Background Essay

LSA 4 Background Essay ‘Helping learners better understand the use of discourse features of conversations’ Edward Green Contents Introduction & Scope

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Important features of interactive conversations

pages 2 - 5

Common student problems

pages 5 - 6

Teaching solutions

pages 7 - 9

Conclusion

page 8

Bibliography and word count

page 9

Appendices

pages 10 - 18

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Introduction I have chosen to focus on spoken discourse and in particular features of conversations because it is an area I am not very familiar with. Furthermore, as most day-to-day spoken language is conversational and functional, learners see the benefit in focussing on useful conversational strategies and raising-awareness of how native-speakers interact. Many learners often measure their own linguistic development in terms of the fluency of their discourse (Thornbury:2005:63) and a key judge of fluency is having effective conversations with both native and non-native speakers. This essay will look at what features of spoken discourse help with opening, maintaining and closing conversations and avoiding communication breakdown. It will then look at some common student problems in these areas. Finally, it will suggest some practical teaching ideas that deal with these student problems. It will looking at problems and solutions for students from beginner to advanced levels. What sort of conversation? Conversation is informal, interactive spoken discourse between a small number of participants (Cook:1989). Furthermore, unlike an interview, it is not necessitated by a practical task. The idea of ‘conversation’ has traditionally been categorised according to two ends of a spectrum those being interactive, also known as ‘interpersonal’ (Thornbury:2005:66) (i.e. getting to know you better) and transactional (i.e. getting business done). I agree with McCarthy who through a case study of service encounters (transactional) conversations showed a ‘constant tendency for customers and assistants to engage in some sort of friendly chat’ (1991:137). Therefore I have decided to focus on ‘interactive/interpersonal’ conversations typified by appendix I. By investigating the common features of this type of discourse I aim to better prepare my students for conversations which deviate from the script. I will not be focussing overtly on paralinguistic features and phonology however, I will comment on them where they aid the discourse. Important features of interactive conversation The following features of spoken discourse are not unique to conversation; however, they are essential tools for any proficient user of English. I have decided to place them under the loose headings of ‘initiating and closing conversations and maintaining conversations’, however, the interactive nature of conversational

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discourse and the shared negotiation toward an outcome mean that these very distinctions are fluid. There is a further category of lexical discourse markers. Initiating and closing conversations •

Adjacency pairs – These are ‘two types of turn in conversation which typically occur together’ (Cook:1989:156), Willis adds that they are almost ‘formulaic’ (2003:195). Lines 45 and 46 of appendix I indicate an adjacency pair for saying goodbye. When someone says ‘take care’ we usually reply with ‘you too’ or ‘thanks’.

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False starts – Most speech, in particular interactive conversations are produced with little or no thinking time (Thornbury:2005:64) A false start such as line 2 and 5. Indicate a hesitation at word level, however a false start such as line 22 ‘and we er... so, I can’ can involve changes at sentence level.

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Intonation - In order to open a conversation we usually employ a rising intonation. In terms of pronunciation, there is a rise for genuine questions and a fall when the question is simply to confirm what the speaker already knows. This is arguably one of the more reliable rules when it comes to assigning intonation patterns to specific grammatical forms (Thornbury:2002). For example in line 1 there is rising intonation on the phrase ‘what do you want to talk about?’ this suggests the speaker is inviting the other person to take a turn.

Maintaining conversations •

Fillers – These are short noises, prefabricated words or phrases. These are used principally when the speaker wants to discourse space in order to give him/herself thinking time (Brown & Yule:1983:17). Fillers allow participants time to consider messages and move towards a negotiated outcome (Cook:1989:78). Native-speakers generally use a rising intonation with fillers to show that they are pausing and thereby are not interrupted. Examples from the text include ‘er’ (9), ‘umm’ (32) and ‘you know’ (40).

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Repetition – Used the same way as fillers, repetition gives the speaker and listener more thinking time. It can be used at both word and sentence level. An example of it is line 2, ‘I…I’

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Incomplete utterances – When someone does not finish what they were saying. This can be when someone finishes an utterance for you for example lines 22 and 23.

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Vague Language - Incomplete utterances can also be linked to what is known as ‘vague language’, again this is a way of giving us thinking time, if we cannot find the exact word (Willis:2003:197), for example line 41 ‘things to do, people to see’. Another classic example is the suffix ‘ish’.

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Backchannelling –‘Successful discourse is the responsibility of both participants. Even someone who is simply listening to a story is expected to take an active part’ (Richards:2005:115). Backchannelling is therefore the ‘active part’ of the listener. It can take the form of utterances such as ‘yeh’ or ‘right’, noises as in our dialogue ‘mmm’ (30), ‘mhm, mhm’ (20) or paralinguistic features such as a nod. Backchannelling indicates we catch the speaker’s drift (Thornbury:2005:65).

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Conversational repair Learners having a conversation may need to adjust their message, interrupt and clarify, having little or no time to do this whilst emerging with a negotiated result. This is done either through the speaker clarifying what they have just said using phrases such as ‘I mean’ and using repetition to repeat the message. If the listener wants to clarify they can do this by repeating what has just been said but with rising intonation for example ‘Saturday…’ (line 6) or using set phrases such as ‘say again’, ‘I don’t understand’ or ‘what was that?’

Discourse markers Discourse markers are used to signal one’s intentions, to hold the conversational turn, and to mark boundaries in the talk (Thornbury:2005:15). Parrot (2002:302) gives a clear definition and states some of the different functions and uses of discourse markers: McCarthy argues, the possible choices of conjunction will often overlap in meaning with little overall difference, particularly in spoken texts (1991). 1.

To 'signpost' logical relationships and sequences. For example to make a contrast ‘but’ (7,21). To add extra information, ’and’ (16). To state what happens next ‘so’ (8).

2.

To 'manage' conversations - to negotiate who speaks and when, to monitor and express involvement in the topic. ‘well’ (44), this is used to signal the end of a conversation.

3.

To influence how the listeners or readers react. ‘you know’ (40). In this case, the marker is used to create an atmosphere of solidarity or intimacy

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(Parrot:2002:309). Another phrase which could suggest intimacy in this particular case would be to insert ‘I mean, I’ll just keep Robert’s present’. 4.

To express our attitude to what we say and write. ‘I mean’ is also an example of expressing a higher degree of involvement in what we are saying. Another example of this could be the use of ‘etc’ (42) which in this case expresses lethargy or resignation to continue with the day’s unexciting business.

However, as Parrot goes on to state ‘the function of conversation management discourse markers is always very dependant on context (2002:308).’

Common student problems 1. Lack of awareness of features of spoken discourse •

A problem for Arabic learners is a lack of awareness of the importance of spoken discourse and its importance in the language classroom. Learners in Libya for example, used to grammar-translation and audio-lingualism methodologies were sceptical of the importance of features of conversational discourse, they saw it as incorrect as opposed to the correctness of written English. A context where this caused real problem was in preparation for KET, PET, FCE and CAE exams, where students are expected to ‘engage in discussions and work towards negotiated outcomes’ (UCLES:2008:76). Despite grammatical and lexical competence, Libyan learners often lacked the pragmatic competence to deal with conversations because they weren’t aware of some features of discourse for example, signalling the beginning or end of a turn. This was a teaching problem, Willis states ‘as most spoken language is, of its very nature, spontaneous, some aspects are very difficult to teach’ (2003:198). Furthermore, if students believe discourse raising activities are a waste of time, or that such activities do not fit their perceived needs this affects motivation and may mitigate the benefits of such activities.

2. Lack of awareness of fillers •

In my experience, lower level students from different contexts have struggled with fillers. Some students leave long silences during turns, which are considered less acceptable in English than in other languages such as Chinese and Japanese (Burns, Joyce & Gollin:1996:36). Furthermore,

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prolonged silences can be (mis)interpreted as a cue for interruption. Some student turns can be punctuated by so many ‘umms’ and ‘errs’ that comprehension becomes difficult. Use of ‘umms’ and ‘errs’ can be attributed to nervousness on the part of the speaker. However, Thornbury states that teachers attempting to ‘tidy up’ spoken language, may be making it harder to produce and process (2005:65). I have observed many teachers forcing a nervous student to speak without ‘umming and ahhhing’. By focussing on removing ‘umms’, ‘errs’ and periods of silence rather than looking at better ways of segmenting discourse, teachers and materials writers neglect the authentic aspect of conversation which involves awareness of fillers. Appendix ii is an example of an interactive scripted dialogue without fillers. 3. Lack of strategies for initiating conversations •

According to a colleague, Chinese students ‘have few phrases for starting conversations’. This is because Chinese students are used to what McCarthy describes as a ‘three-part exchange in traditional classrooms’ (1991:122). Initiation, response and follow-up. McCarthy continues that teachers will take the initiation and follow-up roles whilst students are restricted to the response role. Burns continues that ‘teachers will often find students much better versed in the use of declarative statements rather than interrogatives’ (1996:112). Whilst the problem cannot be confined to a lack of awareness of features of discourse (it encompasses grammatical, lexical and even cultural knowledge) it is clear that a lack of teaching focus on reversing the roles within a classroom has left students with a paucity of options for initiating conversation.

4. Lack of variety of clarification •

Moroccan learners often use a limited range of clarifying tools. They often translate phrases directly from French or Moroccan Arabic. Furthermore, a rising intonation and raising of the voice when asking for clarification can sometimes offend native speakers of English who are more used to hearing ‘excuse me?’ or ‘sorry’, rather than ‘what?’ or ‘eh?’. This problem is a case of L1 interference and lack of awareness of the cultural specificity of speaking to British English speakers, the ‘politeness principle’ (Cook:1989:33). Furthermore, many teachers are unaware of strategies native speakers use to clarify.

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Teaching solutions 1. Features of discourse I have adapted an activity from Thornbury for the purpose of raising awareness of aspects of spoken discourse for intermediate students studying towards the PET exam. By comparing an authentic conversation to a scripted piece from a textbook, learners become more aware of important features of spoken discourse and then get to practice them. Learners listen to two dialogues (appendices iii and iv) and discuss which was more authentic and why. Hopefully students should identify features such as repetition, fillers and false starts. Secondly I give students a copy of the first dialogue (iii) and students mark the features. Thirdly, students are given the second, scripted dialogue (iv) and have to re-write it using some of the features identified. Students rehearse and practice the second dialogue (controlled practice). Finally, students are given a collaborative speaking task from the PET exam. A task with an exam focus lowers the ‘affective filter’ and increases motivation. 2. Fillers In order to raise awareness of the usefulness of fillers, teachers need to present dialogues which highlight their use in authentic texts. One such activity which adopts a bottom-up approach to features of conversational discourse is from Face to Face – Pre-Intermediate. Following on from two listening exercise based on conversations about neighbours, exercise 8 (appendix v) explains the utility of fillers in conversation and raises-awareness of specific lexical items such as ‘well’, ‘er’, ‘you see’, ‘you know’ and ‘um’. Students are then asked to ‘notice’ these words in the tape script (appendix vi). Following this activity, students, in pairs, exchange ideas about their neighbours. The students’ task is to decide which person has the worst neighbours. This exercise is effective as the freer practice stage does not insist on students using the fillers, rather sets out a natural context and the need to use them. A bottom-up approach focuses students’ attention on the usefulness of fillers. 3. Initiating conversations One activity I have adapted is taken from Reward Upper-Intermediate (appendix vii). Students participate in an extended mingle exercise within the context of attending a business conference party. Students first complete worksheet (appendix vii) with details of an invented person. Following this, I write the following lexical phrases on the board ‘allow me to introduce myself’, ‘pleased to meet you’, ‘I see you work for Audi’, ‘Hi, let me introduce myself’, ‘well, enjoy the evening’ and ask students why we

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use the phrases. After, I drill useful intonation patterns for interrupting people, such as the rise-fall on ‘Hi, let me introduce myself’. Students then mingle in class and practice initiating and closing brief conversations. They have to meet as many people as possible in 10 minutes. The idea of meeting as many people as possible encourages task repetition which is particularly useful as learners pay less attention to what they are saying and more attention to how they are saying it. 4. Conversation repair An effective approach to conversation repair would be a task based approach. Lower level students complete an information gap activity such as a spot the difference exercise (appendix viii). Through monitoring and feedback I then highlight deficiencies in the repair strategies and presents them on the board, I present some clarification strategies including highlighting correct intonation patters. Following this, students complete a similar spot the difference task. Students should ‘notice’ the difference between their interlanguage and a more native speaker like model. This lesson adopts a ‘top-down approach’ to discourse. Conclusion Having completed this assignment I am more aware of what skills students need to initiate, maintain and close interactive conversations and how to further exploit discourse features for other types of spoken communication such as storytelling. I have suggested some activities to help learners with problems with spoken discourse, focussing mainly on maintaining conversation, which from my reading has been highlighted as a key aspect of conversation management. However, it is important to remember the utility of teaching students ways of opening and closing conversations. Conversations are something learners often do in their L1 so as well as identifying transferrable skills, teachers can also raise awareness of specific features of conversational English as well as model texts. Encouraging learners to reflect n the strategies they use in their L1 can also have a beneficial effect for their general communication skills.

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Bibliography Brown, G. & Yule, G. 1983. Discourse Analysis, CUP, Cambridge. Burns, A. Joyce, H. Gollin, S. 1996. I see what you mean. Using spoken discourse in the classroom, Macquarie University, Sydney. Cook, G. 1989. Discourse, OUP, Oxford. Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English, Longman, London. McCarthy, M. 1991. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers, CUP, Cambridge. Parrot, M. 2003. Grammar for English Language Teachers, MacMillan, Harlow. Richards, J.C. 2005. The Language Teaching Matrix, CUP, Cambridge. Sewel, H.D. 2004. Do Students Need Critical Discourse Awareness? taken from http://www.cels.bham.ac.uk/resources/essays/Sewell_WDisc.pdf Thornbury, S. 2002. About Language – Tasks for teacher of English, CUP, Cambridge. Thornbury, S. 2003. How to Teach Speaking. Pearson Longman, Harlow. Thornbury, S. 2005. Beyond the sentence: Introducing discourse analysis, Macmillan, Harlow. UCLES. 2008. First Certificate in English; Handbook for Teachers, CUP, Cambridge. Vurdien, R. 2011. Email Discourse, taken from Modern English Teacher. Vol 20 Number 1. pp. 62-67. Willis, D. 2003. Rules, Patterns and Words. CUP, Cambridge. Practical Materials Redston, C. Clark, R. Young, A & Coward, H. 2005. face2face pre-intermediate, CUP, Cambridge. Riley, D. 1996. Reward Upper-Intermediate: Business Resource Pack, MacMillan, Harlow. Appendix viii taken from http://www.handoutsonline.com/thumbnails2/christmas/spot_the_difference_colour.gi f

Word Count - 2500

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Appendix I – Sample conversation Sisters Kate and Margaret are at home. 1.

M:

okay… what do you want to talk about?

2.

K:

I…I don’t know!

3.

M:

(hhh)

4.

K:

pick a conversation!...

5.

M:

(hhh) wh, wha, what do you fancy doing on Saturday?

6.

K:

Saturday… I, I thought we were going to get the… the presents?

7.

M:

yeah... well w- we… talked about Saturday or Sunday ... er … but Bede

8.

and ... Sinners are playing on Sunday so... (hhh) wouldn’t give us much

9.

time to get back for four o clock, especially if we wanted to, er, go to 10. Browton

11.

K:

mmm…

12.

M:

so ... probably Saturday

13.

K:

okay

14.

M:

erm... but we’ve got the...

15.

K:

(sniff)

16.

M:

erm… Paul Norton, and his wife coming round on the, evening time [for

17.

a meal

18.

[oh

19.

but… the only problem is I need to get, dad’s present.

20.

M:

mhm mhm

21.

K:

and we er... so, I can either do that on the Saturday and Sunday but... I

22. 23.

think... one of the shops might not be… [open M:

24.

[on Sunday... you you’re home all we- [all

25.

K:

[oh yeah

26.

M:

from Monday

27.

K:

oh will do yeah ...

28.

M:

anyway… have you got, erm,.. any plans?

29.

K:

Friday, at home

30.

M:

mmm

31.

K:

no... I’ve re, really got no idea what I’m doing next week...

32.

M:

so, umm, presumably though you’ll be going shopping.

33.

K:

OH YEAH, at some point...

34.

M:

how many presents have you got to buy [yet

35.

K:

[I’ve just got to get ... dad’s.]

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36.

M:

37.

K:

38.

[yeah and I need to get, this… thing for Emma… and see if I can see anything for Robert and, I’ll just carry on with the present that I’ve got him…[can.

39.

M:

[Sorry, say again?

40.

K:

I said, I’ll just keep Robert’s present, you know.

41.

M: OK…right, anyway, I’d best be off, I’ve got things to do, people to see

42.

etc…

43.

K:

right, we’ll speak later, OK?

44.

M: OK, well then…

45.

K:

46.

M: you too…

47.

K:

48.

M: bye.

[take care bye.

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Appendix ii Ed and Stephen are chatting in front of the British Council. Dialogue 2 E: Hello Stephen, how are you? S: Fine and you? E: Good, how was your weekend? S: Ah, It was alright, I just went to a restaurant for dinner. E: Did you go on your own? S: I went with a couple of mates. E: they were the ones from Spain, were they? S: yeh, they just came down for a long weekend, how about yourself? E: I was studying most of the weekend but I watched the game on Saturday night. Raja against Asfi. Did you see it? S: Yes, but only the first half. E: they won four one. S: Oh really? Are you still studying Ed? E: Of course. I’ve got to go and study now. I’ll see you later. Have a nice day. S: Bye Ed.

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Appendix iii

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Appendix iv

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Appendix v

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Appendix vi

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Appendix vii

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Appendix viii

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