio-economic conditions. There are claims that the house units at the Asap Resettlement Scheme were not in accordance with that promised in the relocation plan (World Rainforest Movement, 1999b). The land given to each family was limited to food growing but not adequate

for farming activities. Without expertise in market investment, the underpaid compensation money was insufficient for the villagers and their families. These unsustainable dilemmas continue to escalate and create greater conflicts (Thompson, Harlan & Hui, 2001). Villagers from the dam site and those who lived downstream of the Balui River have petitioned to the government, demanding work on the dam be halted until compensations disputes, land rights issues, and water pollution problems have been adequately addressed (World Commission on Dams, 2001). Deteriorating conditions have forced some families to move from the resettlement area and return to their original homes in the inundation zone (Gabungan, 2001). They look up to the hundreds of families who have refused to move to the Asap Resettlement village. They have successfully established new villages on their ancestral lands near the dam. There they have enough fish, land for cultivation and forest for hunting. However, their statuses remain vulnerable, as their land is not legally recognized by the state. The affected communities have organized several lobbying trips to the capital of Sarawak and other major cities in Peninsular Malaysia. However, it is not yet to part of the political culture in Malaysia to meet with grassroots representatives directly. The government has actively discouraged public debate and prohibited local media reporting on the adverse effects of the Bakun Dam since the beginning of construction (Gabungan, 2001). The mainstream media in Malaysia is used to support the government’s policy. The dissenting voices of more than 10,000 indigenous people who have been resettled have never been adequately represented. In December 1996, a group of indigenous people arrived at the dam site's airport with the banners saying, “Do not invest in this project” and “This project will destroy our culture” just as a planeload of prospective British investors arrived. Nevertheless, such opposition to the project was never reported in the national media. Furthermore, common people and journalists are prohibited from entering the construction area, as it has been classified as a restricted security zone. This is just one of the government efforts to avoid negative reports and public criticism of the project (Schultz, 1997). The planning and implementation of the Bakun project lacks transparency, and suffers from usual Malaysian cronyism. The feasibility studies and EIA of the project was never brought to light, despite being required under federal law. In 1995, The Sarawak Chief Minister, who was alleged to have direct financial interest in the project was appointed to head the Sarawak Natural Resources and Environment Board (SNREB). Since the Sarawak EIA Guidelines do not allow public

participation in the EIA process (unless the project proponents desire), there was no public input in the seventeen EIA studies commissioned for the Bakun Dam. Indeed, the report on the EIA finding has been classified as a confidential document under the Official Secrets Act (OSA) and therefore it is not available for public distribution (International River Network, 2002). Malaysian activist groups, which include the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) Malaysia, opposition Democratic Action Party (DAP) and the Environmental Protection Society of Malaysia (EPSM) have called on the government to release all studies on the Bakun Dam. However, the government reacted only by giving verbal assurances that the EIA of the project ‘had already been done’ and ‘the project was safe and environmentally friendly’ (Gabungan, 2001; Asia Pacific Solidarity-Sarawak, 1993).The Malaysian opposition leader, DAP chairman Lim Kit Siang alleges that the Barisan Nasional-BN (ruling National Front Alliances) revived the project in 2001 in order to influence the Sarawak state general election, hoping to win votes by promising mega development projects. Some claim that the dam construction only benefits a certain section of powerful individuals, and not the local community. The Bakun Dam project construction was granted to Ekran Berhad without proper public tender. Ekran Berhad is a private company with close links to the ruling government. When Ekran abandoned the Bakun Dam project after the 1997 economic downturn, a compensation of 253.3 million USD was given to Ekran by the government as payment for ‘work already done’. Moreover, companies close to the ruling alliance, such as Shin Yang, Sam Ling and Ekran, have reserved usable land around the resettlement area for palm oil plantation. The local population of the Bakun project area brought legal proceedings against the Bakun Dam project. They filed a lawsuit against Ekran Berhad and the Malaysian government for failing to include the public participation principle in Bakun Dam project. The Malaysian High Court handed down a judgement on 19 June 1996, declaring the project invalid and illegal because it did not comply with federal environment law, which requires some form of public participation in the EIA study (Gabungan, 1999). However, the Malaysian Government and Ekran Berhad later brought the decision to the Malaysian Court of Appeal. The Appeal Court’s ruling overturned the High Court decision on 17 February 1997, and removed the legal obstacles to the construction of the Bakun Dam and exempted the Bakun Dam from complying with the federal Environmental Quality Act of 1974.

The lack of judicial independence in Malaysia has made it difficult for the people affected by the dam to fight for their rights (Gabungan, 1999). 3.2

State Response to People’s Protest in Malaysia

The political authority in Malaysia has used all its power to suppress open opposition to the Bakun Dam project. Police and armed forces have been used to apply coercive power in the name of maintaining public order. In April 1996, protestors gathered at the Ekran Berhad office in Kuala Lumpur to deliver a memorandum condemning the Bakun project. Police used tear gas and batons to disperse the crowd. Police forces also used highhanded tactics to foil protest at the dam site (Schultz, 1997). The government has regularly denounced the opponents of the project as unpatriotic and irresponsible, and even ‘extremists’ (World Rainforest Movement, 1999b). The government-controlled media has come up with stories regarding several local activist groups, which campaigned against the Bakun Dam project, claiming that they are in the pockets of overseas NGOs. The government then denounced them as ‘foreign agents’, acting against national development policies (D'Cruz, 2002). The then Malaysian Prime Minister, Dr. Mahathir, issued a clear and unambiguous warning: "Malaysia wants to develop, and I say to the so-called environmentalists ‘Mind your own business” (Schultz, 1997). The government also publicly threatened that it would monitor the activities of those who campaign against the project and might use the Internal Security Act (ISA) against them (Muslimedia, 1996). Moreover, several anti-dam activists have been denied entry into the Sarawak region. In short, the government of Malaysia has not only overlooked, but even suppressed popular opposition to the Bakun Dam project, and is determined to construct this massive dam. In a democratic system, a high proportion of

government decisions receive input from a

substantial number of citizens. In a non-democratic political structure, fewer citizens make or influence a smaller number of decisions (Milne & Mauzy, 1999). Malaysia under the rule of the irreplaceable BN coalition promoted the concept of ‘Asian Democracy’ (Chan, 1993; Francis Loh & Khoo, 2002). which advocates economic dynamism, political stability, social discipline and cultural conservation (Rodan, 1999; Francis Loh & Khoo, 2002). Thus, the Malaysian semiauthoritarian ‘modified democracy’ (Crouch, 1993) and ‘representative regime’ (Crouch, 1996) subsequently do not act democratically especially in its public policy conflict management

approach. Although the policymaking process hides behind a ‘democratic procedure’ smokescreen, the regime tends to use coercive practices to sustain the notion of ‘less democracy, more stability, more development’ (Gomez, 1994). The Bakun Dam case study has shown that the Malaysian regime sets very narrow parameters for negotiating settlements. The public has limited ability to launch counter challenges and change policy principles. The soft authoritarian Malaysian regime is more effective in the implementation of policy decision through its dominating and suppressive methods that constrain any manifest conflict escalation. However, the suppressive action may reconcile surface conflicts but never remove the root of the problem, nor ensure secure benefits for the majority. On the other hand, Thailand, which is a more democratic country, is facing greater difficulties in solving their public policy conflicts. The goal seeking competition through the democratic process involves complicated procedures, which may take a longer period of time to achieve mutual consensus. Nevertheless, this process is more beneficial for the nation, society and the government in the long term, particularly the growth of a healthy democratic state, where poor and marginal section of the society has the possibility to protect its interest. No particular political structure is the perfect design to prevent public policy conflicts. However, when conflicts emerge, a better-designed democratic political structure helps the parties to manage the conflict in a more just and fair manner.

3.3

Environmental Effect

Bakun Hydroelectric Dam project like the rest construction of large dams in the world not escaped from this attack, both in terms of rational for the development of hydropower construction or in the aspect of construction of the dam. Construction of the dams is often associated with environmental damage, especially forest, rivers, wetlands and wildlife. It is said to be affect the river system, as well as water quality. It will cause water river sediment trapped behind the dam. Studies have shown more than 90 percent of the sediment trapped in the dam and thus cause environmental problems is greater such as erosion in the river. Sedimentation behind the dam ‘Dam in Egypt’ for example caused erosion in the Nile Delta, about five to eight meters per year. 3.3.1

Water Pollution

Usually the river will become elastic and slit as soil erosion to occur during construction and water emission. From here, the water turned brown lead to the growth of aquatic plants occur. But on the other hand the river will become mineral deficiency caused by the problems with the water flow system slow down due to water reservoir. Mineral and oxygen rate is decreasing. Further problem arise when people farming the agricultural plant. Use of pesticides can not be drained and recycled in the river. Rates of fertilizer use also effect water quality when water is released from the dam. 3.3.2

Soil Contamination

The problem arises when the dam construction waste is also irregular. In addition, sediment and soil in the area downstream of the lake causing this area become shallow. This is due to soil erosion problems in the area banks and waste disposal problems such as construction of woo, trash and construction of the mainly material. Indirectly, the downstream river becomes more shallow as well as the lake. This pollution is causing the problem and disturbance to wildlife. This also caused problems for residents as well.

3.3.3

Salt Water Problem

Construction of dams caused the river water flows downstream to slow down the flow causes the entry of salt water slowly over time. This result in aquatic system becomes unbalance especially in fresh water ozone. Fish breeding will be affected. This also caused the tidal wave rose and broke the beach harder. So, this salt water can penetrate deep into the river. High concentrations of pollutants exists when this salt water entry. This is because the river water flow is slow to melt the content that contained on this coast. This is a problem for people that living there but the problem should consider the gradient and the size of the river and the deterioration of river water flow. 3.3.4

Effect of Mineral Soil Environment

Soil is the main ingredient in plant growth because it contains important mineral that needs by the plant. But after the construction of the dam, the soil mineral content was affected either in land or river. Soil would erode causing declining the quality of the soil. Mineral here brought down by the flow of surface water. This problem increase when mineral not or only slightly absorbed into the soil. Soils within the river experienced the same situation. But all of the mineral will accumulate in the dam. 3.3.5

Greenhouse Effect

Some of the people mentioned that hydro assumptions do not contribute to global warming is a myth. Foreign scientists in 30 central water reservoir or hydroelectric dams have all greenhouse gases, gas that cause s global warming. In fact, scientists study the International Rivers Network (IRN) showed some power center hydro in tropical countries to give more impact to global warming compared to natural gas power centre. Canadian scientist are also making the assumption of dams around the world release up to 70 million tons of methane(CH4) and approximately one billion tones of carbon dioxide (CO2) each year. This is equivalent to four percent of the CO2 and about one fifth of CH4 which was released as a result of various activities humans. However, this study questioned is its authenticity. There is a lot uncertainty particularly on the effectiveness, accuracy and validity of the method used to measure the greenhouse gas emissions from dam. In fact, many local and international scientists did not rule out the fact this study more on to sabotage the efforts to develop the sector of the renewable energy. About 18 percent of the energy supply to the world today is generated from hydropower. 3.3.6

Extinction of Flora and Fauna

This dam was also alleged to oppress the lives of people, a flat-opinions are of minority groups and poor people. They not only homeless but also sources of income and usually compensated received is not commensurate. Bakun Hydroelectric Dam project with an area of Singapore or six times larger than the Kenyir Dam was charged by ant hydroelectric that it affects more than 800 plany species, including 67

protected species, 104 species of fish, 229 mammals and 43 species of protected birds, destroying 50 million meters various types of solid timber and suppress more than 10, 000 people in the surrounding areas. Obviously, the first and second phases of the Bakun dam project had brought hardships to most indigenous people from ethnic Kenyahs, Ukits and Kayans where their living villages were flooded and destroyed. 3.3.7

Forest Destruction

Construction of dams required extensive land clearing without control. As in Bakun has a significant impact and can be seen clearly. The most obvious example of the Bakun Dam has destroyed 70000 hectares of natural habitat. In percentage terms, Malaysia has the most extensive forest with 50 percent of forest area and more than 20 percent covered by crops such as rubber and palm oil compared to only 15 percent of forest area in Europe. Although the forest is treated with care, we must accept the fact that part of that area must used for other interests. In fact, there is no doubt that the construction project of this would have an adverse impact on the environment and humans. As we care about our lives that require resource such as energy that can be generated by the water, we must keep our environment and vice versa. Project Manager of Malaysia-China Hydro Joint Venture (MCH JV), the contractor entrusted to construct the dam, Gilles Porlier, said that his team and the government to take all measures necessary to minimize adverse effects to people and the environment. Uniqueness, diversity and richness of the natural resources are not at all negligible. MCH JV Environmental Manager, Syed Syed Madhi Junaidi, always monitor the site and surrounding area to ensure that the project comply with regulations and which determined by Environmental Management Plan. 3.4

Social damage

The construction of Bakun Dam effected the native people very much. Many of them lost their traditions, culture and the way of life have to be changed. This is due to their source of income, place to live and some other treads such as infectious and water-borne disease. Their usual route in the forest also need to be changed due to the dam construction. Indirectly, they are isolated from their tradition. And most importantly problems in food sources arouse since they are very

depending on the forest. Especially their protein sources from fishes in Balui river. Fishery activity in this river is declining and the size of fishes also decreases. And thus all of this is threatening the locals. Recently as reported in The Borneo Project, The Swiss Bruno Manser Fund (BMF) has today disclosed a series of shocking pictures from the Bakun dam exclusion zone showing disturbing poverty and environmental destruction in the Malaysian state of Sarawak on Borneo. A BMF research team has managed to overcome the tight security measures preventing journalists or NGOs to travel behind the recently filled Bakun dam wall, Asia’s largest dam outside China and the world’s second-tallest concrete-faced rockfill dam. The only recently completed 2’400 MW hydropower dam was meant to bring development and progress to the people of Sarawak. Pictures now disclosed to the public, however, show its real consequences: displaced indigenous communities forced to live in floating homes and the destruction of a unique rainforest habitat that counts among the most biodiverse in the world. “The extent of suffering by the displaced communities is shocking”, said BMF campaigner Anna Meier, who had visited the dam site. “Hundreds of displaced people are living in floating homes on the Bakun impoundment. Malaysia’s showcase development project has turned into a disaster dam.” An indigenous Ukit community now living in floating homes was forcibly displaced while their village and graveyards were flooded. “Our aim is to build a new longhouse onshore near our former village”, the headman of the Ukit community said. “But we lack the funds and the government refuses to support us. They have not even paid us compensation for our submerged land because we refused to move to the resettlement site of the government.” As their traditional farmlands have been flooded, the Ukits live from fishing, hunting and harvesting some of the trees flooded by Bakun dam. The Bakun dam construction submerged 695km2 of rainforest, an area the size of Singapore, and with it parts of one of the worlds’ biodiversity hotspots. The visitor can now watch a unique world drowning in the waters of Bakun impoundment: trees change their colour from green over brown to grey until they will finally disappear in the rising water forever. Close to 10’000 Sarawak natives have been forcibly displaced but some refused to move to the resettlement site and returned to what is left of their former lands. The Bruno Manser Fund calls on the Sarawak state government to immediately lift all travel restrictions to the Bakun dam site and to the Murum dam

construction site in order to allow independent journalists and the public to take notice of what is really going on with these mega-projects. Malaysia is also asked to assist the Ukits and other indigenous communities in the Bakun region to return to their unflooded traditional lands and to pay the full compensation for their submerged lands and houses.

Floating House 3.5

Bakun Dam

Diseases From The Bakun Dam

It is something normal that when involving the construction site there will be the problem on the spread disesase is happen. The chance of getting infected to the diseases is higher especially when involving the workers. The same situation happen on the workers of Bakun Dam. It is believed that many workers are died during the construction of the Bakun Dam. But there is no news regarding the death because the actual causes of their death is not clearly identified yet. The potential diseases that can be found is the disease especially related to the water-borne vectors such as schistosomiasis, opisthorchiasis, malaria, and filiriasis. This is because the worker is exposed with the ground water especially when involving in the construction of the dam. Other than that, there is also believed that sediment accumulation that is in the dam will shortening the useful lifespan of the dam. The workers get infected during the

drilling activity. In the Bakun Dam, it is reported that nine people was death, and the rest 50 people are infected with those disease. These diseases also will give risk on the residents of Bakun resettlement in Sungai Asap. The residents here are feared to be exposed and infected with the infectious deadly disease such as meliodiosis and leptospirosis or known in Malay as ‘penyakit kencing tikus’. Belaga town, the nearest urban centre to the dam is identified as the source of this disease. The construction of Bakun project triggered the disease. Bakun Community Safety Committee (BSCS) has said that there are four Sarawak Forestry Staff that is suspected with the disease. The deceased staff members were involved in moving large animals from the Bakun Dam water catchment area to higher ground and fell sick upon completion of the work. However, the melioidosis and leptospirosis disease is believed to be endemic and can pass from animal to animal but not from person to person. The source of the water-borne and the bacteria is from rat urine. According to the ministry of health, meliodiosis is actually caused by bacterium (bulkholderia pseudomailei). This bacteria if founded in the soil, rice paddies and stagnant waters in the Southeast Asia and Northern Australia. People can get infected with this disease when the contaminated soil comes in contact with an abraded area of the skin. The bacteria are found in contaminated water and soil and spread to humans and animals through direct contact with the contaminated water water and soil and can be spread to humans and animals through direct contact with contaminated source. The bacteria is also some concern as a potential agent for biological warfare and also biological terrorism. This disease is similar to glander disease that passed to humans from infected domestic animals. On the other hand, the leptospirosis disease is caused by bacteria called spirochete, and is transmmitted through contact with infected soil or water. But according to the State Disaster Relief Committee chairman, Dr. Chan, the disease were caused by bacteria and not the virus. Bacteria can be tackled by antibodies and the bacteria is still under control and not spreading. The Orang Asli in Sarawak have their strong believe towards the spirit that care their place. The native resident of the Bakun believe that the death of the worker and the people in the resettlement area are because of the cursed of the angry spirits that is angry with the construction of the dam on

their site. Actually it is confirmed that the caused of the disease is actually by the melioidosis and also leptospirosis. The disease becoming worst because of the worker doesn’t tell to their supervisors about their symptoms and signs of disease. That’s why the number of death arises and more workers are infected. With this condition of infected disease, actually it is giving more problems toward the country. In my opinion, we know that the disease make more workers infected to the disease and unfortunately there will be more workers died during the progress of the project. To make the project move continuously, more workers is needed, so the company will need to take more workers and of course the workers that want is the foreigner worker. This will increase the amount of foreigner worker in Sarawak. This foreigner is come from Indonesia or Kalimantan to find job. The construction of the Bakun Dam not only caused danger to the worker but also the resident on he Bakun resettlement area.

Figure 4- the melioidosis diasease that infected worker of Bakun Dam that is source from the contaminated soil and water.

3.6

Transmission of bakun dam

The main purpose of the construction of Bakun Dam is to generate electricity to the Peninsular Malaysia. This dam was believed to be an alternative ways other than using the electric supply to generate energy that is based on the water that is the renewable energy and can be obtained naturally. The former resources of the electricity in the power plant is from coal. Using of coal have its own effect when it can release the green house gases, so with the alternative of using water as the source of power of the generation of electricity can decreased the green house gases. The purpose for the dam was to meet growing demand for electricity. However, most of this demand said not to giving benefits in Peninsular Malaysia but only in East Malaysia, where the dam is located. Even in Peninsular Malaysia, however, there is an over-supply of electricity, with Tenaga Nasional Berhad being locked into unfavourable purchasing agreements with Independent Power Producers. The original idea was to have 30% of the generated capacity consumed in East Malaysia and the rest sent to Peninsular Malaysia. This plan envisioned 730 km of overhead HVDC transmission lines in East Malaysia, 670 km of undersea HVDC cable and 300 km of HVDC transmission line in Peninsular Malaysia. However for the transmission to the Peninsular Malaysia, the Bakun Dam still needed the laying of undersea cable to transmit electricity. Future plans for the dam include connecting it to an envisioned TransBorneo Power Grid Interconnection, which would be a grid to supply power to Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei, and Kalimantan (Indonesia). There have been mentions of this grid made within ASEAN meetings but no actions have been taken by any party. The transmission will use the alternating current (AC) instead of the direct current (DC) because AC is the main driving force in the industries and residential areas, but for the long transmission line thats is exceed 400 miles, AC transmission is more expensive than that of DC. Technically, AC transmission line control is more complicated because of the frequency. DC transmission does not have this limitations, which has lead to the bulid of the HVDC transmission lines. HVDC technology made possible to transfer bulk power over the long distance.

Chart 1- The transmission of the Bakun Dam to the Peninsular Malaysia, outside Malaysia, and also East Malaysia. The uses of the electricity for the Peninsular Malaysia is 15000MW and for Sabah is 800MW and as for Sarawak is also 800MW. The Bakun Dam can produce 2400MW. Back to the transmission sections, there are four major transmission lines sections. The first transmission is consist of an HVAC that is High-voltage alternating current. The HVAC double circuit overhead lines running over adistance of 160 km from Bakun Dam to Similanjau Static Inverter Plant that is situated in east of Bintulu. It is planned to be placed beside the HVDC and also the Sarawak state electricity grid which is operated by Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation. The rest of three section consist of bipolar HVDC 500 kV-line. The first section is started from Similajau Static Inverter Plant to Kampung Pueh on Borneo that is implemented as overhead line with a length of 670 km. The third section is the submarine cable that is constructed between Kampung Pueh to Tanjung Leman. It will have a length of 670 km. It is planned to be implemented by 3 or 4 parallel cables each with the transmission capacity of 700MW. The fourth or the last section would be located at the Peninsular Malaysia that will consisit of an overhead direct current (DC) powerline running from Tanjung Leman to the static inverter plant at Bentong. When the undersea cable is finished, it will be the longest undersea cable in the world.

Figure 1-By end of 2011, the Bakun Dam will be South-East Asia’s largest power project, capable of generating 2,400MW electricity for supply to Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak, Brunei and Kalimantan.

Two converter stations will be built at Bakun Dam and Tanjung Tenggara as part of the transmission system. The HVDC lines will connect with the National Grid, Malaysia operated by Tenaga Nasional Berhad. As for the transmission of Peninsular Malaysia, undersea cable or the submarine cable is needed. The cable is planned and expected to transport 1600MW of power from the Bakun Dam to Yong Peng via undersea HVDC power cables and then to the Malaysian National Grid via land line. The uses of the HVDC giving more benefits because it would ensure the energy loss is minimal, at about 5% to 6% only. The proposed concept is for 2 x 800 MW cables being laid about 660 km beneath the South China Sea from the Sarawak shore to the Yong Peng on Peninsular Malaysia. The submarine cable project is expected to be finished by 2015.

Figure 2 - shows that the transmission line of the power from the Bakun Dam to the East Malaysia and also to the Peninsular Malaysia on the initial plan. The power from the Bakun Dam will be transmitted to the Kuching and next to the Tanjung Parih and directly to the Tanjung Tenggara.

Figure 3- This picture taken on September 21, 2011 shows a general view of the power house at the Bakun Hydroelectric Dam on the Balui River west of Belaga in Malaysia's Sarawak state on

the island of Borneo. The first turbine is spinning, electricity is pulsing out, and the water level is climbing in the Borneo jungle behind Malaysia's huge 2.2 billion USD Bakun hydroelectric dam. But questions continue to swirl around the viability of a project described by critics as a graftplagued human and ecological disaster But recently, there are some issue that the transmission will not be reached on Peninsular Malaysia because the cost factor that is too high for the construction of the submarine cable. The Federal Government in Putrajaya has decided to sell the dam to Sarawak. The Sarawak Federal Government has decided to transmit the electricity only to the Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei and Kalimantan. Since the power from the Bakun will not be transmitted to the Peninsular Malaysia, so the more power plant needed to be build and constructed in Peninsular. This is to make up the deficit from Bakun.

From this issue, the Peninsular could not afford to build the large dams, therefore the ministry has no choice indeed of approving the new coal-fired plants that will produce 1000 MWs each. This will increase the chance of getting pollution. The burning of coal or in the other word the burning of the fossil fuel, that is will be the main source of the carbon dioxide will release an ash and further more will become the part of the greenhouse gases. In contrast to popular belief, hydroelectric is not a green technology or a source of renewable energy. Although hydroelectric does not involve the burning of fossil fuel (source of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas), hydroelectric is instead a source of other greenhouses gases, primarily methane. Methane is about 20 times more potent than carbon dioxide in causing global warming. When huge areas of forest are flooded, this water-logged condition increases the emission of methane gas from decaying vegetation. The warm, nutrient-rich, and severely oxygen-depleted water at the bottom of tropical river dams can create conditions for methane-producing bacteria which feed on decaying vegetations. 3.7

Uses of power from bakun Dam

The uses of power generated from the bakun dam plan for the purpose of metal factory in Bintulu, approximately 180km from the dam. This project is the joint venture between Dubai Aluminium Co, Ltd (Dubal) and Gulf International Investment Group (GIIG). This metal project is expected uses 50% of power from the Bakun Dam. Principally the government agreed to sell 60% share in the Sarawak Hidro to the GIIG. This will make the government lost it speciality in this project. In any time government can lost this project on the imigrant investors. Due to the slow progress on the construction of the dam, the metal project is also stopped. But on the August 2007, Rio Tinto Group agreed to continue this project with the venture of Cahya Mata Sarawak Berhad (CMSB). It is planned to start on 2010. On November 2007. Sime Darby combine with Golden Hope and Guthrie as one company with the license of Synergy with market capitalization of RM 31 billion (USD 8 billion). With this new company the Sime Darby take again the management of the Bakun Dam. This project is aimed to continue the undersea cable plan to transmit the power from the Bakun Dam to the Peninsular Malaysia. In Sarawak, a smaller smelter already in operation, is raising environmental concerns. Aluminum smelting is a dirty business, creating air pollution and contaminated wastewater and slag, although newer technologies are available to reduce them. The construction of hydroelectric is believe can reduce the pollution eventhough it have it own effect on polluting the environment, but it not release the naked environment pollution if compared with the smelting project that bring towards more pollution. 3.8

Quality control

Geological experts checked the earth structure of the Bakun hydro-electric project, including the safety of the dam wall, during its construction – and have found no sign of danger. According to the latest findings of experts compiled by the developer and manager of the RM7bil hydro-electric project, Sarawak Hidro Sdn Bhd, there are no geological faults there. Daily checks have been carried out to detect any possible weaknesses and movement of the earth and dam structure during the construction stage. Sarawak Hidro chief engineer Zulkifle Osman said the Bakun concrete-faced rockfilled dam was the safest type of dam in the world.

Megastructure: An aerial view of the mighty Bakun dam. It has a two-lane road at the top and overlooks a reservoir that measures the size of Singapore. — STEPHEN THEN / The Star “There should not be any doubts over the safety of the dam. The Bakun dam has 379 instruments in its foundation to check the pressure of the dam exerted by the rockfill to check for any movement of the ground and to tell us how the dam is ‘behaving’. “There are no geological faults in Bakun as initially feared. The riverbed in the Bakun region is very solid. Safety measures in place have shown that the finishing work for the dam was very good,” he told reporters during a comprehensive tour of the dam site last week. Zulkifle said Bakun has a comprehensive and permanent automated system in place to detect ground movements throughout its impoundment and operational stages. When the Bakun project first started, people living downstream of Bakun – from Belaga, Song, Kapit and Sibu – had feared that if the dam wall was to break, a tidal tsunami would sweep them away because behind the dam is a 205m deep reservoir the size of Singapore. With the dam now reaching the end of its construction, Sarawak Hidro have sought permission from the Sarawak government to commence flooding the area. Once the water level reaches 195m, the turbines can start working to generate electricity by July next year, said Zulkifle. He pointed out that the top priority in Bakun was now to ensure the

highest-standard of safety for the operation of the dam, repair of the ecosystem and uplifting the standard of life of more than 15,000 resettled Bakun folk. Other priorities include setting up a flood-protection programme for the entire Bakun region, repairing the loss of biomass and natural habitats and repair the water quality, and salvaging more than 34,000 types of plants and animals. Belaga assemblyman Liwan Lagang urged the international community to look at the positive side of the Bakun project. “The Bakun project has come under intense criticism from international media and environmentalists, but they did not see its positive benefits. The project can help to improve the life of the Bakun people,” he said.

3.8

Latest Update Issue Of The Bakun Dam

The latest update issue of the Bakun Dam is the completion of the Bakun Dam. The dam start it construction work on the year of 1995. During completion of the project, the dam have it three trial on the tenders. But that’s not meant that the dam is completely full but it only can generate electricity to the nearest place and also the nearest country. There newest report that said the dam now is 97% done by the Deputy Finance Minister, Datuk Lim Siang Chai on 20 october 2010. From October 14, 2010 the Bakun Dam started to be flooded with water. The flooding process on the dam needed three month before it can be use to generate electricity. Unfortunenately, the dam can only supply energy for the area in Sarawak, Sabah and also outside Malaysia thats is Kalimantan. This is because, Sime Darby on year 2009 lost RM 1.6 billion and from this Sarawak government via Sarawak Energy once again take place this project with unstated due date. About the undersea cable, the Sarawak Energy that take place the project now has decided to abort the plan on transmit the power to the Peninsular Malaysia but all the power from the Bakun Dam will be used 100% by the Sarawak government and probably will be sell to the nearest country that is Brunei, Sabah, and

Sarawak. However, it is not possible that Sarawak government will proceed the smelting project with collaboration of overseas country to optimize the uses of Bakun Dam. The selling of Bakun Dam make the federal government loses on many aspects such as money and time. The government has invested much money, but at the end the Sarawak government take that profit. The transmission is fully on Sarawak and also it has more profit by selling the power of electricity to the other country. The manager of Bakun Dam should continue the undersea cable construction for Peninsular Malaysia when looking at the requirement of electricity in Peninsular in the coming year. The electricity is only for industries in the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE). The project to cable electricity to the Peninsular Malaysia states was shelved due to high costs. The electricity is only for the benefit of industrial users, residential estates, commercial centres and offices located hundreds or thousands of km away from the dams. The original resident of Bakun who sacrifice their home doesn’t benefits on the electricity. The promise to ensure that the rest of the 40,000 population now located in the surrounding settlements and Belaga town were also connected to Bakun to enjoy 24-hour power supply at cheaper rates. Sarawak Energy Bhd and Sarawak Hidro, the Bakun dam manager should supply electricity from the dam to these local folk whose lives had been affected by its construction. But that is a little bit impossible to be true since there is so many problem regarding the transmission. These settlements will not benefit from the electricity because they are not connected to the state grid. The dam is connected directly to the main grid and there is no power line connecting Bakun to the settlements. To the completion of the demand on Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE), there are planned on construct more dams in Sarawak. The Murum dam, which is more than 55% completed, is expected to start producing power in 2014 for SCORE's energy-intensive industries. It will be complement to the Bakun dam. But the new dam still only giving benefits to the Sarawak in industries areas and the faith of the Bakun native residents still on the old level and no improvement.